Cowan resumen

Conditional sentences: Sentences that express condition and the result of the condition. The
contingencies that they express divide them into two major categories- real and unreal conditionals
 Real conditionals: The real conditionals are the ones in which the condition, and hence the result
can be fulfilled. They describe conditions that always or frequently obtain (generic and habitual
conditions), conclusions and implications that can be drawn if a condition in the if clause is fulfilled
(interference conditionals) and the probability of something happening In the future (future
conditionals). These subtypes help us to understand the meaning and function of the conditionals. 
Generic conditionals: they express a fact that appears to be a scientific truth. They are primarily
used in scientific prose. They usually are in simple present tense but they can also be in the
progressive or use the modal will in the result clause.
E.g: If light is moving, it has 2 distinct possibilities…..
Habitual conditionals: express situations or events, in the present or in the past, as being the usual
but not inevitable result of a condition being met. They can have the past or present tense. If the
habitual condition is in the past, it may have past in both clauses or the past in the if clause and the
modal would + infinitive in the result c. 
If he HAD business in Baltimore, he (usually) stayed at the Hyatt.
They can be paraphrased with Whenever bc express conditions that occur repeatedly. Whenever he
had business in Baltimore, he would (always)stay in Hyatt. 
Inference conditionals: the proposition in the result clause is inferred from the proposition in the if
clause. They can be about the present or the past. “If x, then y”. This type of conditional has more
possibility for modals and tense combinations. For the most part inferences are made on special
knowledge that the speaker has. The inferent in the result clause is expressed with modals that
express probability. The speaker does not need to know the truth in order to make an inference.
Sarcastic statements often take the form of inference conditionals in the present tense. 
If we can save the eagle, we can certainly ensure their survival.

Future conditionals: a) expressing future events: They may be about plans or other
contingencies. The if clause expresses an event in the simple present and the result clause
expresses a future event that depends on the condition being fulfilled. We can use will or be
going to  (less common) and modals that express different degrees of likelihood [result clause].
If the [if clause] is in the present → present simple, if it happened in the past → simple past,
present perfect. 

b) special uses: if clauses can be followed by questions, expressing instructions and suggestions: it
is usually used in the simple present denoting a future event.
If I´m late, don’t wait up (instruction)-- If he calls, what do I tell him? (question)
Unreal conditionals: 
Hypothetical conditionals: express speculation about imagining possible events or states in the
present and future. Although the verb in the if clause of a hypothetical conditional about the future
is usually in simple past tense, it can take other forms. Hypothetical conditionals that express
comments and speculations about current states have stative verbs.
Counterfactual conditionals: many of this type of conditional talk about past events that did not
occur. Affirmative statements in the clauses imply negative statements, and the other way round. “If
I had seen you at the mall, I would have said hello '' meaning “I didn't see you, I didn't say hello.
The tense is past perfect in the if clause and would + have + pp in the result clause.
Counterfactual conditionals can also express speculations about impossible states or situations in
the present.
·        Variations in form in unreal conditionals: A change that is getting common in American
spoken English is the substitution of would have in both parts of the conditional sentence. However,
these types of sentences are still considered ungrammatical in written English.
Ellipsis of the if is possible in hypothetical and counterfactual conditional sentences, provided that
sub-aux inversion also occurs “Had I known you were coming, I would….”
Extra note on conditionals:
A condition is something that has to be fulfilled before something else can happen. After the if
clause, the other clause is about events that might occur or might have occured 
●  Type 1 conditionals: The most commonly used form is “if + present simple + IP future”
Other future tenses can be used in the main clauses.  We use type 1 conditionals to describe what
will or won't happen if we think that an event is probable a future event. The condition to be
satisfied has to be real. After If all presents can be used
Type 1: Variation 1: “If + present + modal”: Will in the main clause expresses certainty or near
certainty, if we do not feel certain enough or we want to express the idea of necessity we can use
another modal instead. Like CAN , COULD, MIGHT,SHOULD, OUGHT TO. We can use the
progressive and perfect combination with modals
Type 1: Variation 2: “If + should + eg. Imperative” If + should + imperative in the main clause
is used especially when we want to make polite requests or suggestions, or to tell people (tactfully)
what to do. A condition can be expressed without if by beginning a sentence with should. This is
rather formal and is often found, for example, in business letters, not in everyday conversation:
“Should you be interested in our offer, please contact us”. The use of should in the If-clause makes
the condition more doubtful, we cannot use should in its negative form therefore we use present
simple.
Type 1, Variation 3: “Imperative + conjunction + clause”: Imperatives can be used in place of
If-clauses to comment, make requests, make a bargain, offer advice, threaten and so on. The use of
the imperative conveys more urgency than the If-clause. E.g Drop the gun or I’ll shoot you. 
●  Type 2 conditionals: The most commonly used form is: 'if + simple past + "d' conditional.
If is followed by a past tense or could (= was/were able to). The main clause is normally
formed with would, though should can be used instead of would after / and we. Would is
generally contracted to 'd in all persons in the main clause. An unnecessary extra negative
can occur in Type 2 conditionals: wouldn't be surprised if he didn't try to blackmail you (i.e.
if he tried to blackmail you) The not in the If-clause does not make a true negative.
Type 2 conditionals talk about imaginary situations in the If-clause and speculate about their
imaginary consequences in the main clause. They described what is impossible. Though past tenses
are used, the reference is not to past time (that’s why it is also called unreal past). Depending on
the attitude of the speaker, a Type 2 conditional can be used in place of a Type 1 to describe
something that is reasonably possible. “If you went by train, you would get there earlier”
Type 2: Variation 1: 'If + were/was' + 'would/should'.
 'If I were/If I was' Were can be used in place of was after If I/he/she/it. There is no difference in
meaning, but were is more formal, particularly when we are making doubtful statements: “If I
was/were better qualified, I'd apply for the job”
'If I were you/If I were in your position' (Not "was*) We often use these expressions to give advice:
If I were you/in your position, I'd accept their offer
 'If it were not for/Were it not for' (Not *was*) This expression explains why something has or
hasn't happened: If it weren't for your help, I would still be homeless In formal contexts.
Type 2: Variation 2: 'If + past + modal”: Another modal can replace would in Type 2
conditionals, e.g. when we feel the imaginary consequences are less likely, or when we are referring
to ability or possibility.
Type 2: Variation 3: 'If + were to/was to' + 'would', etc” Instead of an ordinary verb in the
simple past, we can use were or was + to-infinitive in Type 2 conditional clauses: “If I were to (or
was to) ask, would you help me?” The same kind of conditional can be expressed without if, if we
begin a sentence with were. This kind of inversion is common only in very formal contexts: Were
the government to cut Value Added Tax, prices would fall There is no negative construction. Other
modals other than would and should are possible.
●  Type 3 conditionals: The most commonly used form is: 'if + past perfect + 'would have'. If
is followed by the past perfect or could have (= had been able to). Type 3 conditionals
assume something purely imaginary in the if-clause and consider the imagined
consequences in the main clause. However, Type 3 conditionals refer to consequences
which did not and could not (now) ever happen because they refer to something that didn't
happen in the past. They are 'hypothetical conditions.
We can also start with If I had been you/If it hadn’t been for or with Had when we apply inversion.
Type 3, Variation 1: 'If + past perfect + modal: Another modal can replace would in Type 3
conditionals e g when we feel that the imagined consequences were less likely or when we are
referring to ability. The imagined outcome might use the modals but always in the past
could/might/should have+ verb 3rd column. 
Other uses of If
● Unless and IF not are sometimes interchangeable. Both can be used in type 1 without a
change of meaning (unless is stronger). 
We cannot use Unless instead of If not when we have a sentence that refers to unreal situations. E.g.
I’ll be surprised if he doesn’t win. 
We often use unless in past references to introduced an afterthought, usually introduced by a dash;
we cannot use If not because it changes the meaning. E.g I couldn’t have got to the meeting on time
- unless I had caught the train vs. I couldn’t have got to the meeting on time, if I hadn’t caught an
earlier train.
● Other conjunctions: As long as, Assuming that, evenf if, if only, on the condition that,
provided that, supposing that. 
What if can be used in the sense of “Let us suppose”.
Whether or not introduces alternative conditionals. E.g Whether I fell well or not on Monday, I’m
going back to work.
Implied conditionals: Conditionals can be implied when they are not introduced by If. 
● With luck, we'll be there by tomorrow (If we are lucky)- Type 1
● To hear him talk, you’d think he was Prime Minister (If you could hear him talk)- Type 2
● Without your help, I couldn’t have done it (If you hadn’t help me)-Type 3
Other meaning of If:
1. Means when in permanent truths
2. Means although or even if.
3. Mean as if in exclamations.
4. It can be used as whether when we introduce indirect questions.
Will and would after it: is used to emphasise willingness, when asking others to do things (If you
will wait ...), with reference to someone else (If he will only try harder), in polite formulas and in
indirect references (If you won’t stop smoking...).
If+will in type 1 is used in order to emphasise an idea of “not now but later”. E.g If it will suit you,
I’ll change the date.

Subjunctive mood and unreal past: Biber

The present subjunctive is the base form of the verb, used where the s-form of the verb would occur
normally. It occurs in special kinds of finite dependent clauses, particularly in some that
complement clauses (1) and occasionally in some adverbial clauses (2). With regular verbs, the
present subjunctive is recognizable only with a singular subject. The past subjunctive is restricted to
the form used in the singular, especially to express unreal or hypothetical meaning.
Present subjunctive: we use it: 1. In that clauses after report verbs, adjectives or nouns to express
plans, urgency, intentions or suggestions. 2. After if “If he should be…” 3. After whether: “whether
he (should) agree…” 4. After whatever: “whatever his reasons….” 5. The present subjunctive is
common in particular phrases “Far be it from me…., so be it…, heaven forbid!”
Past subjunctive: The past subjunctive is used in formal English. Were is more common only in the
phrase “If I were you”
Unreal past: it is used to discuss imaginary situations, to express impossible wishes and to make
proposals and polite requests. We can also use it: a) after it when we think it is unlikely or
impossible that the condition will be fulfilled. B) to replace an if clause when we imagine past,
present or future events being different. C) after if only to express regrets and frustration, d) after
wish when we are wishing for the virtually impossible, e) after would rather and would sooner to
express preference. F) after if and as though we use present and present perfect forms to suggest
something is likely to be true. G) after imperative suppose and imagine. H) after it´s time.
The subjunctive consists of the infinitive without to in all persons, the past subjunctive exists only
in were in all persons.
Extra note Quirk:
Be to+ infinitive: This expresses (a) arrangement, (b) command, or (c) contingent future: (a) We are
to be married soon
Be about to+ infinitive: This construction expresses near future, imminent fulfilment: The taxi is
here and we are about to leave:, Be to may enclose other items such as shortly or soon to provide a
means of future expression; with other items again (bound, liable, certain, (un)likely), future
expression is overlaid with modal meaning
Future time in the past: Some of the future constructions just discussed can be used in the past
tense to express time which is in the future when seen from a viewpoint in the past.
(1) AUXILIARY VERB CONSTRUCTION with would (rare; literary narrative style): The time
was not far off when he would regret this decision
(2) be going to+INFINITIVE (often with the sense of 'unfulfilled intention ') You were going to
give me your address
(3) PAST PROGRESSIVE I was meeting him in Bordeaux the next day
 (4) be to+INFINITIVE (formal='was destined', 'was arranged') He was later to regret his decision:
The meeting was to be held the following week
(5) be about to ('on the point of'); He was about to hit me
The subjunctive: Three categories of subjunctive may be distinguished:
(a) The MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE in that-clauses has only one form, the base (V); this
means there is lack of the regular indicative concord between subject and finite verb in the 3rd
person singular present, and the present and past tenses are indistinguishable. This subjunctive can
be used with any verb in subordinate that-clauses when the main clause contains an expression of
recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on (We demand, require, move, insist, suggest, ask,
etc. The use of this subjunctive occurs chiefly in formal style where in less formal contexts one
would rather make use of other devices, such as to-infinitive or should+infinitive.
(b)   The FORMULAIC SUBJUNCTIVE also consists of the base but is only used in clauses in
certain set expressions which have to be learned as wholes. SET EXPRESSIONS: GOD SAVE
THE QUEEN.
(c) The SUBJUNCTIVE were is hypothetical in meaning and is used in conditional and
concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after optative verbs like wish. It occurs as the 1st and
3rd person singular past of the verb be, matching the indicative was, which is the more common in
less formal style.
COWAN REPORTED SPEECH:
Yes/no questions: this type of questions can be answered with a simple yes or no. If a declarative
sentence contains an auxiliary verb such as have or be, a modal auxiliary verb of the copular form
of be, a yes/no question is created from the sentence by applying the rule of subject-auxiliary
inversion. For declarative sentences that do not have an auxiliary verb, the rule of subject-auxiliary
inversion is not applied. Instead, an appropriate form of the auxiliary verb do is placed at the
beginning. This is known as do insertion. This type of questions carry rising intonation. 
Positive and negative yes/no questions: 
Negative yes/no questions can be form by contracting the verbal element at the beggining of the
question with not. Ex.: Haven't you been here before? Negative yes/no questions can often express
annoyance or disappointment. Negative questions that contain possitive polarity like someone,
somebody and already are posed when the speaker expects a positive answer. Ex.: Didn't somebody
call me this afternoon?
Positive yes/no questions: usually do not imply any expectation about what the answer will be,
whereas negative questions are asked to confirm a specific expectation or assumption of the
speaker. Ex.: Have you been here before?
Reduced yes/no questions: 
They are reduced in informal conversation this is done in two ways: 1) Eliptical yes/no questions:
native speakers sometimes reduce yes/no questions by omitting auxiliary verbs and copular be with
rising intonation. Ex.: “He been talking to you?” 2) Declarative yes/no questions: They have the
form of a stament but with a question intonation, they may rise slightly. This type of questions have
3 functions: a) to check some piece of information. b) to repeat all or part of something that has
already been said for the purpose of questioning or confirming. c) to show surprise or amazement or
annoyance.
Tag questions: they consist of a tag which is a short question form, and a stem which is a
statement. There are two types: 1) Opposite polarity tag: the subject in the tag corresponds with
the subject in the stem. The tag has opposite value from the stem: if the stem is positive the tag is
negative. Ex.: You are going, aren't you? In the tag questions, the same auxiliaries are used but in
their negative form. There are FOUR types of opposite polarity tag: a) positive stem, negative tag or
the other way round: the tag starts in a high pitch and rises at the end, signals that the asker is not
completely sure of the answer. b) negative stem, positive tag or the other way round: starts high and
the falls shows that the person being asked is expected to agree with the speaker. 
2) same polarity tag questions: they are often preceded by oh or so and indicates that the speaker
has reached or inferred a conclusion that is expressed by the stem. Ex.: So, that's your little game, is
it? They can also function as: an urgent imperative “Hurry up, will you?”, a polite request, a
suggestion, a reminder and as a request for feedback: “You understand what I'm talking about,
right?”
Wh-questions: they are formed with an interrogative word. 
Forming wh-question: When any object in a declarative sentence is questioned and the sentence
contains an aux verb, a modal verb, a copular verb, two rules come into play: wh-movement and
aux inversion. For example: You are watching something. The object something is converted into
the appropriate wh-word what and it's moved to the beginning of the sentence. “What you are
watching?” Last, the subject-aux inversion is required “What are you watching?”. When the subject
of a declarative sentence is questioned, no fronting or inversion rules apply. The subject is simply
converted into the appropriate wh-word. Ex.: Someone needs a lift. Who need a lift? 
Types of wh-questions: 1) wh-information questions: they are the basic type, they are used to
request information that has not been previuously mentioned. However, they always contain a
presupposition. Ex.: How did they do it? 2) repeat please questions: they are used when the speaker
either did not understand the question or is having trouble accepting it. Ex.: “She got in at five o
´clock. She got in when?” 3) elaborate please questions: are asked to get someone to elaborate on an
answer that has been given. 
Alternative questions: they offer a choice between at least two options. “Is your birthday in June
or in August?”
Echo questions: repeat all of what has been said. A: Are you cold? B: Am I cold?
Exclamatory questions: are exclamation accerting the belief of the speaker. 
QUIRK - Questions
Question can be divided in three categories according to the type of answer they expect:
1.  Those that expect only an affirmation or rejection -YES/NO QUESTIONS
2. Those that supply an item of information-WH-QUESTIONS
3. Those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the q-
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS
Yes/no questions: are formed by placing the operator before the subject and giving the sentence a
rising intonation. The nuclear stress falls in the item of information that is unknown. If there is no
item in the verb we add DO.
Yes/no Q use non -assertive forms (someone,any,never, anyone) in order to biased towards a
positive or negative answer, since questions have a neutral polarity (leaves open whether the answer
is + or -). A question has + orientation if it uses assertive form (someone,somewhere, some,
already). 
Negative orientation occurs when the Q contains a negative form inside of it. it has an element of
surprise or disbelief.  They can also contain assertive items, this are similar to tag questions
TAG QUESTIONS:  Consist of an operator plus pronoun, with or without a negative particle. The
choice and tense of the operator are determined by the verb phrase in the superordinate clause . If
the clause is + the tag is - and vice versa and, the nuclear tone may be a rise or a fall. There are 4
types:

The tag with the falling tone, invites confirmation and has the force of an exclamation rather than a
Q. 
One less common tag Q is the one which has a positive statement and question, it always has a
rising nucleus . Indicates the speaker’s arrival at a conclusion or recalling something, it can also
sound sarcastic.
DECLARATIVE QUESTIONS: Is  identical in form to a statement except it has a rising intonation.
They show their assertive character in non-assertive forms.E.g: The guests have had nothing to eat?
Yes/no Q with modals: Modals in this Q has limitation and shift meanings. Modals of permission
and obligation involve the listener’s authority. Shall in Q shows the listener’s will. May is not
employed in questions. Need is a non-assertive auxiliary which corresponds with must.
Wh-questions: They are formed with interrogative words called Q-words such as, WHO,
WHOM,WHOSE,WHAT, WHEN,WHERE,HOW, WHY.Rules: 
1. The Q-element (clause element containing the Q-word) generally comes first. It may have
different functions (S, DO, Adj, Complement)
2. The Q-word takes the first position in the Q-element. The only exception is when the Q-
word occurs in a prepositional complement, this tends to happen in a formal context while
the preposition stranded is more common in colloquial English.
Another characteristics:
● It has a falling intonation. 
● They all have Subject-operator inversion, except when the Q-element is the S. If there is no
auxiliary, do is introduced as an operator.
Alternative Questions: There are 2 types, 
 1. The first resembling a yes/no question (would you like chocolate, vanilla or strawberry?).
They differ from y/n because instead of having a rising tone, they have a separate nucleus
for each option, except the last which is a fall that indicates that the list is complete.
The structure is formed by two or more separated Q collapsed together by ellipsis (omission of parts
that are repeated, no repetition-no ellipsis).
1. The second one wh-questions (Which ice cream would you like?chocolate, vanilla or
strawberry?). It is a compound of wh-questions followed by an elliptical alternative question of the
first type. 
Any positive y/n Q can be converted into an alternative Q by adding or not?
Minor types of questions:
Exclamatory question: Is a question in form but it functions like an exclamation, the most common
is a negative y/n Q with falling tone. Invites the listener’s agreement on which the speaker has a
strongly positive feeling. It can also  be a positive y/n Q with a falling tone.
Rhetorical Questions: Functions as a forceful statement. A + rhetorical is like a negative assertion
(Is that a reason for despair?). While a negative question is like a positive one ( Is no one going to
defend me?). They have rising toen
Chapter 14: Cowan
Modals for expressing future time
Modals can be pure: WILL- SHALL AND WOULD. Or they are semi modals: BE GOING TO.
WILL: Expresses future time including prediction about the future. It has other meanings:
● Volition(express strong desire): indicates volition or strong intent while will expresses
prediction (it can also express volition by the use of phrases such as no matter what). E.g. I
will leave tomorrow no matter what.
●  Inferred probability: The speaker makes an informed guess based on the knowledge of
certain facts and particular circumstances. ABOUT THEIR IMMEDIATE FUTURE
● Requests: Polite alternatives to commands.(turns a command to a request) e.g. will you step
into my office for a second?
SHALL: Is the least used of all the pure modals, same meaning as will. Future time: is being used
to express a prediction about the future. However, is used primarily in polite requests.Extended
meanings:
● Volition: This usually occurs in a context like a speech that is designed to express
commitment and to arouse public emotion 
● Suggestions and requests for advice: Is used with 1st person pronouns in questions. Shall I
tell him now or later? 
● Shall in legal English: it has several meanings. It might be use as must, may , etc. It
depends on the context
WOULD: Is the past equivalent of will therefore they correspond in some meanings. Future
predictions from a viewpoint in the past (I thought it would rain any minute). Extended meanings:
●  Regular actions in the past: He would come in here nearly every day.
●  Hypothetical results : Is the modal that indicates hypothetical results in conditional
sentences.
●  Inferred probability: That would be Fred.
●  Polite request: more polite than wil
BE GOING TO: ONE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WILL AND GOING TO, IS THAT
WITH GOING TO THE SPEAKER HAS ALREADY DECIDED TO DO SOMETHING. IT IS
ALSO USED FOR FAIRLY FIXED PLANS. Extended meanings:  
● Future time for planned actions: I´m going to leave a little after 7 pm
●   Immediately imminent action: Look put! we are going to hit that car. 
Alexander:
Uses of the future progressive tense: Actions in progress in the future:The most common use of the
progressive form is to describe actions which will be in progress in the immediate or distant future:
“Hurry up' The guests will be arriving at any minute!” It is often used for visualizing a future
activity already planned: “By this time tomorrow, I'll be lying on the beach.” 
Arrangements and plans: The future progressive can be used like the present progressive to refer to
planned events, particularly in connexion with travel: “We'll be spending the winter in Australia”
Uses of the future perfect simple and progressive tenses:'The past as seen from the future' : We
often use the future perfect to show that an action will already be completed by a certain time in the
future: “/ will have retired by the year 2020”
The 'going to'-future for prediction: The going to-future is often used, like will, to predict the future.
It is common in speech, especially when we are referring to the immediate future. The speaker sees
signs of something that is about to happen: “Oh, look1 It's going to rain! Look out' She's going to
faint!”
The 'going to'-future for intentions, plans, etc: When there is any suggestion of intentions and plans,
we tend to use the going to-future rather than will in informal style: “I'm going to practise the piano
for two hours this evening” We use will also when it is a decision made in the moment of speaking. 
Modals- Lesson 4
Chapter 14: COWAN
Are one kind of auxiliary verbs (they come before the main verb, exceptions be/have). MODALS
appear before a main verb or an auxiliary verb be or have, they are always in its bare infinitive
form.Some characteristics are:
1. They can be contracted with not but two modals that do not contract, MAY and SHALL
only in British can be contracted (it is restricted).
 2. Modals undergo subject- auxiliary inversion in yes/no questions and in statements with an
introductory negative word such as never, rarely, etc.
3. They are repeated with primary stress (capital letters)
4. Modals do not take the present tense -s endings or the past tense -ed endings. However,
some modals have corresponding irregular past tense forms. (could-can) 
Type of modals: They can be classified according to form or meaning:
The forms of modals
1. Pure modals: They display all the characteristics mentioned, they do not appear together.
CAN-COULD- MAY- MIGHT- MUST- SHALL-SHOULD- WILL-WOULD.
2. Marginal Modals: DARE- NEED- OUGHT TO. They only display two of the
characteristics, contractions with not and subject-aux inversion.
3. Semi Modals: They are fixed idiomatic expressions beginning with have, had or be. HAVE
TO- HAD BETTER- BE GOING TO. Most semi modals can be contracted with not and
they are also involved in subject-aux inversion. Unlike pure modals this can change form
(has to, were going to) Some semi modals like have to and be going to can be marked for
tense and person (Biber) 
There several multiword expressions such as BE ABLE TO, BE OBLIGED TO, BE WILLING TO,
that have meanings similar to those modals, BUT THEY ARE NOT MODALS.
The meanings of Modals
1. Modals of ability, permission and possibility: CAN, COULD, MAY and MIGHT.
2. Modals of advice and necessity:MUST, SHOULD, DARE NEED, HAVE TO, HAD
BETTER, ETC.
3. Modals for expressing future time: SHALL, WILL, WOULD and BE GOING TO.
Pure modals of ability, permission and possibility: they are all pure.
CAN: It expresses all the three basic meanings. a) Ability means “be able to do something”, b)it is
also used to request permission and to grant Permission, c) It expresses possibility. It also has other
extended meanings:
1. Admonition: admonish someone not to do something, the meaning is close to “must not”.
E.g. You can’t tell her.
2. Speculation:Appear in questions, which refer to some unexpected event. E.g. Who can be
calling at this hour?
3. Disbelief: The speaker draws a conclusion that surprises him or her, derives from certain
facts or external circumstances. He didn’t get a promotion? That can’t be possible.
COULD: Correspond with can so expresses all three basic meanings but it also has extended
meanings:
 1. Speculation or regret: Speculation about hypothetical possibilities in the present or past and
it can appear as a hypothetical conditional sentence which expresses regret about an
opportunity.
2. Disbelief: Couldn’t have expresses disbelief about a past action
3. Suggestion or implied criticism: Could or Could have are used to advise someone to do
something. It can also be used to project a tone of irritation and criticism.
In conversation, could and might are used most commonly for logical possibility, just as they are in
academic prose. They usually express doubt, with could showing the greatest degree of uncertainty
or tentativeness.
MAY: Expresses possibility and permission, it also has the meaning of speculation although the
other forms are more commonly used.
May not is formal to deny permission (emphasizes permission) 
MIGHT: Has only the basic meaning of possibility but has several extended meanings:
1. Speculation: Might have implies a high degree of speculation.
2. Suggestion: Might can have the force of a neutral suggestion
3. Implied criticism:The tome of an utterance can be annoyance or surprised due to something
that the other person address has done or has failed to do.
4. Permission in formal request. 
Pure modals of advice and necessity
Should it is interchangeable with the marginal modal ought to for advice. Meanwhile, must is the
pure modal of necessity (interchangeable with have to), necessity can be internal or external, in
which external circumstances create the compulsion.
SHOULD: In addition to advice, it has other two extended meanings:
● Inferred probability: It can express probability based on evidence present at the moment of
speaking. Should have can express a measure of surprise 
● Reproach: Should have can express a reproach about actions taken or not taken. 
MUST: Expresses necessity and obligation; followed by not it expresses prohibition.
● necessity can be external or internal. Obligation and necessity are expressed by had to in the
past tense, this is a correspondence with must.
● prohibition: must not can be a statement of prohibition. Mus tnot cannot be used to express
the absence of necessity.
● Must as a minimal requirement or condition means“at least”
● Inferred probability or supposition, the speaker draws a conclusion on the basis of
something the other person just said. Must have always signals inferred probability when
the speakers uses personal knowledge to infer when a past event took place.
 ● Polite insistence in invitations and apologies, the speaker intends to convey the meaning “I
insist that” 
Marginal modals and semi modals of advice and necessity:
DARE: It is sometimes referred to as a nonassertive modal because it appears only in question and
negative statements. 
● Advice: it appears in questions in order to ask for advice. E.G. Dare I tell her?. It would be
more likely to use should or would
● Admonition: statements with dare not directly adress someone are equivalent to
admonitions with must not or can´t 
● Impossibility: In statement that are not intended as admonitions, it has the meaning of “not
possible”, which can also be expressed as can’t
NEED: 
● Necessity: Appear in British english in questions and negative statements. Need I remind
you to buy soap? / You needn't tell her.(America don’t have to)
● Advice: You look tired. You needn't lie down (can also be expressed by should)
OUGHT TO: The same meaning as should but is confined largely to affirmative statements.
● Advice: In british english can be used to create yes/no questions (applying sub-aux
inversion)
● Inferred probability: we ought to be able to see the Eiffel tower from here
● Reproach: ought to have can express reprimand abou something that was not done. You
ought to have helped her.
HAD BETTER/ HAD BEST:This semi-modals are used to give advice
● Advice 
● Had better: much as should, sometimes had is simply deleted. It is also used often used to
warn the listener of something, especially when the warning may be severe. You’d better be
careful, it’s pretty icy out there
● Had best: It has the same meaning but for speakers is not used as frequently in the contest
of warning
Both can be also used for precautionary recommendations that do not carry such warnings. you’d
best take your raincoat, it looks like a storm.
HAVE TO: Same meaning as must but the main difference is that have to is a semi modal.
● Necessity or obligation: It can express lack of obligation or necessity . (past: had to) In
questions it is required to use DO insertion. It can be preceded by WILL to indicate future
necessity or obligation
● Inferred probability: He has to be 70, look at the line expressions in his eyes
 ● Polite insistence: You have to forgive me.
HAVE GO TO: Same meaning as have to but is reduced in spoken 
● Necessity or obligation
● Inferred probability
● Polite insistence
BE SUPPOSED TO: It is used to express Obligation determined by some plan or preconceived
view. 
Biber:
Each modal can have two different types of meaning: personal or logical. For example, must can
be used to show personal obligation (You must brush your teeth) or logical necessity (Today must
be your birthday, said after noticing a birthday cake). These two types of meaning are also called
intrinsic and extrinsic.
Personal (intrinsic) modal meaning refers to the control of actions and events by human and other
agents. These meanings are personal 
● permission, 
● obligation, and
● volition (or intention). 
Logical (extrinsic) modal meaning refers to the logical status of states or events. It usually refers to
●  levels of certainty,
●  likelihood, or
●  logical necessity. 
Modals and semi-modals are grouped into three categories based on their meanings and each
category contains both personal intrinsic and logical extrinsic meanings. 
MUST: The logical meaning (logical necessity) is most common in conversation; the personal
meaning (personal obligation) is most common in academic prose. The rarity of must for obligation
in conversation is probably due to the strong impression must makes when used in face-to-face
interaction. 
WILL/WOULD: in conversation are used for both volition and prediction, and the distinction
between the two is not always clear. Utterances expressing volition usually have a first-person
pronoun as subject, while those expressing prediction have other subjects:
●  will and would marking volition in conversation: “I will come and show you it in
registration Tuesday morning” “think for sure I would go if my friends were going to

● will and would marking prediction in conversation: “ It won't be that difficult to do.”
In the case of would whether' for prediction or volition, the meaning is often hypothetical.
The combination of first-person pronoun + would can also express advice. 
BE GOING TO: can express intention or prediction, but the intention meaning is the most
common one: “I'm going to put my feet up and rest.” This meaning, of course, is also related to
future time and prediction: by showing intention, the speakers also predict future events. In contrast,
be going to is very rare in academic prose. 
SHALL: it is used to mark personal volition in both conversation and academic prose. In academic
prose, this use of shall is somewhat formal and old-fashioned. Shall is typically in a question in
conversation, where it is used to make an offer or suggestion. In both registers, shall is usually used
with I or we as subject. 
The semi-modals be going to and used to are different from the other semimodals because they are
used mostly to mark time distinctions rather than stance meanings. 
Be going to: is used to mark future
Used to: Used to shows past habitual behavior or a past state. This semi-modal, like be going to, is
relatively common in conversation but rare in academic prose. Used to can also represent an
adjective+preposition, meaning 'accustomed to'. This meaning is also common in conversation. 
Modals cannot combine with tense, but they can combine with aspect and voice:
●  modal with perfect aspect (modal + have + ed-participle): The demand for subject access
may have come as a shock to the library profession. 
● modal with progressive aspect (modal + be + ing-participle): Nancy will be coming back.
● modal with passive voice (modal + be + ed-participle) To produce the best results the plant
should be supplied with water which carries no contamination. 
The great majority of modals do not occur with marked aspect or voice. There are few cases: 
modals with perfect aspect:  Perfect aspect occurs sometimes with the obligation necessity modals
must and should in fiction and news. Sometimes should perfect aspect shows a past obligation
(unfulfilled), as in the following: “Papa should have done it long before.” 
More commonly, however, these modals are used to mark logical necessity rather than personal
obligation. In fact, with the perfect aspect, must is interpreted only as logical necessity. The
logically necessary events occurred at some point in the past. 
May and might are used with the perfect to express a certain degree of doubt about past events or
situations
modals with progressive aspect: Relatively few modals or semi-modals occur with progressive
aspect. Will and the obligation/necessity modals and semi-modals in conversation (and fictional
dialog) are occasional exceptions to this generalization: “He must be running low.” 
modals with passive voice: Can and could are relatively common with passive voice. The use of
the passive avoids identification of the agent of the main verb. As a result, the permission meaning
does not occur, and the ability meaning is also less likely to occur than in the active; therefore, the
possibility meaning is most common in passive: “Each interpretation can be seen generally to flow
through the abbreviated text as a whole.”
Sequence of modals and semi modals The semi-modals have to and be going to can occur in
series following another modal or semi-modal: “The researchers warn that they will have to treat
many more patients before they can report a cure”. 
These complex verb phrases are generally less common in conversation than in the written registers,
even though semi-modals are more common in conversation overall. The only complex modal
combination that occurs commonly in conversation is the one that combines the two most common
semi-modals, be going to + have to: “Because you're going to have to say something”

Modal Meaning Extended Meaning

1. Pure 1. Ability: to be able to do 1. speculation: refer to some

modal something unexpected event, or guessing.
can 
2. permission: is used to 2. disbelief: The speaker draws a
ask or request conclusion that surprises him or her,
permission and to five derives from certain facts or external
permission circumstances. 
3. possibility. 3. Admonition: the meaning is close to
“must to”

2. Could  1. past ability  1. speculation or regret:about a

hypotetical posssibility in the present
2. permission: polite and
or in the past.
more deferential tone
2. disbelief: the speaker doesn't believe
3. possibility (like may
that certain action in the past
and might)
happened
3. suggestion or implied criticism: to
give advice to someone in an angrier
way.

3. May 1. possibility.
2. permission: more
formal than can 

4. Might 1. possibility: different 1. speculation

with may because it
2. suggestion: used to make a neutral
expresses a remote
suggestion. An advice you are not
possibility
 sure of the result.
3. implied criticism: annoyed about
acting selfish or irresponsible from
other person
4. permission in formal request

1. Will 1. future time including 1. volition: has to be with an internal

predictions about the decition
future
2. inferred probability
3. request (polite alternative to
command) 

5. Shall 1. future time, prediction 1. volition

about the future
2. suggestion and request for advice 
3. In legal english expressing future
time or requirement.

6. Would  1. prediction in the past. 1. regular action in the past

Future in the past.
2. hypothetical results
3. inferred probability
4. polite request: more polite than will

7. Be going to 1. planned future action

(semi-modal) 
2. immediate imminent
action.
3. used when the speaker
talks about something
that is fairly firm.

8. Should 1. advice 1. inferred probability: based on

evidence prent at the moment of
speaking
2. reproach

9. Must  1. express necessity and 1. Inferred probability: the speaker

obligation. Followed by draws a conclusion on the basis of
not expressed
prohibition something the other person just said.