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Cooling Performance Characteristics of 20 Ah Lithium-Ion Pouch Cell with

Cold Plates along Both Surfaces

Article  in  Energies · September 2018

DOI: 10.3390/en11102550

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 energies
Article
Cooling Performance Characteristics of 20 Ah
Lithium-Ion Pouch Cell with Cold Plates along
Both Surfaces
Mahesh Suresh Patil 1 , Satyam Panchal 2 , Namwon Kim 3 and Moo-Yeon Lee 1, *
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dong-A University, 37 Nakdong-Daero 550, Saha-gu,
Busan 604-714, Korea; msp692@gmail.com
2 Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering Department, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West,
Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; satyam.panchal@uwaterloo.ca
3 Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA; namwonkim@txstate.edu
* Correspondence: mylee@dau.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-51-200-7642




Received: 5 September 2018; Accepted: 23 September 2018; Published: 25 September 2018


Abstract: Temperature control of the lithium-ion pouch cells is crucial for smooth operation, longevity
and enhanced safety in the battery-operated electric vehicles. Investigating the thermal behavior
of lithium-ion pouch cells and optimizing the cooling performance are required to accomplish
better performance, long life, and enhanced safety. In the present study, the cooling performance
characteristics of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces are investigated
by varying the inlet coolant mass flow rates and the inlet coolant temperatures. The inlet coolant
mass flow rate is varied from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s, and the inlet coolant temperature is
varied from 5 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C. In addition, the effects of the cold plate geometry parameter on cooling
performance of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell are studied by varying the number of the channels
from 4 to 10. The maximum temperature and difference between the maximum and the minimum
temperatures are considered as important criteria for cooling performance evaluation of the 20 Ah
lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces. The cooling energy efficiency parameter
(β) and the pressure drop for 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces
are also reported. The study shows that enhanced cooling energy efficiency is accompanied with
low inlet coolant temperature, low inlet coolant mass flow rate, and a high number of the cooling
channels. As a result, the temperature distribution, the pressure drop, and the cooling energy
efficiency parameter (β) of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces are
provided, and could be applied for optimizing the cooling performances of the thermal management
system for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles.

Keywords: cold plate; cooling; electric vehicle; lithium-ion; performance

1. Introduction
The exponential increase in energy demand, concerns over environmental degradation due to the
effects of greenhouse gases, and the depletion of fossil fuels have resulted in stricter emission laws,
making alternative, renewable energy sources a sustainable and promising option. Fossil fuel-based
transport and associated sectors accounted for about 30–35% in many developed countries [1]. Recently,
batteries used in electric vehicles (EVs) have gathered reasonable importance as a possible means
to reduce fossil fuel dependence. In EVs, the battery serves as a power source for driving the
vehicle, and can be recharged before use, as compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) operated
automotives, where power is derived from the combustion of fossil fuel.

Energies 2018, 11, 2550; doi:10.3390/en11102550 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 2550 2 of 19

A stack of battery packs is the primary power source in many modern EVs. A single battery pack
is composed of many modules; each module is composed of many battery cells, making the single
cell the fundamental unit of the power source for EVs. As a result, the overall performance, range,
and operation of EVs are affected by the performance of the battery pack, module, and individual single
cell. Lithium-ion batteries have high specific power and specific energy densities, lower discharge rates
when not in use leading to better shelf life, relatively longer charge-discharge life cycles, and faster
charging capabilities, which makes them favorable as the power source to drive EVs [2–4]. Zubi et al.
conducted a comprehensive review about the current state of lithium-ion batteries, and determined
that lithium-ion batteries have the capability of developing as an essential segment of future energy
needs, including in the automotive sector [5]. However, the degradation of lithium-ion batteries’
capabilities in terms of capacity fade, power fade, and self-discharge at extreme temperatures indicates
temperature influence; a temperature range of 25 ◦ C to 40 ◦ C could be considered as favorable
for optimal operation [6]. For lower temperatures, the reduction in power is attributed to higher
internal resistance, and for higher temperatures, the reduction in lifespan is attributed to thermal
deterioration. In the absence of an efficient cooling system, the battery temperature escalates due to
heat accumulation, and could lead to thermal runaway damaging whole battery power source [7,8].
In thermal runaway, a large number of chain chemical reactions occur continuously, leading to
a short circuit, with the possibility of fire. Safety in the battery-operated vehicles is one of the main
impediments for comprehensive usage of batteries in the vehicles, making the thermal management of
batteries a very important aspect for the advancement of EVs [9].
The cooling strategy employed in the battery thermal management system needs to maintain
maximum temperature, average temperature, and temperature evenness in the battery pack, as well as
in each cell in the specified working temperature range, for better performance [6]. A variety of cooling
strategies are being investigated for lithium-ion batteries, with different coolants such as air, mineral oil,
heat pipes, water, and phase change material (PCM). Among the various cooling methods and coolants,
water-based cooling systems have generated much attention, as water has excellent thermal properties
as a coolant [10]. Air-based cooling strategies have the advantage of a simplified arrangement and little
maintenance, but suffer from limitations in maximum heat removal capacity. In addition, the noise
issue due to the high fan speed makes this solution undesirable [11]. Integrating PCM into the cooling
system has shown the advantage of even temperature distribution; however, the low cooling efficiency
issue needs to be resolved [12]. PCM-based cooling could be a promising option provided that the
thermal conductivity of PCM is improved [13]. Mineral oil, due to its dielectric behavior, could be used
for direct cooling with better efficiency, but feasibility for practical usage needs to be tested [14,15].
Comparing a variety of cooling strategies, water-based cooling systems provide excellent cooling,
and have the advantage of less volume requirement due to compactness. Panchal et al. [16] conducted
an experimental and numerical study on the thermal behavior of prismatic lithium-ion battery cells
by employing a mini-channel cold plate, and suggested that CFD simulations could be used in the
design and optimization of battery cooling systems. In a supplement to the above discussion, major
automotive manufacturing companies such Tesla, Hyundai, General Motors etc. are using water-based
cooling methods for temperature control of the lithium-ion pouch cells in EVs.
One of the methods to enhance the travel range of EVs is to design lithium-ion batteries with
higher energy densities which can provide more power per unit weight [17]. Throughout the last
decade, the enhancement in the energy density of lithium-ion batteries has resulted in a corresponding
increase in EV travel range. However, high energy density lithium-ion batteries have the disadvantage
of high heat generation. Therefore, effective and compact cooling is necessary for safe operation and
longevity [18,19]. The optimization of existing cooling methods is one of the effective ways to enhance
the cooling capability.
In the present study, the cooling performance characteristics of lithium-ion pouch cells with cold
plates on both surfaces are numerically investigated. The input parameters are varied by changing
the inlet coolant mass flow rate and temperature for 1C and 2C discharge rates. The validation of
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

validation of numerical analysis is conducted by comparing with experimental results provided by

Panchal et al. [20]. Maximum temperature, temperature difference, pressure drop, and cooling
energyEnergies 2018, 11, parameters
efficiency 2550 are studied as performance evaluating parameters. In addition, 3 of 19the

effects of a different number of channels on the cooling performance of a 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch

cell are studied.analysis is conducted by comparing with experimental results provided by Panchal et al. [20].
numerical
Maximum temperature, temperature difference, pressure drop, and cooling energy efficiency
2. Numerical Analysis
parameters are studied as performance evaluating parameters. In addition, the effects of a different
number of channels on the cooling performance of a 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell are studied.
The numerical analysis was composed of geometrical modeling, mesh generation, mesh
independency test,Analysis
2. Numerical initial and boundary conditions, and solving governing equations. The mesh
independency test demonstrated that the numerical analysis outcome is insensitive to the number of
The numerical analysis was composed of geometrical modeling, mesh generation, mesh
elements in the mesh. Considering the computational cost as well as the mesh sensitivity, the
independency test, initial and boundary conditions, and solving governing equations. The mesh
particular mesh for test
independency conducting
demonstrateda numerical study is chosen.
that the numerical analysisThe initialis and
outcome boundary
insensitive to theconditions
number of are
employed
elements in the mesh. Considering the computational cost as well as the mesh sensitivity, the particularthe
by considering the experimental analysis, and validation is conducted by comparing
numerical
mesh and experimental
for conducting results study
a numerical [20]. The numerical
is chosen. study
The initial andprovides
boundaryinsight intoare
conditions enhancing
employedthe
cooling performance
by considering the and the design
experimental improvement
analysis, atisminimal
and validation conductedcost, and is the
by comparing useful for the
numerical
and experimental
advancement of thermal results [20]. Theof
management numerical
lithium-ionstudy provides
batteries in insight
the EVs. into enhancing the cooling
performance and the design improvement at minimal cost, and is useful for the advancement of
thermalModel
2.1. Physical management of lithium-ion batteries in the EVs.

The visual specifics

2.1. Physical Model of the geometrical model, the schematic, and the meshing of 20 Ah
lithium-ionThepouch cell with cold
visual specifics of the plates along
geometrical both
model, the surfaces
schematic, andistheshown
meshinginof the
20 AhFigure 1. The
lithium-ion
computer-aided
pouch cell withdesign
cold(CAD) model
plates along of surfaces
both 20 Ah lithium-ion
is shown in thepouch
Figure cell withcomputer-aided
1. The cold plates along both
design
surfaces wasmodel
(CAD) developed based
of 20 Ah on the dimensions
lithium-ion of the
pouch cell with coldexperimental study,
plates along both as shown
surfaces in the Figure
was developed
1a. The overall
based sizedimensions
on the of the numerical domain in the
of the experimental present
study, study
as shown in is 205
the mm 1a.
Figure × 157
Themm × 10.4
overall mm.
size of It
theof
consists numerical
a 20 Ah domain in thepouch
lithium-ion present study
cell andiscold mm × attached
205 plates 157 mm ×to10.4 mm. Itsurface
a lateral consistsofofthe
a 20 Ah
battery.
lithium-ion
The geometry pouch cell and
specifications arecold plates attached
presented in the to a lateral
Table surface
1. The size of
ofthe
thebattery. The geometry
cold plate used in the
specifications are presented in the Table 1. The size of the cold plate
analysis is 205 mm × 157 mm × 1.7 mm. The 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell properties are shown used in the analysis is in
205 mm × 157 mm × 1.7 mm. The 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell properties are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The schematic of the model is provided in Figure 1b, with details of the inlet and outlet for
The schematic of the model is provided in Figure 1b, with details of the inlet and outlet for the coolant.
the coolant. Large 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cells are used in the electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid
Large 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cells are used in the electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric vehicles
electric vehicles (HEV) as a power source, and therefore, were considered in the present study. To
(HEV) as a power source, and therefore, were considered in the present study. To assess the influence of
assessgeometry
the influence of geometry
modification modification
on the cooling on theofcooling
performance the 20 Ahperformance of thecell,
lithium-ion pouch 20 four
Ah lithium-ion
different
pouchtypes
cell, of
four different types of cold plates are considered. Figure 2 shows the
cold plates are considered. Figure 2 shows the cold plates with the number of coolingcold plates with the
channels
number of cooling
varying from 4channels
to 10. varying from 4 to 10.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Cont.
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 4 of 19
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

(c) (d)
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Numerical
Numerical model
model for
for the
the 20
20 Ah
Ah lithium-ion
lithium-ion pouch
pouch cell
cell with
with cold
cold plates
plates along
along both
both surfaces
surfaces
(a) Geometry (b) Schematic (c) Meshing-full domain (b) Meshing-section.
(a) Geometry (b) Schematic (c) Meshing-full domain (b) Meshing-section.

Table 1. Geometry details.

Parameter Value
Overall size (mm3 ) 205 × 157 × 10.4
Battery size (mm3 ) 205 × 157 × 7
Cold plate size (mm3 ) 205 × 157 × 1.7
Number of cooling channels 4, 6, 8, 10

Table 2. 20Ah Li-ion pouch cell specifications [20].

Parameter Value
Cathode material LiFePO4
Anode material Graphite
Electrolyte Carbonate based
Nominal capacity (Ah) 20.0
Nominal Energy (Wh) 65
Energy density (Wh/L) 247
Mass (g) 496
(a) (b)
Specific power (W/kg) 2400
Specific energy (Wh·kg) 131
Volume (L) 0.263
Density (kg/m3 ) 1940
Thermal conductivity (W/m·K) 18.2
Specific heat capacity (J/kg·K) 1000
 (c) (d)
Figure
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 1. Numerical model for the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces 5 of 19
(a) Geometry (b) Schematic (c) Meshing-full domain (b) Meshing-section.

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

FigureFigure 2. Cold
2. Cold plates
plates withthe
with the different
different number
numbercooling channels
cooling for 20 Ah
channels forlithium-ion pouch cell (a)
20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell
10; (b) 8; (c) 6; (d) 4.
(a) 10; (b) 8; (c) 6; (d) 4.
Table 1. Geometry details.
2.2. Numerical Method
Parameter Value
The present study is treated as turbulent3 fluid flow with heat transfer based on the Reynolds
Overall size (mm ) 205 × 157 × 10.4
number, 8.7 × 103 , for circular Battery
pipes size
obtained
(mm3) in the experiment 205 × 157 [20].
×7 ANSYS Meshing (ANSYS
18.0, Ansys Inc., Canonsburg, PA, ColdUSA) is used
plate size (mm3to
) resolve the 205simulation
× 157 × 1.7 domain into finer elements.
The governing equations, including
Number ofNavier-stokes
cooling channels equations4,and 6, 8, turbulence
10 equations, are solved
using the commercial code ANSYS CFX 18.0 solver [21], and reliable results are obtained by setting
Table 2. 20Ah Li-ion pouch cell specifications [20].
appropriate convergence criteria. The details of continuity, momentum conservation, and energy
conservation are given from Equations Parameter (1)–(3). CFD technique Valueprovides comprehensive results
Cathode material
extending over the complete numerical domain, as compared to experimental LiFePO 4 study, where data
Anode material Graphite
is obtained at specific points. As temperature distribution is of interest in the present study, the energy
Electrolyte Carbonate based
equation is also solved.
Nominal capacity (Ah) 20.0
Nominal Energy (Wh)
∇∗V = 0 65
(1)
Energy density (Wh/L) 247
Mass (g) 496
Specific power (W/kg) 2400
Specific energy (Wh·kg) 131
Volume (L) 0.263
Density (kg/m3) 1940
Thermal conductivity (W/m·K) 18.2
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 6 of 19

→
 
∂V
ρ + (V · ∇V ) = −∇ p + (µ∇2 V − λ) (2)
∂t
→
  
∂ρT µ µt
+ ∇ ∗ [ρVT ] = ∇ ∗ + ∇T (3)
∂t Pr Prt
For all cases, the k-ε turbulent model with a turbulent intensity of 5% is considered for turbulence
modeling based on Reynolds number and low-medium level turbulence. The equations for turbulent
kinetic energy and eddy viscosity are given in Equations (4) and (5).

→
  
∂ρk µt
+ ∇ ∗ [ρVk] = ∇ ∗ µ+ ∇k + Gk + Gb − ρε − YM + Sk (4)
∂t σk

→ ε2
  
∂ρε µt ε
+ ∇ ∗ [ρVε] = ∇ ∗ µ+ ∇ε + C1 ( Gk + C3 Gb ) − C2 ρ + Sε (5)
∂t εk k k
In Equations (4) and (5), C1 , C2 , and C3 are provided as the model constants, and σk and σε are
the corresponding turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ε. Sk and Sε represent user-defined source
terms. The eddy viscosity is computed by Equation (6):

k2
µt = Cµ ρ (6)
ε
Water is considered as the coolant in the current numerical analysis, and the coolant flow is
assumed to be incompressible. The thermophysical properties including thermal conductivity, specific
heat, and viscosity of the coolant are considered independent of temperature. The temperature of
the battery, the cold plate, and the coolant changed throughout the numerical domain according to
the location.
Table 3 shows the boundary conditions employed for setting up the numerical simulation. Table 4
shows the heat generation rates for the different discharge rates and different inlet coolant temperatures
with water as coolant, provided by the experimental study [20].

Table 3. Boundary conditions.

Parameter Value
Coolant Water
Inlet coolant temperature (◦ C) 5, 15, 25, 35
Inlet coolant mass flow rate (kg/s) 0.000833, 0.001667, 0.002500, 0.003333
Current discharge rate (C) 1, 2
Turbulence model k-ε
Turbulent intensity (%) 5
Turbulent viscosity ratio 10

Table 4. Experimental results for the maximum heat generation rate at 1C, 2C discharge rates and the
different boundary conditions [20].

Cooling Types Inlet Coolant Temperatures (◦ C) Maximum Heat Generation Rates (W)
Coolant Water 1C 2C
5 24.0 50.4
15 22.5 44.2
Active (U-turn cold plate)
25 19.4 36.9
35 12.5 29.5
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 7 of 19
Table 3. Boundary conditions.

The mesh generation of the lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates
Parameter Value on both surfaces is shown in
the Figure 1c,d. After meshing,
Coolant9,407,382 elements are generated with 1,662,537
Water nodes. The minimum
and the maximum orthogonal
Inlet coolant qualities(°C)
temperature of 0.1731 and 0.998 are reported
5, 15, 25,to
35be within the acceptable
quality. A total of five mesh models are employed
Inlet coolant mass flow rate (kg/s) to investigate the mesh independency
0.000833, 0.001667, 0.002500, 0.003333 test of the
numerical study. Table 5 shows the details
Current discharge rate (C) of the mesh with the number1, 2 of elements. Figure 3 shows
that as the element numbers increased
Turbulence model from 4,612,864 to 10,647,327, andk-ε that the average outlet coolant
temperature and Turbulent
the average pressure
intensity (%)drop are converged within 0.025%5 and 0.033% after the element
numbers of 9,407,382. As viscosity
Turbulent a result, ratio
mesh with the element number 10 of 9,407,382 is selected for the
numerical analysis, considering accuracy as well as computational cost.
Table 4. Experimental results for the maximum heat generation rate at 1C, 2C discharge rates and the
Table 5. Mesh details.
different boundary conditions [20].

Cooling Types Mesh

Inlet Coolant Type Number
Temperatures (°C) of Elements
Maximum Heat Generation Rates (W)
Coolant Type
Water 1 4,612,864 1C 2C
5
Type 2 6,134,164 24.0 50.4
Active 15 3
Type 7,716,948 22.5 44.2
(U-turn cold plate) 25 4
Type 9,407,382 19.4 36.9
35
Type 5 10,647,326
12.5 29.5

Figure 3. Mesh independency test.

Figure 3. Mesh independency test.
2.3. Data Reduction
Table 5. Mesh details.
The effectiveness of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces is
evaluated in terms of the keyMesh Type
parameter of β. Number of Elements
The parameter β is defined as the cooling energy
Type 1 4,612,864
efficiency, and is employed to evaluate the cooling effectiveness. The parameter β could be determined
using the following equations:Type 2 6,134,164
Type 3 7,716,948
Heat takenType
away4 by liquid coolant from lithium − ion pouch cell
9,407,382
β= (7)
Power
Typeconsumption
5 for supplying liquid coolant
10,647,326
To specifically compare the relationship between heat removal rate and pumping power for
various geometry arrangements with different number of cooling channels, in Equation (7), in the
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 8 of 19

denominator, the power needed to cool the used coolant down to inlet temperature is neglected.
From Equation (7) it can be understood that a higher beta value corresponds to effective cooling.
The increase in the mass flow rate affects numerator and denominator simultaneously. The heat
transfer rate from the liquid coolant is calculated by Equation (8), and the power consumption for
supplying liquid coolant through channels is calculated by Equation (9).
.
Q = m × c p × ∆T (8)

P = Pdrop × Qv (9)

The cooling performance is dependent on the available area for heat transfer. In the present study,
the effect of available surface area on cooling performance can be evaluated by a non-dimensional
parameter α. The parameter α is called as surface area coverage ratio, and is defined as the ratio of
surface area of cooling channels and the lateral surface area of cell. Here, the total surface area of all
the circular channels and only the side surface of the battery are considered, i.e., where predominantly
generated heat is removed by the coolant. Table 6 shows the details of surface area coverage ratio in
the present study.
Surface area of cooling channels
α= (10)
Lateral surface area of battery

Table 6. Surface area coverage ratio.

Number of Side Surface Area of Surface Area of all the Channels for Surface Area
Channels Single Cell (mm2 ) One Side of the Battery (mm2 ) Coverage Ratio
4 31,465 9387.9 0.298
6 31,465 14,188.6 0.450
8 31,465 18,873.5 0.599
10 31,465 23,606.8 0.750

3. Results and Discussion

Literature exists for the water jacket cooling [22] and mini channel cold plate cooling [23], but
detailed analysis of U-turn cold plates with varying the inlet coolant mass flow rates, the inlet coolant
temperatures and the number of cooling channels on both side surfaces of the lithium-ion pouch cell
are not reported. Therefore, the cooling performance characteristics of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell
with cold plates along both surfaces are numerically investigated with variations of the inlet coolant
mass flow rate and the inlet coolant temperature for 1C and 2C discharge rates. The temperature
distribution, the pressure drop, and the cooling energy efficiency parameter (β) are considered as
the performance parameters. In addition, variations in the cold plate geometry are considered with
different numbers of the cooling channels, and the subsequent effect on the cooling performance
is investigated.

3.1. Validation
To validate the accuracy of the numerical simulation results with the experimental results,
the maximum temperature of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with varying the inlet coolant temperature
is considered. A comparison of the experimental and the numerical simulation is carried out by
employing similar geometries, dimensions, and boundary conditions. Figure 4 shows the comparison
of the numerical results with the experimental results provided by Panchal et al. [20]. The comparison
showed good agreement within ±13% of the existed data; thus, validation is confirmed.
 considered. A comparison of the experimental and the numerical simulation is carried out by
employing similar geometries, dimensions, and boundary conditions. Figure 4 shows the
comparison of the numerical results with the experimental results provided by Panchal et al. [20].
The comparison showed good agreement within ±13% of the existed data; thus, validation is
Energies 2018, 11, 2550
confirmed. 9 of 19

Figure4.4.Validation
Figure Validation[20].
[20].

3.2. Temperature Distribution

3.2. Temperature Distribution
Internal resistance leading to ohmic heating, and electrochemical reactions leading to entropy
Internal resistance leading to ohmic heating, and electrochemical reactions leading to entropy
change, contribute to heat generation during the battery cell operation. The generated heat could
change, contribute to heat generation during the battery cell operation. The generated heat could
increase the battery temperature owing to heat accumulation. The increase in temperature affects the
increase the battery temperature owing to heat accumulation. The increase in temperature affects the
battery capacity as well as its resistance. This is significant for the advancement of EVs, as vehicle
battery capacity as well as its resistance. This is significant for the advancement of EVs, as vehicle
driving range is dependent on battery cell and operating temperature. The maximum temperature
driving range is dependent on battery cell and operating temperature. The maximum temperature
and the temperature non-uniformity in the battery during the operation are two critical criteria for
and the temperature non-uniformity in the battery during the operation are two critical criteria for
quantifying the performance of the battery cooling system. The temperature non-uniformity in the
quantifying the performance of the battery cooling system. The temperature non-uniformity in the
battery is an indicator of uneven temperature distribution, and is defined as the difference between
battery is an indicator of uneven temperature distribution, and is defined as the difference between
the maximum and minimum temperature of the battery. Figure 5 shows the maximum temperature
the maximum and minimum temperature of the battery. Figure 5 shows the maximum temperature
distribution for the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of
distribution for the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of
0.750. Figure 5a,b show the maximum temperature distribution for the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch
0.750. Figure 5a,b show the maximum temperature distribution for the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell
cell for 1C and 2C discharge rates, respectively. For both 1C and 2C discharge rates, the maximum
for 1C and 2C discharge rates, respectively. For both 1C and 2C discharge rates, the maximum
temperature decreased with an increase of the inlet coolant mass flow rate varying from 0.000833 kg/s
temperature decreased with an increase of the inlet coolant mass flow rate varying from 0.000833
to 0.003333 kg/s, with surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750.
kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s, with surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750.
Figure 5a shows that the maximum temperature increased by 392.3% as the inlet coolant
Figure 5a shows that the maximum temperature increased by 392.3% as the inlet coolant
temperature increased from 5 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C at the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.003333 kg/s.
temperature increased from 5 °C to 35 °C at the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.003333 kg/s. As
As shown in the Figure 5a, the maximum temperature decreased by 8.5% as the inlet coolant mass
shown in the Figure 5a, the maximum temperature decreased by 8.5% as the inlet coolant mass flow
flow rate increased from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s at an inlet coolant temperature of 35 ◦ C and
rate increased from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s at an inlet coolant temperature of 35 °C and the
the maximum temperature increased by 80.6% as the inlet coolant mass flow rate increased from
maximum temperature increased by 80.6% as the inlet coolant mass flow rate increased from
0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s at an inlet coolant temperature of 5 ◦ C. Figure 5b shows that the
0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s at an inlet coolant temperature of 5 °C. Figure 5b shows that the
maximum temperature increased by 280.7% as the inlet coolant temperature increased from 5 ◦ C to
maximum temperature increased by 280.7% as the inlet coolant temperature increased from 5 °C to
35 ◦ C at the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.003333 kg/s. As shown in the Figure 5b, the maximum
35 °C at the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.003333 kg/s. As shown in the Figure 5b, the maximum
temperature increased by 19.2% as the inlet coolant mass flow rate increased from 0.000833 kg/s to
temperature increased by 19.2% as the inlet coolant mass flow rate increased from 0.000833 kg/s to
0.003333 kg/s at an inlet coolant temperature of 35 ◦ C. The maximum temperature increased by 125.2%
as the inlet coolant mass flow rate increased from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s at an inlet coolant
temperature of 5 ◦ C. This indicates that, for both 1C and 2C discharge rates, the higher inlet coolant
mass flow rate and the lower inlet coolant temperature provides the lower maximum temperature
in the lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces. As shown in Figure 5a,b, when
the inlet coolant mass flow rates varied from 0.001667 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s, the reduction scale
of the maximum temperature is lower than those of the inlet coolant mass flow rates varying from
0.000833 kg/s to 0.001667 kg/s for the different inlet coolant temperatures. Comparing with Figure 5a
coolant mass flow rate and the lower inlet coolant temperature provides the lower maximum
temperature in the lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces. As shown in Figure
5a,b, when the inlet coolant mass flow rates varied from 0.001667 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s, the reduction
scale of the maximum temperature is lower than those of the inlet coolant mass flow rates varying
from
Energies0.000833 kg/s to 0.001667 kg/s for the different inlet coolant temperatures. Comparing
2018, 11, 2550 10 of 19with
Figure 5a and Figure 5b, the maximum temperatures show similar trends; however, the maximum
temperatures for 2C discharge rate are higher than those for 1C discharge rate. As shown in the
and Figure
Figure 5b, the
5b, the maximum
highest maximumtemperatures show is
temperature similar trends; however,
maintained below 45the°C maximum temperatures
for all cases, except for the
for 2C discharge rate are higher than those for 1C discharge rate. As shown in the Figure 5b, the highest
inlet coolant temperature of 35 °C and the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.000833 kg/s. Except for
maximum temperature is maintained below 45 ◦ C for all cases, except for the inlet coolant temperature
this one case, the maximum temperature is maintained below 40 °C, which, as suggested by many
of 35 ◦ C and the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.000833 kg/s. Except for this one case, the maximum
researchers, yields optimum performance [6]. The variation in the inlet coolant temperatures has a
temperature is maintained below 40 ◦ C, which, as suggested by many researchers, yields optimum
significant effect on the maximum temperatures of the lithium-ion pouch cell as compared with
performance [6]. The variation in the inlet coolant temperatures has a significant effect on the maximum
variations in an inlet coolant mass flow rate. Therefore, it can be concluded that for providing
temperatures of the lithium-ion pouch cell as compared with variations in an inlet coolant mass flow
optimum operating temperature in the ranges from 25 °C to 40 °C for the lithium-ion pouch cell for
rate. Therefore, it can be concluded that for providing optimum operating temperature in the ranges
1C
fromand25 2C discharge
◦ C to 40 ◦ C forrates with cold pouch
the lithium-ion plates cell
alongfor both
1C andsurfaces, inlet coolant
2C discharge temperatures
rates with of 15 °C
cold plates along
and 25 °C are suggested. ◦ ◦
both surfaces, inlet coolant temperatures of 15 C and 25 C are suggested.

(a)

(b)
Figure Maximumtemperature
Figure 5. Maximum temperatureofof2020Ah
Ahlithium-ion
lithium-ion pouch
pouch cellcell
withwith surface
surface areaarea coverage
coverage ratioratio
(α) (α)
parameter of
parameter of 0.750:
0.750:(a)
(a)1C;
1C;(b)
(b)2C.
2C.

Temperature non-uniformity may cause capacity reduction and hikes in resistance, which may
ultimately speed up non-uniform aging of the lithium-ion pouch cell [24]. Figure 6 shows the
difference between the maximum and the minimum temperature of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell
with surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750. Figure 6a,b show the difference between the
maximum and the minimum temperature of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell for 1C and 2C discharge
 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

Temperature non-uniformity may cause capacity reduction and hikes in resistance, which may
ultimately speed up non-uniform aging of the lithium-ion pouch cell [24]. Figure 6 shows the
difference
Energies 2018, 11,between
2550 the maximum and the minimum temperature of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch 11 cell
of 19
with surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750. Figure 6a,b show the difference between the
maximum and the minimum temperature of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell for 1C and 2C discharge
rates, respectively.
rates, respectively.ForForboth
both 1C and 2C
1C and 2Cdischarge
dischargerates,
rates,
thethe difference
difference between
between the maximum
the maximum and theand
theminimum
minimumtemperature
temperature decreased with increase of the inlet coolant mass flow rate varied
decreased with increase of the inlet coolant mass flow rate varied from from
0.000833
0.000833 kg/s
kg/stoto0.003333
0.003333kg/s
kg/s for surface area
for surface areacoverage
coverageratio
ratio(α)
(α)parameter
parameterofof 0.750.
0.750.

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 6. Difference
6. Difference between
between the the maximum
maximum andand minimum
minimum temperature
temperature of 20
of the theAh
20lithium-ion
Ah lithium-ion
pouch
pouch cell with surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750: (a)
cell with surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750: (a) 1C; (b) 2C.1C; (b) 2C.

ForFor
thethe
lowlow
inletinlet coolant
coolant massmass flow the
flow rate, rate, the difference
difference betweenbetween the maximum
the maximum and the and the
minimum
minimum temperature
temperature significantlysignificantly decreased
decreased with with anofincrease
an increase the inletofcoolant
the inlettemperature.
coolant temperature.
However,
However, for the higher inlet coolant mass flow rates, the difference between
for the higher inlet coolant mass flow rates, the difference between the maximum and minimum the maximum and
minimum temperatures is changed slightly with an increase of the inlet coolant temperature.
temperatures is changed slightly with an increase of the inlet coolant temperature. This indicates This
that, for both 1C and 2C discharge rates, the higher inlet coolant mass flow rate and the higher inlet
coolant temperature provides the better temperature uniformity considering the difference between the
maximum and the minimum temperature in 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both
surfaces. As shown in Figure 6a,b, for the inlet coolant mass flow rates varying from 0.001667 kg/s
to 0.003333 kg/s, the reduction scale of the difference between the maximum and the minimum
 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

Energies 2018, 11, 2550 12 of 19

indicates that, for both 1C and 2C discharge rates, the higher inlet coolant mass flow rate and the
higher inlet coolant temperature provides the better temperature uniformity considering the
difference between the maximum and the minimum temperature in 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell
temperature is lower
with cold platesthan
alongthose of the inlet
both surfaces. coolant
As shown mass 6a,b,
in Figure flowfor rates varying
the inlet from
coolant mass0.000833
flow rateskg/s to
0.001667varying
kg/s for the different inlet coolant temperatures. Comparing with
from 0.001667 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s, the reduction scale of the difference between Figure 6a and Figure
the 6b,
the difference
maximum between
and the the maximum
minimum and the isminimum
temperature lower thantemperatures
those of the inletarecoolant
close for
mass1Cflowdischarge
rates rate
varying
for the inlet from 0.000833
coolant temperatures of 5 ◦ C kg/s
kg/s to 0.001667 andfor ◦ C,different
15the when the inletinlet
coolant temperatures.
coolant Comparing
mass flow rate coolant
with0.000833
varied from Figure 6a kg/s
and Figure 6b, the difference
to 0.003333 kg/s. Asbetween
shown in thethe
maximum
Figureand 6b, the
theminimum temperatures
highest difference between
are close for 1C discharge rate for the inlet coolant temperatures of 5◦ °C and 15 °C, when the inlet
the maximum and the minimum temperature is maintained below 5 C for the inlet coolant mass flow
coolant mass flow rate coolant varied from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s. As shown in the Figure 6b,
rates of 0.002500
the highestkg/s and 0.003333
difference between thekg/s. Therefore,
maximum and theit can be concluded
minimum temperature that for providing
is maintained belowoptimum
5
operating ◦
°Cdifference
for the inlet between
coolant the
massmaximum
flow rates and the minimum
of 0.002500 kg/s and temperature
0.003333 kg/s. below 5 Cit for
Therefore, canthe
be 20 Ah
lithium-ion pouchthat
concluded cell for
for providing
1C and 2C discharge
optimum rates with
operating cold plates
difference betweenalong both surfaces,
the maximum and thethe inlet
minimum
coolant mass flowtemperature below 5 °C
rates of 0.002500 for the
kg/s and200.003333
Ah lithium-ion
kg/s pouch cell for 1C and 2C discharge rates
are suggested.
with cold plates along both surfaces, the inlet coolant mass flow rates of 0.002500 kg/s and 0.003333
kg/s are
3.3. Pressure Drop suggested.

Figure 7 shows
3.3. Pressure the pressure drop for the coolant of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with varying
Drop
the number Figure
of channels
7 showsand the mass
the pressure flow
drop rates.
for the Theofnumber
coolant of channels
20 Ah lithium-ion pouchiscell
varied from 4 to 10
with varying
and the mass flow of
the number rate is varied
channels from
and the 0.000833
mass kg/s
flow rates. Theto 0.003333
number kg/s. The
of channels pressure
is varied from 4drop is directly
to 10 and
theofmass
indicative flow rate
pumping is varied
cost, and must frombe0.000833
kept askg/slowtoas0.003333 kg/s.As
possible. The pressure
shown drop is7,directly
in Figure the number
indicative
of channels of pumping
and the mass flow cost,rates
and must
havebethekeptopposite
as low as influence
possible. Asonshown in Figure 7,drop.
the pressure the number
As a result,
of channels and the mass flow rates have the opposite influence on the pressure drop. As a result, to
to provide better energy efficiency, the number of channels and the mass flow rates could be optimized.
provide better energy efficiency, the number of channels and the mass flow rates could be
The pressure drop The
optimized. increased
pressureby 466.8%
drop as the
increased bynumber
466.8% asofthechannels
number ofdecreased from 10 to
channels decreased 4. The
from 10 to pressure
4.
drop increased by 1124.0%
The pressure as the by
drop increased mass flow as
1124.0% rate
theof the flow
mass coolant
rate is
of increased
the coolant from 0.000833
is increased from kg/s to
0.0033330.000833
kg/s. Thekg/seffect of both
to 0.003333 parameters
kg/s. of both
The effect of the mass flow rate
parameters of theasmass
wellflow
as the
ratenumber
as well asof the
channels
number of
on the pressure channels
drop on the pressure drop are significant.
are significant.

Figure 7. Pressure drop for the coolant of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with varying the number of
channels and the mass flow rate.

3.4. Cooling Energy Efficiency

Figure 8 shows the cooling energy efficiency (β) of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with a surface
area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750. Figure 8a,b show the cooling energy efficiency parameter
(β) of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell for 1C and 2C discharge rates, respectively. For both 1C and
2C discharge rates, the cooling energy efficiency parameter (β) decreased with the increase of the
inlet coolant mass flow rate varying from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s for surface area coverage
 both 1C and 2C discharge rates, the cooling energy efficiency parameter (β) decreased with the
increase of the inlet coolant mass flow rate varying from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.003333 kg/s for surface
area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750. For the low inlet coolant mass flow rate, the energy
efficiency parameter significantly increased with the decrease of an inlet coolant temperature.
However, for the high inlet coolant mass flow rate, the energy efficiency parameters are changed
Energies slightly with the increase of the inlet coolant temperature. This indicates that, for both 1C and 13
2018, 11, 2550 2Cof 19
discharge rates, for the low inlet coolant mass flow rate, the lower inlet coolant temperature
provides the better energy efficiency in the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both
ratio (α) parameter
surfaces. of 0.750.
As shown in theFor the low
Figure 8a,b,inlet
withcoolant massmass
inlet coolant flowflowrate,rates
the varying
energy from
efficiency parameter
0.001667 kg/s
to 0.003333
significantly kg/s, the
increased with reduction scale of
the decrease of the energy
an inlet efficiency
coolant parameter is
temperature. lower than
However, forthose of the
the high inlet
inlet coolant mass flow rates varying from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.001667
coolant mass flow rate, the energy efficiency parameters are changed slightly with the increase of thekg/s for the different inlet
coolanttemperature.
inlet coolant temperatures. Comparing
This indicates with that,
the Figure 8a and
for both 1CFigure
and 2C 8b, discharge
the energy efficiency
rates, forparameters
the low inlet
are close for 1C discharge rate for the inlet coolant temperatures of 5 °C and 15 °C, respectively, for
coolant mass flow rate, the lower inlet coolant temperature provides the better energy efficiency in
the inlet mass flow rate coolant varying from 0.000833 kg/s to 0.001667 kg/s.
the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces. As shown in the Figure 8a,b,
As shown in the Figure 8a, the lowest energy efficiency parameter (β) is above 54,000 for the
with inlet
inletcoolant
coolant mass flow rates
temperature of 35 varying
°C and the from
inlet0.001667 kg/sflow
coolant mass to 0.003333 kg/s, kg/s.
rate of 0.003333 the reduction
This value scale
is
of the energy
significantefficiency
based on parameter is lower
the definition of anthan those
energy of the inlet
efficiency coolant
parameter mass
[25]. flow rates
Therefore, varying
it can be
from 0.000833
concluded kg/s
thattofor0.001667
the inlet kg/scoolantfortemperature
the different of inlet
5 °C coolant temperatures.
and the inlet coolant mass Comparing
flow rate of with
Figure 0.000833
8a and Figure 8b,20
kg/s, the theAh energy efficiency
lithium-ion pouch parameters are close
cell with cold platesfor on1C discharge
both rate for
sides shows the inlet
excellent
coolantcooling
temperatures of 5 ◦ CThis
effectiveness. ◦ C, respectively,
andis15because of more heat for removal
the inlet capacity
mass flow of rate
the lower
coolantinlet coolant
varying from
temperature and the
0.000833 kg/s to 0.001667 kg/s. lower power consumption for supplying coolant at low mass flow rate.

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19

(a)

(b)

Figure Figure 8. Cooling

8. Cooling energyenergy efficiency
efficiency (β) of(β)
20 of
Ah20lithium-ion
Ah lithium-ion
pouchpouch
cell cell
withwith surface
surface area
area coverage
coverage ratio
ratio (α) parameter of 0.750: (a)
(α) parameter of 0.750: (a) 1C; (b) 2C. 1C; (b) 2C.

Figure 9 shows the cooling energy efficiency (β) of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with the
inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.025 kg/s. Figure 9a,b show the cooling energy efficiency parameters
(β) of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell for 1C and 2C discharge rates, respectively. The cooling
energy efficiency parameter (β) increased with increase of the surface area coverage ratio (α)
parameter from 0.298 to 0.750 for the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.002500 kg/s. For the higher
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 14 of 19

As shown in the Figure 8a, the lowest energy efficiency parameter (β) is above 54,000 for the
inlet coolant temperature of 35 ◦ C and the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.003333 kg/s. This value is
significant based on the definition of an energy efficiency parameter [25]. Therefore, it can be concluded
that for the inlet coolant temperature of 5 ◦ C and the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.000833 kg/s,
the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates on both sides shows excellent cooling effectiveness.
This is because of more heat removal capacity of the lower inlet coolant temperature and the lower
power consumption for supplying coolant at low mass flow rate.
Figure 9 shows the cooling energy efficiency (β) of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with the inlet
coolant mass flow rate of 0.025 kg/s. Figure 9a,b show the cooling energy efficiency parameters (β)
of the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell for 1C and 2C discharge rates, respectively. The cooling energy
efficiency parameter (β) increased with increase of the surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter
from 0.298 to 0.750 for the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.002500 kg/s. For the higher surface area
coverage ratio (α) parameter, the cooling energy efficiency parameter (β) significantly increased with
the decrease of an inlet coolant temperature. However, for the lower surface area coverage ratio (α)
parameter, the cooling energy efficiency parameter (β) is changed slightly with the decrease of an inlet
coolant temperature. This indicates that for the low inlet coolant temperature, the higher surface area
coverage ratio (α) parameter provided the better energy efficiency for the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell
with cold plates along both surfaces. As shown in Figure 9a,b, with the surface area coverage ratio
(α) parameter varying from 0.599 to 0.750, the enhancement scale of the energy efficiency parameter
is higher than that of surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter varying from 0.298 to 0.599 for the
different inlet coolant temperatures. Comparing with Figure 9a and Figure 9b, the cooling energy
efficiency parameter (β) is close for 1C discharge rate for the inlet coolant temperatures of 5 ◦ C and
15 ◦ C, respectively, for the surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter varying from 0.298 to 0.750.
As shown in the Figure 9a, the lowest cooling energy efficiency parameter (β) is above 43900 for
the surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.298 and the inlet coolant temperature of 35 ◦ C.
This value is significant based on the definition of an energy efficiency parameter [25]. Therefore, it
can be concluded that for the inlet coolant temperature of 5 ◦ C and the surface area coverage ratio (α)
parameter of 0.750, the 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates on both sides shows an excellent
cooling effectiveness because of heat removal capacity of the lower inlet coolant temperature and
lower power consumption for supplying the coolant at high surface area coverage ratio (α) parameter.
In addition, the low inlet coolant temperature, the low inlet coolant mass flow rate, and high
number of the cooling channels showed excellent cooling energy efficiency. The effects of the inlet
coolant temperatures, the inlet coolant mass flow rates, and the surface area coverage ratio (α)
parameter on three key parameters, namely, maximum temperature, temperature non-uniformity
and cooling energy efficiency, are reported, and will be helpful to optimize the cooling strategy for
lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates on both surfaces.
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 15 of 19
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

(a)

(b)
Figure9.9.Cooling
Figure Coolingenergy
energyefficiency
efficiency(β)
(β)ofof2020Ah
Ahlithium-ion
lithium-ionpouch
pouchcell
cellwith
withinlet
inletcoolant
coolantmass
massflow
flow
rateofof0.025
rate 0.025kg/s:
kg/s:(a)
(a)1C;
1C;(b)
(b)2C.
2C.

3.5.
3.5.Flow
FlowVisualization
Visualization
Figure
Figure1010shows
showsthethevelocity
velocitydistribution
distributionofofthe
the2020Ah
Ahlithium-ion
lithium-ionpouch
pouchcell
cellcooling
coolingsystem
systemforfor
the different number of the channels. The uniform velocity distribution is observed
the different number of the channels. The uniform velocity distribution is observed throughout, throughout, except
atexcept
curvedatflow pathsflow
curved with paths
relatively
with higher velocity
relatively gradients.
higher Thegradients.
velocity velocity contours are obtained
The velocity at the
contours are
mid-plane
obtained ofat the
thecooling plate.ofFor
mid-plane thethe channel
cooling number
plate. For 4, a maximum
the velocity4,ofa0.190
channel number m/s is velocity
maximum observed,of
while
0.190for
m/stheischannel number
observed, while10,for
thethe
maximum
channel velocity
number of 10,0.077
the m/s is observed.
maximum Theofgeneral
velocity flowis
0.077 m/s
patterns are similar with the high velocity flow for lower number of the channels.
observed. The general flow patterns are similar with the high velocity flow for lower number of the
channels.
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 16 of 19
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure10.
Figure 10.Velocity
Velocitydistribution
distributionofof20 20Ah
Ahlithium-ion
lithium-ionpouch
pouchcell
cellcooling
coolingsystem
systemfor
fordifferent
differentnumbers
numbers
ofofchannels:
channels:(a)
(a)10;
10;(b)
(b)8;8;(c);
(c);66(d)
(d)4.4.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
The
Thecooling
coolingperformance
performancecharacteristics
characteristicsofofaa20 20Ah
Ahlithium-ion
lithium-ionpouch
pouchcellcellwith
withcold
coldplates
platesalong
along
both
both surfaces are studied numerically. The effects of variation of the inlet coolant massflow
surfaces are studied numerically. The effects of variation of the inlet coolant mass flowrates
rates
(0.000833 kg/s, 0.001667 kg/s, 0.002500 kg/s, 0.003333 kg/s) and the inlet coolant temperatures (5 ◦ C,
(0.000833 kg/s, 0.001667 kg/s, 0.002500 kg/s, 0.003333 kg/s) and the inlet coolant temperatures (5 °C,
15 ◦ C, 25 ◦ C, 35 ◦ C) for
for 1C
1C and
and2C2Cdischarge
dischargeratesratesare
arereported.
reported.TheThe temperature distribution,
15 °C, 25 °C, 35 °C) temperature distribution, the
the pressure drop, and the cooling energy efficiency are considered as
pressure drop, and the cooling energy efficiency are considered as the critical performance the critical performance
parameters.
parameters. In In addition,
addition,thetheeffects
effectsofofthe
the variation
variation in the
in the coldcold
plateplate geometry
geometry withwith the number
the number of the
ofchannels
the channels (4, 6, 8, 10) on the cooling performance characteristics of 20 Ah
(4, 6, 8, 10) on the cooling performance characteristics of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch lithium-ion pouch
cellcell
are
are reported. The maximum temperature of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell obtained
reported. The maximum temperature of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell obtained at 2C discharge rate at 2C discharge rate
isis45.2 ◦ for the inlet coolant temperature of 35 ◦ C and the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.000833 kg/s.
45.2 C°C for the inlet coolant temperature of 35 °C and the inlet coolant mass flow rate of 0.000833
The
kg/s.key
Theresults are provided
key results below:below:
are provided
•• Considering
Consideringthe themaximum
maximumtemperature,
temperature,for forproviding
providingoptimum
optimumoperating
operatingtemperature
temperatureininthe
the
range of 25 ◦ C to 40 ◦ C for 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell for 1C and 2C discharge rate with cold
range of 25 °C to 40 °C for 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell for 1C and 2C discharge rate with cold
plates ◦ and 25 ◦ C are suggested.
platesalong
alongboth
bothsurfaces,
surfaces,thetheinlet
inletcoolant
coolanttemperatures
temperaturesofof1515 C °C and 25 °C are suggested.
•• Considering
Consideringthethe difference
differencebetween the maximum
between and theand
the maximum minimum temperature,
the minimum for providing
temperature, for
optimum operating difference between the maximum and the minimum temperatures below 5 ◦C
providing optimum operating difference between the maximum and the minimum
for 20 Ah lithium-ion
temperatures belowpouch cell20
5 °C for forAh
1Clithium-ion
and 2C discharge
pouchratecellwith coldand
for 1C plates
2C along both rate
discharge surfaces,
with
the inlet coolant mass flow rates of 0.002500 kg/s and 0.003333 kg/s are suggested.
cold plates along both surfaces, the inlet coolant mass flow rates of 0.002500 kg/s and 0.003333
kg/s are suggested.
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 17 of 19

• The highest pressure drop of the coolant of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell is 227.6 Pa for the mass
flow rate of 0.001667 kg/s with 4 number of the channels.
• Considering the cooling energy efficiency (β) of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with a surface area
coverage ratio (α) parameter of 0.750, for the inlet coolant temperature of 5 ◦ C and the inlet
coolant mass flow rates of 0.000833 kg/s, the lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates on both sides
shows an excellent cooling effectiveness.
• Considering the cooling energy efficiency (β) of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with the inlet coolant
mass flow rate of 0.025 kg/s, an inlet coolant temperature of 5 ◦ C and the surface area coverage
ratio (α) parameter of 0.750, the lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates on both sides shows
an excellent cooling effectiveness.

The effects of inlet coolant temperature, inlet coolant mass flow rate, the surface area coverage ratio
on three key parameters, namely, maximum temperature, temperature uniformity, and cooling energy
efficiency of 20 Ah lithium-ion pouch cell with cold plates along both surfaces are reported, and will
be useful for optimizing the cooling performances in the applications of the thermal management
systems of the lithium-ion batteries for the electric vehicles.

Author Contributions: M.S.P. (F.A.) conducted numerical simulations and wrote the paper. M.-Y.L. (C.A.)
conceptualized and organized the paper. S.P. is co-author and analyzed the data obtained by simulation. N.K. is
co-author and helped during the revision of the article. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (2016R1D1A1B03935822).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
C1 model constants
C2 model constants
C3 model constants
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure (J/kg·◦ C)
Cµ constant
Gk generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the mean velocity gradients
Gb generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to buoyancy
k turbulent kinetic energy (J)
m mass flow rate
P pressure (Pa)
Pr Prandtl number
Q heat transfer rate (W)
Qv volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
Sk user-defined source terms
Sε user-defined source terms
T temperature (◦ C)
∆T temperature difference (◦ C)
t time (s)
V speed (m/s)
V average velocity (m/s)
vs mean fluid velocity (m/s)
YM the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate
Greek symbols
∇ gradient operator
β cooling energy efficiency
ρ density (kg/m3 )
ν kinematic fluid viscosity (m2 /s)
µ dynamic fluid viscosity (Ns/m2 )
Energies 2018, 11, 2550 18 of 19

λ Reynold’s stress
σk turbulent Prandtl numbers for k
εk turbulent Prandtl numbers for ε
Acronyms
C current discharge rate
CAD computer-aided design
CFD computational fluid dynamics
EV electric vehicle
HEV hybrid electric vehicles
PCM phase change material

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through well-to-wheel driving cycle simulations. J. Power Sources 2009, 186, 464–477. [CrossRef]
2. Cicconi, P.P.; Landi, D.; Germani, M. Thermal analysis and simulation of a Li-ion battery pack for
a lightweight com-mercial EV. Appl. Energy 2017, 192, 159–177. [CrossRef]
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