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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789

Introduction
The French Revolution of 1789 was the most spectacular outbreak against the evils of ancient
regime in France. It was a violent uprising of the French people to bring down the absolutism of French
monarchy, oppression of aristocracy and the exploitation of clergy. This revolution marked a dynamic
series of events which lasted for six years and it brought about tremendous changes in France and the rest
of the world. Several political, social, economic and intellectual factors worked together behind this great
historical event.
Causative Factors
Political Problems
On the eve of the revolution, France was administered by the Bourbon kings who advocated the
“Divine Right Theory of Kingship” and regarded themselves as the representatives of God on earth. The
French monarchs were autocrats and despotism had reached its zenith under Louis XIV who said “I am
the state”. He also commented, “Sovereign authority is vested in my person”. A kind of parliament,
known by the name Estates General, was not called after 1614. Freedom of religion was curtailed and the
Huguenots were ill treated. Press was strictly censored and books and papers criticizing the government
were burnt. Under Louis XV, the successor of Louis XIV the administration had become rotten and
oppressive. He was a lazy and pleasure seeking king who fell under the evil influence of mistresses like
Madame de Pompadour and Madame de Barry. He lavished titles, estates and money and submitted to
their whims to determine the government policy. Louis XVI who succeeded Louis XV, though good at
heart, was a dull witted and weak-kneed prince. He became a thoroughly henpecked husband, misled by
his queen, Marie Antoinette who was callously indifferent to the miseries of the people. Robertson has
written, “ Louis XVI was one of the least kingly figures who ever wore a crown”.
All the important officers were given to the highest bidders without considering their
qualifications or eligibility. The governors governed the provinces without legislatures and councils.
Municipalities and corporations were also different in their ways of working from one another.
The legal system lacked uniformity and it was full of confusion. While at one place German law
prevailed at another place the Roman law was in force. C.D.Hazen writes “What was lawful in one town
might be illegal in a place five miles distant”. Law was written in Latin and consequently were not within
the comprehension of the common people. Punishment were cruel and unjust. The will of king was the
law of the land and any one could be imprisoned or punished with the help of letters de catchet. Persons
like Mirabeau and Voltaire became the victims of this. More than 400 types of laws were prevalent in the
country. In 1771, Louis XV had abolished Parlements or the French high courts of justice. But Louis
XVI revived them in 1774 to harass royal ministers and circumvent financial reforms.
Social Problems
The French Revolution of 1789 was much less than a rebellion against despotism than a rebellion
against inequality. There was too much of inequality in French society. The French society was primarily
divided into three classes or Estates of people – Clergy, Nobility and Commons. The First and the Second
Estates enjoyed a lot of privileges. The third Estate of bourgeois did not enjoy any facilities. The
privileged class formed only one percent of the total population. The first and second Estates were
exempted from paying taxes. The bulk of the taxation fell upon the third section.
The nobility had occupied all the higher offices of the state, the church and the armed forces. They
possessed one-fifth of the attire land in France. All feudal lords were not equal. A few feudal barons were
rich while majority of them were poor. The lesser nobles were waiting for change in the existing social set
up. A noble was addressed as “ My Lord, Your Grace” etc. A man in the street was to salute him as his
superior. The best seats were reserved for him both in the church and in the theatre.
Majority of the people of France were Roman Catholics. The clergy had one-third of all the land of
Europe, one-fourth of the revenue and one-third of the capital. The church in France was characterized as
a “state within the state”. The movement of skepticism and immense wealth of the church in France had
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been subjected to much criticism. It was discredited by the quarrels between the Jansenits and Jesuits.
The priests in France belonged to two categories: higher clergy and ordinary clergy. The 134 bishops and
archbishops and a small number of abbots, cannons and other dignitaries belonged to the first category
and they had earned immense income. Louis XVI is said to have observed thus: “Let us have at least an
Archbishop of Paris who believes in God”. The ordinary clergymen who performed all religious
ceremonies had only meager income. They were discontented and indignant against their superiors who
neglected and exploited them. They subscribed to the Encyclopedia and read Plutarch and Rousseau.
They joined the Commoners in their attempt to institute a new social order in France.
Common Class consisted of middle class or the bourgeois, artisans, labourers and peasants. The
middle class was comprised of money lenders, businessmen, teachers, advocates, doctors, writers and
government employees. They were dissatisfied because they could not acquire arch position in the
society. The business men supported the cause of laissez faire or free trade. The artisans were paid
meager wages and had to work for long hours. Eighty percent of the French population consisted of
peasants. There were two classes of farmers: independent farmers and semi-serfs. The independent
farmers were owners of land. The semi- serf could not leave his landlord at his own will.
A farmer had to pay 80% of his income in the form of taxes. They had to pay rent to the lords,
Tithes to the church and Taille or land tax to the king. They also had to pay Vingtieme or income tax and
Gabelle or salt tax. They were subjected to corvee or compulsory service on the king’s roads. They were
obliged to grind corn in the mill of the lord and bake bread in his oven. The lord of the land had the sole
right to hunt and peasant was forbidden to erect fences to shut out the game from his fields. It had been
aptly said, “ the clergy prayed, the nobles fought and the commons paid” and “the French nobles danced
while the peasants starved”.
Intellectual Enlightenment
The French Revolution was in fact the outcome of an intellectual revolution caused by the writings of
French philosophers like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau.
Voltaire ( 1694-1778)
Francois Marie Arouet better known as Voltaire was one of the greatest intellectuals who created a
climate for the revolution. His famous works are ‘The Age of Louis XIV’ and ‘Essay on the Customs and
the Spirit of the Nations’. To him the ideal form of government was either an enlightenment monarchy or
a middle class dominated republic. He attacked intolerance, superstition and privileges in France. He
demanded equality and liberty and cried for a radical reform of administration in all branches.
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Baron de Montesquieu was an eminent lawyer and a master of terse and pointed style. In his Spirit of
Laws, he pleaded for the separation of powers, ending of slavery and preservation of civil liberties. His
“Persian Letters”, a social satire poked fun at all social classes. Although he was a catholic and
monarchist, he criticized the abuses of the church and state in a moderate way.
Rousseau (1712-1778)
Jean Jacques Rousseau was the most prominent philosopher of the time. His famous works,
“Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and “Contract Social” popularized the democratic doctrine of
Popular Sovereignty. He opposed the Divine Right Theory of Kingship. He wrote that the people have the
right to revolt against a corrupt government. He said, Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains”.
He can be called the Prophet of French Revolution.
Encyclopedists
In the middle of the 18th century was published the French Encyclopedia. Diderot was the editor of this
encyclopedia to which many writers like D’Alembert made their contributions. It contained fearless
articles in alphabetical order on all questions of philosophy, religion, literature, aesthetics, poetics,
political economy and science.
Physiocrats
The French Physiocrats or Economists were very much influenced by the writings of Adam Smith in
England. The new economic theory known as laissez faire attacked the mercantilist policy and demanded
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government intervention to the lowest minimum. It wanted to give maximum measure of freedom for the
individual. The great exponents of this theory in France were Quesnay and Mirabeau. Quesnay’s Tableau
Economique” was hailed by some as the infallible remedy for the problems of France.
Influence of other revolutions
The examples of the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and American Revolution gave inspiration to the
leaders of the French Revolution. The French volunteers who fought in America on the side of the
colonists in the War of American Independence returned with the ideas of liberty.
Economic Problems
The fiscal problems lay at the root of the revolution. The wars of Louis XIV had upset the finances
of France. Although he had advised Louis XV to improve the finances and desist from war, the latter did
not care for the advice. He wasted money on palaces like Versailles and mistresses. He took part in the
War of Polish Succession and the Seven years War. France was on the verge of financial bankruptcy
when Louis XVI ascended the throne. The French participation in the War of American Independence
increased the financial crisis in France.
Louis XVI tried to prop the decaying economic structure of France. He failed because his royal
spouse Marie Antoinette was wastefully extravagant. Her extravagancy caused heavy drain on the
finances of the state. She was called ‘Madam Deficit’ for her spendthrift ways. She is said to have
remarked “let them eat cake” when she was told that the people were starving for bread.
In 1774, Louis XVI appointed Turgot as the Controller of Finance. He tried to tackle the financial
problem by effecting economies and developing wealth. He suggested liberty in the field of agriculture,
industry and commerce. But he was dismissed and Necker was appointed in 1776. He published a
financial report which contained a report on the income and expenditure of the country. Necker was
dismissed in 1781. He was succeeded by Calonne who suggested a general tax to be paid by both the
privileged and unprivileged classes. So he was also removed from office.
With a view to tackling the financial problems Louis XVI summoned in 1787 an Assembly of the
Notables in the hope that they would consent to the taxation of the privileged classes. But the nobles were
not willing. The king tried for new loans but the Parelement of Paris refused to register further loans or
taxes. It also contended that subsidies could be granted only by the Estates General. The Government
abolished the Parlement and ordered fresh elections to the Estates General after a lapse of 175 years. The
summoning of the States General marked the beginning of the Revolution.
Course of the Revolution
First Stage ( June 1789 – August 1792)
Louis XVI was forced to summon the States General at Versailles in May 1789. The question arose
whether the three Estates viz. the Clergy, the Nobles and the Commons should sit together or sit
separately by order. The third Estate under their leader Mirabeau insisted that the three Estates shoud dit
together and vote by head. The first and second Estates refused to join. Then the third Estate proclaimed
itself the National Assembly. It invited the members of other three Estates to join. Many of them
responded to this call. The National Assembly met in hall used as a riding academy and a tennis court. On
20, June 1789 they took an oath not to disperse until they had drafted a constitution for France. This oath
known as Oath of Tennis Court was the real beginning of the French Revolution. Bailley was the
president of the Assembly.
On 14 July 1789, the people of France stormed and destroyed the Bastille, an ancient state prison in
the heart of Paris. A new flag (the tri-colour) red, white and blue was adopted in the place of the old white
banner of the Bourbons. The National Assembly abolished tithes and feudal dues of the peasants.
Serfdom was liquidated. Exemption from taxation and feudal monopolies were annulled. The Assembly
drafted a charter of Rights known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man, issued in September 1789. It
asserted the following points.
1. All men are born equal in rights
2. Sovereignty resides with the people
3. Laws must be the expression of the general will of the people
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4. None should be imprisoned unless for violation of laws of the land

5. No person shall suffer o account of his opinions
6. All taxes should be raised only by the consent of the people
Secularization of Church
In November 1789, the National Assembly resolved to confiscate the lands of the church. In July
1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was enacted. It provided that all bishops and priests were to be
elected by the people. The Pope condemned this innovation. He forbade any bishop or priest to accept it.
Consequently the clergy in France was divided into two- Juring and Non- Jurors. Those who took the oath
of allegiance to the Civil Constitution were known as Juring. Those who refused to do so were the Non-
Jurors.
New Constitution
In 1791, the National Assembly completed the task of drafting a new constitution. It made the
nation superior to the king and law. Legislation and grant of taxation were to be in the hands of a
legislative assembly known as National Assembly. It should be elected by those who possessed a certain
amount of property. It included the peasantry, but excluded most of the workers of the towns. The
Assembly was to consist of one chamber only with two year term. The government envisaged by the
constitution was not a democratic republic, but a limited monarchy. The king refused to ratify the
Declaration of Rights. The people of Paris marched to the Palace of Versailles. They forced the king and
the royal family to return with them to Paris where they were kept in virtual imprisonment. In 1789, the
king and the queen tried to escape. But they were stopped in the French border and brought back to Paris.
War
The Emperor of Austria, the brother of the Queen Marie Antoinette tried to save Louis XIV and his
spouse. He invited other European powers to co-operate with him to suppress the revolutionary
movement. The only state which responded was Prussia. The combined troops of Austria and Prussia
invaded France. But the revolutionary forces of France stemmed the tide of their advance at Valmy. The
revolutionary army invaded Germany and took several towns on the Rhine.
Second Stage (1792-1795)
By 1792 the character of the revolution changed. During this stage, the governing power was in the
National Convention. It was first intended as a constitutional assembly to draft a new constitution. But
due to the national emergency it prolonged its existence from year to year. The royal family was sent ot
prison in August 1792. In September 1792took place the September Massacre in which hundreds of men
and women suspected of counter revolutionary tendencies were murdered in the streets of Paris. The King
was deposed and the First Republic of France was proclaimed.
In January 1793, Louis XVI was tried for treason, found guilty and executed. The National
Assembly delegated its executive powers to a group of members known as the Committee of Public
Safety. They launched a Reign of Terror fro January 1793 to July 1794. The person presided over this
Reign of terror was Robespierre. In June 1793, the moderate revolutionaries called Girondists who were
opposed to the execution of the king were overthrown and their leaders were executed. In October 1793,
Queen Marie Antoinette was executed. The Revolutionary tribunal sent thousands of suspects to the
guillotine. Danton, one of the leaders of the Reign of terror was a victim to it.
But finally the city of Paris rose against Robespierre. He was arrested and executed. After his death
the Reign of Terror came to an end. The Jacobin Club to which most of the Revolutionaries belonged was
closed. This marked the end of the second stage of the revolution.
Main achievements during this stage
1. Abolition of Slavery in the French colonies
2. Prohibition of imprisonment for debt
3. Establishment of the metric system of weights and measures.
4. The provision greater freedom of economic opportunity.
5. Adoption of a new calendar from the birth of the Republic( 2 September 1792)
6. Effort was made to abolish Christianity and substitute it with the worship of reason.
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7. Robespierre replaced the Cult of Reason by a Deism, dedicated to the worship of a Supreme
Being.
8. In 1794, the National Convention made religion a private concern of the individual
The Third Stage
After the fall of the extremists the Reign of Terror ended. The remaining leaders were all men of
moderate sympathisers. Gradually the revolution once more became the movement of the bourgeois. In
1795, the national Convention adopted a new constitution. According to it the legislative power was
vested in an assembly consisting of two houses. The executive powers of the state were put in the hands
of five persons to be chosen by the Assembly. Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory by force and
set up a government of three consuls with himself as the first consul. With this the revolutionary
government came to an end.
French Revolutionary Wars
In the beginning some great leaders in England had sympathised with the French Revolution. But
the horrors of the Reign of Terror and oppressive attitude of the French army made England an enemy of
the revolutionary France. In 1793, the French Convention declared war on England and Holland. In the
same year the First Coalition ( 1793-95) against France was formed. It consisted of England, Holland,
Austria, Prussia and Spain. But the victories of the French on land broke up the Coalition. England was
deserted by all allies and had to carry on the war single handed. But the naval success of England saved it.
In 1796, Napoleon was put in command of the French army. He defeated Sardinia and drove the
Austrians from Italy. Then he conquered Egypt defeating the Egyptians in the battle of Nile in 1798. This
shattered Napoleon’s dream of the Eastern conquest. A Second Coalition was now formed by England
against France. Bu this time also the victories of the French Revolutionary army under Napoleon broke up
the coalition. Again England was left alone but the British naval forces under Nelson won victory. The
Frence Revolutionary wars ended with the Peace of Amiens in 1802 whereby Britain agreed to restore
some of its colonial expansions.
Results of the Revolution
The French Revolution influenced not only the French people but left an indelible impression on
Europe and the entire world. Practically all the revolutions of the 19th century are traceable to its
influence. The revolutionary upsurges between 1820 and 1831 in such countries as Greece, Italy, Spain,
France, Belgium and Poland and the revolutionary movements of 1848 were the far reaching results of the
French Revolution of 1789.
1. End of the Old Regime
The French Revolution dealt a powerful blow to the absolute monarchy of the ancient regime of
many countries in Europe. Consequently the privileged class could not restore their domination. The
special rights of the church were curtailed. The Revolution also destroyed the remains of Feudalism and
prepared the way for individual liberty.
2. Changed in the condition of farmers
During the revolution the farmers had snatched land from their lords, officers and religious heads.
They cultivated the land with great enthusiasm and this made the nation prosperous. The end of serfdom
in France led to the eradication of it in Spain, Italy and Germany. Russia was compelled to free its serfs in
1861. In 1878, serfdom was eliminated in the Balkan Peninsula.
3. Diffusion of Democracy
One of the greatest achievements of the revolution was that it perpetuated the cause of democracy
and popular sovereignty. The abolition slavery in the French colonies and the overthrow of the law of
primogeniture were the other beneficial results of the revolution. The French Revolution introduced the
pivotal principles of liberty, equality and fraternity. It gave a death blow to mercantilism and promoted
laissez faire. The revolution also furnished a precedent for the ultimate divorce of religion from politics.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man made the people conscious of their rights and duties.
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4. Development of Nationality
The French Revolution engendered a spirit of nationality among the people for an identity in
religion, language, race social practices and historical traditions and they began to demand separate
states. It was this spirit of nationality that drove Napoleonic rule out of Spain and Portugal. The
unification of Italy, Germany and the national movements in the Balkan Peninsula were all the outcome
of this new spirit.
5. Age of Reaction in Europe
The frustration caused by the ideas of the revolution initiated a reactionary age in Europe. The
Austrian Chancellor Metternich took several steps to repress liberalism.
6. Evil Effects
The French Revolutions also left the legacy of some evil results. The spirit of nationalism generated
by the revolution developed into jingoistic nationalism in some countries. This further led to racial hatred
and sordid struggles for national superiority among many nations. Another evil result was the deplorable
disregard of the value of human life. The butchery of thousands during the Reign of Terror was a callous
illustration of this.
In spite of these evil results, the place of the French Revolution in the progress of human civilization is
great. The history of Europe since 1815 has been the history of the progress of ideas released by the
Revolution.
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