Vanessa cardui is the most widespread of all butterfly species.

It is commonly called the

painted lady,[2][3] or formerly in North America the cosmopolitan.[4][5]

Contents
 1 Description
 2 Distribution
 3 Migration
 4 Mating behaviour in relation to migration
 5 Oviposition
 6 Vision
 7 Roosting behaviour and territory
 8 Host plants
 9 Defence mechanisms
 10 Human interaction
 11 In popular culture
 12 See also
 13 References
 14 Further reading
 15 External links

Description
For a key to the terms used, see Glossary of entomology terms.

See also: Cynthia (butterfly) § Distinguishing features

Wing scales.

Male and female. Upperside. Ground-colour reddish-ochreous, basal areas olivescent-

ochreous-brown; cilia black, alternated with white, Forewing with an outwardly-oblique black
irregular-shaped broken band crossing from middle of the cell to the disc above the
submedian vein; the apical area from end of cell and the exterior border also black; before the
apex is a short white outwardly-oblique streak and a curved row of four round spots, the
second and third being small; a marginal pale lunular line with its upper portion most defined
and whitish. Hind-wing with a blackish patch from the costal vein across end of cell, a partly
confluent recurved discal band, a submarginal row of lunules, and then a marginal row of
somewhat scutiform spots; between the discal band and submarginal lunules is a row of five
round black spots, which in some examples show a pale and dark outer ring. Underside.
Forewing brighter reddish-ochreous, the apical area and outer margin much paler, the apex
being olivescent ochreous-brown; discal irregular band as above, subapical white streak, row
of spots and marginal lunules distinct; base of wing and interspace before end of cell white.
Hindwing transversely-marbled with olivescent ochreous-brown and speckled with black
scales; crossed by basal and discal sinuous whitish or pale fascia and intersected by white
veins; an outer-discal row of five ocelli, the upper one smallest and usually imperfect, the
second and fifth the largest, the fourth with black centre speckled with blue and ringed with
yellow, and the second and fifth also with an outer black ring; submarginal lunules
purpurescent-grey, bordered by a whitish fascia; outer margin ochreous. Body olivescent
ochreous-brown, abdomen with ochreous bands; palpi blackish above, white beneath; body
beneath and legs greyish-white; antennae black above, tip and beneath reddish.

— Frederic Moore, Lepidoptera Indica. Vol. IV[5]

Dorsal side

Ventral side

Egg


 Larva

Pupa

Emergence

Distribution
V. cardui is one of the most widespread of all butterflies, found on every continent except
Antarctica and South America.[2][3][6] In Australia, V. cardui has a limited range around
Bunbury, Fremantle, and Rottnest Island. However, its close relative, the Australian painted
lady (V. kershawi, sometimes considered a subspecies) ranges over half the continent. Other
closely related species are the American painted lady (V. virginiensis) and the West Coast
lady (V. annabella).

Migration

Vanessa cardui spring migration between North Africa and Europe

V. cardui occurs in any temperate zone, including mountains in the tropics. The species is
resident only in warmer areas, but migrates in spring, and sometimes again in autumn. It
migrates from North Africa and the Mediterranean to Britain and Europe in May and June,[7]
and from the Red Sea basin, via Israel and Cyprus, to Turkey in March and April.[8][9] The
occasional autumn migration made by V. cardui is likely for the inspection of resource
changes; it consists of a round trip from Europe to Africa.[10]
For decades, naturalists have debated whether the offspring of these immigrants ever make a
southwards return migration.[11] Research suggests that British painted ladies do undertake an
autumn migration, making 14,500 km (9,000 mi) round trip from tropical Africa to the Arctic
Circle in a series of steps by up to six successive generations.[11] The Radar Entomology Unit
at Rothamsted Research provided evidence that autumn migrations take place at high altitude,
which explains why these migrations are seldom witnessed.[11] In recent years, thanks to the
activity of The Worldwide Painted Lady Migration citizen science project, led by the
Barcelona-based Institute of Evolutionary Biology (Catalan: Institut de Biologia Evolutiva),[12]
the huge range of migration has begun to be revealed. For example, some butterflies migrated
from Iceland to the Sahara desert, and even further south.[9]

V. cardui is known for its distinct migratory behaviour. In California, they are usually seen
flying from north to north-west. These migrations appear to be partially initiated by heavy
winter rains in the desert where rainfall controls the growth of larval food plants.[13] Similarly,
heavier than usual rain during the 2018-2019 winter seems to have been the cause of the
extraordinarily large migration observed in Israel at the end of March, estimated at a billion
individual butterflies.[14] Painted lady migration patterns are highly erratic and they do not
migrate every year.[15] Some evidence suggests that global climatic events, such as el Niño,
may affect the migratory behaviour of the painted lady butterflies, causing large-scale
migrations.[16] The first noticeable wave of migration in eastern Ukraine was noted in the 20s
of April 2019. From May 15, numbers began to grow and it was possible to observe hundreds
of this species in the Kharkiv region of Ukraine, including in the city streets of Kharkiv.[17]

Based on experimental data, the painted lady's migration pattern in northern Europe
apparently does not follow a strict north-west heading. The range of headings suggests that
migrating butterflies may adjust their migration patterns in response to local topographical
features and weather, such as strong wind patterns. Laboratory-raised autumn-generation
painted lady butterflies were able to distinguish a southern orientation for a return migration
path. According to the same laboratory-based study, when butterflies were isolated from the
sun, they were unable to orient themselves in a specific direction, opposed to those that did
have access to the sun. This suggests that V. cardui requires a direct view of the sky, implying
the use of a solar compass to orient its migratory direction and maintain a straight flight path.
[18]

Mating behaviour in relation to migration

V. cardui displays a unique system of continuous mating, throughout all seasons, including
the winter. This may be attributed to its migratory patterns, thus significantly affecting its
mating behaviour. During European migrations, the butterflies immediately begin to mate and
lay eggs upon arrival in the Mediterranean in the spring, starting in late May.[19] In the United
States, painted lady butterflies migrating towards the north experience poor mating
conditions, and many butterflies have limited breeding capabilities.[20] The "local adult
generation" develops during this time, roughly from the middle of May through early June in
conjunction with the butterfly progression throughout their flight.[19]

During its migratory process, these painted lady butterflies start breeding, and reproduce
entirely throughout their migration.[21] Scientists have not been able to find evidence of their
overwintering; this may be because they migrate to warmer locations to survive and
reproduce.[20] Female painted lady butterflies may suspend their flight temporarily when they
are "ready to oviposit";[22] this allows them the opportunity to continually reproduce
throughout their migrations. Because these butterflies are constantly migrating, male
butterflies are thought to lack consistent territory. Instead of requiring territory to mate with
females and developing evolutionary behaviour to defend this territory, the mating butterflies
appear to establish a particular "time and place" in certain locations that they find to be
suitable for reproduction. More specifically, they locate certain perches, hilltops, forest-
meadow edges, or other landmarks where they will stay until, presumably, a female arrives to
mate.

Equally important for the reproduction of the painted lady butterflies is the males' exhibition
of polygynous mating behaviour, in which they often mate with more than one female.[23] This
is important for painted lady butterflies because the benefits may supersede the costs of
polygyny[24] since no permanent breeding ground is used. Upon mating, which typically
occurs in the afternoon, female painted lady butterflies lay eggs one by one in their desired
breeding locations. The variety of eclosion locations ultimately dictates the male painted lady
behaviour.[25]

Female painted lady butterflies have been observed to have a relatively "high biotic
potential", meaning they each produce large numbers of offspring. This perpetual influx of
reproduction may be a reason why these painted lady butterflies have propagated so
successfully. One interesting aspect that scientists have observed is that these butterflies like
to fly towards rain. Further studies have suggested that the large amounts of rainfall may
somehow "activate more eggs or induce better larval development".[26] Inhabited locations
begin to observe a large influx of new generations of painted lady butterflies in the fall,
particularly in September and October. Their reproductive success declines relatively
throughout the winter, primarily through November.[19] However, they still continue to
reproduce—an aspect of butterfly behaviour that is quite unique. Scientists hypothesize that
these extensive migratory patterns help the painted lady butterflies find suitable conditions for
breeding, thus offering a possible reason as to why these butterflies mate continuously.

Oviposition
Adult butterflies feed on flower nectar and aphid honeydew.[27] Females oviposit on plants
with nectar immediately available for the adults even if it leads to high mortality of the larvae.
This lack of discrimination indicates they do not take into account volatile chemicals released
from potential host plants when searching for oviposition choices.[28]

The availability of adult resources dictates a preference for specific areas of flowers. Flowers
with more available nectar result in a larger number of eggs deposited on the plants. This
reinforces the idea that the painted lady butterfly does not discriminate host plants and
chooses mainly on the availability of adult food sources even if it increases the mortality rate
of the offspring. The data also suggest that the painted lady butterfly favors quantity of
offspring over quality.[29]