GEOLOGIC NOTE AUTHORS

Emilio Ramos  Geodynamics and Basin

Stratigraphy and sedimentology Analysis Research Group, Universitat de
Barcelona, Martı´Franquès s/n, 08028 Barcelona,
Spain; emilio.ramos@ub.edu
of the Middle Ordovician Emilio obtained his Ph.D. in geology from
the Universitat de Barcelona in 1988. Since
Hawaz Formation then, he has been a lecturer in basin analysis
and petroleum geology. He has been involved
(Murzuq Basin, Libya) in several research projects on sedimentology
and basin analysis in Spain, northern Africa,
Emilio Ramos, Mariano Marzo, Jordi M. de Gibert, Antarctica and South America. His present-day
research interests include three-dimensional
Khaeri S. Tawengi, Abdalla A. Khoja, and
modeling of sedimentary bodies and reservoirs.
Néstor D. Bolatti
Mariano Marzo  Geodynamics and
Basin Analysis Research Group, Universitat
de Barcelona, Martı´ Franquès s/n, 08028
ABSTRACT Barcelona, Spain; mariano.marzo@ub.edu
The Middle Ordovician Hawaz Formation is a 200-m (660-ft)-thick A professor of stratigraphy at the Universitat
succession made up of fine-grained quartzarenites displaying a vari- de Barcelona, M. Marzo’s research interest
able degree of bioturbation. It records the deposition in a large-scale, focuses on the application of clastic sedimen-
low-gradient estuary, which was partially controlled by tectonic tology, sequence stratigraphy, reservoir mod-
extension. The upper boundary of the formation is marked by two eling, and basin analysis to the exploration
and production of hydrocarbons. He has been
erosion surfaces (unconformities U1 and U2), related to the Late
involved in several research projects funded
Ordovician glaciation. The U1 and U2 erosion surfaces generated a
by oil companies in southern Europe, the
pronounced paleotopography that controlled the deposition of the
North Sea, South America, and northern Africa.
Upper Ordovician sequences.
Tectonism influenced the paleogeography, although faults were Jordi M. de Gibert  Departament d’Estra-
unimportant from the point of view of sedimentary thickness. tigrafia, Paleontologia i Geociències Marines,
Tectonic subsidence was moderate, and accumulation rates were Universitat de Barcelona, Martı´ Franquès s/n,
low. Physiography favored tidal power, especially during transgres- 08028 Barcelona, Spain; jmdegibert@ub.edu
sive episodes, when the coastal embayment was flooded. Jordi M. de Gibert received his Ph.D. from
We defined 11 lithofacies, forming 6 facies associations. These the Universitat de Barcelona in 1996. After a
associations are subtidal sandstones; storm-reworked, shoreface sand- period at the University of Utah, he returned
stones; shoreface-to-beach sandstones; channel-sandstone bodies; to Barcelona in 1999, where he currently holds
a position as a tenure-track lecturer. His in-
nearshore to inner-platform sandstones; and K-bentonites. Trace-
terests and areas of expertise include trace
fossil assemblages match Skolithos and Cruziana archetypal ichno-
fossils, their paleobiological significance, and
facies. On the basis of the dominant facies associations and ichno- their implications for understanding ancient
facies, we divided the formation into three informal units, from base depositional environments.
to top: HW.1, HW.2 and HW.3.
Periodically, volcanic ash was supplied to the basin from distal Khaeri S. Tawengi  REPSOL Exploration in
eruptive centers and was preserved as thin beds of K-bentonite Murzuq S.A., Dat el Imad Tower Complex,
interstratified with the shoreface sandstones, but not with the tidal- Tower 3, Floor 8, Tripoli, Libya;
ktawengi@ryremsa.com
dominated sandstones.
K. Tawengi received a B.Sc. degree in geology
from Alfateh University, Libya, in 1984, and
an M.Sc. degree in sedimentology and stra-
Copyright #2006. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. tigraphy from Durham University, England, in
Manuscript received April 22, 2005; provisional acceptance July 21, 2005; revised manuscript received 1996. He worked as an explorationist with Agip
February 21, 2006; final acceptance March 9, 2006.
DOI:10.1306/03090605075

AAPG Bulletin, v. 90, no. 9 (September 2006), pp. 1309 – 1336 1309
 Oil Company in Libya from 1985 to 2000 and
since then has worked as a senior exploration
member with REPSOL Exploration in Murzuq
S.A. His main fields of interest are sedimentol-
ogy, stratigraphy, and subsurface geology.
Abdalla A. Khoja  National Oil Corpora-
tion, Tripoli, Libya
A. Khoja graduated in 1972 from the University
of Libya. He received a diploma in petroleum
geosciences from Oxford Polytechnic (1991)
and an M.Sc. degree from Oxford Brookes Uni-
versity (1993). He joined the National Oil
Corporation of Libya in 1972 and is presently
the regional studies superintendent in the
National Oil Exploration Department.
Néstor D. Bolatti  REPSOL-YPF, Praia
de Botafogo, 300, 7 andar. Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil; ndbolattik@repsolypf.com
Néstor obtained his degree in geology from
Córdoba University (Argentina) in 1982 and his
postgraduate in petroleum geology in the
University of Cuyo, Argentina. He joined YPF
in 1984 and worked in their exploratory de-
partment in Mendoza, Plaza Huincul, and
Neuquen until the year 2000. Subsequently,
he became Libya team leader for REPSOL-
YPF in Madrid. He is currently director of ex-
ploration and production in Brazil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is based on a regional field study
supported by a collaborative grant between
REPSOL Exploration in Murzuq S.A. (REMSA),
Tripoli, and the University of Barcelona (UB).
We thank REMSA and the NOC (National
Oil Corporation, Libya) for permission to pub-
lish the results. The work was partly funded
by the Spanish Government Project CGL 05816-
C02-02-3650 and the Geodynamics and Basin
Analysis Research Group (2001 SGR 00074).
It benefited from collaboration with D. Barsó
and D. Garcı́a (UB), R. Arnez, J. Arregui, N.
McDougall, and J. Vilá (REPSOL-YPF), H. C.
Fernández (REMSA), and J. M. Samsó. We also
acknowledge valuable reviews by T. M. Olson,
M. L. Sweet, D. L. Wooddrop, and an anonymous
referee and comments from AAPG Editor E. A.
Mancini, which helped improve the original
manuscript.
1310 Geologic Note
We divided the Hawaz Formation into five third-order de-
positional sequences. Lowstand deposits were not identified. The
lower boundaries of transgressive systems tracts are tidal ravinement
surfaces or sequence boundaries, whereas the upper boundaries are
flooding surfaces. The transgressive systems tracts are constituted by
early transgressive tidal deposits separated by a wave ravinement
surface from the late transgressive storm-dominated deposits. High-
stand systems tracts consist of bioturbated shoreface-to-beach sand-
stones, which record seaward, shoreline progradation.
INTRODUCTION
For a long time, petroleum exploration and oil production in Libya
focused mainly on the northerly Ghadamis, Sirt, and Cyrenaica
basins, whereas the southerly remote Murzuq and Al Kufrah basins
(Figure 1) remained little known. However, in recent decades, a
major exploration effort has been devoted to the Murzuq Basin,
where several finds have brought oil in place up to 5200 MMBO
and recoverable reserves up to 1600 MMBO (Hallet, 2002).
The present knowledge of surface and subsurface geology of the
Murzuq Basin was gathered by Sola and Worsley (2000). As in
previous works (i.e., Boote et al., 1998), these authors consider the
Lower Silurian hot shales of the Tanezzuft Formation (Figure 2) as
the source rocks, whereas the Upper Ordovician sandstones of the
Mamuniyat Formation are regarded as the main reservoir, leading to
the assumption that the Tanezzuft–Mamuniyat formations repre-
sent the only petroleum system in the Murzuq Basin. However,
recent finds have also indicated that the sandstones of the Middle
Ordovician Hawaz Formation also act as a reservoir, particularly in
the central regions of the basin, where the Mamuniyat Formation is
missing and the Tanezzuft shales rest directly on the Hawaz For-
mation (Hallet, 2002).
This article characterizes the stratigraphy and sedimentology of
the oil-bearing Hawaz sandstones based on a detailed field study of
excellent exposures in the Gargaf uplift at the northern limit of the
Murzuq Basin.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
During the Ordovician, the African craton was part of the Gond-
wana supercontinent. Paleogeographic reconstructions of Gond-
wana (cf. Matte, 2001; Cocks and Torsvik, 2002; Kuhn and Barnes,
2005) show that northern Africa made the western boundary of
Gondwana, which constituted a passive margin rimmed by a wide,
shallow-marine platform, located south of the Iapetus Ocean, where
sedimentation occurred in terrigenous, transitional to shallow-marine
depositional environments. This margin experienced an extensional
regime during the Early and Middle Ordovician, leading to the sepa-
ration of the Avalonia and Baltica terranes (Badalini et al., 2002). In

north Africa, the thickness distribution of the Ordovi-
cian deposits ranges from 2500 m (8200 ft) in the Anti-
Atlas region (Morocco) to almost 0 m in some of the
north Saharian intracratonic basins. These important
thickness variations could be related to changes in subsi-
dence linked to the extensional regime mentioned above.
According to Boote et al. (1998) and Klitzsch (2000),
sedimentation in the eastern Sahara zone during the early
Paleozoic was controlled by the development, during
the Cambrian and the Early – Middle Ordovician, of a
north-south to north-northwest–south-southeast-oriented
system of horsts and grabens, forming wide elongate troughs
and basinal areas. Structurally depressed areas were covered
by marine sequences, whereas the intervening uplifted
horsts were subject to low sedimentation or erosion.
Another crucial element in the sedimentary evo-
lution of north Africa was the occurrence during the
Late Ordovician of a widespread glaciation that covered
Figure 1. Geological map
of Libya showing the location
of the Murzuq Basin and the
main Paleozoic outcrops. The
inset shows the studied area
in the western Gargaf high.
most of Gondwana (Ghienne, 2003; Monod et al.,
2003; Deynoux and Ghienne, 2004; Young et al., 2004).
Related to the Late Ordovician glacial period, an im-
portant erosive phase is recognized (Ghienne et al.,
2003). The resulting unconformity may also underlie
thickness variations affecting the Lower and Middle
Ordovician successions.
The Murzuq Basin
Davidson et al. (2000) describe the Murzuq Basin as a
postdepositional basin, an erosional remnant of a larger
Paleozoic sedimentary basin that originally extended
over much of north Africa. The present-day boundaries
of the basin (Figure 1) are defined by erosion resulting
from multiphase tectonic uplifts. They comprise the
Tihemboka high to the west, the Tibesti high to the
southeast, and the Gargaf and Atshan highs to the north
Ramos et al. 1311
Figure 2. Stratigraphic chart summariz-
ing the Paleozoic depositional history
and major tectonic events recorded in the
Murzuq Basin infill. U1 and U2 = minor
unconformities described in the text.
and northwest. These uplifts were generated by various
tectonic events ranging from the early Paleozoic to the
Tertiary, but the main periods of uplift occurred during
the middle Cretaceous to early Tertiary Alpine phase
(Davidson et al., 2000; Badalini et al., 2002).
There is little evidence that these present-day basin-
bounding uplifts were active during the early Paleozoic,
when the Ordovician formations were deposited. Tec-
tonics probably had a more significant effect in the north-
east part of the present-day basin, resulting in a progres-
sive thinning of the Silurian Tanezzuft Formation toward
the northeast (Davidson et al., 2000). Several genera-
tions of structuring, mainly compressional and trans-
pressional in nature, are recognized within the Murzuq
Basin, but the cumulative structural deformation is
relatively minor. Fault arrangement shows considerable
variation, although the north-south trend is dominant.
1312 Geologic Note
According to Davidson et al. (2000), seismic evi-
dence shows only one Ordovician phase of extensional
faulting. Nevertheless, the faults are widely spaced and
bear relatively small displacement, commonly less than
100 m (330 ft). Other phases of extensional movement
may have occurred, but if so, they were never of major
significance, and their effects are now obscured by sub-
sequent compressional and/or transpressional faulting
reactivation.
The Murzuq Sedimentary Infill
The maximum sedimentary thickness in the present-
day Murzuq Basin is about 4000 m (13,100 ft). Da-
vidson et al. (2000) speculate that, despite successive
erosive episodes during several phases of uplift and
erosion throughout the history of the basin, the maxi-
mum sedimentary thickness probably never exceeded
5000 m (16,400 ft). The age, lithostratigraphic sub-
division, bounding unconformities, and major tectonic
events controlling the Paleozoic sedimentary infill of
the Murzuq Basin are shown in Figure 2, which has
been synthesized from the data by Aziz (2000),
Davidson et al. (2000), Echikh and Sola (2000), and
Craik et al. (2001). The age of the Murzuq Basin infill
ranges from Cambrian to Cretaceous. It has been clas-
sically divided into four major sedimentary sequences:
(1) Cambrian – Ordovician, (2) Silurian, (3) Devonian
to Carboniferous, and (4) Mesozoic.
The basement is composed of high-grade meta-
morphic rocks associated with plutonic rocks, as well as
low-grade metamorphic to unmetamorphic rocks of Pre-
cambrian age (Mourizidie Formation). Both assemblages
are cut by a lower Paleozoic unconformity (Pan-African
unconformity) overlain by a Cambrian–Ordovician clas-
tic sequence known as the Gargaf Group, after Burollet
(1960). From the base to the top, the Gargaf Group
comprises five formations (Figure 2): Hasawnah, Ash
Shabiyat, Hawaz, Melaz Shuqran, and Mamuniyat. All
boundaries between formations are unconformities, ex-
cept for the one between the Ash Shabiyat and Hawaz
formations. The Ash Shabiyat and Hawaz formations
mostly consist of quartzarenites; the Hasawnah and
Mamuniyat formations consist of conglomeratic to micro-
conglomeratic quartzarenites; and the Melaz Shuqran
Formation is dominantly muddy.
The Ordovician succession is truncated by the
Taconian unconformity, which is transgressively over-
lain by the Silurian Tanezzuft Formation (Figure 2).
The Hawaz Formation
The Hawaz Formation was first defined by Massa and
Collomb (1960) as the entire sandy Ordovician suc-
cession outcropping in the Gargaf area, being marked
by two unconformities developed atop the Hasawnah
Formation and below the Melaz Shuqran and/or the
Mamuniyat formations. Later, Collomb (1962) sub-
divided the Hawaz Formation into three members, and
Havlicek and Massa (1973) introduced the term Ash
Shabiyat Formation for the lower and part of the mid-
dle members described by Collomb (1962). In this way,
the original Hawaz Formation of Massa and Collomb
(1960) was subdivided into two new conformable for-
mations, named Ash Shabiyat and Hawaz (Figure 2).
The Hawaz sandstones crop out extensively in the
western part of the Gargaf high (Figure 1), where three
partial stratigraphic sections (Figure 3) have been
studied. Correlation between these partial stratigraphic
logs allows us to propose the composite type section
shown in Figure 3. The composite thickness of the
Hawaz Formation in the Gargaf area reaches about 200 m
(660 ft). However, it is important to highlight that its
upper boundary is an erosive surface, and therefore, the
estimated value is a minimum. Toward the south, in the
Murzuq subsurface, thickness ranges from 0 to 280 m
(0 to 918 ft) (Aziz, 2000), whereas in Dor el Gussa, in
the southeast margin, Mamgain (1980) attributed a
thickness of only 50 m (164 ft).
The Hawaz Formation is mostly composed of well-
stratified sandstones, minor intercalations of silty shales,
and several K-bentonite beds. Trace fossils are frequent
and, locally, abundant enough to overprint most primary
sedimentary structures. The sandstones are well-sorted,
very fine- to fine-grained quartzarenites, although occa-
sionally, they are medium grained with a bimodal grain-
size distribution. Grains are rounded to well rounded,
with roundness increasing with grain size. The major
detrital constituent is quartz (mono- and polycrystalline).
Feldspar grains are uncommon, as are heavy-mineral
grains, whose major constituent is mica. Other heavy
minerals observed include well-rounded zircons. The
most widely distributed cement is a syntaxial silica over-
growth, but kaolinite, iron oxides, and carbonate cements
have also been locally identified. Porosity is mainly inter-
granular, but some samples show microfracture pores.
Interbedded within the sandstones, several clay-
rich beds, interpreted as K-bentonite, have been rec-
ognized (Ramos et al., 2003). These bentonite beds are
formed by a sericitic matrix with angular quartz, albite,
and potassium-feldspar porphyroclasts. Other accessory
minerals are biotite, leucoxene and idiomorphic zircon,
and tourmaline crystals. The dominant clay mineral is
kaolinite.
The paleocurrents show two main trends. Smaller
scale structures (ripples and small sigmoidal cross-bedded
sets) show a wide dispersion. In contrast, larger scale
structures, which characterize the upper and lower parts
of the formation, display a paleocurrent trend toward
the northeast-northwest and, locally, bidirectionality
(Figure 3).
No agreement exists regarding the age of the Hawaz
Formation. The only available chronostratigraphic data
on the formation in the Murzuq Basin are provided by
acritarchs and chitinozoans (Aziz, 2000; N. H. Miles,
2001, personal communication). According to these
sources, the top of the Hawaz Formation is no younger
than Llandeilian, as defined by the presence of abundant
Ramos et al. 1313
Figure 3. Correlations among the studied sections, lithostratigraphic subdivision, and proposed composite type section for the
Hawaz Formation in the western Gargaf. The Hawaz Formation type section includes the degree of bioturbation (ichnofabric index)
and the measured gamma-ray log. See the location of sections in the geological map (Figure 12).

1314 Geologic Note

Figure 4. Field view looking northwest and sketch showing the relationships between U1 and U2 at the top of the Hawaz Formation.
MN and MS = Upper Ordovician Mamuniyat and Melaz Shuqran formations, respectively. HW.3 = top of the Hawaz Formation. See
the location of this point in the geological map (Figure 12).
Acanthodiacrodium sp., whereas the base is no older than
Llanvirnian, as defined by the presence of Villosacapsula
irrorata and Villosacapsula setosapellicula. Thus, a
Llanvirnian – Llandeilian age, following the traditional
Ordovician British series, is assigned by these sources to
the Hawaz Formation. These series correlate with the
Darriwilian and the base of the fifth stage of the global
Ordovician subdivision (Finney, 2005). However, fol-
lowing the acritarch biohorizons proposal of Vecoli and
Le Hérissé (2004) for the northern margin of Gond-
wana (which includes some Ordovician Libyan basins),
the first-appearance biohorizon of V. setosapellicula cor-
responds to the boundary between the Middle and Late
Ordovician. Accordingly, a Middle Ordovician age, prob-
ably including the base of the Upper Ordovician, is pro-
posed for the Hawaz Formation. Furthermore, in the
neighboring Al Kufrah Basin (Figure 1), Seilacher et al.
(2002) considered the Hawaz Formation as Arenigian
(a British series that can be correlated to the second and
third stages, Lower–Middle Ordovician, of the global
Ordovician subdivision, Finney, 2005) based on the
occurrence of certain ichnospecies of the trace fossil
Cruziana. Taking the most conservative biostratigraph-
ic data by N. H. Miles (2001, personal communica-
tion), the Hawaz sandstones therefore cover a time
span of 9 – 12.5 m.y.
Bioturbation is a prominent feature of the Hawaz
sandstones. Ichnofabric indices (ii after Droser and Bott-
jer, 1986) and ichnofacies distribution have been consid-
ered for the stratigraphic characterization of the stud-
ied sections (Figure 3). Assemblages corresponding to
Skolithos and Cruziana ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1964;
Pemberton et al., 2001) have been recognized.
The Hawaz sandstones are cut by two erosion
surfaces (U1 and U2 in Figure 2), recognizable both in
outcrop (Figure 4) and subsurface. These surfaces are
attributable to a glacial period lasting from the Cara-
docian to the late Ashgillian.
FACIES ANALYSIS
Eleven lithofacies have been defined in terms of li-
thology, sedimentary structures, and degree of bio-
turbation. These facies ( Table 1) have been grouped
into four sets: nonbioturbated sandstones (facies S1 to
S7; see Figure 5), bioturbated sandstones (facies Sb1
and Sb2; see Figure 6 ), heterolithics (facies H), and K-
bentonites (facies Kb; see Figure 6D). Table 1 contains
a brief description and sedimentary interpretation for
each individual lithofacies.
Ichnofacies
Trace fossils are abundant and diverse in the Hawaz
sandstones and can aid in characterizing lithofacies and
interpreting their depositional setting. The recognized
trace-fossil assemblages can be assigned to two arche-
typal ichnofacies: Skolithos and Cruziana.
The most common Skolithos ichnofacies is re-
corded as a pipe-rock ichnofabric (ii 4 –5) of Skolithos
linearis (Figure 7B) and Skolithos isp. (Figure 7C) and
characterizes facies Sb1 and Sb2 (Figure 6A–C). The
Skolithos ichnofacies is also found in some thin-bedded
sandstones intercalated in the heterolithic facies (H).
However, it is sparser here and typically constitutes a
Ramos et al. 1315
1316

Table 1. Lithofacies Description and Interpretation

Lithofacies Facies Description Bioturbation Interpretation

Geologic Note

S1 (Figure 5A) Large-scale, sigmoidal cross-bedded sandstones Absent to sparse; occasionally Large subaqueous meso- to macroforms up to
– Very fine- to fine-grained sandstones 0.8 – 1.5 m with horizontal trace fossils 2 m (6.6 ft) height
(2.6 – 4.9 ft) thick, planar to trough cross-bedded (Cruziana ichnofacies) Unsteady, intermittent tidal regime
sets; individual sets with sigmoidal foreset packages Elongated ebb-tidal sand ridges in a subtidal
– 10-m (33-ft)-thick and 10 – 100-m (33 – 330-ft)-long environment
cosets
– Presence of reactivation surfaces with mud drapes
– Dominance of unidirectional paleocurrents toward
the north-northwest

S2 Medium-scale, sigmoidal cross-bedded sandstones
– Very fine- to fine-grained sandstones 20 – 80 cm
(8 – 31 in.) thick, sigmoidal cross-bedded sets
– Common occurrence of mud clasts
– Dominance of unidirectional paleocurrents toward
the north-northwest
Absent to sparse; occasionally Medium-scale dunes or megaripples
with horizontal trace fossils Unsteady, intermittent tidal regime
(Cruziana ichnofacies) Elongated ebb-tidal sand ridges under subtidal
currents

S3 (Figure 5B) Trough cross-bedded sandstones Unbioturbated Migration of three-dimensional dunes or

– Fine-grained sandstones megaripples induced by nearshore currents
– 20 – 50-cm (8 – 19-in.)-thick sets forming
cosets of trough cross-bedded

S4 (Figure 5C) Parallel-laminated sandstones Absent to sparse; occasional Sand deposition by nearshore currents under
– Very fine- to medium-grained sandstones horizontal trace fossils high-energy, upper flow regime
30 – 50-cm (12 – 19-in.)-thick beds
– Parallel lamination and occasionally parting
lineation

S5 (Figure 5D) Low-angle, swaley to hummocky cross-stratified Unbioturbated; occasionally with Result of storm events in a nearshore
sandstones sparse Skolithos. environment
– Fine-grained sandstones; thin to medium-bedded
– Low angle and/or swaley to hummocky
cross-stratification
– Hummocky sets 20 – 50 cm (8 – 19 in.) thick,
with wavelength 1 – 2 m (3.3 – 6.6 ft)
 S6 (Figure 5E) Ripple cross-laminated sandstones
– Very fine- to fine-grained sandstone; beds up to
50 cm (19 in.) thick
– Up to 3-cm (1.2-in.)-thick sets of current and/or
wave-ripple cross-lamination
– Locally associated with millimeter-thick
mud flakes (flaser)
S7 (Figure 5F) Massive sandstones
– Very fine- to medium-grained sandstones
– Beds 5 – 80 cm (2 – 31 in.) thick, massive, structureless,
but locally with some vestiges of parallel lamination,
cross-bedding, and convolute lamination
– Erosive bases floored with mud clasts
Sb1 (Figure 6A, B) Thinly bedded, parallel-laminated, bioturbated
sandstones
– Very fine- to fine-grained sandstones
– Thinly bedded; mainly parallel laminated,
with occasional combined flow-ripple
cross-lamination
Sb2 (Figure 6C) Thick-bedded, massive, bioturbated sandstones
– Very fine- to fine-grained sandstone
– Massive beds 30 – 80 cm (12 – 31 in.) thick;
form pipe-rocks
H Heterolithic silty sandstones
– Thin-bedded (1 – 20-cm [0.4 – 8-in.]-thick) alternating
very fine-grained sandstones with silty mudstones
– Sandstones are ripple (current and wave)
cross-laminated with mud drapes (flaser structures)
– Silty mudstones contain rippled sand lenses
Ramos et al.
(linsen structures)
Kb (Figure 6D) K-bentonites
– Whitish silty to clay-rich rocks
– Massive to laminated; beds 10 – 20 cm
(4 – 8 in.) thick, but laterally extensive
1317
Scarce horizontal trace fossils
(Cruziana ichnofacies)
No signs of intensive bioturbation
Highly bioturbated by Skolithos 6 – 8 mm
(0.23 – 0.31 in.) in diameter, and less
than 30 cm (12 in.) long
Intensively bioturbated by Skolithos
up to 80 cm (31 in.) long
Uncommon vertical and horizontal trace
fossils of Skolithos and Cruziana ichnofacies
Unbioturbated
Deposition from relatively low-velocity currents
and/or moderate wave action in a nearshore
environment
Mud flakes are indicative of an unsteady
fluctuating flow regime
The massive appearance of this facies can
be interpreted as the result of early
postdepositional processes involving
dewatering and partial fluidization
Deposition in a marine environment
characterized by low sedimentation rate
Dominance of parallel lamination points to
deposition above fair-weather-wave base
in a nearshore environment
Deposition in a marine environment with low
sedimentation rate
Deposited in a nearshore, tidal- and
storm-influenced environment below
fair-weather-wave base
The result of diagenetic alteration of volcanic
ash beds deposited in a shallow-marine
environment; the volcanic ash accumulation
was originated by fallout processes following
multiple volcanic eruptions
Figure 5. Field views of the nonbioturbated sandstone facies. (A) S1: large-scale, sigmoidal cross-bedded sandstones. (B) S3:
trough cross-bedded sandstones. (C) S4: parallel-laminated sandstones. (D) S5: low-angle, swaley to hummocky cross-stratified
sandstones. (E) S6: ripple cross-laminated sandstones. (F) S7: massive sandstones with erosive basal surface (dashed line).
Scales are 150 cm (59 in.) (Jacob’s staff, part A), 35 cm (13.7 in.) (geologist’s hammer, parts B – D, F), and 14 cm (5.5 in.) (pencil,
part E).

1318 Geologic Note

Figure 6. Field views of the bioturbated sandstone and K-bentonite facies. (A, B) Sb1: thinly bedded, parallel-laminated, bio-
turbated. sandstones. (C) Sb2: thick-bedded, massive, bioturbated sandstones. (D) Kb = K-bentonite. Scales are as in Figure 5.
less-bioturbated ichnofabric (ii 3– 4) of S. linearis,
which is typically smaller and more homogeneous in
size. This might record opportunistic, poststorm colo-
nization of sandy substrates.
The Cruziana ichnofacies is typically associated
with the heterolithic facies (H). The assemblage consists
of locomotion, feeding, and resting trace fossils. De-
spite the fact that bioturbation can be intense at the
base or top of some sandstone beds, ichnofabric indices
are generally low (ii 2) because most traces are horizon-
tal. Ichnodiversity is much higher than in the Skolithos
ichnofacies. Trilobite resting and crawling traces, Ruso-
phycus isp. (Figure 7D) and Cruziana isp. (Figure 7E, F),
respectively, are among the most abundant trace fos-
sils. Other common ichnotaxa are Arthrophycus linearis
(Figure 7G) and Planolites isp., whereas less frequent
trace fossils include Lockeia siliquaria, Daedalus multi-
plex (Figure 7H), Aulichnites isp., and Bergaueria cf. sucta,
although the first two can locally occur in high densities.
The higher diversity of the Cruziana ichnofacies and
the dominance of traces produced by detritus and de-
posit feeders are consistent with lower energy condi-
tions and finer grained substrates. Similar Ordovician
assemblages are characteristic of lower intertidal to
shallow subtidal environments (Mángano et al., 1996).
Nevertheless, the absence of associated structures in-
dicating subaerial exposure in the Hawaz Formation
favors the interpretation that these assemblages were
formed under subtidal conditions.
A Cruziana ichnofacies with a different ichnotax-
onomic and ichnofabric signature is locally found in
the bioturbated sandstones at the base of the formation
(see Figure 3). It is characterized by a highly bioturbated
ichnofabric (ii 4– 5) consisting of Thalassinoides isp.
(Figure 7A) and Teichichnus rectus. Its association with
pipe-rocks suggests a lower to middle shoreface setting.
Ramos et al. 1319
Figure 7. Characteristic trace fossils from the Hawaz Formation. (A) Thalassinoides isp.; (B) Skolithos linearis; (C) Skolithos isp.;
(D) Rusophycus isp.; (E, F) Cruziana isp.; (G) Arthrophycus linearis; and (H) Daedalus multiplex. Scales are as in Figure 5.

1320 Geologic Note

Table 2. Facies Association*
Facies
Association Main Lithofacies Subordinate Lithofacies
T S1, S2, S6 S4, S7, H
S S4, S5, S3, S6 S7, H
B Sb1, S6 H Deposition in a prograding lower shoreface to beach; locally incised
Ch S7, S3 S2, S4, S6
P Sb2
Kb Kb
*See vertical arrangement in Figure 3.
Facies Associations
The lithofacies described in Table 1 have been grouped
into six assemblages called facies association T (subtidal
sandstones), S (storm-reworked, shoreface sandstones),
B (shoreface-to-beach sandstones), Ch (channel-sandstone
bodies), P (nearshore-inner-platform sandstones), and
Kb (K-bentonites). They are synthesized in Table 2.
The vertical distribution and sequential arrangement of
each facies association are shown in Figure 3. No sig-
nificant lateral facies changes have been observed across
the studied area.
Facies Association T
Facies association T is primarily characterized by fa-
cies S1, S2, and S6, with S4, S7, and H as subordi-
nate elements ( Table 2). It forms packages ranging in
thickness between 0.6 and 15 m (1.96 and 49 ft), with
average values of about 2–4 m (6.6–13 ft). It occurs
as continuous, erosively based, sheetlike bodies that
can be traced for kilometers. Despite their lateral con-
tinuity, these sheets possess a complex multilateral and
multistorey internal architecture resulting from the lat-
eral and vertical stacking of cosets of large- to medium-
scale, sigmoidal, cross-bedded sandstones with reac-
tivation surfaces and mud drapes (facies S1 and S2).
Cosets of parallel-laminated (facies S4) and ripple
cross-laminated sandstones (facies S6) are less com-
mon, whereas intercalations of massive sandstones
(facies S7) and remnants of thin-bedded heterolithic
intervals (facies H) are uncommon. The degree of
bioturbation in this facies association is low and ex-
clusively formed by trace fossils of the Cruziana ich-
nofacies in the heterolithic facies. The vertical ar-
rangement of the above-mentioned facies tends to
be random, although 2–3-m (6.6–10-ft)-thick, poorly
Interpretation
Large sand ridges, shoals, and intershoal depressions locally dissected
by subaqueous channels in a sandy subtidal environment
Deposition in a storm-reworked shoreface locally incised by tidal inlets
by tidal inlets
Channel-fill deposits (subtidal channels or tidal inlets)
Terrigenous marine inner platform
Volcanic ash
defined, thickening-upward sequences (H, S6, S2, S1)
are locally observable. Paleocurrents show a northwest
to north-northwest trend, although locally, a bidirec-
tionality trend is observed.
Interpretation
Facies association T contains most of the diagnostic pri-
mary structures that characterize deposition in offshore
tidal sand ridges, such as tidal cross-bedding, tidal bun-
dles, mud drapes, and reactivation surfaces (Dalrymple,
1992; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996). We interpret this
( Table 2) as having been deposited in an extensive,
sandy, subtidal environment linked to a broad estuary
mouth or tidal-dominated delta front. The subtidal de-
posits would have included large sand waves (a few me-
ters high, tens to hundreds of meters wide, and a hun-
dred to thousands of meters long), shoals floored with
smaller mesoforms (dunes) and microforms (ripples),
and intershoal depressions occasionally dissected by a
shifting network of rapidly aggrading, shallow and broad,
subaqueous channels (see the section on facies associa-
tion Ch). Normally, the tidal sand waves display high-
angle cross-bedding, with dips of 20–30j, pronounced
asymmetry, and a dominant direction of the foresets
(Figure 5A). They have few erosional breaks and scarce
mud content. According to Allen (1980), these sand
waves characterized tidal conditions in which the sub-
ordinate currents (floods in our case) remained below
the threshold of the sediment movement.
According to Allen (1984), there is a relationship
between sand-wave height and water depth. Applying
his equation, one can postulate that the observed tidal
sand waves of the Hawaz Formation, which reach up
to 2 m (6.6 ft) in height, were deposited at depths of
about 14 m (45 ft). However, other authors (i.e., Lanck-
neus and de Moor, 1995) studying current bed forms in
Ramos et al. 1321
shallow, tidal sand ridges have not found any relation
between these two parameters. Instead, they found a
wide range of sand-wave heights (0.6–5.5 m [1.96–18 ft]
high) at all water depths in the interval 7–18 m (23–59 ft)
deep. Consequently, water-depth estimations for facies
association T must be considered with caution. Never-
theless, we can tentatively suggest a water depth of a
few decameters (10– 30 m; 33 –100 ft).
The occasional heterolithic intervals (facies H)
represent deposition in relatively lower energy, distal,
or protected areas. From proximal to distal, this facies
association would ideally show a progressive substitu-
tion of facies S1 by facies S2, as well as increasing per-
centages of S6 and H.
In general, the facies association T is character-
ized by a low degree of bioturbation attributable ex-
clusively to the Cruziana ichnofacies, although the
ichnofabric index increases with the increase in litho-
facies S6 and H.
Facies Association S
Facies association S is mostly formed from facies S4,
S5, S3, and S6, with minor contributions of facies S7
and H ( Table 2). It forms packages ranging in thick-
ness between 0.5 and 20 m (1.6 and 66 ft), with average
values of about 2 –5 m (6.6 –16 ft). It is characterized
by commonly stacked convex-upward bodies, trace-
able laterally for tens of meters and showing distinct
compensational geometries. The topmost part of each
individual body (up to 1.5 m [4.9 ft] thick) comprises
cosets of parallel-laminated and low-angle, swaley to
hummocky cross-stratified sandstones (facies S4 and
S5), which overlie and merge laterally into cosets of rip-
ple cross-laminated sandstones (facies S6), sometimes
interbedded with thin heterolithic beds (facies H).
Each body shows a slightly coarsening- and thickening-
upward trend (H-S6-S4/S5), although the contact be-
tween S6 and the higher energy facies (S4 and S5) is
rather abrupt and commonly erosive. The degree of bio-
turbation for this facies association is very low, and it
is attributable to scarce trace fossils belonging to the
Cruziana and Skolithos ichnofacies. When laterally ex-
tensive outcrops are examined, the compensational ge-
ometries of successive bodies can result in facies alter-
nations that are random, abrupt, slightly coarsening
upward, or multiple coarsening and fining upward.
Paleocurrents, mostly measured in ripples, show a wide
dispersion. Eastward and westward currents are dom-
inant, although a northward component (northeast-
northwest) is always present. Locally, facies association
S is interbedded with K-bentonite beds (see below).
1322 Geologic Note
Interpretation
Following Walker and Plint (1992) and Johnson and
Baldwin (1996), the features described here for facies as-
sociation S suggest sandy deposition in storm-dominated
shallow-marine settings ( Table 2) mainly because of the
presence of hummocky and swaley cross-stratification
(Figure 5D). Storm reworking of previously deposited
subtidal sand sheets and contemporaneous shoreline
sands could be related to a general shoreline retreat.
The biggest convex-upward bodies most likely repre-
sent shoreface storm sand bars (up to 1.5 m [4.9 ft] high
and tens of meters to 100 m [330 ft] wide) flanked by
hummocky and ripple sculptured sand sheets. The lat-
ter microforms and the heterolithic facies probably de-
veloped preferentially in relatively deeper, lower shore-
face areas, where K-bentonites seem to be preferentially
preserved as well. Occasionally, the storm-dominated,
shoreface ensemble was incised by tidal inlets (see the
section on facies association Ch).
Bioturbation intensity in facies association S is very
low, but some thin sandstone beds that intercalated
within the heterolithic facies (H) may display moder-
ate bioturbation (ii 3–4) attributable to small, homog-
eneously sized, S. linearis, recording opportunistic,
poststorm colonization of sandy substrates.
Facies Association B
Facies association B mainly consists of facies Sb1 and
S6, with facies H as a subordinate component (see
Table 2). It forms tabular units ranging in thickness be-
tween 0.75 and 12 m (2.4 and 39 ft), with average values
of about 1–4 m (3.3–13 ft). It is characterized by pack-
ages of thinly bedded, parallel-laminated, intensively
bioturbated sandstones (facies Sb1), which, in some
cases, overlie packages of ripple cross-laminated sand-
stones (facies S6) delineating poorly defined thickening-
upward parasequences (S6-Sb1) 1 – 3 m (3.3 –10 ft)
thick. It is locally interbedded with K-bentonite beds.
This facies association is characterized by a high de-
gree of bioturbation of the Skolithos ichnofacies (pipe-
rocks). The abundance of Skolithos tubes results in a
high degree of textural heterogeneity. The sedimen-
tary bodies of this facies association are laterally con-
tinuous over kilometric distances, forming topographic
markers.
Interpretation
Features such as those of facies association B are in-
terpreted as more or less complete lower shoreface
(S6) to beach (Sb1) parasequences ( Walker and Plint,
1992; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996) deposited in an
overall prograding context ( Table 2). These deposits
are occasionally cut by tidal inlet bodies of the facies
association Ch. K-bentonites seem to be preferentially
preserved in lower shoreface subenvironments.
The Sb1 lithofacies display very abundant Skolithos
burrows, resulting in an extremely high degree of bio-
turbation. These Skolithos pipe-rocks are common in
the lower Paleozoic (particularly in the Cambrian) in a
variety of shallow-marine and nearshore environments
(Droser, 1991). This assemblage is typically found in
shifting substrates deposited in moderate- to high-
energy settings, affected by periodic erosion and/or sedi-
mentation. These conditions favored the establishment
of a low-diversity community of suspension feeders in-
habiting vertical burrows.
Facies Association Ch
Facies association Ch is formed by facies S3 and S7
with subordinate occurrences of S2, S4, and S6. It is
characterized by concave-upward, channelized litho-
somes, up to 8 m (26 ft) thick and 100 m (330 ft)
wide, encased in the three previously described facies
associations. These bodies show a multilateral and multi-
storey infill. Massive (S7) and trough cross-bedded
sandstones (S3) are the dominant sedimentary facies,
although some vestiges of cross-bedding with mud
drapes (facies S2), parallel lamination (S4), and rippled
intervals are occasionally observable. Commonly, this
facies association appears unbioturbated.
Interpretation
Because of its stratigraphic relationships with other fa-
cies associations and its channelized nature, facies asso-
ciation Ch is interpreted to be the result of channel-fill
deposits ( Table 2). These channels may have been sub-
tidal channels (when associated with facies association T )
or tidal inlets (when incised in facies associations S or B).
Facies Association P
The facies association P consists of a single facies (Sb2)
and is exclusively represented by the thick-bedded, mas-
sive, bioturbated sandstones ( pipe-rocks) of facies Sb2
(Figure 6C). The most characteristic feature of this fa-
cies association is its intensive Skolithos bioturbation.
Mud sedimentation is not recorded. Facies association P
occurs as a sedimentary package up to 25 m (82 ft) thick.
Interpretation
The lack of preserved primary sedimentary structures
in facies association P renders difficult a precise envi-
ronmental interpretation. This facies association is char-
acterized by a high degree of bioturbation (ii 4 – 5),
typical of large Skolithos-forming pipe-rocks. In this case,
the high degree of bioturbation and the vertical persis-
tence of the ichnofabric indicate the continuing exis-
tence of stable paleoenvironmental conditions. This
ichnofabric probably represents upper to middle
shoreface settings. We propose, without making any
precise claims, a sandy nearshore environment for the
deposition of facies association P. A possible inner-
platform interpretation could also be put forward on
the basis of the extremely tabular morphology of their
beds ( Table 2).
Facies Association Kb
Facies association Kb consists of a single facies (Kb)
and generally appears as thin (10 –20-cm [4 – 8-in.]-
thick), laterally extensive, white to reddish colored,
massive to laminated, clay-rich beds (Figure 6D). This
facies association is characteristically unbioturbated,
despite the fact that these thin beds of K-bentonite
facies are commonly interbedded within sandstones of
facies associations S and B that display some degree of
bioturbation. No K-bentonite beds have been found
interbedded with facies associations T, Ch, or P.
Interpretation
Facies association Kb is interpreted ( Table 2) as the
result of the alteration of volcanic ash beds caused by
fallout processes (e.g., Fisher and Schmincke, 1984) fol-
lowing multiple eruptions and deposited in a shallow-
marine environment.
HAWAZ SUBDIVISION
Considering lithofacies, bioturbation, facies associations,
the geometry of the sedimentary bodies, and gamma-
ray response, three mappable, informal lithostratigraphic
units have been differentiated (see Figure 3). From base
to top, these are the lower, middle, and upper units
(HW.1, HW.2 and HW.3, respectively). The thickness
distribution of facies associations and of the intervals
with a given ichnofabric index (ichnograms in the sense
of Bottjer and Droser, 1991) in the different Hawaz
subunits is shown in Figure 8. The lower unit charac-
terizes the deposition in nearshore to inner-platform
settings with very intense bioturbation. The middle unit
is characterized by the deposition in shoreface storm-
reworked to beach settings and displays the maximum
values of volcanic ash contribution. Because of that, it
Ramos et al. 1323

Figure 8. Percentage distribution of the facies associations and
ichnofabric indices in the three Hawaz subunits. See text for
the description of the facies associations. Class ‘‘Und.’’ refers to
unexposed or undetermined sedimentary record.
can be referred to as a volcanoclastic unit. The upper
unit is characterized by the dominance of subtidal sand-
stones (facies association T) displaying the lowest de-
gree of bioturbation.
Lower Unit (HW.1: Nearshore to Inner-Platform Sandstones)
This unit is dominated by remarkably tabular strata,
25 – 80 cm (10 –31 in.) thick (Figure 9), of medium- to
fine-grained sandstones attributable to facies associa-
tion P (Figure 8). Bioturbation is very intense through
most of the unit (ichnofabric index: ii 4 – 5), forming a
pipe-rock constituted by closely spaced Skolithos bur-
rows (Figures 6C, 7C). Thalassinoides (Figure 7A) and
Teichichnus are also found, but only in the lowermost
part of the unit.
The lower unit shows a thinning-upward trend, with
pipe-rock sandstones alternating toward the top with
1324 Geologic Note
thinly bedded, tabular, and cross-laminated sandstone
beds. As the succession becomes finer grained upward,
ichnofabric index decreases, and Cruziana (Figure 7E, F)
and Planolites become the most abundant ichnofossils.
Gamma-ray values for this unit have been mea-
sured in the field along section 1 (Figure 3). The log
records relatively low values, especially toward the lower
part, becoming progressively higher upward. Low val-
ues are associated with fine- to medium-grained, well-
sorted quartzarenites. The progressive upward increase
in the radiation values records the slightly fining-upward
trend. Radiation values are mainly related to thorium.
The contribution of uranium is not significant, and that
of potassium is nil.
Middle Unit (HW.2: Volcanoclastic Unit)
This unit mostly consists of strata of facies associations S
and B, with secondary levels of T and Ch (Figure 8).
Facies association P is not present. The most charac-
teristic feature of this unit is that it is home to the
maximum content of facies association Kb. This fa-
cies composition results in the middle unit being
formed mostly by tabular and laterally continuous,
thinly stratified siltstone to fine-grained sandstone
packages, intercalating thin K-bentonite beds and oc-
casionally slightly coarser grained lenticular sand bod-
ies (Figure 10).
The tabular thin-bedded sandstones include a
large variety of internal sedimentary structures, such
as swaley to hummocky cross-bedding, planar lami-
nation, large-scale cross-bedding, current and wave-
ripple cross-lamination, and flaser and linsen struc-
tures. In general, these laminated sandstones show
low ichnofabric indices (ii 1 – 2) because trace fossils
are mostly horizontal and restricted to bedding planes.
Rusophycus and Cruziana are the dominant ichno-
genera (Figure 7D – F), but Planolites, Arthrophycus
(Figure 7G), and Lockeia are also present. Skolithos is
restricted to some thin sandstone beds, except in the
upper part of the unit where highly bioturbated pipe-
rocks are found in thicker packages. The K-bentonites
appear as 10–20-cm (4–8-in.)-thick beds, of whitish
massive or laminated mudstones (Figure 6D). When
iron content is high, bentonites may also take on a red-
dish color. Typically, K-bentonites show little or no
bioturbation.
Erosively based, lenticular sand bodies, tens to sev-
eral hundreds of meters wide and 50 cm (19 in.) to 10 m
(33 ft) thick, have been occasionally observed encased
in the above-mentioned lithofacies (Figure 10B). The
Figure 9. Field view of the lower unit (HW.1 or nearshore to inner-platform sandstones). The picture shows the lower part of
section 1 (Figure 3). Notice its tabular, well-stratified appearance. Beds dominantly consist of facies Sb2. The outcrop is about 40 m
(131 ft) high.

Figure 10. (A) Field view of the tabular, thinly stratified, middle unit (HW.2 or volcanoclastic unit). The outcrop, about 170 m (557 ft)
wide, mainly consists of facies Sb1. (B) Field view of a lenticular body of facies S7 encased in thinly stratified facies Sb1 belonging to the
middle unit.

Ramos et al. 1325

larger bodies occasionally contain mud clasts above
their erosive bases. No preferential vertical or lateral
distribution of these lenticular bodies has been detected
in the middle unit. On the contrary, the slightly bio-
turbated tabular beds are most frequent in the lower-
most half of the unit, whereas the highly bioturbated
tabular beds dominate in the upper half.
The gamma-ray log of the middle unit (Figure 3)
reflects the heterolithic nature of the succession. The
lower values correspond to highly bioturbated and
well-sorted quartzarenites. The scarcely bioturbated,
ripple-laminated, or cross-bedded sandstones contain-
ing mud chips display intermediate values, whereas
the K-bentonite beds are responsible for the highest
radiation peaks. Gamma-ray spectrometry clearly in-
dicates that the high radioactivity of the K-bentonite
beds is caused by a significant contribution of thorium,
uranium, and potassium, whereas in the clean quartz-
arenites, the radiation is almost exclusively linked to
thorium.
Upper Unit (HW.3: Subtidal Sandstones)
The upper unit consists primarily of subtidal sand-
stones (facies association T), with minor amounts of
all the other facies associations except for associa-
tion P, which is not represented (Figure 8). It consti-
tutes a thick, sandstone-dominated package. Most of
the unit is formed by laterally amalgamated and verti-
cally stacked, lenticular, fine- to medium-grained sand-
stone bodies (Figure 11) showing either a massive inter-
nal structure or well-developed, sigmoidal cross-bedding.
It includes scarce K-bentonite beds and/or graywackes
made of a mixture of reworked quartzarenites and
bentonites.
Figure 11. Field view and sketch of the laterally amalgamated and vertically stacked lenticular sand bodies of the upper unit
(HW.3 or subtidal sandstones), dominated by facies associations T and Ch. The picture shows the lower third of section 3
(Figure 3).
1326 Geologic Note
The massive, structureless lenticular bodies dis-
play clear concave-upward, channelized geometries.
They are filled with medium-grained sandstones, with
frequent mud clasts toward the erosive base. The sig-
moidal cross-bedded bodies occasionally include wave
ripples and plane-laminated sandstone beds. Locally,
paleocurrents show bidirectionality.
Bioturbation is very low in the upper unit. The
thick sandstone bodies exhibit nil to low bioturbation
(only isolated S. linearis and uncommon Cruziana oc-
cur at the base of the thinner sandstone beds). However,
some heterolithic intervals exhibit a higher abundance
of trace fossils. Rippled, centimeter-thick sandstone
beds are topped by trace fossils (ii 2), which include
Aulichnites and Planolites. At least two massive sand-
stone beds display intense Daedalus multiplex bio-
turbation (ii 5) (Figure 7H).
Gamma ray of the upper unit is characterized by
relatively homogeneous, low values except for some
channelized bodies containing abundant clay chips
and the thick, matrix-rich beds related to K-bentonites
(Figure 3).
MAPPING AND PALEORELIEF ON TOP OF THE
HAWAZ FORMATION
The three lithostratigraphic units of the Hawaz Forma-
tion and its lower and upper boundaries have been mapped.
The resulting map (Figure 12) illustrates the nature of
its relationships with the other Ordovician units (Figure 2)
and, particularly, the characteristics of the paleotopog-
raphy developed above the Hawaz sandstones.
The Hawaz Formation crops out forming a mono-
clinal block, gently dipping (2–4j) to the west (Figure 13).
Figure 12. Geological map of the outcropping Hawaz Formation in the western Gargaf. The map shows the location of the studied
sections 1 –3 represented in Figure 3 and the location of Figures 4 and 13C. See cross sections AA and BB in Figure 13.

Ramos et al. 1327

Figure 13. (A, B) Geological cross sections AA and BB, showing the geometry of the Upper Ordovician paleorelief. (C) Field
view facing northeast of U2 forming an inlier on the Hawaz sandstones. See legend and location in Figure 12.
Its lower boundary is a conformity with the underly-
ing Lower Ordovician Ash Shabiyat Formation. This
boundary crops out in extensive areas to the east of the
mapped area. The upper boundary of the Hawaz For-
mation is formed by two erosive surfaces, unconfor-
mities 1 and 2 (U1 and U2, respectively, in Figures 2, 4),
the former being older. U1 underlies the Melaz Shuqran
Formation, whereas U2 constitutes the basal boundary
of the Mamuniyat Formation.
According to the ages proposed by N. H. Miles
(2001, personal communication), the hiatus linked to
U1 represents a time span of about 21 m.y. covering, at
least, the whole Caradocian, whereas the hiatus related
to U2 covers the Cautleyan and Rawtheyan (middle
Ashgillian), representing a 1.1 m.y. time span. In the
western outcrops of the Hawaz sandstones (Figure 12),
the hiatus is overlain by the Melaz Shuqran Formation,
and the lower and older U1 constitutes the upper bound-
ary of the Hawaz Formation. Toward the east, the
Mamuniyat Formation directly rests upon the Hawaz
sandstones (or even the Ash Shabiyat Formation), and
1328 Geologic Note
the upper and younger U2 constitutes the upper bound-
ary of the Hawaz sandstones (Figures 4, 12). Mapping
demonstrates that U2 locally truncates the older U1,
and that the magnitude of the erosional hiatus linked
to U2 (where this is the sum of U1 and U2) increases to
the east. The erosion produced by U2 would have
included eastward the total thickness of the Melaz
Shuqran plus the Hawaz formations.
The characteristics of the paleotopography gener-
ated along the erosive surface U2 can be recognized in
the geological map. In the central zone of the mapped
area, the Upper Ordovician Mamuniyat Formation fills a
paleovalley cutting down the Hawaz Formation. The
paleovalley is elongated in a south-north to south-
southeast –north-northwest direction, 5 – 13 km (3.1 –
8 mi) wide and, based on the geological cross sections
(Figure 13), appears to cut down about 100 m (330 ft)
into the Hawaz sandstones. The direction of this paleo-
valley is in agreement with the measured directions of
glacial grooves on top of the Hawaz sandstones (170–
350j) and data by Ghienne et al. (2003) and Deynoux
and Ghienne (2004). In the northeastern corner of the
mapped area (Figure 12), the remnants of another 5-km
(3.1-mi)-wide, southeast-northwest–directed paleoval-
ley can be observed. In this case, it is excavated into the
lower unit (HW.1) and partially into the Ash Shabiyat
Formation. In addition to these incised paleovalleys,
some paleohighs can also be recognized. In the south-
east corner of the geological map, two inliers of the
Hawaz Formation, bounded by U2 and overlapped by the
Mamuniyat strata, can be observed (Figures 12, 13B). In
this case, these inliers constitute paleohighs of the
Hawaz Formation formed by units HW.1, HW.2, and a
part of HW.3. This suggests that the vertical incision
into the Hawaz Formation related to U2 can be esti-
mated to be about 100 m (330 ft), whereas the areal
extent of these paleohighs is about 4  6 and 1.5 
2.5 km (2.5  3.7 and 0.9  1.5 mi). Based on seismic
data, similar paleovalleys and paleohighs have been
described in the subsurface of the Murzuq Basin by
Aziz (2000) and Khoja et al. (2000).
SEDIMENTARY MODEL, EVOLUTION, AND
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
The facies associations described above characterize
sandy deposition in shallow-marine settings that appear
vertically arranged: offshore tidal ridges (facies associa-
tion T), storm-reworked shoreface (facies association S),
upper shoreface to beach (facies association B), and
nearshore to inner platform (facies association P). The
sedimentary record also includes channel sand bodies (fa-
cies association Ch) and shoreface sandstones interbed-
ded with thin K-bentonite beds (facies association Kb).
Models for terrigenous deposition in shallow-
marine settings are widely discussed in Dalrymple
(1992), Dalrymple et al. (1992), Walker and Plint
(1992), and Johnson and Baldwin (1996), among others.
According to Dalrymple (1992), offshore tidal sand
ridges can occur in estuaries, deltas, or open shallow-
marine settings. The tide-dominated estuarine facies
model proposed by Dalrymple et al. (1992) and its
evolution through time proposed by Boyd et al. (1992)
provide us with the best available equivalent for the
depositional model of the Hawaz sandstones. The evo-
lutionary model proposed by the latter authors has been
tested on a large number of cases on the present-day
Australian coast (Harris et al., 2002).
The coastal classification proposed by Boyd et al.
(1992) is based on geomorphologic features and domi-
nant shore processes. These authors concluded that
during a marine transgression related to a sea level rise,
coasts tend to be embayed by the flooding of previously
incised valleys, and the generation of estuaries occurs.
However, during high sea level and/or marine regres-
sion related to a sea level fall, coasts tend to be more
linear or lobate by progradation of strand plains and/or
delta systems.
In the tide-dominated estuarine facies model pro-
posed by Dalrymple (1992) (Figure 14A), tidal sand
ridges record deposition in the outer estuary during ma-
rine transgression, where tidal-marine processes control
deposition. Storm-dominated, shallow-marine, and up-
per shoreface-to-beach sandstones, which are deposited
in shallower, wave- or storm-dominated settings, record
progressive estuary infill and coastal progradation pro-
duced during high sea level and subsequent sea level fall
(Figure 14B, C).
Thus, the proposed sedimentary model (Figure 14)
for the deposition of the Hawaz sandstones in the Gargaf
area is linked to three main evolutionary geomorphic
scenarios reflecting differences in wave and tidal power,
as well as transgressive versus regressive conditions.
These scenarios were probably located in a large-scale,
north-northwest– to south-southeast–oriented, estua-
rine setting developed along a vast depressed area cen-
tered around the so-called ‘‘Murzuq-Djado trough’’ (cf.
figure 1 of Klitzsch, 2000). This formed an embayment
whose shoaling and convergence produced local tidal
amplification, increasing the tidal range and current ve-
locities, thus favoring the action of tidal processes dur-
ing deposition. This sandy sedimentary environment
was punctuated by distal, fine-grained volcanic contri-
butions in the form of ash falls.
Contrary to Vos (1981), who indicated the pres-
ence of upper delta-plain to alluvial-plain facies in the
Hawaz sandstones, in our opinion, the shallowest re-
corded facies are the upper shoreface sandstones be-
cause neither supratidal nor onshore deposits revealing
subaerial exposure have been recognized.
Sequence Stratigraphy
Shallow-marine systems are potentially sensitive set-
tings for recording sea level changes, particularly tidal
systems. In the proposed evolutionary coastal model
(Boyd et al., 1992), cycles of relative change of sea level
are recorded as cycles of estuarine basin expansion
during sea level rises and estuarine filling by coastal
progradation during high sea level. Falling sea levels
Ramos et al. 1329
 and consequent forced regression commonly do not
produce sediment accumulation in shallow-marine set-
tings (Baum and Vail, 1988) and are only attested to by
the incision of fluvial valleys.
During transgressive episodes, tidal processes tend
to increase because of the increase in tidal power un-
dergone as valleys are progressively flooded and the
coast becomes embayed. For this reason, transgressive
deposits are commonly bounded by an erosive basal
surface (tidal ravinement surface). The sedimentary
infill of estuaries is complex because of the interaction
of marine (tidal, storm, and waves) and fluvial processes.
Nevertheless, Cattaneo and Steel (2003) consider that
deposits associated to transgressions in tide-dominated
estuaries can be divided into two transgressive tracts:
(1) an early transgressive tract, deposited where tidal
processes dominate over storm or wave processes,
bounded by a basal tidal ravinement surface and a top
wave ravinement surface; and (2) a late transgressive
tract, deposited where storm and wave processes domi-
nate and bounded by a wave ravinement surface below
and the maximum flooding surface (MFS) above.
Considering the proposed depositional model
(Figure 14) and the above-exposed division of trans-
gressive systems tracts and key surfaces (Figure 15),
the following sequence-stratigraphic scenario has been
adopted:

1. Lowstand systems tracts are not represented in the

Gargaf outcrops of the Hawaz Formation.
2. The subtidal sandstones (facies association T) are re-
lated to an early transgressive systems tract (TST-1,
Figure 14A). The basal boundaries of TST-1s are typ-
ically tidal ravinement surfaces, whereas the upper
boundaries are wave ravinement surfaces (Figure 15).
3. Sequence boundaries (SB in Figure 15) are mostly
represented by the tidal ravinement surface at the

Figure 14. Evolutionary sedimentary model for the deposition

of the Hawaz sandstones. (A) Early transgressive system tract
(TST-1); (B) late transgressive system tract (TST-2); (C) high- Figure 15. Sequence-stratigraphic model displaying systems
stand system tract (HST). tracts and key surfaces. See text for further explanations.

1330 Geologic Note

 base of the tide-dominated, early transgressive systems
tract, but in the absence of the early transgressive
tide-dominated deposits, the SB could be represented
by a wave ravinement surface. These sequence bound-
aries might be proposed to delimit broad (kilometer-
scale) channelized estuarine bodies previously in-
cised during the relative sea level falls.
4. The storm-reworked, shoreface sandstones (facies as-
sociation S) represent the late transgressive systems
tract (TST-2, Figure 14B). TST-2s are bounded by
a wave ravinement surface at the base (which, lo-
cally, in the absence of the TST-1, could coincide
with the SB) and the flooding surface (FS) at the top
(Figure 15).
5. The intensively bioturbated, shoreface-to-beach
sandstones (facies association B) are linked to pro-
grading systems, which constitute the highstand sys-
tems tract (HST, Figure 14C). Highstand systems
tracts are separated from the late transgressive sys-
tems tracts by the MFS at the base (Figure 15) and
bounded by the following SB at the top.
6. The channel sand bodies (facies association Ch),
which have been interpreted as subtidal channels or
tidal inlets, can be related to either the transgressive
or highstand systems tracts.
7. The nearshore to inner-platform sandstones (facies
association P) could tentatively be ascribed to a late
transgressive systems tract.
8. In terms of ichnofacies, early transgressive systems
tracts are characterized by assemblages of the Cruz-
iana ichnofacies, whereas highstand systems tracts
correspond to pipe-rocks of the Skolithos ichnofa-
cies. The only exceptions are the nearshore to inner-
platform sandstones (facies association P).
Using this approach, five sequences (sequences 1–5)
have been differentiated (Figure 16). Considering that
the time span covered by the whole Hawaz Formation
is about 9 m.y., an average duration of about 2 m.y. is
estimated for each of the five differentiated sequences.
Thus, they can be regarded as third-order sequences.
Higher frequency cycles (with a periodicity below 1 m.y.)
are clearly recorded in sequences 3 and 4 (see sequential
trend in Figure 16). These five third-order sequences
constitute a part of the basal (NA 1) second-order se-
quence defined by Carr (2002) for the Paleozoic of
north Africa.
Sequence 1 is about 61 m (200 ft) thick, but it has
not been fully characterized because its lower bound-
ary has not been identified. The TST is exclusively
represented by facies association P, and it is separated
by an MFS from the HST, formed by facies associa-
tion B. The TST/HST minimum thickness ratio of this
sequence is about 3.6.
Sequence 2 is about 44 m (144 ft) thick. It is fully
developed and comprises an early TST, dominated by
facies association T, overlain by a late TST matching
facies association S. The HST is formed by several
shallowing-upward parasequences of facies associa-
tion B, locally cut by channels of facies association Ch.
Interbedded K-bentonites are found both in the late
TST and in the HST. The sequence boundary is a tidal
ravinement surface. The surface separating the early
TST from the late TST has not been observed, whereas
the surface separating the TST from the overlying HST
is a flooding surface. The TST/HST thickness ratio of
sequence 2 is approximately 2.0.
Sequence 3 is about 21 m (68 ft) thick. It is in-
complete, possibly because of the erosive superposition
of sequence 4. The sequence boundary is a tidal, locally
channelized, ravinement surface. The TST is represented
by stacked deepening-upward parasequences consist-
ing of facies associations T and S. A major K-bentonite
interval is present. The HST is not preserved.
Sequence 4 is 49 m (160 ft) thick. It is character-
ized by a well-developed early TST dominated by facies
association T, with minor occurrences of facies asso-
ciations Ch and S. The sequence boundary is a tidal
ravinement surface. The late TST is formed by several
deepening-upward parasequences constituted by facies
associations S and T. The surface separating the early
TST from the late TST is a wave ravinement surface.
The HST, poorly exposed, is dominated by facies asso-
ciation B, although some minor intervals of facies asso-
ciations T and S can be recognized. K-bentonites are
also present in the HST. The surface separating the TST
from the overlying HST is a flooding surface. The TST/
HST thickness ratio is about 1.7.
Sequence 5 has not been fully characterized. Only
the basal part of the TST, represented by a 15-m (49-ft)-
thick package of facies association T, has been studied in
some detail. The precise nature of the sequence bound-
ary is also unknown, although most likely, it is a tidal
ravinement surface.
DISCUSSION
The sedimentary record of the Hawaz Formation in
the Gargaf area allows us to reconstruct the evolution
of a coastal zone of the Gondwana continental margin,
Ramos et al. 1331
Figure 16. Sequence stratigraphy interpretation proposed for the Hawaz Formation. See legends in Figures 3 and 15. FS = flooding
surface; M/S ratio = mudstone/sand ratio. tRs = tidal ravinement surface; wRs = wave ravinement surface.

1332 Geologic Note

which was characterized by shallow-marine, siliciclas-
tic sedimentation. The factors controlling the evolu-
tion in coastal and shallow-marine settings are cyclic
changes in relative sea level and rates of subsidence
and sediment supply (Dalrymple, 1992; Dalrymple
et al., 1992; Walker and Plint, 1992; Johnson and Bald-
win, 1996).
During sea level rises, valleys were flooded, pro-
ducing estuaries in embayed coasts, whereas during
stages of high sea levels, the shoreline migrated seaward,
producing the progradation of strand plains, beaches,
or deltas in a lobate to linear coast (Boyd et al., 1992;
Harris et al., 2002). The embayed morphology of coast-
al areas was enhanced by tectonism, which controlled
the size and subsidence of the basin, causing a large-
scale depressed area elongated in a direction approxi-
mately north-south (Klitzsch, 2000). Such a large-scale
embayment displaying a low gradient increases tidal
power. Under the same tidal range, the water volume
transferred from the open ocean to the estuarine basin
and vice versa during each tide cycle, whereas tidal cur-
rent speeds are larger in a low steeped large basin than in
a steeper and/or small-scale one (Dalrymple et al.,
1992). This favors the development of tide instead of
wave-dominated estuaries. Unfortunately, the outcrops
of the Gargaf area were located at an outer estuarine
position, and we have no data about the central and inner
parts of the basin. Because of this, a precise paleogeo-
graphical reconstruction is not possible.
Commonly, estuarine coastal progradation during
a high sea level stage and subsequent estuary infill oc-
curs rapidly. Woodroffe et al. (1989) estimated that
the progradation of the modern coastline of the inner
South Alligator River estuary has migrated seaward
more than 20 km (12 mi) since the end of the Holocene
transgression, resulting in an average progradation of
shoreline of about 2 km/k.y. (1.2 mi/k.y.). Another
modern example was studied by Curray et al. (1969),
which assessed a coastal progradation of 15 km (9.3 mi)
during the last 3600 yr at some locations of the Pacific
Coast of Mexico, resulting in a coastal progradation of
about 4 km/k.y. (2.5 mi/k.y.). The outer position with
respect to the estuary of the outcrops studied herein
makes it possible that, despite the rapid progradation
of the shoreline, this zone of the estuary was never
filled with sediments.
The sandstones of the Hawaz Formation accumu-
lated in marine environments shallower than 20–30 m
(66–100 ft) along the whole of the succession. Facies
analysis indicated that no major deepening of the basin
occurred, indicating that sedimentation rate approxi-
mately kept apace with rates of sea level changes and
subsidence.
Despite the sedimentary record being incomplete,
as indicated by the erosive surface marking the upper
boundary of the Hawaz Formation, it records the de-
position of a 200-m (660-ft)-thick sandstone succession
during a time span between 9 and 12.5 m.y. Considering
a volume loss by compaction averaging 21.6% for the
whole of the formation (Barsó et al., 2005), sedimen-
tation rate can be estimated as less than 26.9 m/m.y.
(88.2 ft/m.y.). No abundant literature exists concern-
ing accumulation rates in these environments, but
Dalrymple et al. (1992) indicate that sedimentation
would have been high, and that estuaries commonly fill
in a short time. Einsele (2000) gives values for sedi-
mentation rates ranging from 10 to 100 m/m.y. (33 to
330 ft/m.y.) for a more general siliciclastic shelf set-
ting. In any case, it appears that the long-period average
sedimentation rate of 26.9 m/m.y. (88.2 ft/m.y.) cal-
culated for the whole of the Hawaz Formation must be
considered as a moderate to low rate when compared
with the expected values for these depositional settings.
If we bear in mind that a moderate to low sedimen-
tation rate was in equilibrium with the total subsidence,
we can infer that the total subsidence rate was also low,
including tectonic subsidence rates. Using the above
data, we have calculated the tectonic subsidence by the
backstripping method (Watts, 1981), resulting in a tec-
tonic subsidence rate less than 19 m/m.y. (62 ft/m.y.) as
an average for the whole of the 9 m.y. This is a rate larger
than expected for a passive continental margin, but low-
er than common values for a synrift sequence (Einsele,
2000). It can be interpreted as the result of a continen-
tal margin subjected to limited tectonic extension.
These data, obtained from the outcrops of the
Gargaf zone, are in agreement with Davidson et al.
(2000), who, based on seismic data, suggested that the
Ordovician tectonic extension was small and produced
few, widely separated faults with small net slips.
Little is known about sediment supply. The sedi-
mentation rate and the time needed to infill an estuary
are functions not only of sediment supply and total
subsidence rates, but also of the geometry and size of
the basin, which controls accommodation. In the case
studied here, the large-scale Murzuq-Djado trough
(Klitzsch, 2000) genetically controlled the estuary, and
thus, high accommodation can be interpreted. As well
as the detrital sediment input supplied to the estuary
by the fluvial system, the basin was periodically punc-
tuated by volcanic ash inputs supplied by relatively dis-
tal, explosive volcanic eruptions. Deposits of volcanic
Ramos et al. 1333
ash have been preserved as thin K-bentonite beds in-
terstratified within the shallow sandy deposits (facies
associations S and B). This volcanic sediment supply
may have contributed significantly to the total sedi-
ment supplied to the basin and may have favored and
enhanced the partial infill and shallowing of the basin.
On the contrary, it is also possible that the preservation
of volcanic ash deposits was controlled by the environ-
mental energy of the basin. In tide-dominated estuar-
ies, the outer zone reaches maximum energy, whereas
the central and coastal zones have relatively low energy
(Dalrymple et al., 1992). Therefore, the outer, tidal-
dominated zone, affected by strong, ebb-dominated cur-
rents, provided a low preservation potential for volcanic
ashes, which, if deposited, probably were bypassed off-
shore, whereas the preservation potential of these de-
posits increased in the low-energy central and internal
estuarine zones.
As opposed to the clean quartzarenites, the
K-bentonite beds have, characteristically, high gamma-
ray values. Because they commonly display large, basin-
scale distribution, they are potentially useful as a tool for
subsurface correlation. Gamma-ray spectrometry peaks
related to the K-bentonite beds can be characterized not
only by their high values but also by their high uranium
and thorium content compared to potassium.
The sequence-stratigraphic partitioning proposed
in this article points to third (and higher)-order relative
sea level fluctuations, leading to successive transgressive-
regressive episodes across the basin. Although these
changes could have been eustatic in origin, their use-
fulness as a basin-scale correlation marker is masked by
the homogeneous, sand-rich nature of the basin infill
and the prominent gamma-ray response of the inter-
bedded K-bentonite beds.
During the Late Ordovician, the Hawaz Formation
was affected by intensive erosion processes related to
the Late Ordovician glaciation, which covered most of
the Gondwana region (Ghienne, 2003; Monod et al.,
2003; Young et al., 2004). This produced the incision
of a network of glacial valleys and a landscape over-
printed by glacial morphology. This glacial-related paleo-
relief, which has been made clear by geological map-
ping (Figures 12, 13), has fundamental consequences
because the Hawaz Formation may have locally acted
as a reservoir for the source Silurian Tanezzuf Forma-
tion (Figure 2) or the main reservoir Upper Ordovician
Mamuniyat Formation directly resting above or beside
the Hawaz Formation by the erosive absence of the
dominantly muddy intervening Upper Ordovician Me-
laz Shuqran Formation (see Figure 2). Aziz (2000) and
1334 Geologic Note
Khoja et al. (2000) have documented this situation in
the subsurface of the Murzuq Basin, south of the Gargaf
area.
CONCLUSIONS
In the Gargaf high, the Hawaz Formation is a 200-m
(660-ft)-thick succession made up of fine-grained
quartzarenites displaying diverse degrees of bioturba-
tion and containing thin K-bentonite beds.
The sandstones form six facies associations called
T, S, B, Ch, P, and Kb and have been interpreted as
deposited in subtidal (T), storm-reworked shoreface (S),
shoreface to beach (B), channels (Ch), and nearshore
to inner-platform (P) settings. The association Kb is
interpreted as deposits of volcanic ash.
As a whole, the Hawaz Formation records sedi-
mentation in a shallow-marine environment. The ver-
tical arrangement of the facies associations is controlled
by relative sea level variations. During sea level rises,
valleys were flooded, and estuarine sedimentation oc-
curred. The transgressive deposits form two systems
tracts: an early TST dominated by subtidal deposits, fol-
lowed by a late TST dominated by shallow-water, storm-
reworked deposits. During high sea levels, shorelines
tend to prograde, and shoreface-to-beach sandstones
were accumulated as HST deposits. Sediments record-
ing the lowstand systems tract have been not recog-
nized. Based on this, the Hawaz Formation is divided
into five third-order sequences (sequences 1–5). Never-
theless, higher frequency cycles are also locally recorded.
Although these sequences are related to sea level
fluctuations leading to successive transgressive-regressive
episodes across the basin, they are not particularly use-
ful as basin-scale correlation tools because of the ho-
mogeneous, sand-rich nature of the Hawaz Forma-
tion. More certain correlations can be made using the
prominent gamma-ray response of the interbedded
K-bentonite beds, which could constitute useful key
beds for subsurface correlation. They are easily iden-
tifiable not only by their gamma-ray peak, but also by
the nature of the radiation, with high values in U and
Th and a low contribution from K.
The presence of the K-bentonite beds interbedded
within the Hawaz sandstones points to synsedimen-
tary calc-alkaline volcanic activity possibly related to
the extensional regime experienced by the northern
margin of Gondwana during the Ordovician.
The dominance of the different facies associa-
tions in the vertical succession allows us to divide the
Hawaz Formation into three mappable lithostrati-
graphic subunits (HW.1 to HW.3). The lower subunit
(HW.1) is dominated by deposition in nearshore to
inner-platform settings; the middle subunit (HW.2)
contains the greatest volcanic ash contribution to the
basin; and the upper subunit (HW.3) is characterized
by the dominance of subtidal deposits. Consequently,
each subunit displays different sedimentary architec-
tural features and distribution of their heterogeneities.
The upper boundary of the Hawaz Formation is
an erosion surface related to the Upper Ordovician
glaciation. The mapping of the three Hawaz subunits
illustrates the nature of this erosion surface and the
scale and features of the resulting paleorelief.
The paleogeographic reconstruction shows the Gar-
gaf zone as the outer zone of a large estuary occupying a
depressed area related to an approximately north-
south–striking trough controlled by tectonism. Howev-
er, tectonic subsidence in the basin was low to moderate.
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