Stonehenge

Author(s): Jacquetta Hawkes

Source: Scientific American , Vol. 188, No. 6 (June 1953), pp. 25-31
Published by: Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/24944248

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 SCIENTIFIC
JUNE, 1953
AMERICAN VOL. 188, NO. 6

Stonehenge
The strange monUlnent is often attributed to the Druids of 2)000
years ago) but radiocarbon dating supports the riew that it was
started by a sarage but aspiring people 2)000 years before that
by Jacquetta Hawkes

HE GREAT prehistoric sanctuary people more barbaric than any of his­ Worcester, spent" a day there counting

T of Stonehenge stands among the

sweeping curves of the chalk
downland of Salisbury Plain. Not very
many miles away on a more northern
stretch of the Wiltshire downs is Ave­
bury-another most remarkable though
less famous stone circle. Around both
Avebury and Stonehenge cluster vast
numbers of burial mounds, many of
them the graves of wealthy Bronze Age
chieftains whose presence there is proof
of the fame and sanctity of these circles
in ancient times.
The architecture of Stonehenge is ar­
resting in its strangeness. Nowhere in
the world is there anything quite com­
parable to this temple, built not of ma­
sonry but of colossal rectangular blocks
of stone. Plainly it is the handiwork of a
toric times, yet the careful shaping of
the huge monoliths, the use of horizon­
tal lintel stones, and above all the co­
herence of the whole as a work of archi­
tecture set it far above the usual mega­
lithic building of prehistoric western
Europe.
It is no wonder, then, that for the past
thousand years Stonehenge has been so
famous as to attract countless visitors
and speculation of every kind. Among
the many famous men who went there
were Inigo Jones, Samuel Pepys, John
Evelyn and William Wordsworth-in­
deed Wordsworth has enriched its litera­
ture with poetry of the first rank. James I
knew it and was curious about its ori­
gin; Charles II, when he was sheltering
at nearby Amesbury after the battle of
and measuring the stones to pass the
time and forget his anxieties.
Today more than ever Stonehenge at­
tracts its visitors. Summer tourists go
there in thousands, leaving buses and
cars to buy tickets at a Ministry of Works
kiosk and approaching this holy place of
their forebears along a path Ranked by
neat waste-paper baskets. Even in these
conditions, once inside the circle visitors
surrender to the power of its stones. In
spite of our familiarity with architecture
on a vastly greater scale, there is some­
thing about these massive, weather­
beaten monoliths which awes modern
men with thoughts of a savage, primi­
tive, yet mightily aspiring world.
We know that immediately after the
Norman Conquest Stonehenge was rec-

HEEL STONE is seen from within the circles of Stone­ by computing that on Midsummer Day (June 24) in
henge. Sir Norman Lockyer tried to date the monument 1680 B.C. the sun rose directly over the Heel Stone.

25

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ognized as one of the wonders of Brit­
ain. The fanciful 12th-century historian
Geoffrey of Monmouth suggested that
the stones had been fetched to Salisbury
Plain from Ireland by the wizard Merlin
in the days of Ambrosius, the uncle of
King Arthur. Subsequently, he said, the
circles were used as the burial place of
Ambrosius and his brother, Uther Pen­
dragon, Arthur's father.
. This tale was believed all through
medieval times and was repeated with
variations by writers in Latin, French
and English. By the 16th-century Renais­
sance scholarship was harshly and some­
times mockingly questionil!g Geoffrey
of Monmouth and the whole glorious
but improbable Arthurian legend. But
the new scholars and antiquaries hardly
knew whom to put in Merlin's place as
the founder of Stonehenge. During the
16th, 17th and 18th centuries this baf­
fling inheritance from the past was at­
tributed to the Romans, Danes, Phoeni­
cians and Druids. Most of these theorists
recognized it as a temple, but one school
of thought (the Danish) identified it as
a crowning place of kings.
ODAY we are inclined to smile at
Tall these notions; we can supply dates
and attach archaeological labels that
look convincing enough. The truth is,
however, that we still have not explained
the unique architecture of Stonehenge.
Stone circles are a special feature of pre­
historic Britain. They are found all the
way from the south of England to the
extreme north of Scotland, where there
are fine examples in the Orkneys. Some
of them are circles of free-standing
stones; others are enclosed by a circular
bank and ditch. These circles are all
assumed to be holy places, and all can
be said to have some relationship with
Stonehenge. But how inferior they are!
Even Avehury cannot compare with the
architectural grandeur of Stonehenge.
It is not surprising that Avebury and
Stonehenge, the two most imposing cir­
cles in Britain, should both be situated
on the Wiltshire downs. As geographers
have often pOinted out, this region forms
the hub of the uplands system of south­
ern England, and it was on these up­
lands that prehistoric settlement was
most strongly concentrated. Throughout
almost the whole of prehistoric times the
English lowlands were made largely un­
inhabitable and impassable by the heavy
growth of oak forest. The early farmers
sought the chalk and limestone hills,
where the thin, light soil could readily
be cleared to improve pasturage and
make room for their small grain plots.
On the broad chalk plateau of Salis­
bury' Plain and the adjacent Marlbor­
ough Downs many lines of hills con­
verge-the Cotswolds and their northern
prolongation up to Yorkshire, the Chil­
terns, North and South Downs, Dorset
Downs and Mendips. The plateau there-
26
189.19.127.175 on Tue, 19 Oct 2021 12:35:57 UTC
fore early achieved the dominance usual
to centers of communication. Not only
were the pastoral tribesmen of this area
sufficiently prosperous to be able to af­
ford the prodigious expenditure of labor
needed to build Stonehenge and Ave­
bury, but they were able to build them
in places accessible to the whole of Eng­
land south of the Pennines. They may
have been able to draw labor or tribute
from such a wide area, but whether or
not this was the case we can be reason­
ably confident that· the sanctuaries
served as rallying points. At the most
important seasonal festivals tribesmen
must surely have traveled to them along
the ridgeways of all the radiating hills.
There is interesting evidence for such a
gathering of peoples in the occurrence
of grave goods of a kind characteristic
of the north of England in at least one
of the barrow burials lying close to
Stonehenge.
�KE MANY Gothic cathedrals, Stone-
henge is a composite structure in
which feature was added to feature
through the centuries. This structure in­
cludes several important parts in addi­
tion to the circles of standing stones
which are what most people mean when
they speak of Stonehenge. Before going
on to discuss the history of the monu­
ment it will be well first to describe its
parts [see diagram on page 30].
To the north of the sanctuary,
stretches the great length of the Cursus,
a very narrow embanked enclosure some
B1 miles long. It owes its odd name to
the 18th-century antiquary William
Stukeley, who liked to fancy that it
served as a course for chariot racing. It
is easy to laugh at Stukeley's fantasy, but
the actual purpose of this and the few
other enclosures of the kind in southern
England remains unexplained. What is
of particular interest for an understand­
ing of Stonehenge itself lies in a recent
discovery made at the west end of the
Cursus, at the point where the side banks
appear to terminate against a long burial
mound. In this area excavation and field
survey discovered a strong concentra­ AERIAL VIEW of the monument
tion of chippings from the Blue Stones shows how its stones are encircled
which now form a part of the sanctuary
itself. It has therefore been suggested level as to be clearly visible only from
that these stones, known from other evi­ the air.
dence to have been present in the area A circular embankment about 320
before they were erected in their present feet in diameter encloses the sanctuary
sockets, originally stood here at the west itself. Such an enclosing bank and ditch
end of the Cursus. is the feature which is held to distin­
The other important outlying earth­ guish a "henge" from an ordinary free­
work associated with Stonehenge is the standing stone circle. Immediately in­
Avenue, which can be assumed to have side the bank is a ring of pits, named
been the main ceremonial approach to the Aubrey Holes after their 17-century
the sanctuary. It consists of two parallel discoverer. They are 56 in number and
lines of bank and ditch about 70 feet all roughly circular. Cremation burials,
apart which, from the northeast side of without urns and normally without
the circles, run almost dead straight for grave goods, were found in many Au­
1,800 feet, then swing eastward and brey Holes and also in a quadrant of
curve gradually toward the River Avon. the ditch and bank.
The banks and ditches are now so nearly Between the Aubrey Holes and the
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by a bank and a ditch. The small white circles within cavated. At the upper right is the Avenue, which runs
the bank mark those Aubrey Holes which have been ex- straight for 1,800 feet and then curves toward the Avon.

stone circles are two more rings of pits,
long known to archaeology as the Y and
Z Holes; the individual pits are oval and
about six feet long.
AFTER THIS account of the earth­
ft works and ceremonial pits asso­
ciated with the monument, we can leave
these painfully unspectacular but his­
torically important features and ap­
proach the stones themselves. Those that
first catch the attention are the immense
sarsens, great monoliths of sandstone.
The nearest place from which blocks of
this size could have been obtained ap­
parently is the Avebury region, miles
away, and the transpOl t of the some 80
�
sarsens at Stonehenge, running up to
30 feet in length and weighing an aver­
age of 28 tons each, was a prodigious
effort, espeCially as the journey necessi­
tated the crossing of a broad, soft-bot­
tomed and overgrown valley. Presum­
ably they were dragged on rollers by
men hauling on rawhide ropes.
The sarsen architecture of Stonehenge
has two parts: an outer circle about 100
feet in diameter and an inner horse­
shoe formed of five gateways. The circle
originally had 30 columns, united by a
continuous lintel of smaller blocks laid
over their tops. The stones are all rough­
ly squared, and the lintel stones are se­
cured onto the uprights by tenons and
sockets, and to one another by mortise
joints. The chopping out of two tenons
on the top of each upright and of the
rails of the mortise joints is a remarkable
achievement for masons working only
with clumsy stone mauls. The largest
sarsens of all are found in the inner
horseshoe, which measures 44 feet
across and 50 feet along the axial line.
Its colossal central gateway is more than
25 feet high.
HE SARSEN peristyle and horse­
T shoe setting astound us by their size
and the unparalleled precision of their
masonry; they please the eye, too, by
their soft gray color and the richness of

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texture produced by the weathering of
the sandstone. Yet it is the other element
of this extraordinary monument that can
claim the most fascinating and dramatic
history. The plan of the outer circle and
horseshoe of sarsens is repeated on a
smaller scale by a circle and horseshoe
of the so-called Blue Stones. These
stones are very much smaller and they
lack the architectural refinement of lin­
tels. What is so astonishing about them
is that they were made from rocks
(mainly dolerites and rhyolites) which
are found together only in the Presely
Mountains in the extreme west of Wales.
It is equally astonishing whether one
thinks of the immense physical difficul­
ties of their transport from Wales to
southern England or of the sanctity
which must have resided in them to
Prompt prehistoric men to undertake
such a feat.
The question of the route by which
the stones were carried has been much
disputed. Perhaps the most satisfactory
view is that they came by sea (probably
from Milford Haven in the west of
Wales) to the mouth of the Bristol Avon
and were then conveyed across Somer­
set and Wiltshire by a series of rivers
close enough together to require only
short portages. This seems the easiest
route-but even so the distance involved
is well over 300 miles. Across the inner­
most tip of the Blue Stone horseshoe
lies a single so-called Altar Stone. This
supposed Altar Stone, which in fact may
formerly have stood upright, is made of
a variety of sandstone found near Mil­
ford Haven.
HE layout of the complicated sanc­
T tuary at once suggests different pe­
riods of construction for its parts. The
enclosing embankment and the Aubrey

RELIEF MAP of southern England and Wales shows henge. When the monument was built, the English low­
the geography which influenced the location of Stone- lands were covered with a thick oak fmest; the early

28

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Holes have one common center, while
the stone structure is very precisely cen­
tered on a different point, a foot or two
from the center of the earthwork. The
axis of the stone complex as marked by
the horseshoes falls exactly along the
center line of the Avenue but consider­
ably to one side of the entrance cause­
way through the earthwork. As for the
Y and Z Holes, they are set in irregular
arcs as though the distances had been
measured not from a true center but by
estimation from the outer sm'sen circle.
Thus the plan suggests that the en­
closure and Aubrey Holes are of one age,
the stone structure and the Avenue of a
:f
I' econd, and the Y and Holes of a third.
'E xcavation and analysis of many kinds
have proved this division to be correct,
and furthermore that this order in fact
represents their correct chronological
sequence. They have also shown that
the Cursus belongs to the earliest pe­
riod, being approximately contemporary
with the enclosure and Aubrey Holes.
ALTHOUGH many difficulties and un-
1\..certainties still remain, years of dig­
ging and research have at last made it
possible to give a coherent account of
g
the long history of Stonehen e. The first
building period is no,:, generally recog­
nized as belonging to a late neolithic
culture. These tribesmen dug the long
entrenchments of the Cursus, the en­
closure ditch with its single entrance
and the ritual pits within. Just before or
after the making of these very humble
earthworks they transported the Blue
Stones and Altar Stone from Wales. As
these stones must already have been
imbued with a most compelling religious
value, it can be assumed that they had
formed part of a sacred monument in
Wales. They were set up at some spot

E N GLISH C H A N N EL

fa'rmers thus sought the thinly covered chalk and lime­ monument came from the Presely Mountains in Wales
stone hills of Wiltshire. Some of the stones for the by way of the Bristol Channel 01' around Land's End.

29

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