Very-long-baseline interferometry

VLBI
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1. VLBI Wikipedia.

Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) is a type of astronomical interferometry 1used in radio

astronomy2. In VLBI a signal from an astronomical radio source3, such as a quasar4, is collected at multiple
radio telescopes on Earth or in space. The distance between the radio telescopes is then calculated using the
time difference between the arrivals of the radio signal at different telescopes. This allows observations of an
object that are made simultaneously by many radio telescopes to be combined, emulating a telescope with a size
equal to the maximum separation between the telescopes.

Data received at each antenna in the array include arrival times from a local atomic clock5, such as a
hydrogen maser6. At a later time, the data are correlated with data from other antennas that recorded the same
radio signal, to produce the resulting image. The resolution achievable using interferometry is proportional to
the observing frequency. The VLBI technique enables the distance between telescopes to be much greater than
that possible with conventional interferometry7, which requires antennas to be physically connected by coaxial
cable8, waveguide9, optical fiber10, or other type of transmission line. The greater telescope separations are
possible in VLBI due to the development of the closure phase 11imaging technique by Roger Jennison 12in the
1950s, allowing VLBI to produce images with superior resolution.

VLBI is best known for imaging distant cosmic radio sources, spacecraft tracking, and for applications in
astrometry13. However, since the VLBI technique measures the time differences between the arrival of radio
waves at separate antennas, it can also be used "in reverse" to perform earth rotation studies, map movements of
tectonic plates very precisely (within millimetres), and perform other types of geodesy. Using VLBI in this
manner requires large numbers of time difference measurements from distant sources (such as quasars)
observed with a global network of antennas over a period of time.
1
An astronomical interferometer or telescope array is a set of separate telescopes, mirror segments, or radio telescope antennas that
work together as a single telescope to provide higher resolution images of astronomical objects such as stars, nebulas and galaxies by
means of interferometry.
2
Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects at radio frequencies.
3
An astronomical radio source is an object in outer space that emits strong radio waves. Radio emission comes from a wide variety of
sources. Such objects are among the most extreme and energetic physical processes in the universe.
4
A quasar is an extremely luminous active galactic nucleus (AGN), powered by a supermassive black hole, with mass ranging from
millions to tens of billions of solar masses, surrounded by a gaseous accretion disc.
5
An atomic clock is a clock whose timekeeping mechanism is based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the excited
states of certain atoms. Specifically, either a hyperfine transition in the microwave region, or an electron transition in the optical or
ultraviolet region, of the emission spectrum of an atom is used as a frequency standard for the timekeeping element.
6
A hydrogen maser, also known as hydrogen frequency standard, is a specific type of maser that uses the intrinsic properties of the
hydrogen atom to serve as a precision frequency reference. A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves
through amplification by stimulated emission.
7
Interferometry is a technique which uses the interference of superimposed waves to extract information.
8
Coaxial cable, or coax is a type of electrical cable consisting of an inner conductor surrounded by a concentric conducting shield,
with the two separated by a dielectric (insulating material); many coaxial cables also have a protective outer sheath or jacket.
9
A waveguide is a structure that guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound, with minimal loss of energy by restricting the
transmission of energy to one direction. Without the physical constraint of a waveguide, wave intensities decrease according to the
inverse square law as they expand into three dimensional space.
10
An optical fiber (or fibre in British English) is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter
slightly thicker than that of a human hair.
11
The closure phase is an observable quantity in imaging astronomical interferometry, which allowed the use of interferometry with
very long baselines. It forms the basis of the self-calibration approach to interferometric imaging. The observable which is usually
used in most "closure phase" observations is actually the complex quantity called the triple product (or bispectrum). The closure phase
is the phase (argument) of this complex quantity.
12
Roger Clifton Jennison (18 December 1922 – 29 December 2006) worked as a radio astronomer at Jodrell Bank under the guidance
of Robert Hanbury Brown. Jennison made a number of discoveries in the field of radio astronomy, including the discovery of the
double nature of radio source Cygnus A (3C 405.0) with M K Das Gupta and the mapping of Cassiopeia A with V Latham.
13
Astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial
bodies. It provides the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and our galaxy, the Milky Way.
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Image 1. Some of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array radio telescopes.

Image 2. The eight radio telescopes of the Smithsonian Submillimeter Array, located at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawai'i.

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Image 3. VLBI was used to create the first image of a black hole, imaged by the Event Horizon Telescope and published in April 2019.

1.1. Method.
In VLBI, the digitized antenna data are usually recorded at each of the telescopes (in the past this was done
on large magnetic tapes, but nowadays it is usually done on large arrays of computer disk drives). The antenna
signal is sampled with an extremely precise and stable atomic clock (usually a hydrogen maser) that is
additionally locked onto a GPS time standard. Alongside the astronomical data samples, the output of this clock
is recorded. The recorded media are then transported to a central location. More recent experiments have been
conducted with "electronic" VLBI (e-VLBI) where the data are sent by fibre-optics (e.g., 10 Gbit/s fiber-optic
paths in the European GEANT214 research network) and not recorded at the telescopes, speeding up and
simplifying the observing process significantly. Even though the data rates are very high, the data can be sent

14
GÉANT is the pan-European data network for the research and education community. It interconnects national research and
education networks (NRENs) across Europe, enabling collaboration on projects ranging from biological science, to earth observation,
to arts and culture. The GÉANT project combines a high-bandwidth, high-capacity 50,000 km network with a growing range of
services. These allow researchers to collaborate, working together wherever they are located. Services include identity and trust,
multi-domain monitoring perfSONAR MDM, dynamic circuits and roaming via the eduroam service.
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over normal Internet connections taking advantage of the fact that many of the international high speed
networks have significant spare capacity at present.

At the location of the correlator, the data are played back. The timing of the playback is adjusted according
to the atomic clock signals, and the estimated times of arrival of the radio signal at each of the telescopes. A
range of playback timings over a range of nanoseconds are usually tested until the correct timing is found.

Each antenna will be a different distance from the radio source, and as with the short baseline radio
interferometer15 the delays incurred by the extra distance to one antenna must be added artificially to the signals
received at each of the other antennas. The approximate delay required can be calculated from the geometry of
the problem. The tape playback is synchronized using the recorded signals from the atomic clocks as time
references, as shown in the drawing on the right. If the position of the antennas is not known to sufficient
accuracy or atmospheric effects are significant, fine adjustments to the delays must be made until interference
fringes are detected. If the signal from antenna A is taken as the reference, inaccuracies in the delay will lead to
errors εB and εC in the phases of the signals from tapes B and C respectively (see drawing on right). As a result
of these errors the phase of the complex visibility cannot be measured with a very-long-baseline interferometer.

Temperature variations at VLBI sites can deform the structure of the antennas and affect the baseline
measurements. Neglecting atmospheric pressure and hydrological loading corrections at the observation level
can also contaminate the VLBI measurements by introducing annual and seasonal signals, like in the Global
Navigation Satellite System time series.

The phase of the complex visibility depends on the symmetry of the source brightness distribution. Any
brightness distribution can be written as the sum of a symmetric component and an anti-symmetric component.
The symmetric component of the brightness distribution only contributes to the real part of the complex
visibility, while the anti-symmetric component only contributes to the imaginary part. As the phase of each
complex visibility measurement cannot be determined with a very-long-baseline interferometer the symmetry
of the corresponding contribution to the source brightness distributions is not known.

Roger Clifton Jennison developed a novel technique for obtaining information about visibility phases when
delay errors are present, using an observable called the closure phase. Although his initial laboratory
measurements of closure phase had been done at optical wavelengths, he foresaw greater potential for his
technique in radio interferometry. In 1958 he demonstrated its effectiveness with a radio interferometer, but it
only became widely used for long-baseline radio interferometry in 1974. At least three antennas are required.
This method was used for the first VLBI measurements, and a modified form of this approach ("Self-
Calibration") is still used today.

15
Interferometry is a technique which uses the interference of superimposed waves to extract information.
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Image 4. Recording data at each of the telescopes in a VLBI array. Extremely accurate high-frequency clocks are recorded alongside the
astronomical data in order to help get the synchronization correct

Image 5. Playing back the data from each of the telescopes in a VLBI array. Great care must be taken to synchronize the play back of the
data from different telescopes. Atomic clock signals recorded with the data help in getting the timing correct.

1.2. Scientific results.

Some of the scientific results derived from VLBI include:

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  High resolution radio imaging of cosmic radio sources.
 Imaging the surfaces of nearby stars at radio wavelengths (see also interferometry) – similar techniques
have also been used to make infrared and optical images of stellar surfaces.
 Definition of the celestial reference frame16.
 Motion of the Earth's tectonic plates.
 Regional deformation and local uplift or subsidence.
 Earth's orientation parameters 17and fluctuations in the length of day18.
 Maintenance of the terrestrial reference frame19.
 Measurement of gravitational forces of the Sun and Moon on the Earth and the deep structure of the
Earth.
 Improvement of atmospheric models.
 Measurement of the fundamental speed of gravity.
 The tracking of the Huygens probe 20as it passed through Titan's atmosphere, allowing wind velocity
measurements.
 First imaging of a supermassive black hole.

Geodesist Chopo Ma explains some of the geodetic uses of

VLBI: “ My name is Chopo Ma. My primary job these days seems
to be in charge of NASA’s geodetic deal DI program. When
NASA started in this area of space geodesy using the API, there
were different questions that were really interesting to answer. For
example, whether plates, like North American Plate and Europe,
the continents actually moving. The questions now are
fundamental metrics. So, that from space geodesy measurements
we can develop very precise to wrestle reference range. The ability
to know on the Earth from one place to another and from one time
to another. How things are related of down, of east-west works
out. And this is very important for measurements, which are small
in nature, but take some time to measure properly, like what happens to the sea level rise and whether it’s
uniform over the whole globe or not, the LBR and the other techniques are working to make improvements, to
make these types of fundamental measurements to aloe others science to be done more accurately, and to make
interpretation more secure.”

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The International Celestial Reference System (ICRS) is the current standard celestial reference system adopted by the International
Astronomical Union (IAU). Astronomical(celestial) coordinate systems are organized arrangements for specifying positions of
satellites, planets, stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects relative to physical reference points available to a situated observer (e.g.
the true horizon and north cardinal direction to an observer situated on the Earth's surface).
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In geodesy and astrometry, earth orientation parameters (EOP) describe irregularities in the rotation of planet Earth. EOP provide
the rotational transform from the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) to the International Celestial Reference System
(ICRS), or vice versa, as a function of time.
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The length of the day (LOD), which has increased over the long term of Earth's history due to tidal effects, is also subject to
fluctuations on a shorter scale of time. Exact measurements of time by atomic clocks and satellite laser ranging have revealed that the
LOD is subject to a number of different changes. These subtle variations have periods that range from a few weeks to a few years.
They are attributed to interactions between the dynamic atmosphere and Earth itself. The International Earth Rotation and Reference
Systems Service monitors the changes.
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A terrestrial reference frame (TRF) is the reference frame as one views from earth, or from the ground of another earth-like body. A
TRF affects the way we perceive almost everything from day to day because as we live on the earth an earth point of view is the only
type we can experience. The most noticeable result of the TRF is the way the sun appears to be rising and setting in the sky every day,
when in actuality it is the earth rotating on its axis. Our point of view is in essence distorted by the place in which we view it
happening.
20
Huygens was an atmospheric entry robotic space probe that landed successfully on Saturn's moon Titan in 2005. Built and operated
by the European Space Agency (ESA), launched by NASA, it was part of the Cassini–Huygens mission and became the first
spacecraft to land on Titan and the farthest landing from Earth a spacecraft has ever made. The probe was named after the 17th-
century Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, who discovered Titan in 1655.
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1.3. VLBI arrays.

There are several VLBI arrays located in Europe, Canada, the United States, Russia, China, South Korea,
Japan, Mexico, Australia and Thailand. The most sensitive VLBI array in the world is the European VLBI
Network (EVN). This is a part-time array that brings together the largest European radiotelescopes and some
others outside of Europe for typically weeklong sessions, with the data being processed at the Joint Institute for
VLBI in Europe (JIVE). The Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), which uses ten dedicated, 25-meter
telescopes spanning 5351 miles across the United States, is the largest VLBI array that operates all year round
as both an astronomical and geodesy instrument. The combination of the EVN and VLBA is known as Global
VLBI. When one or both of these arrays are combined with space-based VLBI antennas such as HALCA or
Spektr-R, the resolution obtained is higher than any other astronomical instrument, capable of imaging the sky
with a level of detail measured in microarcseconds. VLBI generally benefits from the longer baselines afforded
by international collaboration, with a notable early example in 1976, when radio telescopes in the United States,
USSR and Australia were linked to observe hydroxyl-maser sources. This technique is currently being used by
the Event Horizon Telescope, whose goal is to observe the supermassive black holes at the centers of the Milky
Way Galaxy and Messier 87.