INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Hypothesis Testing: An Introduction

Romeo C. Layones, M.A.T.

OBJECTIVE PROCEDURE IN TESTING HYPOTHESIS

1) State the hypotheses: the null hypothesis (Ho) and

the alternative hypothesis (H1).
2) Select a statistical test for testing Ho.
3) Specify the significance level of the test.
4) Specify the appropriate sampling distribution of the
statistical test to be used in testing Ho.
5) Define the region of rejection.
6) Compute the value of the statistical test using the
data obtained from the samples.
7) Make the decision. At the chosen level of significance,
if the value obtained in step 6 is in the region of
rejection, reject Ho, otherwise accept Ho.
8) Make the conclusion.

RLayones
HYPOTHESIS – an assertion or conjecture concerning
one or more populations
2 Kinds of Hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis(Ho)
─ hypothesis expressing nonsignificance of
difference/relationship
─ hypothesis formulated with the hope that it may be
rejected
─ hypothesis a researcher wish to test
Example: Ho: There is no significant difference between
the mean height of men and women.
2. Alternative hypothesis(H1)
– represents hypothetical statement that the researcher
wants to prove
Example: a) H1: There is a significant difference between
the mean height of men and women.
b) H1: Men are significantly taller than women.
RLayones
Classify the following as null hypothesis (Ho) or alternative
hypothesis (H1).

Ho The mean IQ of men and women are equal.

_____1.

Ho There is no significant difference in the mean

_____2.
scores of sudents taught by the whole class instruction and
those taught by differentiated instruction.

H1 Height significantly correlates with weight.

_____3.

H1 Brand A phones outsell Brand B phones.

_____4.
Ho There is no significant association between
_____5.
religiosity and kindness.

H1 Men are more intelligent than women.

_____6.
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2 Types of Error in Making Decisions

1. Type I Error (alpha – error)

─ rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true
─ “false positive” finding or conclusion
2. Type II Error (beta – error)
─ acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is false
─ “false negative” finding or conclusion

Statistical True State of Null Hypothesis

Decision Ho is true Ho is false
Reject Ho Type I error Correct
Accept Ho Correct Type II error

RLayones
2 Types of Error in Making Decisions

1. Type I Error (alpha – error)

─ rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true
─ “false positive” finding or conclusion
2. Type II Error (beta – error)
─ acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is false
─ “false negative” finding or conclusion

Actual State
Decision The accused The accused
is innocent. is guilty.
Convict Type I error Correct
Acquit Correct Type II error

RLayones
2 Types of Error in Making Decisions

1. Type I Error (alpha – error)

─ rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true
─ “false positive” finding or conclusion
2. Type II Error (beta – error)
─ acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is false
─ “false negative” finding or conclusion

Statistical True State of Null Hypothesis

Decision Ho is true Ho is false
Alpha 1 – Alpha
Reject Ho CONFIDENCE
1 – Beta Beta
Accept Ho POWER

Lower Alpha Higher Beta Higher Confidence Lower Power

Higher Alpha Lower Beta Lower Confidence Higher Power RLayones

SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL OF A TEST
➢ the maximum probability of making a type I error
(rejecting the null if it is true)
➢ this probability is symbolized by α (Greek letter alpha)

● 5% significance level
– means that the researcher can accept about 5 chance in
one hundred that he would reject Ho when in fact it should
be accepted

● 1% significance level
─ means that the researcher can accept 1 chance in 100
that he should reject the null hypothesis when it should be
accepted

RLayones
ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TEST

● One-tailed test
─ used when the rejection region is located in only one
extreme of the range of values for the test statistic
─ used when H1 is a directional hypothesis
( X1 > X2 or X1 < X2)
Example: Men are significantly heavier than women.
(The word “heavier” indicates direction.)

● Two-tailed test
─ used when the region of rejection is located on both
extremes of the range of values for the test statistic
─ used when H1 is nondirectional (X1 ≠ X2)
Example: There is a significant difference between the
mean weight of men and women.
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CRITICAL VALUE AND CRITICAL REGIONS

● Critical Value (CV) – separates the critical region from

the noncritical region
● Critical or Rejection Region – the range of values of
the test value that indicates that there is a significant
difference and that the null hypothesis should be rejected.
● Noncritical or Nonrejection Region – the range of
values of the test value that indicates that the difference
was probably due to chance and that the null hypothesis
should not be rejected.

Reject Region Nonrejection Region

α
0
CV RLayones
5% LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE

ONE-TAILED TEST
Reject Ho Reject Ho

.05 .05

CVL 0 0 CVR

TWO-TAILED TEST

Reject Ho Reject Ho

.025 .025

CVL 0 CVR
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1% LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE

ONE-TAILED TEST
Reject Ho Reject Ho

.01 ..01

CVL 0 0 CVR

TWO-TAILED TEST

Reject H0 Reject H0

.005 .005

CVL 0 CVR
RLayones
PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
(Kothari, 2016)
PARAMETRIC NONPARAMETRIC
Assumed
Normal Any
Distribution
Typical Data Interval; Ratio Nominal; Ordinal
Usual central
measure Mean Median

Generalizability* Generalizable to a Not generalizable to

population a population
Advantages More conclusions can Simplicity; Generally
be drawn; more easy to compute
powerful than
nonparametric tests
when assumptions
are met RLayones
STATISTICAL TESTS FOR COMPARISON
QUESTIONS
Type of Test Parametric Nonparametric
Type of Data Interval; Ratio Ordinal Nominal
(Frequency)
TEST OF DIFFERENCE
1 group z-test; Sign Test; X2 goodness
t-test Kolmogorov- of fit
Smirnov Test
2 groups z-test; Wilcoxon Rank X2 test for
t-test (independent) sum test; difference of
t-test (dependent) Mann-Whitney proportions
U test
3 or more groups One Factor Kruskall-Wallis
Analysis of H-test
Variance (ANOVA)
Two Factors (2 or more Two way ANOVA
groups for each factor
TEST OF DIFFERENCE
Population z-test
parameter
known?
one sample t-test

1
Independent samples t-test
How How are
2
many samples Dependent samples t-test
samples? related?
One-Factor
ANOVA
2 or Independent
more How are Samples
samples
1 related? One-Factor
How
ANOVA
many
Dependent
factors?
2 Samples
Two-Factor
ANOVA
STATISTICAL TESTS FOR RELATIONSHIP
QUESTIONS
Type of Test Parametric Nonparametric
Type of Data Interval; Ratio Ordinal Nominal
(Frequency)
TEST OF ASSOCIATION/CORRELATION
Two variables Pearson’s r Spearman rho; X2 – test of
Kendall Tau association
Three or more Multiple Regression Kendall’s Discriminant
variables Analysis; coefficient of Analysis
Multiple Correlation concordance (W)
Analysis
STATISTICAL TESTS FOR RELATIONSHIP
QUESTIONS (TWO VARIABLES)
VARIABLE X
VARIABLE Y Quantitative X Ordinal X Nominal X
Quantitative Pearson r Biserial rb Point biserial rpb
Y
Ordinal Y Biserial rb Spearman rho; Rank biserial rrb
Tetrachoric rtet
Nominal Y Point biserial rpb Rank biserial rrb Phi coefficient;
‘Pearson’s
Contingency
coefficient C,
Cramer’s V
coefficient;
Goodman and
Kruskall Lambda
coefficient