8.

9 Design procedures of compression and bending

The procedure for design of an unrestrained beam column can be summarized

as follows.

I SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Classify the sectional type into Class 1, 2, 3 or 4. The design strength or cross sectional
area for Class 4 sections should be reduced.

II SECTIONAL CAPACITY CHECK

Determine the most critical section containing the greatest stress due to bending
moments about the two axes. Apply Equations (8.7) and (8.8) for sectional strength
check.

III MEMBER BUCKLING CHECK

Compute the buckling resistance moment of a beam-column to Chapter 6 and the
cr
buckling resistance against axial buckling in Chapter 7. Amplified factor should
cr 1
be applied. Check the member to Equations (8.9) to (8.15) which are adopted from
Clauses 8.9.2 in HK Code.

IV OTHER LOCAL EFFECTS AND WEB BEARING AND BUCKLING

CHECK
As for beam and column design, checking for web against bearing, shear buckling and
compression buckling should be carried out as for restrained beams. The discussion
should be referred to Chapter 9.

V OTHER LIMIT STATES

Other limit states such as the deflection and vibration limit states shall also be checked.

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8.10 Worked Examples

8.10.1 Column in simple frame

A steel stanchion of 203 203 100 UC of length 8m and grade S355 grade of steel in a
multi-storey building frame is under a factored concentric axial force of 250 kN, a
factored reaction from beam of 100 kN with nominal eccentricities of 100mm from the
face of the web and another factored reaction from beam of 150 kN of 100mm nominal
eccentricity from the face of the flange. Check the adequacy of the stanchion. The
effective length for flexural column buckling is 1.0 of its physical length and the
effective length for lateral-torsional beam buckling is 0.5 of its physical length.

Sol ion
SECTION PROPERTIES
D 228.6mm , B 210.3mm , t 14.5mm , T 23.7mm , d 160.8mm , I x 11300cm 4 ,
Iy 3680cm 4 , rx 9.44cm , r y 5.39cm , Z x 988cm 3 , Zy 350cm 3 , S x 1150cm 3 ,

Sy 534cm 3 , u 0.852 , x 9.02 , A 127cm 2

DESIGN LOAD
A ial load, Fc 250 100 150 500kN
Momen abo majo a i , M x 150 (228.6 2 100) 10 3
32.1kNm
Momen abo mino a i , M x 100 (14.5 2 100) 10 3 10.7kNm

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
De ign eng h, p y 345N / mm 2 fo 16mm T 40mm (Table 3.2)
275
0.89 (Table 7.1 Note b)
345

Pla ic limi ing al e of b T fo o and flange of an H- ec ion i 9

b 210.3
4.44 9 0.89 8.01 (Table 7.1)
T 2 23.7
flange is plastic

Pla ic limi ing al e of d t fo eb of an H- ec ion nde bo h a ial com e ion and bending i
80 1 r1
Fc 500 103
S e a io, r1 0.622 1 (7.1)
dtp yw 160.8 14.5 345
d 160.8 80 0.89
11.1 43.9
t 14.5 1 0.622
web is plastic

the section is Class 1 plastic

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MOMENT CAPACITY
Moment capacity, M cx pySx 1.2 p y Z x
345 1150 103 1.2 345 988 103
396.8kNm 409.0kNm
M x (OK)
M cy pyS y 1.2 p y Z y
345 534 103 184.2kNm
but 1.2 345 350 103 144.9kNm
M cy 144.9kNm M y (OK)

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Effective length, LE 0.5LLT 0.5 8 4m
LE 4000
Slenderness ratio, 74.2 (8.26)
ry 53.9
1 1
v 0.691 (8.27)
2 0.25 2 0.25
1 0.05 x 1 0.05 74.2 9.02
w 1.0 for Class 1 plastic section (Clause 8.3.5.3)
Equivalent slenderness, LT uv w 0.852 0.691 74.2 1 43.7 (8.25)
Buckling strength, pb 305.9 N mm 2
(Table 8.3a)
3
Buckling resistance, M b pb S x 305.9 1150 10 351.8kNm (8.20)
Equivalent uniform moment factor, mLT 1.0 (Table 8.4a)
mLT M x 1.0 32.7 32.7kNm M b (OK) (8.18)

COMPRESSION RESISTANCE
Bending abo mino a i i mo e c i ical
Effec i e leng h, LE L 8m
LE 8000
Slende ne a io, 148.4 (Clause 8.7.4)
ry 53.9

The com e i e eng h fo olled H- ec ion bending abo mino a i ho ld be ob ained f om

b ckling c e c. (Table 8.7)
Com e i e eng h, pc 73.6 N mm 2 (Table 8.8(c))
Com e i e e i ance, Pc Ag pc 12700 73.6 934.7 kN Fc (OK) (8.73)

CROSS-SECTION CAPACITY
Fc Mx My 500 103 32.1 10.7
0.27 1 (OK) (8.78)
Ag p y M cx M cy 12700 345 396.8 144.9

MEMBER BUCKLING RESISTANCE

E i alen momen fac o , mx my mLT 1 fo im le con c ion (Clause 8.7.8)

Momen am lifica ion fac o abo majo a i ,

cr 1 1
2
1.163
cr 1 Fc LE 500 82 (8.82)
1 2
1 2
EI x 2.05 11300

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 Momen am lifica ion fac o abo mino a i ,
cr 1 1
2
1.754
cr 1 Fc LE 500 8 2 (8.82)
1 2
1 2
EI y 2.05 3680

Fc mx M x my M y 500 1.163 32.1 103 1.754 10.7 103

0.80 1 (8.80)
Pc M cx M cy 934.7 345 988 345 350
Fc mLT M LT my M y 500 1.163 32.1 10.7 103
0.73 1 (8.81)
Pcy Mb M cy 934.7 351.8 345 350

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Chapter 9 Connections

9.1 Introduction

Connec ion la an im o an ole in he eel c e; he link indi id al

membe oge he and an fe load f om one membe o ano he . The co of
connec ion can be 20 o 30% o mo e of he o al con c ion co of a eel c e.
De ail of connec ion can al o affec he eed of con c ion, co and afe of he
com le e c e. In ome occa ion , he a ea ance of connec ion i al o con olled
b a chi ec al e i emen .

The majo con ide a ion fo connec ion i , a a f om c al eng h and

afe , he ea e of fab ica ion hich indi ec l ela e o he co . The de ign a ec
e i ing ecial con ide a ion ill be of he lack of d c ili fo mo , e eciall he
elded connec ion . I ha been e o ed ha fail e of man eel c e occ a
connec ion and he eng h and d c ili of connec ion need o be con ide ed and
anal ed

Fig e 9.1 Semi- igid bol ed connec ion i h com e im la ion

In gene al, a connec ion i ei he de igned a a inned connec ion an fe ing

onl hea o a igid connec ion an fe ing bo h hea and momen . The fo me
connec ion e of inned connec ion i mo e idel ed in im le con c ion and
he la e e of igid connec ion i ed in con in o con c ion. The ne e
de elo men i he emi- igid connec ion hich allo an fe of hea i h a ial
an fe of momen ( ee Fig e 9.1 ho a fini e elemen model of a emi- igid bol ed
connec ion ed in a g een hoa ding em de igned b econd-o de di ec la ic
anal i in Hong Kong, Chan and Lo, 2019). When an fe ing momen h o gh a
connec ion, he eng h i of a amo n im o ance and hen onl hea i an fe ed
i h elea e of momen , he o a ional ca aci become he inci al con ide a ion.
De igne de ail he inned connec ion o be fle ible in elea ing momen and
an fe ing hea onl he ea he igid connec ion a e de ailed o ha e fficien
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 eng h o an fe momen a ell a hea . Semi- igid connec ion a e de igned o
ha e bo h he ca abili of an fe ing momen and allo ing o a ion .

In c al de ign of eel c e , he a m ion fo connec ion

cha ac e i ic ho ld be con i en in de ailing, eng h calc la ion and in connec ion
fi i ed in com e modeling fo c al f ame anal i . A a gene al le, bol
connec ion ho ld be ed on i e and elded connec ion ho ld be ado ed in ho ,
beca e of ea e of ali con ol. In ome cold a ea , i e elding i no fea ible d ing
he in e o e en no e mi ed. Ho e e , local ac ice in Hong Kong ma efe i e
elding fo ea fab ica ion and g ea e ole ance fo fi ing of connec ion .

The aim of connec ion i o an mi he load f om one membe o ano he .

Diffe en fo m of joining membe ho ld be efe ed o connec ion i h diffe en
name , ch a beam- o-beam connec ion, col mn lice, join , beam-col mn
connec ion and col mn ba e ho n in Fig e 9.2(a). The e connec ion ma e fo m
diffe en f nc ion ch a an fe of momen and hea , o hea onl i h ade a e
o a ion ca aci a ho n in Fig e 9.2(b). When load i an fe ed f om one la e
elemen o ano he , la join ho n in Fig e 9.2(c) can be ed. Fab ica ion and
e ec ion oced e ma be im lified b anda di ing a n mbe of common
connec ion de ail and a angemen fo common connec ion .

Beam to beam connection Column splices Truss joints

Beam to column joint Column base

Fig e 9.2(a) T e of membe connec ion

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 Moment connection Pinned connection

Fig e 9.2(b) Momen connec ion and inned connec ion

Lap joint by bolts Welded joint to form built-up element

Fig e 9.2(c) Connec ion join ing he la e elemen b bol o eld

Fig e 9.2 T ical connec ion

The common com o ing elemen o com onen in diffe en e of

connec ion a e of bol , in , eld , ea , clea and end la e . Ri e ed connec ion
a e ncommon in mode n con c ion and he efo e no f he di c ed he e. The
ke elemen of com onen in connec ion fo di ec load an fe a e bol and eld .

Bol ing con ain o e . The a e non- eloaded o dina bol in anda d
clea ance o o e i e hole and eloaded o high eng h f ic ion g i (HSFG) bol .
Welding incl de mainl fille and b eld .

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9.2 Connection behaviour in strength, stiffness and ductility

Connec ion a e commonl a med o be ei he e fec l igid o ideall

inned. The a m ion of join iffne ho ld be fficien l acc a e o e en
nfa o able effec on f ame beha io . A igid f ame o a f ame i h igid connec ion
a me all connec ion o be igid and he momen can be all an fe ed f om one
membe o ano he . On he o he hand, no momen i an fe ed h o gh he inned
connec ion; he iffne of inned connec ion i e al o e o. Ho e e , in connec ion
m be able o an mi hea and o o e fficien d c ili fo o a ion a inned
connec ion. While all connec ion of a c e a e ideali ed a inned, he c ei
called im le c e. I i con enien and im le fo c al anal i and de ign of
he c e. S ic l eaking, he e o e eme ca e can eldom e i in eali and
he idel ed a m ion of e fec l igid and f ic ionle inned connec ion i
ac icall na ainable. A mo e eali ic and o ibl mo e economical de ign i o
allo fo a ce ain deg ee of connec ion iffne a he connec ion a ho n in beam-
col mn connec ion in Fig e 9.3. The co e onding momen - o a ion c e a e
ill a ed in Fig e 9.4. A ce ain deg ee of o a ional defo ma ion i allo ed i h a
of he fi ed end momen i an fe ed.

The beha io of emi- igid connec ion infl ence he global c al beha io
ch a he cla ifica ion of f ame in o a o non- a mode. And i al o affec he
connec ion de ign. Ho e e , hi deg ee of connec ion iffne ca ed b local
beha io of he connec ion i no o be di c ed he e.

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 a. Single Web Angle b. Double Web Angle

c. Bottom Flange and Web Angle

d. Top and Seat Angle

e. Web Side Plate f. Header Plate

g. Extended End Plate h. Flush End Plate

Fig e 9.3 Diffe en e of beam col mn connec ion

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 Moment, M
Perfectly Rigid Joint

Se
m
Extended End-Plate

i-R
ig
id
Jo
in
ts
Flush End-Plate

Top and Seat Angle

Header Plate
Double Web Angle
Single Web Angle

0 Rotation
Ideally Pinned Joint

Fig e 9.4 Momen - o a ion c e fo co e onding beam col mn connec ion

9.3 Welded connection

9.3.1 Weld process

Welding i a oce of f ing o iece of eel ma e ial oge he h o gh he

e of hea . The e i ed hea i od ced b elec ic c en o ga hea h o gh
elec ode ch ha he me al in he elec ode mel , f e and cool o fo m a ingle
iece of me al i h he a en me al hich efe o he iece of me al in ended fo
joining. Welded connec ion a e idel ed in eel con c ion o da e and he
o ide g ea fle ibili in connec ing membe . Le e con c ion ole ance
e i emen i e eciall a ac i e on i e con c ion. Ho e e , mo elded
connec ion a e ela i el le d c ile han o dina clea ance bol and he in od ce
high e id al e leading o c acking if he elding oce i no ca ef ll moni o ed.

The e a e o main e of eld , namel he fille eld and he b eld in

Fig e 9.5 and 9.6. Fille eld i o ghl iang la in i c o ec ion fo med a he
e-en an co ne of a join . The eng h of eld i de elo ed a he hea ca aci of
he eld ac o he i e o h oa of eld. The i e of eld i defined a he id h of
h oa hich i called he leg leng h of eld di c ed in Sec ion 9.3.5.1.

B eld efe o he eld l ing i hin he face of he joining la e . The

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 elding oce commonl ed i he me al a c elding and ga elding. Me al a c
elding i ca ied o b f ion of me al accom li hed b he hea of an elec ic a c. In
ga elding, a fille ma e ial o ba e elec ode i ed o l ma e ial hich i mel ed
b high hea of ga like o gen-ace lene flame. Shielding ga i ed o hield he
mol en eld one f om he a mo he e. In me al ine -ga oce (MIG), a ba e i e
elec ode i ed he ea in ng en ine -ga oce (TIG), ng en elec ode i ed.

Welding ma ca e he egion nea o he eld o become ela i el b i le.

When a c ack i fo med d e o b i le ma e ial in ha egion, i i ea il o aga ed a
a high e concen a ion. Thi oblem i a ic la l e io nde lo e
em e a e. F he , he elding ind ce e id al e and ain in he com onen
of connec ion, hich de e io a e he c al eng h of connec ion in mo ca e .

9.3.2 Electrodes

The combined e of eldable eel, elding eng h, elding condi ion and
elding o i ion e i e he ecifica ion of elec ode in e m on eng h, elding
o i ion and l of c en o he elec ode. In he HK Code, bo h he BS EN and
he Chine e anda d fo elec ode a e li ed fo fille eld . Elec ode cla ifica ion
of 35, 42 and 50 fo BS EN anda d and E43, E50 and E55 fo Chine e GB anda d
a e ed and li ed in Table 9.2 of he HK Code.

9.3.3 Types of welds

The common welding types include fillet weld and butt weld. Fillet weld is that
the weld metal is generally lying outside the profile of the connected elements as shown
in Figure 9.5 while butt weld is that the weld metal is deposited with the profile of the
connected elements as shown in Figure 9.6.

Double fillet weld Single fillet weld Fillet weld for lap joint

Fig e 9.5 Diffe en e of fille eld

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 Double V butt weld Single V butt weld Single bevel butt weld

Fig e 9.6 Diffe en e of b eld

9.3.3.1 Butt weld

B eld i cla ified in o
ene a ion eld, hich infl ence
ene a ion of eld. I no mall e
n mbe of elding a e , i i mo
nece a o en e he elded a
o ca alog of f ll ene a ion eld and a ial
he eng h of eld de ending on he de h of
i e 100% e and a he elding in ol e mo e
e e en i e and le common nle i i ic l
ill no fail ea lie han he a en ma e ial.

9.3.3.2 Fillet weld

Fille eld i ela i el le e en i e, hen no e a a ion i e i ed befo e
elding oce . I i mo e commonl ed fo fille he co ne een ance of o iece
of me al . D ing elding, he elec ode bi ec i angle i h he o iece of me al .
The i e of fille eld i mea ed a i leg leng h. The minim m i e ed in he HK
Code i 3mm hile he common i e can be 6mm o 12mm o highe .

9.3.4 Welding symbols

In shop drawings and erection plan, the welds are shown on its type, size, length
and locations on the connected parts. This information is indicated in form of symbols.
Table 9.1 shows the common types of weld and the commonly used symbols are
indicated in Table 9.2 below.

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 Weld type Single Double
Square

Bevel

Vee
Groove

Table 9.1 Common types of butt weld

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Notes:
The side of the joint to which the arrow points is the arrow or near side and the opposite
side of the joint is the other or far side.
All welds are continuous except otherwise stated. Arrow only points to the member
grooved.
Dimensions of weld sizes, length and spacing are in millimeters.
`

Table 9.2 Typical welding symbols

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9.3.5 Structural design of fillet welds

9.3.5.1 Strength of weld and leg length

The de ign eng h of eld de end on he i e of eld, ch a leg leng h s,
hich i he i e of f ion face on n e a ed face of a en me al a ho n in
Fig e 9.7. Al o he eng h pw of eld i ba ed on he ma e ial ed in he elding
elec ode and eng h of a en me al. F he , he h oa hickne a, hich i he
e endic la di ance f om inclined face of eld o oo of eld ill a ed in Fig e
9.7, i de e mined f om he leg leng h s.

weld surface

a s a s a s
s s s
fusion faces root of weld

Fig e 9.7 E al leg leng h of ical fille eld

Fo mo e com le connec ion , he h oa i e can be de e mined f om

enginee ing a e men and belo a e ome of he e am le fo loca ing he h oa i e.
In Fig e 9.8(a), he h oa hickne a i aken a he ho e di ance f om he oo of
eld o he f ion face and s1 and s2 deno e he leg leng h on bo h ide a allel o
he a en me al . The h oa hickne a fo b eld can be aken a e endic la
di ance f om oo of eld a indica ed in Fig e 9.8(b). In he ca e of dee fille eld,
h oa hickne a i al o aken ho e di ance f om oo of eld a ho n in Fig e
9.8(c). Fo de ign calc la ion and d a ing e a a ion, leg leng h i h e al magni de
on o ide i no mall ecified.

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 S2
a S2 a a
a
S1 S1 S1 S1
S1 S1
Obtuse Acute

Partial penetration weld Full penetration weld

a S2 S2 b) Butt welds
a
S1 S1
Convex Concave S2 S2
a
a

a S1
a S2 S1 S1
S1 S1
Equal leg Unequal leg

a) Fillet welds c) Deep fillet welds

Fig e 9.8 Defini ion of i e of fille eld and b eld

The eng h pw of fille eld de end no onl on he eng h of a en me al,

b al o he ma e ial ed in he elding elec ode. The eng h of diffe en eld g ade
can be fo nd in Table 9.2 of he HK Code.

When o diffe en g ade of a en ma e ial a e joined b fille eld , he

lo e g ade ho ld be con ide ed in de ign. The de ign eng h pw of fille eld fo
anda d eel g ade and common elec ode e a e ab la ed in he Table 9.3 belo .

S eel g ade Elec ode cla ifica ion

35 (N/mm2) 42 (N/mm2) 50 (N/mm2)
S275 220 220 220
S355 220 250 250
S460 220 250 280
Table 9.3 De ign eng h of fille eld pw o BS EN anda d

When he effec i e leng h be of eld i le han 40mm, he eld leng h i o

mall ha i canno be a med o ake an load. Al o, he ec ion o e ie of elded
connec ion ho ld be ba ed on he effec i e ec ion ob ained f om he effec i e leng h
ec ion.

In addi ion o he de ign calc la ion, fille eld i e i ed o be e ned a o nd

co ne fo a lea ice of he leg leng h and he la leng h in a la join ho ld no be
le han 4 ime he hickne of he hinne la e .

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9.3.5.2 Directional method for capacity of fillet weld
In gene al, he fail e face of eld i a o ima el a he h oa ec ion
nde longi dinal and an e e fo ce a ho n in Fig e 9.9(a). The eng h of fille
eld of leng h L and h oa hickne a i ill a ed in Fig e 9.9(b).

s2
FTy FT
Failure surface s1
FTx
L
wLa

wLa
a FL
Throat section
a) Failure surface at throat section b) Resultant stresses on throat section

Fig e 9.9 Re l an e e ac ing on he fille eld of h oa ec ion

The fo ce on a a ic la eld d e o momen and hea in a connec ion can be

e ol ed in o he di ec ion a allel and e endic la o he eld and hen checked
again he de ign ca aci ie of he eld in he e o di ec ion a follo . The
longi dinal de ign ca aci e ni leng h of eld PL i gi en b he follo ing
e e ion.
PL pwa (9.1)

in hich pw i he de ign eng h of eld ob ained f om Table 9.2 in he HK Code and

a i he h oa i e of he eld.

The ca aci e ni leng h of he eld in he an e e di ec ion PT i gi en b ,

PT KPL (9.2)

in hich PL i de ign ca aci e ni leng h of eld and K i a coefficien gi en b ,

1.5
K 1.25 (9.3)
1 cos 2

in hich is the angle between the resultant and the line bisecting the area of the weld
a ho n in Fig e 9.10(c).

The e e nal fo ce ac ing on he eld can be e ol ed in o he com onen in he

longi dinal and an e e di ec ion of he eld a ho n in Fig e 9.10(a) and (b)

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and de e mined a FL and FT he e FT FTx2 FTy2 a ho n in Fig e 9.9(b).
The c al ade ac of he eld can be checked b he condi ion a ,
PL FL (9.4)
PT FT (9.5)
2 2
FL FT
1 (9.6)
PL PT

2FT

FL
FT FT

FL FT
FT

a) Welds subject to longitudinal shear b) Welds subject to transverse shear

FT
a
Throat of
the weld

c) Resultant transverse force on weld

Fig e 9.10 Di ec ional a oach fo ca aci of fille eld

9.3.5.3 The simplified method

Thi i a im le b le economical a oach of finding he e l an e ac ing on
eld and checking of hi e l an e again he de ign eng h of eld a ,
PL FR (9.7)

in hich FR i he ec o e l an e e al o Fx2 Fy2 Fz2 on he eld.

9.3.6 Stress analysis in a welded connection

Before the application of stress check on weld, the stress induced by external
loads must first be determined. The stress analysis can be carried out from the first
principle and two common connections are adopted for demonstration of the stress
analysis of weld group under torsion and shear and under bending and shear.

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9.3.6.1 Weld group under torsion and shear
The weld group shown in Figure 9.11(a) is under torsion and vertical shear.
Assuming a unit leg length for the weld, the direct shear can be written as,
P P
FS (9.8)
length of weld 2 x 2 y

Figure 9.11(a) Torsion and vertical shear

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 e b

D d x x

Figure 9.11(b) Bending and vertical shear

Figure 9.11 Connection group subjected to torsion, vertical shear and bending

Shear due to torsion is given by,

Per
FT (9.9)
IP

in which
1 2
r x y2 (9.10)
2
y3 xy 2 x3 x2 y
IP Ix Iy (9.11)
6 2 6 2

The resulting shear stress on weld of unit leg length is then given by the resultant
of the shear due to vertical force and torsion as FR FS2 FT2 2 FS FT cos in which
is the angle between the two vectors for vertical shear and torsional shear. The
FR
required leg length is then equal to s in which s is the leg length and pw is the
0 .7 p w
design strength of weld. The factor 0.7 is used for common ratio of leg length to the
throat length and it should be varied for special weld geometry.

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9.3.6.2 Weld group under bending and shear
Fo he o he common connec ion ho n in Fig e 9.11(b) i h eld nde
hea and en ion d e o bending momen , he hea fo ce on ni leg leng h of eld
can be ob ained a follo .
P
Shea on eld d e o e ical load i FS (9.12)
L
M D Pe D
Ten ion on eld d e o bending i FT (9.13)
Ix 2 Ix 2

The e l an e on eld i h ni leg leng h = FR FS2 FT2 (9.14)

in hich FS i he ind ced hea e , FT i he ind ced en ion e , M i he momen

a connec ion, L i he o al eld leng h, D i he di ance be een he o eld e al
o he de h of he I-beam and Ix i he econd momen of a ea abo he ho i on al x-
a i.

The leg leng h of eld can be ob ained imila l a fo o ion and hea ca e a
FR
s .
0.7 pw

9.3.5.5 Welded connections to unstiffened flanges

O ing o he fle ibili of connec ing la e , he eld leng h ho ld be ed ced
in n iffened la e elemen . When he eld connec ed o he n iffened la e
elemen of an I-, H- o a bo ec ion, a ed ced effec i e leng h be ho ld be ed hen
he effec of eld i al o acco n ed fo . Fo a olled I- o H- ec ion, he effec i e leng h
be of eld ho ld be a follo .
be t c 2rc 5Tc (9.15)
Tc2 p yc
b be tc 2rc 5 (9.16)
tp p yp

in hich tc and Tc a e he hickne of eb and flange of olled I- o H- ec ion membe ,

e ec i el , a ho n in Fig e 9.12(a), rc i oo adi of olled I- o H- ec ion
membe , tp i he hickne of connec ed la e a ho n in Fig e 9.12(b), pyc and pyp
a e e ec i el de ign eng h of olled I- o H-col mn o c al membe and
connec ed la e.

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 rolled I- or H-section connected plate box section connected plate
Tc
Tc

tc 0.5be
tc
be

rc 0.5be

a) plan veiw of welded connection of c) plan veiw of welded connection of

rolled I- or H-section box-section

tp tp

b) elevation veiw of welded connection of d) elevation veiw of welded connection of

rolled I- or H-section box-section

Fig e 9.12 Effec i e leng h of eld connec ed o n iffened la e elemen

Fo a bo ec ion in Fig e 9.12(c) and 9.12(d), he effec i e leng h be of eld

i aken a ,

be 2t c 5Tc (9.17)
Tc2 p yc
B be 2t c 5 (9.18)
tp p yp

he e tc and Tc a e he hickne of eb and flange of a bo ec ion e ec i el , a

ho n in Fig e 9.12(c) and tp i he hickne of connec ed la e a ho n in Fig e
9.12(d).

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9.4 Worked Examples

9.4.1 Simple welded connection

The connec ion i fo med b joining o la e oge he b b eld a ho n.

The a en me al i in g ade S460. The a e ed o an fe en ion onl , hich a e
200kN and 1520kN fo ca e (a) and ca e (b), e ec i el . The i e of b eld a e
al o gi en in he fig e. The elec ode of eld i bo h E50. Leng h of connec ion fo
bo h ca e in longi dinal di ec ion i 300mm.
Ft

40

30
a=

Ft 16 Ft 0.5F t 0.5F t
25 20 35

100
a) Partial penetration weld b) Full penetration weld

Sol ion
a) Pa ial ene a ion eld
TENSION CAPACITY
De ign eng h of a en me al, p y 440 N mm 2 fo 16mm T 40mm (Table 3.2)
Th oa i e, a 16mm (Clause 9.2.5.2.2)
16
Eccen ici , e 10 4.67mm
3
Ft Ft e 200 103 200 103 4.67
S e , 114.6 N mm 2 py
A Z 300 16 300 162 6
(OK)

50.21 16
25 39.79

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b) Full penetration weld
TENSION CAPACITY
De ign eng h of a en me al, p y 440 N mm 2 fo 16mm T 40mm (Table 3.2)
2
Effec i e a ea of e ical la e elemen , Ae 300 40 12000mm
Ten ion ca aci of e ical la e elemen , Pt p y Ae 440 12000 5280kN Ft (8.66)
(OK)

30
a=
3 31

35

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9.4.2 Bracket connection in typical portal frame

The c ane beam in he im le o al f ame i o ed b b acke connec ion elded

o he eel col mn. T o g e la e a e elded o he flange of he eel col mn o
fo m he b acke connec ion a ho n in he fig e. The 20mm hick g e la e i
made of g ade S275 eel ma e ial. The elded connec ion i ed a hi igid momen
connec ion. The elec ode of eld i E35 fo he elded connec ion. De ign he i e of
fille eld in he b acke connec ion o enable o ake fac o ed hea fo ce of 500kN
f om c ane beam.

y e
264.5 P
220 100 100

250
254 254 167 UB
x 450
x

end
return
420 x
254 254 167 UB

y
Solution
The b acke connec ion i o ed o ake oin load P and he eccen ic momen Pe. The h ee ide
fille eld a e ed o i h and he in- lane hea d e o bo h oin load and eccen ic momen . The
c al ade ac of he mo o e ide eld ho ld be checked.

DESIGN LOAD
Ve ical hea , P 500kN
Fo ni leg leng h,
A ea of eld, Lw 450 220 2 890mm
450 220 220 110 2
Di ance o cen oid, x 165.6mm
890
r 165.6 2 2252
279.4mm
Eccen ici of load, e 165.6 100 265.6mm

Second momen of ine ia abo - a i,

3
450
Ix 220 2252 2 2.987 107 mm 3
12
Second momen of ine ia abo - a i,
3
220 2 2
Iy 220 165.6 110 2 450 220 165.6 4.467 10 6 mm 3
12
Pola momen of ine ia abo - a i,
7
Iz I x I y 2.987 10 4.467 106 3.434 107 mm 3

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 P 500 103
Di ec hea , Fs 561.8 N mm
Lw 890
500 103 265.6 279.4
Shea d e o o ion, FM 1080.5 N mm
3.434 107

CAPACITY OF WELD
1 225
tan 53.6
165.6
Re l an load, FR FS2 FM2 2 FS FM cos
2
561.8 1080.5 2 2 561.8 1080.5 cos 53.6 1484.4 N mm

r FM 225
FS

165.6

De ign 220 N mm 2
eng h of eld, pw (Table 9.2a)
1484.4
Minim m Leg leng h e i ed, s 9.6mm (Clause 9.2.5.1.6(a))
0.7 220
use 10mm weld

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9.5 Bolted connection

Bolt or fastener is one of the most common methods of connecting two or more
members. The advantages of using bolts in place of weld include the easy fabrication
on site, avoidance of residual stress for weld, less on-site quality control problem and
easy dismantling and re-fabrication of connections. However, bolting on site requires
careful planning and positioning and therefore they are less flexible, which is
particularly true for construction in Hong Kong where a project is normally executed
within a short period of time.

Bolts transfer loads mainly by the actions shown in Figure 9.13 and accordingly
the strength of bolts is required to be checked against these actions.
Tension in thread of bolt
Shear in bolt shrank or thread
Bearing of plates containing bolt hole on bolt shrank
Friction between bolt and clamped plates

Shear connection Tension connection

Fig e 9.13 Bol ed connec ion nde hea and en ion

It is uncommon to allow bolt to be bent about its own principal axis because of
its small second moment of area about its own principal axis.

Steel bolts are required to be adequate not only on their strength, but also on the
hardness because insufficiently hard bolts may deform under stress, especially at their
thread area leading to slipping of thread and separation of bolts and nuts. Hardness can
also be a measure of bolt quality and uniformity. The thread tolerance in bolts is
important in making sure no slipping between the thread of bolts and nuts. Mixed use
of bolts and nuts from two manufacturing sources should be avoided as their tolerances
may not be compatible. The Vickers hardness and Brinell and Rockwell tests are
commonly used in bolt standards for measurement of hardness.

The e a e o majo e of bol a o dina bol and high eng h f ic ion

g i (HSFG) bol . The o dina bol i commonl ed beca e of ea fab ica ion and
im le mechani m in aking load . I ha he ad an age of g ea e d c ili . On he o he
hand, eloaded high eng h f ic ion g i (HSFG) bol no mall ha a g ea e eng h
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of he e en ion fo ce ac ion and i i no mall made of high eel g ade. HSFG bol
ei hea b f ic ion be een bol and bea ing la e and en ion b he e-loading
fo ce.

In he HK Code, bol g ade of 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9 a e ecommended. The fi

n mbe fo he bol g ade efe o he minim m l ima e eng h in h nd ed N/mm 2
and he econd n mbe , af e di iding b 10, e e en he a io of ield o l ima e
e . Fo e am le, g ade 8.8 bol ha an l ima e eng h of 800N/mm2 and he de ign
ield eng h a 0.8 800 = 640N/mm2. Ho e e , he de ign eng h need o be no
g ea e han 0.7 Ub o 560 N/mm2 he e. The Code doe no ecommended he e of
g ade 12.9 bol , hich a e occa ionall ed, beca e of hei nominall lo e l ima e
ain and lack of d c ili .

The i e of bol in h ead a ea and bol o ening canno be di ec l calc la ed

f om hei nominal diame e and Table 9.4 ho he i e of common bol g ade of
M12 o M36 bol . M indica e he dimen ion i in me ic ni .

Bol Si e Nominal Sh ank a ea Ten ile e o

diame e h ead a ea
(mm) (mm2) (mm2)
M12 12 113 84.3
M16 16 201 157
M20 20 314 245
M22 22 380 303
M24 24 452 358
M27 27 572 459
M30 30 706 561
M33 33 855 694
M36 36 1017 817
Table 9.4 Si e of bol of common bol g ade

The en ile eng h of he bol can hen be e al o he od c of he en ile

e a ea and he de ign eng h. Fo e am le, M22 g ade 4.6 bol ha he ca aci
e al o 400 0.6 303 = 72.7kN.

The i e of bol o ening i ligh l g ea e han bol i e in o de o allo bol

in alla ion. A an a o ima ion, fo anda d hole, bol diame e g ea e han 24mm
ho ld ha e a bol hole i h diame e g ea e han he bol nominal diame e b 3mm
and ho e bol i h nominal diame e le han o e al o 24mm ho ld ha e bol
o ening 2mm g ea e han he bol i e.

Tigh ening of bol e i e fficien o e b no oo high o ca e f ac e

in he bol o i com onen . Fo bol i h face no mal o bol a e and leng h no
g ea e han 4 ime he diame e , he o e n ho ld be 1/3 abo he bol a i . Fo
bol leng h be een 4 and 8 diame e , he angle of n ho ld be 1/2 n and fo
longe bol leng h, he angle of n ho ld be 2/3 n.

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9.5.1 Bolt grades

The mo commonl ed g ade of bol a e g ade 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9 bol . O he
g ade of bol a e 4.8, 5.6, 5.8, 6.8, and 12.9. Bol eng h o ide he ange of 400
and 1000 ho ld no be ed nle e confi m he a licabili . Bo h o dina
clea ance bol and high eng h f ic ion g i (HSFG) bol a e al o idel ed.

G ade 4.6 bol made of lo ca bon high eng h eel a e ed no mall fo

medi m and ligh d connec ion ch a lin o hee ing. Holding do n bol
al o commonl e g ade 4.6 bol beca e of efe ed d c ili no onl on bol , b
al o on ba e la e of hich he de ign eng h i no allo ed o be g ea e han
275N/mm2.

G ade 8.8 bol o highe g ade bol made of high eng h allo ho ld be ed
fo hea d connec ion . HSFG bol ho ld be ed in he load e e al condi ion
and in ca e hen he con olled deflec ion i e m ch el ing on he connec ion
iffne , like fi ed end in a can ile e beam o momen join in ea e of o al .

9.5.2 Spacing and detailing requirements

Bolts are commonly arranged as a group and positioned in a series of rows. In

order to utilize the bolt strength, the spacing and edge distance must be controlled
within a certain dimension. Below are some of the common criteria.

9.5.2.1 Maximum spacing

To en e he load i ea onabl ha ed be een he bol in a g o , he acing
canno be oo la ge. Fo connec ion nde com e ion, he acing ho ld no e ceed
12t and 150mm he e t i he hickne of he hinne la e in he connec ion.

9.5.2.2 Minimum spacing

If acing i in fficien , he ma e ial be een bol ma be o e - e ed. The
HK Code ha a e i emen fo con ol of minim m acing. The minim m acing
a allel o he load di ec ion i 2.5 ime he hole diame e and 3.0 ime he hole
diame e in he di ec ion e endic la o he load di ec ion.

9.5.2.3 Minimum edge distance

The end di ance e fo a bol mea ed a he di ance be een he cen e of he
o ening o he edge of he connec ing la e ho ld be efe ed o Table 9.3 of he Code.

9.5.3 Behaviour of bolted connections

A ecia ion of local beha io of bol ed connec ion in beam- o-col mn o

beam- o-beam connec ion i im o an in de ailing. The nde anding of load a h,
hich ho ld de end on he a angemen of he com onen a connec ion, fo an fe
of fo ce and momen be een membe i im o an in connec ion de ign and de ailing.
When he defo ma ion and e di ib ion in he c al com onen a e kno n,
he eng h of c al com onen a he connec ion ho ld be de igned and checked.
Thi ec ion de c ibe he ical beha io and fail e mechani m fo beam- o-col mn
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and beam- o-beam connec ion .

9.5.3.1 Beam-to-column connection

An e am le of he load a h fo an e ended end la e connec ion ho ing he
beha io of a bol g o i indica ed in Fig e 9.14. The connec ion i ed o an mi
he e ical hea and momen f om beam o col mn. The oin of o a ion i a med
a he ba e of bo om flange of beam membe a ho n in Fig e 9.14. The
co e onding defo ma ion a he connec ion a e ca ed b he loading of momen
and hea an fe ed f om beam membe and finall o ind ce diffe en c al
effec , hich a e ab la ed in Table 9.5.

8 9
1
15 12 7
Ft 10

4
3
16 Fv
6
17 Fv
2 M
Fc 13
5

18 19
11
14

Extended End plate connection

Fig e 9.14 Beha io of diffe en com onen a beam- o-col mn connec ion

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Com onen a connec ion No a ion S c al effec
B l ① Yielding d e o en ion
② Yielding d e o e ical bea ing
③ Shea fail e
Weld ④ Tea off fail e
⑤ Com e ion fail e
⑥ Shea o fail e
End la e ⑦ P ing fo ce d e o bending
⑧ Yielding d e o e ical bea ing
⑨ Shea o fail e
Flange f beam ⑩ Yielding d e o en ion on o flange
⑪ Local b ckling on bo om flange
Flange f c l mn ⑫ P ing fo ce d e o bending
⑬ Yielding d e o hea and com e ion
⑭ Local b ckling d e o e ical load
Web f c l mn ⑮ Web f ac e d e o en ion
⑯ Yielding d e o hea
Shea eb b ckling
Web c hing d e o com e ion
Web b ckling
Table 9.5 S c al fail e a beam col mn connec ion

In Table 9.5, he e a e 19 inci al fail e mode a he connec ion o be checked

fo he com onen of bol , eld, end la e, beam membe and col mn. In hi cha e ,
he beha io of com onen of bol , eld o end la e i died fo de ign. O he
c al com onen , ch a col mn and beam, ela ed o he beha io a connec ion
ho ld be efe ed o e io ele an cha e . The in e ac ion effec on bol and
eld a e neglec ed in Table 9.5 b hei in e ac i e e o ha e a load i no
ecommended beca e of hei diffe en d c ili e fo mance. In gene al, he inci al
beha io of he e com onen a connec ion i imila . In addi ion, ome local effec
a e al o igno ed in Table 9.5 and he e local effec make connec ion beha io mo e
com le and a iable. The incl de he geome ic im e fec ion a i ing f om elding
di o ion and mi alignmen of clea ance and e id al e and ain d e o lack of
fi and elding h inkage. Ac all , he e local effec a e con ide ed in he ma e ial
eng h of eld o bol . The efo e, he c al de ign can be ca ied o acco ding
o he beha io of connec ion o fail e mode a connec ion a li ed in Table 9.5,
hich i ade a e fo c al de ign.

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