ANAPHY (LEC): LE 2 | TRANS 2

Cell Structure and Physiology

Aniceto Lemnel L. Cabuso, PTRP | JANUARY 20, 2021

® Functional
I. HISTORY OF THE CELL THEORY o Composed of combination of few molecules in
tubular-globular form
A. MODERN CELL THEORY o Mainly enzymes of the cell and often mobile in
• Cells are the smallest complete living things the cells
• All organisms are composed of one or more cells ◦Cells arise o Many of them are adherent to membranous
only from other cells structures inside the cell
• All existing cells are descendants of the first cells
F. PROTOPLASM: LIPIDS
II. THE CELL • Phospholipids and cholesterol (2% of total cell mass)
• The cell is the basic unit of biological organization • Grouped together of their common property of being soluble in
• Basic composition: fat solvents
® Protoplasm • Mainly insoluble in water
® Cell membrane • Forms the cell membrane and intracellular membrane that
® Organelles separates the different cell compartments
• 5 basic substances • Fat stored: body’s main storehouse of energy giving nutrients
Can later be dissoluted and used to provide energy wherever in
® Water
the body it is needed
® Electrolytes/ions
® Proteins
G. PROTOPLASM: CARBOHYDRATES
® Lipids
• Most human cells do not maintain large stores of
® Carbohydrates
carbohydrates
• 1% of total cell mass
• Have little structural function
• Parts of the glycoprotein molecule plays a major role in the
nutrition of the cells
• Small amount of carbohydrate is stored in the cells in the form
of glycogen – can be depolymerized for energy needs

III. FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

1. Cell Metabolism and Energy Use
2. Synthesis of Molecules
3. Communication
C. PROTOPLASM: WATER 4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• The principal fluid medium of the cell is water
• Present in most cells except in fat cells IV. THE CELL MEMBRANE
• Chemical reactions take place among the dissolved chemicals • Outer boundary of the cell
or at the surfaces of the suspended particles or membranes. • Double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins “selective”
• The phospholipids of plasma membranes are amphipathic:
D. PROTOPLASM: IONS they have both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic
• Potassium, magnesium, phosphate, bicarbonate (water-fearing) regions
• Small quantities of sodium, chloride, calcium • Also plasma membrane/plasmalemma
• Provides inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions • Membrane transport: selectively permeable membrane
• Necessary for operations of some of the cellular control • Osmosis, Protein Channels, Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic ends
mechanisms
A. FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
E. PROTOPLASM: PROTEINS • Like tiles of mosaic but are embedded in a fluid and can
• 2nd most abundant substance, normally constitutes about 10- move slightly to allow passage of water molecules across the
20% of cell mass. membrane
• 2 types of Proteins: • Neither rigid nor static in structure but is highly flexible and
® Structural can change its shape and composition through time
o Present mainly in the form of long filaments • • Slight damage to the membrane can be repaired
form microtubules that provides cytoskeleton o → phospholipids tend to reassemble
of cellular organelles (cilia, nerve axons, and
mitotic spindles)

LE 2 TRANS 2 MLDA21 Cell Structure and Physiology Page 1/7

 B. MOVEMENT THROUGH THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Selectively permeable— it allows only certain substances to
pass through it.
• Small, non-lipid-soluble molecules (e.g. urea) diffuse
between the phospholipid molecules of the plasma
membrane.
• Large, non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions that cannot
diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer may move across the
plasma membrane with the help of transport proteins.

C. PASSIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

F. VESICULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

V. PHAGOCYTOSIS
D. RATE OF DIFFUSION
• Rate of diffusion depends on:
® Amount of substance available
® Velocity of kinetic motion
® Number and sizes of the membrane’s opening

VI. PARTS OF THE CELL (ORGANELLES)

E. ACTIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

A. CYTOPLASM
• Mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or colloid
• Cytosol – fluid portion of cytoplasm
® Solution vs. colloid
® Individual vs. clumped atoms or ions distributed in
medium
• Polar (charged) compounds go into solution
• Nonpolar (noncharged) compounds go into colloidal
suspension

LE 2 TRANS 2 MLDA21 Cell Structure and Physiology Page 2/7

 B. NUCLEUS • Translation
• Control center of the cell ® Transfer RNA picks up amino acids ◦Ribosomes link
• All body cells have a nucleus at some point in their life cycle amino acids together
(RBC lose their nuclei as they develop)
• Nuclear Membrane G. NUCLEOTIDE PAIRS
® Has pores to allow the passage of substances • Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with DNA nucleotides
• Nucleoplasm according to the base-pair combinations
® Colloidal suspension of proteins, nucleic acids, and
enzymes
• Chromatin
® Genetic material of cell
• Chromosomes (DNA and RNA) H. RNA
• Nucleolus • Transfer RNA
® Site of ribosome formation ® Collects amino acids in the cytoplasm
• Messenger RNA
® Copies the code from the DNA molecule in the nucleus.
• Ribosomal RNA
® Physically move along an mRNA molecule, catalyze the
assembly of amino acids into protein chains

C. RIBOSOMES
• Distributed throughout cytoplasm
• Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
• No membrane covering
• Site of protein synthesis

D1. DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)

• Mostly found within the nucleus, although small amounts of DNA
are also found within mitochondria
• Gene *cont. of cell organelles*
® Sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule that I. MITOCHONDRIA
specifies an RNA molecule • Powerhouses of the cell
• Does not leave the nucleus but functions by means of an • Extraction of energy from the nutrients
intermediate, ribonucleic acid (RNA), which can leave the
• Present in all areas of each cell’s cytoplasm
nucleus through nuclear pores.
• Structure: (Outer) Capsule shape, (Inner) Folds
• Cristae
D2. ANATOMY OF A DNA MOLECULE
® Inner folds where cellular respiration occurs
• Double helical chain of nucleotides
• Energy requirements of cell determine cristae number
® Phosphate group
• Self replicative
® Five-carbon sugars (deoxyribose)
• Forms the ATP
® Nitrogen-containing base
o Pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine)
o Purines (adenine and guanine)
o Pyrimidines pair with purines
® Chains held together by hydrogen bonds

*for DNA*
E. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• Protein functions J. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
® Structure, enzymes or catalysts, immune response • Network of tubular and flat vesicular structures
• DNA contains the code for a particular protein • Conducts other substances to other parts of the cell
® DNA found in nucleus • Connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes
F. GENE EXPRESSION • Cisternae
• The production of RNA and/or proteins from the information ® Sac like or channel like cavities
stored in DNA • Rough ER (Granular)
• Transcription ® For protein synthesis
® Messenger RNA copies DNA code (genetic code) and ® Attached ribosomes
leaves nucleus

LE 2 TRANS 2 MLDA21 Cell Structure and Physiology Page 3/7

• Smooth ER (Agranular)
® Fat transport (Lacteals in small intestine)
® Sex hormone synthesis (Gonads)
• Provides the enzymes that control glycogen breakdown
• Provides enzymes capable of detoxifying substances (drugs)
M. CYTOSKELETON
• Supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in
place. It is also responsible for changes in cell shape and the
movement of cell organ
• The cytoskeleton consists of three groups of proteins:
microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments
(thickest to thinnest)

N. CENTRIOLES
• Centrosome
® Two centrioles at right angles to each other
® Composed of nine sets of triplet fibers
• Form spindle fibers during cell division (Microtubules)
• Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells

K. GOLGI APPARATUS
• Collection of flat saclike cisternae prominent in secretory cells
• Concentration and collection of cellular compounds
• Packaging and distribution center because it modifies,
packages, and distributes proteins and lipids
• Storage warehouses of the cell O. LOCOMOTION OF CELLS
• Carbohydrate synthesis site • Two other types of movement—ameboid locomotion and ciliary
movement—occur in other cells.
• Ameboid movement
® Movement of an entire cell in relation to its
surroundings, such as movement of white blood cells
through tissues.
• Begins with protrusion of a pseudopodium from one end of
the cell
• Type of cells that exhibit ameboid movement
® WBCs (to form macrophages)
L. LYSOSOMES ® Fibroblasts
• Digestive enzyme packages ® Embryonic cells
• Vesicular organelles that may be formed by RER and Golgi
O. CILIARY MOVEMENTS
bodies
• Function of intracellular digestive system ◦ • Cilia and Flagella
• Hair-like protrusions from cell membrane
® Digest stored food
® Maintenance and repair of organelles • Nine double fibrils around two single central fibrils
® Suicide agents for old or weak cells (Autolysis) • Cilia
® Move materials across cell surface
• Flagellum
® Propels cell through a medium

O. MICROVILLI
• Increase the cell surface area
• Microvilli are only one tenth to one twentieth the size of cilia
• Supported with actin filaments

M. PEROXISOMES
• Contain enzymes that break down fatty acids and amino acids
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which can be toxic to the cell, is a
by-product of that breakdown.
• Contains oxidases that breaks down hydrogen peroxide to
water and oxygen
• Formed by self-replication (budding from SER)

LE 2 TRANS 2 MLDA21 Cell Structure and Physiology Page 4/7

 VIII. INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
• Process of cell duplication
• Mitosis
® Duplication of genetic material
• Cytokinesis
® Duplication of organelles
• Meiosis
® Reduction division only in gonads

IX. THE CELL CYCLE

• All reproduction begins at cellular level
• Interphase
® Previously called resting stage
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
® Cytoplasmic division

A. INTERPHASE
• Time between divisions
® G1: Primary growth phase
® S: DNA duplication
® G2: Centrioles complete duplication, mitochondria
replicate, chromosomes condense and coil

VII. CELLULAR METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION

A. CELLULAR METABOLISM B. MITOSIS

• Metabolism • Prophase
® Total cellular chemical changes ® Chromosomes become visible as chromatids are joined
• Anabolism by centromere
® Process of building up ® Two kinetochores at the centromere
• Catabolism ® Centrioles move to opposite poles
® Process of breaking down ® Nuclear membrane breaks down
• Calorie ® Microtubules attach kinetochores to spindle
® Measure of energy contained in food
• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
® Most common energy source available to the cell
B. ATP PRODUCTION
• Cellular respiration through Aerobic process • Metaphase
• Glucose (C6H12O6) ® Chromatids align at equator of cell
® Most common substance decomposed aerobically in ® Centromere divides
cells to produce ATP
• Three steps of ATP production
® Glycolysis
® Krebs (citric acid) cycle
® Electron transfer

LE 2 TRANS 2 MLDA21 Cell Structure and Physiology Page 5/7

• Anaphase ® Spindle forms; centrioles move to poles
® Divided centromere pulls chromatids to opposite pole • Metaphase II
® Cytokinesis begins ® Chromosomes line up at equator
• Anaphase II
® Centromeres divide
• Telophase II
® Chromatids at each pole; new nuclear membrane forms
• Telophase
® Chromosomes uncoil and decondense
® Spindle apparatus breaks down
® New nuclear membrane forms
® Cytokinesis nearly complete

C. CYTOKINESIS
• The division of the cell’s cytoplasm to produce two new cells.
• Cytokinesis begins in anaphase and continues through
telophase
• Animal cells
® Cleavage furrow forms
® Cell is pinched into daughter cells
• Plant cells
® Cell plate forms at equator
® Cell plate becomes new cell wall

XI. MITOSIS VS. MEIOSIS

• In meiosis, we end up with four daughter cells each containing
only half the genetic material, whereas in mitosis we end up
with two daughter cells each containing the full complement of
genetic material.

X. MEIOSIS: A REDUCTION DIVISION XII. CELL DIFFERENTIATION, APOPTOSIS, AND CANCER

• Occurs only in the gonads
• Reduces genetic material from diploid to haploid A. CELL DIFFERENTIATION
• Two divisions resulting in four cells • Refers to changes in physical and functional properties of cells
as they proliferate in the embryo to form the different bodily
A. STAGES OF MEIOSIS structures and organs
• Prophase I • Example:
® Homologous chromosomes pair and cross over ® When the nucleus from an intestinal mucosal cell of a
• Metaphase I frog is surgically implanted into a frog ovum from which
the original ovum nucleus was removed, the result is
® Chromosomes align along equator
often the formation of a normal frog.
• Anaphase I
® Centromeres pulled to poles ◦One member to each
B. APOPTOSIS
pole
• “Programmed cell death”
• Telophase I
• When cells are no longer needed or become a threat to the
® One of each pair is at each pole
organism
• Prophase II

LE 2 TRANS 2 MLDA21 Cell Structure and Physiology Page 6/7

• This process involves a specific proteolytic cascade that
causes the cell to shrink and condense, to disassemble its
cytoskeleton, and to alter its cell surface so that a neighboring
phagocytic cell, such as a macrophage, can attach to the cell
membrane and digest the cell

C. CANCER
• Cancer is caused in all or almost all instances by mutation or
by some other abnormal activation of cellular genes that
control cell growth and cell mitosis.
• The abnormal genes are called oncogenes
• The probability of mutations can be increased manyfold when a
person is exposed to certain chemical, physical, or biological
factors
• Characteristics of cancer cells
1. The cancer cell does not respect usual cellular growth
limits; the reason for this is that these cells presumably
do not require all the same growth factors that are
necessary to cause growth of normal cells.
2. Cancer cells are often far less adhesive to one another
than are normal cells. Therefore, they tend to wander
through the tissues, enter the blood stream, and be
transported all through the body, where they form for
numerous new cancerous growths.
3. Some cancers also produce angiogenic factors that
cause many new blood vessels to grow into the cancer,
thus supplying the nutrients required for cancer growth.

LE 2 TRANS 2 MLDA21 Cell Structure and Physiology Page 7/7