Analitica Avanzada Descomposición

2130-5
Preparatory School to the Winter College on Optics and Energy
1 - 5 February 2010
FUNDAMENTALS OF FOURIER OPTICS
I. Ashraf Zahid
Quaid-I-Azam University
Pakistan
FUNDAMENTALS OF
FOURIER OPTICS
IMRANA ASHRAF ZAHID

QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY
ISLAMABAD
PAKISTAN
PreparatorySchooltoWintercollegeon
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
LAYOUT
• What is a Fourier Series?
• Fourier Series Expansions
– Odd and Even Functions
– Cosine
C i and d Si
Sine S
Series
i
• Fourier Series to Fourier Transforms
• Fourier
ou e Transforms
a so s
• Properties of Fourier Transform
• The Convolution and Autocorrelation
• The Dirac Delta Function
• The Uncertainty Principle
• Examples
1/29/2010 PreparatorySchooltoWintercollegeonOpticsandEnergy
What is a Fourier Series?
• A Fourier series decomposes

p apperiodic function or pperiodic
signal into a sum of simple oscillating functions, namely sines
and cosines (or complex exponentials).
OR
• The theory of Fourier series lies in the idea that most signals
can be represented
ca ep ese ted as a su
sum o of ssinee waves
waves-including
c ud g squa
squaree
waves and triangle waves-they're possibly the most-used
examples.
Sine Waves
• Sine waves have lots of interesting properties- many natural
operations deal with a set of differing frequency sine waves
• Fourier series give a great picture of the kind of content of a
signal.
signal
• A sharp transition in data generally results from a high-
frequency sine wave- only high-frequency sine waves have
the fast-changing edge required.
• By cutting out the low frequencies- one can pick out the
edges This is particularly useful in image processing.
edges. processing
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PreparatorySchooltoWintercollegeonOpticsandEnergy
Anharmonic Waves are Sums of Sinusoids
Consider the sum of two sine waves (i.e., harmonic waves)
of different frequencies:
The resultingg wave is periodic,

p , but not harmonic.
Essentially all waves are anharmonic.
Building a Square Wave
Let's see how a square wave is built up- start with a sine
wave:
• Add another,
another with an amplitude 1/3 of the original and a
frequency 3 times that of the first- 3rd harmonic
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Building a Square Wave
Add another, with an amplitude 1/5 of the original and a frequency

5 times
i that
h off the
h first-
fi 5th harmonic
h
• If we carry on until the 15th harmonic- we should see a pattern

emerging
• It looks quite noisy- but bears resemblance to the square wave.

• If we add more and more harmonics,- we gget closer and closer to
a square wave.
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Fourier Series Expansions
• Odd and Even Functions:

An important point is the difference between odd and even
functions. For odd functions- on the other side of the y-axis-
the function is inverted.
sin is an odd function. So, we can see that an odd function is made up
y And anyy combination of sin functions will
of sin functions only.
produce odd functions.
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Even and Odd Functions
• Even Function- cosine is an even function-mirrored about the

y-axis- and so combinations of cosine functions produce even
functions.
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Asymmetric Function
Some functions are neither wholly
y odd nor even- are
asymmetric. Asymmetric functions are made up of both
sine and cosine functions:
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Fourier Cosine Series
Because cos(mt) is an even function (for all m), we can write an
even function, f(t), as:
f
¦
1
f( )
f(t) F cos(mt)
( )
S m
m 0
where the set {Fm; m = 0, 1, … } is a set of coefficients that define

the series.
And where we’ll only worry about the function f(t) over the
interval (–,).
( )
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The Kronecker delta function
1 if m n
G m,n {®
¯0 if m z n
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Finding the coefficients, Fm, in a Fourier Cosine
Series
f
¦
1
FourierCosineSeries: f (t ) F cos(mt )
S m 0
m
TofindFm, multiplyeachsidebycos(m’t),wherem’ isanotherinteger,andintegrate:
S f S
³ ¦ ³
1
f (t ) cos(m ' t ) dt F cos(mt ) cos(m ' t ) dt
S m
S m 0 S
S
S if m m '
³
But:
S
cos(( mt ) cos(( m ' t ) dt ®
¯ 0 if m z m '
{ S G m ,m '
S f
³ f (t) cos(m 't) dt ¦

1
So: F SG m, m 'Å onlythem’ = m termcontributes
S m
S m 0
³ f (t) cos(mt) dt
Droppingthe’ fromthem:
Fm Å yieldsthe
yields the
S
coefficientsfor
anyf(t)!
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Fourier Sine Series
( ) is an odd function ((for all m),

Because sin(mt) ), we can write
any odd function, f(t), as:
f (t)
1
S ¦m 0
Fmcsin(mt)
where the set {F’m; m = 0, 1, … } is a set of coefficients that define the

series.
we ll only worry about the function f(t) over the interval ((–,).
where we’ll ,).
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Finding the coefficients, F’m, in a Fourier Sine Series
FourierSineSeries: f
¦
1
f (t ) F c sin(mt )
S m 0
m
TofindFm, multiplyeachsidebysin(m’t),wherem’ isanotherinteger,andintegrate:

S f S
³ ¦ ³
1
f (t ) sin(
i (m ' t ) dt
d F c sin(
i (mt ) sin(
i (m ' t ) dt
d
S
m
S m 0 S
S
But:
S iff m m '
³ sin(mt ) sin(m ' t ) dt
S
®
¯ 0 if m z m '
{ S G m ,m '
S f
³ f (t ) sin(m ' t ) dt ¦
S
So: 1
Fc S G Å onlythem’ = m termcontributes
S
m m,m '
S m 0
S
Droppingthe’ fromthem:
Fmc
S
³ f (t ) sin(mt ) dt Å yieldsthecoefficients
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PreparatorySchooltoWintercollegeon foranyf(t)!
OpticsandEnergy
Fourier Series
So if f(t) is a general function, neither even nor odd, it can
b written:
be itt
f f
1 1
f (t )
S
¦ m 0
Fm cos(mt )
S
¦ m 0
Fmc sin(mt )
even component
p odd component
p
where
Fm
³ f (t) cos(mt) dt and Fmc
³ f (t) sin(mt) dt
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Fourier Series to Fourier Transform
• Periodic signals- represented by linear combinations of

harmonically related complex exponentials
• To extend this to non-periodic

p signals,
g we need to consider a
periodic signals with infinite period.
• As the period becomes infinite,

infinite the corresponding frequency
components form a continuum and the Fourier series sum
becomes an integral
• Fourier
F i transform
t f - is
i a complex l valued
l d function
f ti i the
in h
frequency domain
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Comparison between Fourier series and
ou e transform
Fourier so
Fourier series Fourier transform
• Support periodic function • Support non-periodic

f
function
i
• Discrete frequency
spectrum
• Continuous frequency
spectrum
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The Fourier Transform
Consider the Fourier coefficients. Let’s define a function F(m)
that incorporates both cosine and sine series coefficients, with
the sine series distinguished by making it the imaginary
component:
F(m){ Fm – i F’m =
³ f (t ) cos(mt ) dt i
³ f (t ) sin(mt ) dt
Let’s now allow f(t) to range from f to f , so we’ll have to integrate from f to f ,
and let’s redefine m to be the “frequency,” which we’ll now call :
F (Z)
³
f
f (t) exp(iZ t) dt The Fourier
Transform
F(Z) is called the Fourier Transform of f(t). It contains equivalent information to

that in f(t). We say that f(t) lives in the time domain, and F(Z) lives in the
frequency domain. F(Z) is just another way of looking at a function or wave.
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The Inverse Fourier Transform
The Fourier Transform takes us from f(t) to F(Z ).

)
Recall our formula for the Fourier Series of f(t) :
f f
¦ ¦
1 1
f (t ) Fm cos( mt ) Fm' sin(mt )
S m 0
S m 0
Now transform the sums to integrals fromf to f , and again replace Fm with
F(Z ). Remembering the fact that we introduced a factor of i and included a
factor of 2, we have:
³
1 Inverse
f (t ) F (Z) exp(iZt ) dZ
2S Fourier
f Transform
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The Fourier Transform and its Inverse
The Fourier Transform and its Inverse:
F (Z )
³ f (t ) exp(iZt ) dt
f
FourierTransform
f
³ F (Z ) exp(iZ t ) d Z
1
f (t )
2S
Inverse Fourier Transform
f
So we can transform to the frequency domain and back.

Interestingly these transformations are very similar.
Interestingly, similar
There are different definitions of these transforms. The 2 can

occur in several places, but the idea is generally the same.
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• Generally, the Fourier transform F() exists when the Fourier
g converges
integral g
• A condition for a function f(t) to have a Fourier transform is,
f(t) can be completely interable.
• This condition is sufficient but not necessary
f
³
f
f (t ) dt f
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Fourier Transform Notation
There are several ways

y to denote the Fourier transform of a
function.
If the function is labeled by a lower-case letter, such as f,

lower case letter f
we can write:
f(t) ® F(Z )
If the function is already labeled by an upper-case letter, such
as E, we can write:
E (t ) o Y {E (t )} or: E (t ) o E (Z )
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Properties of Fourier transform
1 Linearity:
For any constants a, b the following equality holds:
F {af (t ) bg (t )} aF { f (t )} bF{g (t )} aF (Z ) bG (Z )
2 Scaling:
For any constant a, the following equality holds:
1 Z
F { f (at )} F( )
|a| a
1/29/2010
Preparatory School to Winter college on Optics and Energy

Properties of Fourier transform 2
3 Time shifting:
F { f (t a )} e iZ a F (Z )
Proof: f f
F { f (t a )} ³
f
f (t a )e iZt dt e iZ a ³
f
f (t0 )e iZt0 dt0
• Frequency shifting:
F {eiZt0 f (t )} F (Z Z0 )
Proof:
f
F {eiZ0t f (t )} ³f
f
e iZt0 f (t )e iZt dt F (Z Z0 )
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Properties of Fourier transform 3
5. Symmetry (Duality):
F {F (t )} 2S f (Z )
Proof:
Th inverse
The i F i transform
Fourier f i
is
f
1
F { f (Z )} ³ F (Z )eiZt d Z
1
f (t )
2S f
therefore
f
1
2S f (Z ) ³ F (t )eiZt dt F ^ F (t )`
2S f
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Properties
p of Fourier transform 4
6. Modulation:
1
F { f (t ) cos(Z0t )} [ F (Z Z0 ) F (Z Z0 )]
2
1
F { f (t ) sin(Z0t )} [ F (Z Z0 ) F (Z Z0 )]
Proof: 2
Using Euler formula, properties 1 (linearity) and 4 (frequency
shifting): 1
F { f (t ) cos(Z0t )} [ F {eiZ0t f (t )} F {e iZ0t f (t )}]
2
1
[ F (Z Z0 ) F (Z Z0 )]
2
PreparatorySchooltoWintercollegeonOpticsandEnergy 1/29/2010
Scale Theorem
The Fourier transform
off a scaled f ti f(at):
l d function, f( t): Y { f ( at )} F (Z /a ) / a
f
Proof:
Y { f (at )}
³
f
p(iZ t ) dt
f (at ) exp(
Assuming a > 0, change variables: t0 = at

f
Y { f (at )} ³ f (t0 ) exp(iZ [ t0 /a ]) dt0 / a
f f
³ f (t ) exp(i [Z /a] t ) dt
f
0 0 0 / a
F (Z /a) / a
If a < 0, the limits flip when we change variables, introducing a minus sign,
hence the absolute value.
1/29/2010
The Scale Theorem in action
f(t) F(Z)
Short
pulse
t Z
The shorter
the pulse,
Medium-
the broader
length
the
pulse t Z
spectrum!
This is the essence Long

of the Uncertainty pulse
Principle! t Z
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Shift Theorem
T h e F o u rie r tra n sfo rm o f a sh ifte d fu n ctio n , f ( t a ) :
P ro o f : Y ^ f (t a)` exp(iZ a) F (Z )
f
Y ^ f t a ` ³ f ( t a ) exp( iZ t ) dt
f
C h a n g e v a ria
i b lle s : t 0 ta
f
³
f
f ( t 0 ) exp( iZ [ t 0 a ]) dt 0
f
exp( iZ a ) ³ f ( t 0 ) exp( iZ t 0 ) dt 0
f
exp( iZ a ) F (Z )
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Parseval’s Theorem
f f
Parseval’s Theorem says that the energy is the
³ ³
1
F(Z) dZ
2 2
same, whether you integrate over time or f (t) dt
frequency:
f f 2S
f f
³ ³
2
Proof: f (t ) dt f (t ) f *(t ) dt UseZ’,notZ,toavoidconflictsin
f f integrationvariables.
f f
ª 1 ºª 1 f º
³ «
« 2S
f ¬
³
f
F (Z exp(iZt ) d Z » «
»¼ «¬ 2S f ³
F *(Z c exp(iZ ct ) dZ c» dt
»¼
f f f
ª º
³ ³ ³
1 1
F (Z ) F *(Z c) « exp(i[Z Z c] t ) dt » dZ cd Z
2S 2S «¬ f »¼
f f
f f
³ ³
1 1
F (Z ) F *(Z c) [2SG Z Z c)] d Z cd Z
2S 2S
f f
f f
³ ³
1 1
F (Z ) F *(Z ) d Z F (Z ) dZ
2
1/29/2010 2S 2S
f
PreparatorySchooltoWintercollegeonOpticsandEnergy f
Parseval's Theorem in action
Timedomain f(t) Frequencydomain F(Z)
t Z
| f(t)|2 |F(Z)|2
t Z
Thetwoareas(i.e.,thelightpulseenergy)arethesame.
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The Convolution
The convolution allows one function to smear or broaden another.
f
f (t ) g (t ) { f (t ) g (t ) { ³
f
f (t0 ) g (t t0 ) dt0
f
changing variables:
³
f
f (t – t0 ) g (t0 ) dt0 t0 Æ t - t0
f g f g
* =
x x t
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The convolution can be performed visually:
rect * rect
f
f (t ) g (t ) ³
f
f (t – t0 ) g (t0 ) dt0
rect(t) * rect(t) = '(t)
rect(x) '(t)
x t
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Convolution with a delta function
f
f g ³
f
f (t – t0 ) g (t0 ) dt0
f
f (t ) G t ) ³
f
f (t t0 ) G (t0 ) dt0
f (t )
• Convolution with a delta function simply centers the function
on the delta-function.
• This convolution does not smear out f(t).
f(t) Since a device
device’ss
performance can usually be described as a convolution of the
quantity it’s trying to measure and some instrument response, a
perfect device has a delta-function instrument response.
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TheConvolutionTheorem
The Convolution Theorem turns a convolution into the inverse FT of
the
h product
d off the
h Fourier
F i Transforms:
T f
Y {f (t ) g (t )} = F (Z ) G (Z )
Proof:
f
f ½
Y { f (t ) g (t )} ³ ® ³ f (t0 ) g (t – t0 ) dt0 ¾ exp(iZ t ) dt
f
f f ¯ f ½ ¿
³f f (t0 ) ®¯f³ g (t t0 ) exp(–
( iZt ) dt
d ¾ dt
¿
d0
³
f
f (t0 ){G (Z exp(– iZt0 )} dt0
³
f
f (t0 ) exp(– iZt0 ) dt0 G (Z F (Z G (Z
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The Autocorrelation
The convolution of a function f(

f(x)) with itself (the
( auto- convolution)) is
given by:
f
f f ³
f
f (t0 ) f (t t0 ) dt0
Suppose that we don’t negate any of the arguments, and we complex-

conjugate the 2ndd factor. Then we have the autocorrelation:
f
f f { ³
f
f (t0 ) f * (t0 t ) dt0
The autocorrelation plays an important role in optics.

1/29/2010
The Autocorrelation
As with the convolution,

convolution we can also perform the autocorrelation
graphically. It’s similar to the convolution, but without the inversion.
f f f g
=
x x t
Like the convolution, the autocorrelation also broadens the function

y
in time. For real functions, the autocorrelation is symmetrical (even).
( )
1/29/2010
The Autocorrelation Theorem
TheFourierTransform
of the autocorrelation
oftheautocorrelation f ½
^ f (t)`
2
isthespectrum! Y ® ³ f (t0 ) f *(t0 t) dx¾ Y
¯f ¿
Proof: f ½ f f
Y ®³ f (t0 ) f *(t0 t ) dx ¾ ³ exp(iZt ) ³ f (t ) f *(t
0 0 t ) dt0 dt
¯f ¿ f f
f f *
ª º
³
f
f (t0 ) « ³ exp(iZt ) f (t0 t ) dt » dt0
¬f ¼
t’ = t
f f * f
ª º
³ f (t0 ) « ³ exp(iZt c) f (t0 tc) dt c» dt0 ³ f (t0 ) > F (Z)exp(iZt0 )@ *dt0
f ¬f ¼ f
f
³ f (t0 )exp(iZt0 ) dt0 F *(Z) F (Z) F *(Z) F (Z)

2
f
1/29/2010
The Autocorrelation Theorem in
action
Y ^rect(t )` sinc(Z / 2)
rect(t) sinc(Z / 2)
1 1
sinc(Z / 2) u
rect(t) rect(t)
-1 0 1 t 0 Z sinc(Z / 2)
'(t)
'(t ) sinc (Z / 2)
2 sinc2 (Z / 2)
1
1
t 0 Z
-1 0 1
Y ^'(t )` sinc 2 (Z / 2)
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The Modulation Theorem:
The Fourier Transform of E(t) ( 0 t))
( ) cos(w
f
Y Ê (t ) cos(Z0t )`
f
³ E (t ) cos(Z t ) exp(i Z t ) dt
f
0
³ E (t ) ª¬exp(p(i Z t ) exp(p(i Z t )¼º exp(p(i Z t ) dt

1
0 0
2
f f f
³ ³
1 1
E (t ) exp(i [Z Z ] t ) dt 0 E (t ) exp(i [Z Z ] t ) dt 0
2 2
f f
1 1
Y Ê (t ) cos(Z0t )` E (Z Z0 ) E (Z Z0 )
2 2
Example:
E (t ) cos(Z0t ) Y Ê (t ) cos(Z0t )`
E(t) = exp(-t2)
t Z
-Z0 Z0
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The Fourier Transform of 1
• Using integration, the Fourier transform of 1 is
f iZt f
ªe º e i f e if
³
iZt
F{1}
F {1} 1e dt « » ?
f ¬ iZ ¼ f iZ
• At first, we may conclude that 1 has no Fourier transform, but

in fact, it can be found using the principle of duality!
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if
*Note that e is neither 0 nor since
if
e cos f i sin f ??
where cos and sin do not converge and |cos | 1 and |sin
|| 1.
( a iZ ) f
But e equal to 0 since
( a iZ ) f f if if
e 0u e e e 0
with condition a is real and a > 0.
1/29/2010
The Spectrum
We define the spectrum,S(Z),of a wave E(t) to be:
2
S (Z ) { Y {E (t )}
This is the measure of the frequencies present in a light wave.

wave
1/29/2010
The Dirac delta function
Unlike the Kronecker delta-function,

delta-function which is a function of
two integers, the Dirac delta function is a function of a real
variable, t.
G(t)
f if t 0
G (t ) { ®
¯ 0 if t z 0
t
Dirac Gfunction Properties
p
f
³ G (t ) dt
f
1 G(t)
f f
³ G (t a ) f (t ) dt
f
³ G (t a ) f ( a ) dt
f
f (a) t
³ exp( r iZ t ) dt
f
2S G (Z
³ exp[
f
p[ r i (Z Z c)t ] dt 2S G (Z Z c
1/29/2010
Example
Using the definition

definition, find the Fourier transform
of (t).
Then deduce the Fourier transform of 1.
Solution
f
*Recall the sifting property: ³ G (t a) f (t )dt

f
d f (a )
Th Fourier
The F i transform
f off f (t) = (t) is
i
f
³
iZt iZ 0
F (Z ) F {G (t )} G (t ) e dt e e0 1
f
Then, usingg the dualityy principle,

p p the Fourier transform of 1 is
F {1} 2Sf (Z ) 2SG (Z ) 2SG (Z )

since G (Z ) G. (Z )
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The Fourier Transform of G(t) is 1
f
³ G (t ) exp(iZt ) dt
f
exp(iZ [0]) 1
G(t)
0 t Z
f
The Fourier Transform of 1 is SG(Z): ³ 1 exp(iZt ) dt

f
2S G (Z
SG(Z)
t 0 Z
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The Pulse Width
There are many definitions of the
" idth" or “length”
"width" “l th” off a wave or pulse.
l '
't
The effective width is the width of a rectangle t
whose height and area are the same as those of the pulse.
g
Effective width Area / height: f(0)
f
1 (Abs value is 'teff
'teff { ³
f (0) f
f (t ) dt unnecessary
f iintensity.)
for t it )
Advantage: It’s easy to understand. 0 t

Disadvantages: The Abs value is inconvenient.
inconvenient
We must integrate to ± .
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The Uncertainty Principle
The Uncertainty Principle says that the product of a function's widths
i the
in h time
i domain
d ( t)
i (' ) and
d the
h ffrequency ddomain ( Z)
i (' ) has
h a minimum
i i .
Define the widths f f
1 1
assuming f(t) and 't { ³
f (0) f
f (t ) dt 'Z { ³
F (0) f
F (Z ) dZ
F(Z) peak at 0:
f f
1 1 F (0)
't t ³
f (0) f
f (t ) dt ³
f (0) f
f (t ) exp( i[0] t ) dt
f (0)
f f
1 1 2S f (0)
'Z t ³
F (0) f
F (Z ) dZ ³
F (0) f
F (Z ) exp(iZ>@ d Z
F (0)
(Different definitions of the widths and
Combining results:
the Fourier Transform yield different
f (0) F (0)
'Z 't t 2S constants.))
F (0) f (0) or: ' Z ' t t 2S 'Q 't t 1
1/29/2010PreparatorySchooltoWintercollegeonOpticsandEnergy
SomecommonFouriertransform
pairs
Source:http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierTransform.html
1/29/2010
Example: the Fourier Transform of a
rectangle function: rect(t)
1/ 2
1
F (Z ) ³
1/ 2
p( iZ t ) dt
exp(
iZ
p( iZ t )]1/1/2 2
[[exp(
1
[exp( iZ / 2) exp(iZ @
iZ
exp(iZ / 2) exp( iZ
F(Z)
Z 2i
i (Z
sin(
Z
Imaginary
Component = 0
F (Z sinc(Z
Z
1/29/2010
Example: the Fourier Transform of a
G
Gaussian,
i ( t2),
exp(-at ) is
i itself!
it lf!
f
Y {exp(at 2 )} ³ ) exp(iZt ) dt
2
exp( at
f
v exp(Z 2 / 4a ) The details are a HW problem!
exp( at 2 ) exp( Z 2 / 4a )

0 t 0 Z
1/29/2010
The Fourier transform of exp(iZ0 t)
f
Y êxp(
p(iZ0 t )`
f
³ exp(p(iZ t ) exp(p(i Z t ) dt
f
0
³
f
exp(i [Z Z0 ] t ) dt 2S G (Z Z0 )
exp(iZ0t)
Y {exp(iZ0t)}
Im t

Re Z
t Z

The function exp(i(iZ0t) is the essential component of Fourier

analysis. It is a pure frequency.
1/29/2010
The Fourier transform of cos(Z t)
f
Y ^cos((Z0t )`
f
³ cos((Z t ) exp(p(i Z t ) dt
f
0
³
1
>exp(i Z0 t ) exp(i Z0 t )@ exp(i Z t ) dt
2
f f f
³ ³
1 1
exp(i [Z Z0 ] t ) dt exp(i [Z Z0 ] t ) dt
2 2
f f
S G (Z Z0 ) S G (Z Z0 )
cos(Z0t) Y {cos(Z0t )}
t Z
Z Z
1/29/2010
Fourier Transform with respect to space
• If f(
f(x)) is a function of pposition,,
f
F (k ) ³ f
f ( x) exp(ikx) dx
x
Y {f(x)}
{f( )} = F(k)
• We
W refer
f tot k as the
th spatial
ti l ffrequency.
k
• Everything we’ve said about Fourier transforms
wee thee t anddZ do
between
be domainss also
so applies o thee x andd k do
pp es to domains.
s.
1/29/2010
The 2D Fourier Transform
Y (2){f(x,y)} = F(kx,ky) f(x,y)
= ³³ f(x,y) exp[-i(kxx+kyy)] dx dy y
x
If f(x,y) = fx(x) fy(y), Y (2){f(x,y)}
then the 2D FT splits into two 1D FT's.
But this doesn’t always happen.
1/29/2010
Fourier Optics Layout
• Fourier Optics
p
• Wave Equations and Spectrum
• Separation of Variables
• The Superposition Integral
• Fourier Transform Pairs
• Optical Systems: General Overview
• Abbe Sine Condition
• 2D Convolution against Impulse Response Function
• Applications of Fourier Optics
1/29/2010
Fourier Optics
• Fourier optics
p is the study
y of classical optics
p usingg techniques
q
involving Fourier transforms and can be seen as an extension of
the Huygens-Fresnel principle.
• Any
A wide id wave which
hi h moves forward
f d can actually
t ll be b thought
th ht
of as an infinite amount of wave points, all of which could
move relatively independently of each other. The theorem
basically says square objects can be made by combining an
infinite amount of curved objects.
• If a wave is far enough away from something that it can be
simplified to a square block moving forward, a Fraunhofer
diffraction would be created.
1/29/2010PreparatorySchooltoWintercollegeonOpticsandEnergy
Fourier Optics 1
• When the wave is close enough g than more attention must be ppaid
to the individual wave points and the wave can only be simplified
to a round ball instead of a square block, a Fresnel diffraction
would be created.
created
• Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind image processing
techniques, as well as finding applications where information
needs to be extracted from optical sources such as in quantum
optics.
• Fourier optics makes use of the spatial frequency domain (kx, ky)
as the conjugate of the spatial (x,y) domain.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Foundations of Scalar Diffraction
Theory
• Diffraction plays an important role in the branches of
physics and engineering that deals with wave
propagation.
• To fully understand the properties of optical imaging
and data processing system- it is essential that
diffraction and its limitations on system performance
be appreciated.
• First step to scalar diffraction theory is - Maxwell’s
Equations
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
From Vector to Scalar Theory
• The Maxwell’s equations

q in free space
p are written as
JG JG
xH E 0
JG JJG
xH 0
JJG
JG JG wH
u E P
wt
JG
JG JJG wE
u H H
wt
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
• Where and μ are permittivity and permeability of the
medium
di i which
in hi h wave is
i propagating.
i
• We assume that wave is propagating in a linear, homogenous,
isotropic and non-dispersive dielectric medium.
• Isotropic –properties are independent of direction of
polarization of the wave.
• Homogenous-permittivity is constant throughout the region of
propagation.
• Non-dispersive - permittivity is independent of wavelength
over the wavelength region occupied by the propagating wave.
• Non-magnetic-magnetic permeability is always equal to free
space permeability.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Electromagnetic Wave Equation
• Electric and magnetic fields satisfy wave equations in
free space
G
G wE 2
2
EP Ho o 0
w
wt 2
G
G wB
2
B PoHo 2 0
2
wt
wt
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
• Since the vector wave equation is obeyed by both E
and B – an identical scalar wave equation is obeyed
by all the components of those vectors.
• For example x-component of E obeys the equation
w Ex 2
Ex PoHo 2
2
0
wt
wt
ItispossibletosummarizethebehaviorofallcomponentsofE
and B through a single scalar wave equation
andBthroughasinglescalarwaveequation
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Propagation of Light
An optical field (light) can be described as a waveform propagating

through free space (vacuum) or a material medium (such as air or
glass) - the amplitude of the wave is represented by a scalar wave
function u that depends on both space and time. i.e.
( , t))
u= u(r,
Where
r = (x, y, z)
represents position in three dimensional space, and t represents time.
1/29/2010
Scalar Wave Equation
• In a dielectric medium that is,, linear,, isotropic
p , homogeneous,
g ,
and non-dispersive- all components of the electric and
magnetic field behaves identically and described by single
scalar wave equation.
equation
§ 2 1 w2 ·
¨ 2 2 ¸
u (r , t) 0
© c wt ¹
• where u ( r , t ) - represents any of the scalar field components
in free space.
• Fourier optics begins with scalar wave equation
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Helmholtz Equation
• One possible solution of scalar wave equation for
monochromatic fields can be
u (r , t) u ( r ) e iZ t
where
h
u (r ) a(r )eiI ( r )
• By substituting this in the wave equation- the time-independent
form of the wave equation may be derived- known as the
Helmholtz equation.
2

k 2 u (r ) 0
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Helmholtz Equation
q 1
• Where
Z 2 S
k
c O
• is the wave number, i is the imaginary unit and u (r ) is the
time-independent- complex valued component of the
propagating wave.
wave
• The propagation constant k, and the frequency are linearly
related to one another, a typical characteristic of transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) waves.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Paraxial Wave Equation
• An elementary
y solution to the Helmholtz equation
q takes the
form
ik .r
u ( r ) u0 ( k ) e
Where G
k k x xˆ k y yˆ k z zˆ
is the wave vector and
Z
k k kx k y kz
2 2 2
c
is the wave number.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Paraxial Wave Equation 1
• Usingg the pparaxial approximation,
pp , it is assumed that
kx k y kz
2 2 2
Or equivalently
sin T | T
where T is the angle between the wave vector k and the z-axis.
As a result
kz k cos T | k (1 T 2
)
and 2
i ( k x x k y y ) ikzT 2 2
u ( r ) u0 ( k ) e e e ikz
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Paraxial Wave Equation 2
• Substitutingg u (r ) into the Helmholtz equation
q - the Paraxial
wave equation is given by
wu0
T u0 2ik
2
0
wz
where
w2 w2
T 2 2
wx wy
2
Is the transverse Laplacian operator in cartesian coordinates.

coordinates
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Diffraction
Diffraction: The bending g of light
g around the edges
g or some
obstacle is called diffraction.
Two types of diffractions

1. Fresnel diffraction- Near Field diffraction
2 Fraunhoffer
2. F Diff ti - Far
h ff Diffraction F field
fi ld diffraction
diff ti
Huygens s Principle: Every point on a wave front can be

Huygens’s
considered as a point source for a spherical wave
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Fresnel Diffraction
• Fresnel diffraction- is a process of diffraction that
occurs when wave passes through an aperture and
diffracts in the near field.
• Any diffraction pattern observed is different in size
and shape- depending on the distance between the
aperture and observation plane.
• It occurs due to the short distance in which the
diffracted waves propagates- results in a Fresnel
number greater than 1
a2
F t1
OL
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Fraunhofer Diffraction
• Fraunhofer diffraction
diffraction- is a form of wave diffraction
that occurs when field waves are passed through an
aperture or slit causing only the size of an observed
aperture image to change.
• It is due to the far field location of observation and
increasingly planar nature of outgoing diffracted
waves passing through the aperture.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Fraunhofer Diffraction
• If a light source and observation screen are
effectively
ff i l far f enough h from
f a diffraction
diff i aperture/slit-
/ li
the wave fronts arriving at the aperture and the screen
can be considered to be collimated or planar.
planar
• Fraunhofer diffraction occurs when the Fresnel

number is less than 1.
a2
F 1
OL
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Comparison of Fresnel and Fraunhofer
Diffraction
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Fraunhofer Diffraction Using lenses
• Using
g a ppoint like source for light
g and collimatingg lens it is
possible to make parallel light.
• This light will then be passed through the slit.
• Another
A th lens
l will
ill focus
f th parallel
the ll l light
li ht on observation
b ti plane.
l
• The same setup with multiple slits can also be used

used- creating a
different diffraction pattern.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Fraunhofer Diffraction Using lenses
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Huygens’ss Principle
Huygens
• Huygens’s
Huygens s Principle: Every point on a wave
front can be considered as a point source for a
spherical wave
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Huygens
Huygens-Fresnel
Fresnel Principle
The Huygens-Fresnel Principle describes the value of field
U(P0) as a superposition of diverging spherical waves
originating from the secondary sources located at each and
every point P1 with in the aperture .
1 exp(ikr01 )
U ( P0 ) ³³
iO s
U ( P1 )
r01
cosT ds
Where is the angle between element of area and displacement

vector between two point
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Huygens-Fresnel
yg Principle
p
• According to the Huygens- Fresnel Principle every point in the
plane (x’,y’,0) will act as a point source for spherical wave of type
A ikr
U (r ) e
r
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Fresnel Diffraction Integral
• The
Thefielddiffractionpatternatapoint(x,y,z)is
field diffraction pattern at a point (x y z) is
givenby
z eikr
U ( x, y , z )
iO ³³ U ( x ', y ', 0) dx ' dy '
r
where
h
r ( x x ') 2 ( y y ') 2 z 2
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Fresnel Approximation
• Under
Under
( x x ') 2 ( y y ') 2
r | z
2z
The Fresnel diffraction integral can be written as
ik ª
e ikz ( x x ') 2 ( y y ') 2 º
³³ 2z ¬ ¼
U ( x, y , z ) U ( x ',
' y '
', 0) e ddx ' ddy '
iO z
It shows that the propagating field is a spherical wave-
orginating at the aperature and moving along z-axis.
This integral modulates the amplitude and phase of the
spherical wave.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Fraunhofer Diffraction Integral
• In scalar diffraction theory,
theory the Fraunhofer
approximation is a far field approximation
made to the Fresnel diffraction integral.
integral
• U
Under
d thishi condition
di i the
h quadratic
d i phase
h f
factor
under the integral sign is approximately unit
over the
h entire
i aperture.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Fraunhofer Diffraction Integral
Th Fraunhofer
The F h f diffraction
diff ti occurs if
k(x '2 y '2 ) z
Using this approximation in Fresnel diffraction integral we get
ik 2 2
(x y ) 2S
ikz 2z
e e i ( x ' x y ' y)
U(x, y)
iOz ³³U(x ', y ')e kz
dx ' dy '
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Plane Wave Spectrum
• The pplane wave spectrum
p concept
p is the basic foundation of
Fourier Optics.
• The plane wave spectrum is a continuous spectrum of uniform
plane
l waves andd there
th is i one plane
l wave componentt ini the
th
spectrum for every tangent point on the far-field phase front.
• Thee amplitude
a p tude of o that
t at plane
p a e wave component
co po e t would
wou d be the
t e
amplitude of the optical field at that tangent point.
• In the far field defined as
Range = 2 D 2 O
• D is the maximum linear extent of the optical sources and
is
the wavelength.
wavelength
1/29/2010
1/29/2010
The Plane Wave Spectrum 1
0
• The pplane wave spectrum
p is often regarded
g as being
g
discrete for certain types of periodic gratings.
PreparaatorySchooltoW
• In reality- the spectra from gratings are continuous as
well -since no physical device can have the infinite
extent required to produce a true line spectrum.
andEnergy
Wintercollegeon
• For optical systems- bandwidth is a measure of how far
a plane wave is tilted away from the optic axis.
nOptics
• This type of bandwidth is often referred to as angular
bandwidth or spatial bandwidth.
The Plane Wave Spectrum 2
• The plane wave spectrum arises as the solution of the
h
homogeneous electromagnetic
l i wave equationi i
in
rectangular coordinates.
• In
I th
the f
frequency d
domain,
i th
the h
homogeneous
electromagnetic wave equation or the Helmholtz
equation takes the form
2 Er k 2 Er 0
2S
where r= (x, y, z) and k
O
is the wave number of
the medium.
medium
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Separation of Variables
• Solution to the homogeneous
g wave equation-in
q rectangular
g
coordinates can be found by using the principle of separation
of variables for partial differential equations.
• This
Thi principle
i i l says that
th t in
i separable
bl orthogonal
th l coordinates,
di t an
elementary product solution may be constructed to this wave
equation of the following form
Er ( x, y, z ) f x ( x) u f y ( y ) u f z ( z )
• i.e. a solution which is expressed as the product of a function
of x times a function of y times a function of z.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Separation of Variables 1
• Putting
g this elementaryypproduct solution into the wave equation
q
- using the scalar Laplacian in rectangular coordinates
w 2 Er w 2 Er w 2 Er
Er2
2
wx 2
wy 2
wz
we obtained
f x '' ( x) f y ( y ) f z ( z ) f x ( x) f y '' ( y ) f z ( z ) f x ( x) f y ( y ) f z '' ( z ) k 2 f x ( x) f y ( y ) f z ( z ) 0
Rearranging
''
f x '' ( x) f y ( y ) f z '' ( z )
k2 0
f x ( x) f y ( y ) f z ( z )
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
• Three ordinary differential equations for the fx , f y and fz, along
with
i h one separable
bl condition
di i are
d2
f
2 x
( x ) k 2
x f x ( x) 0
dx
d2
2
f y ( y ) k 2
y f y ( y) 0
dy
d2
2
f z ( z ) k z
2
f z ( z) 0
dz
where
kx2 k y 2 kz 2 k2
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
• Each of these differential equations
q has the same solution- a
complex exponential- so that the elementary product solution
for Er is
i ( kx x k y y kz z ) i ( k x x k y y ) ik z z
Er ( x, y, z ) e e e
i ( k x x k y y ) r iz k k x k y
2 2 2
e e
• This represents a propagating or exponentially decaying
uniform plane wave solution to the homogeneous wave
equation.
• The - sign is used for a wave propagating or decaying in the +z
direction and the + sign is used for a wave propagating or
decaying in the -zz direction.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Superposition Integral
• Ag general solution to the homogeneous
g electromagnetic
g wave
equation in rectangular coordinates is formed as a weighted
superposition of all possible elementary plane wave solutions
as
i ( k x x k y y ) r iz k k x k y
2 2 2
Er ( x, y ) ³ ³ E (k , k
r x y )e e dk x dk y
• Thi
This integral
i l extendd from
f minus
i i fi i to infinity.
infinity i fi i
• This plane wave spectrum representation of the electro-
magnetic field is the basic foundation of Fourier Optics.
• When z=0, the equation above simply becomes a Fourier
transform (FT) relationship between the field and its plane
wave content.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The Superposition Integral
• All spatial
p dependence
p of the individual plane
p wave
components is described explicitly via the exponential
functions.
• The coefficients of the exponentials are only functions of

spatial
spat a wave
wave-numbers
u be s kx aandd kyy just as in oordinary
d a y Fourier
ou e
analysis and Fourier transforms.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Free Space as a Low
Low-pass
pass Filter
• If
kx2 k y 2 ; kz 2
• Then the plane waves are evanescent (decaying)- so that any
p
spatial frequency
q y content in an object
j plane transparency
p p y which
is finer than one wavelength will not be transferred over to the
image plane- simply because the plane waves corresponding to
that content cannot propagate.
p p g
• In connection with lithography of electronic components, this
phenomenon is known as the diffraction limit and is the reason
why light of progressively higher frequency (smaller
wavelength) is required for etching progressively finer features
in integrated circuits.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Fourier Transform Pairs
• The Analysis equation is
f f
i ( kx x k y y )
f (k x , k y ) ³³
f
f f
f
f ( x, y ) e dxdy
• The Synthesis equation is

f f
1 i ( kx xky y )
2 ³ ³
f (x, y) F (k , k )e dkxdky
4S f f
x y
• The normalizing factor of 4S1 is present whenever angular

2
frequency (radians) is used, but not when ordinary frequency

(cycles) is used.
used
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Optical systems: General Overview
• An optical system is consists of an input plane and output plane.
• A set of components that transforms the image f formed at the
input into a different image g formed at the output.
• The
Th output
t t image
i i related
is l t d to
t the
th input
i t image
i b convolving
by l i theth
input image with the optical impulse response h - known as the,
point-spread function - for focused optical systems.
• The impulse response uniquely defines the input-output behavior
of the optical system.
• The
Th optic i axisi off the
h system isi taken h z-axis.
k as the i AsA a result,
l theh
two images and the impulse response are all functions of the
transverse coordinates - x and y. y
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Optical systems: General overview 1
• Optical systems typically fall into one of two different categories.
• The first is the ordinary focused optical imaging system- wherein
the input plane is called the object plane and the output plane is
called the image plane.
plane
• The field in the image plane is desired to be a high-quality
reproduction of the field in the object plane.
• The impulse response of the optical system is desired to
approximate a 2D delta function- at the same location in the
output plane corresponding to the location of the impulse in the
input plane.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Optical systems: General overview 2
• The second type
yp is the optical
p image
g pprocessing
g system-
y
in which a significant feature in the input plane field is to
be located and isolated.
• The impulse response of the system is desired to be a

close replica of that feature which is being searched for
in the input plane field- so that a convolution of the
f t
feature against
i t the
th input
i t plane
l fi ld will
field ill produce
d a bright
b i ht
spot.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Input Plane and Output Plane
• The input plane is defined as the locus of all points
such that z = 0. The input image f is therefore
f ( x, y ) U ( x, y , z ) z 0
• The output plane is defined as the locus of all points

such that z = d. The output image g is therefore
g ( x, y ) U ( x, y , z ) z d
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The convolution of input function
against
i t impulse
i l response function
f ti
The convolution of input function with input response function is
g( x, y) h( x, y) f ( x, y)
f f
g ( x, y ) ³³
f f
h( x x ' , y y ' ) f ( x ' , y ' )dx ' dy '
• The integral below tacitly assumes that the impulse response is

not a function of the position (x'
(x , yy')) of the impulse of light in the
input plane.
• Thispropertyisknownasshiftinvariance.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
The convolution of input function
against
i impulse
i l response function
f i
Thisequationassumesunitmagnification.Ifmagnificationispresent
thenaboveeqn.becomes
f f
g ( x, y ) ³³
f f
hM ( x Mx ' , y My ' ) f ( x ' , y ' )dx' dy '
• It translates the impulse response function from x’ to x=Mx’.

The relation between magnified and unmagnified response
f nction is
function
hM h x M
,y
M
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Derivation of the convolution equation
• The convolution representation of the system response
requires representing the input signal as a weighted
superposition over a train of impulse functions by using the
shifting property of Dirac delta functions.
f
³ G ' ' '

f (t ) (t t ) f (t ) dt
f
• The system under consideration is linear- that is the output of

the system due to two different inputs is the sum of the
individual outputs of the system to the two inputs - when
introduced individually.
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
Derivation of the convolution equation 1
• The output
p of the system
y is then simplified
p to a single
g delta
function input- which would be the impulse response of the
system h(t - t'). Thus, the output of the linear system to a
general input function f(t) is
f
Output (t ) ³f
f
h(t t ' ) f (t ' ) dt '
• The convolution equation is useful because it is often much

easier to find the response of a system to a delta function input
- andd then
h perform
f the
h convolution
l i above
b to find
fi d the
h response
to an arbitrary input - than find the response to the arbitrary
input
p directly.y
1/29/2010
System Transfer Function
• The Fourier transform of above equation
q becomes
Output (Z ) H (Z ) F (Z )
where
• Output (Z ) is the spectrum of the output signal.
• H (Z ) is the system transfer function.
• F (Z ) is the spectrum of the input signal.
Thus, the input-plane
Thus input plane plane wave spectrum is transformed into
the output-plane plane wave spectrum through the
multiplicative action of the system transfer function.
1/29/2010
Applications of Fourier optics
• Fourier optics is used in the field of optical information
processing.
• The Fourier transform properties of a lens provide
numerous applications in optical signal processing such
as spatial filtering, optical correlation and computer
generated holograms.
holograms
• Fourier optical theory is used in interferometry, optical
tweezers, atom traps, and quantum computing.
• Concepts of Fourier optics are used to reconstruct the
phase of light intensity in the spatial frequency plane
References
INTRODUCTION TO FOURIER OPTICS

BY JOSEPH W. GOODMAN
OPTICS
BY EUGENE HECHT
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy
THANK YOU
THANKYOU
1/29/2010
OpticsandEnergy

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2130-5

Preparatory School to the Winter College on Optics and Energy

FUNDAMENTALS OF FOURIER OPTICS

IMRANA ASHRAF ZAHID

• A Fourier series decomposes

The resultingg wave is periodic,

Add another, with an amplitude 1/5 of the original and a frequency

• If we carry on until the 15th harmonic- we should see a pattern

• It looks quite noisy- but bears resemblance to the square wave.

• Odd and Even Functions:

• Even Function- cosine is an even function-mirrored about the

where the set {Fm; m = 0, 1, … } is a set of coefficients that define

TofindFm, multiplyeachsidebycos(m’t),wherem’ isanotherinteger,andintegrate:

³ f (t) cos(m 't) dt ¦

( ) is an odd function ((for all m),

where the set {F’m; m = 0, 1, … } is a set of coefficients that define the

TofindFm, multiplyeachsidebysin(m’t),wherem’ isanotherinteger,andintegrate:

• Periodic signals- represented by linear combinations of

• To extend this to non-periodic

• As the period becomes infinite,

• Support periodic function • Support non-periodic

F(Z) is called the Fourier Transform of f(t). It contains equivalent information to

The Fourier Transform takes us from f(t) to F(Z ).

The Fourier Transform and its Inverse:

So we can transform to the frequency domain and back.

There are different definitions of these transforms. The 2 can

There are several ways

If the function is labeled by a lower-case letter, such as f,

Preparatory School to Winter college on Optics and Energy

Assuming a > 0, change variables: t0 = at

This is the essence Long

T h e F o u rie r tra n sfo rm o f a sh ifte d fu n ctio n , f ( t  a ) :

rect(t) * rect(t) = '(t)

The convolution of a function f(

Suppose that we don’t negate any of the arguments, and we complex-

The autocorrelation plays an important role in optics.

As with the convolution,

Like the convolution, the autocorrelation also broadens the function

³ f (t0 )exp(iZt0 ) dt0 F *(Z) F (Z) F *(Z) F (Z)

³ E (t ) ª¬exp(p(i Z t )  exp(p(i Z t )¼º exp(p(i Z t ) dt

• Using integration, the Fourier transform of 1 is

• At first, we may conclude that 1 has no Fourier transform, but

We define the spectrum,S(Z),of a wave E(t) to be:

This is the measure of the frequencies present in a light wave.

Unlike the Kronecker delta-function,

Using the definition

*Recall the sifting property: ³ G (t  a) f (t )dt

Then, usingg the dualityy principle,

F {1} 2Sf (Z ) 2SG (Z ) 2SG (Z )

The Fourier Transform of 1 is SG(Z): ³ 1 exp(iZt ) dt

The effective width is the width of a rectangle t

Advantage: It’s easy to understand. 0 t

v exp(Z 2 / 4a ) The details are a HW problem!

The function exp(i(iZ0t) is the essential component of Fourier

If f(x,y) = fx(x) fy(y), Y (2){f(x,y)}

then the 2D FT splits into two 1D FT's.

But this doesn’t always happen.

• The Maxwell’s equations

An optical field (light) can be described as a waveform propagating

represents position in three dimensional space, and t represents time.

Is the transverse Laplacian operator in cartesian coordinates.

Two types of diffractions

Huygens s Principle: Every point on a wave front can be

• Fraunhofer diffraction occurs when the Fresnel

T h e F o u rie r tra n sfo rm o f a sh ifte d fu n ctio n , f ( t a ) :

³ f (t0 )exp(iZt0 ) dt0 F (Z) F (Z) F (Z) F (Z)

³ E (t ) ª¬exp(p(i Z t ) exp(p(i Z t )¼º exp(p(i Z t ) dt

*Recall the sifting property: ³ G (t a) f (t )dt

F {1} 2Sf (Z ) 2SG (Z ) 2SG (Z )

The Fourier Transform of 1 is SG(Z): ³ 1 exp(iZt ) dt

v exp(Z 2 / 4a ) The details are a HW problem!

³ G ' ' '