Case Study – Chinese Architecture

Michael Kibuchi – B02/1137/2020

Anisa Mohammed – B02/1148/2020

Brian Bore - B02/1162/2020

Brian Okoth - B02/140427/2020

Zohra Abuya - B02/140729/2020

Cornelius Sangok - B02/141064/2020

Michael Koech - B02/140809/2020

Janet Humbu - B02/139962/2020

John Ndichu - B02/141117/2020

Department of Architecture and Building Science

BAR 203: History and Theory of Architecture

Arch. Ralwala. A, Arch. Njoroge

 CHINESE BACKGROUND

History and Background

Ancient China was majorly located on the eastern part of Asia, stretching as far as

Eastern Europe to the west, the Sea of Japan to the East, and the Indian Subcontinent to the

south (especially during the Mongol Dynasty). Like other ancient civilizations, the location of

ancient China was dependent on the conquests of each dynasty's leaders.

Map of Chinese territory

Map of Ancient Chinese Dynasties

The settlement of Ancient China can be summarized into three focus points namely,

Zhongyuan, Jiangnan and Southern China. In reality, it was spread throughout the

contemporary Chinese territory but these three areas sufficiently sample out the geographical

conditions of ancient China and the resulting Architectural responses.

Zhongyuan served as the heart of early Chinese civilization because of its favorable

geographical and climatic conditions. It is flat and has rich soils due to silt deposition from a

nearby river. Its temperate climate facilitated healthy crop growth. Its proximity to nomadic

tribes from northern deserts and steppes also stimulated early development of state

governments.

Southern China had tropical climate, mountainous terrain, and rocky features which are best

exemplified by the area surrounding the Canton region and Huangpu.

Lying between the Canton region and North China is the Yangtze Plain, widely referred to

as Jiangnan. Jiangnan had been the center of economic and cultural development since the

ancient times. Physically, the Yangtze Plain is a series of alluvial plains and the Yangtze

River’s major tributaries, making it exceptionally suitable.

Approximate location of Zhongyuan, Jiangnan, and the Canton region.

Timeline of Chinese History

Chinese history can be categorized into two.

1. Ancient Chinese Era: It started with the Shang Dynasty in 1766 BCE and ended at

the end of the Han Dynasty in 220 CE.

 2. Imperial Chinese Era: It started with the “Six Dynasties” period in 220 CE and

ended with the Qing Dynasty in 1912.

This case study exclusively covers the Ancient Chinese Era that ended with the Han Dynasty.

Ancient Chinese Era

Five main dynasties ruled during this period.

1. Xia Dynasty

Very little is documented about this Dynasty and some scholars believe it to be

mythical and non-existent

2. Shang Dynasty

This is the first well-documented dynasty that lasted from about 1766 BCE to about

1050 BCE.

3. Zhou Dynasty

a. Western Zhou Dynasty Period

This period lasted before the year 771BCE

b. Eastern Zhou Dynasty Period

This period lasted between 770 BCE and about 221 BCE. It can further be

classified into two categories.

i. Spring and Autumn Period

 Lasted between 770 BCE and 476 BCE period. During this time, China

consisted of many squabbling states.

ii. Warring Period

This period lasted from 475 BCE to 221 BCE. The small states

consolidated into several larger units, which struggled with one another

for mastery.

4. Qin Empire

One of the larger units from the Warring Period of the Zhou era was Qin. Qin
succeeded in conquering the rest of the states and bringing China together,
establishing the Qin dynasty. The Qin Dynasty lasted from 221 BCE to 207 BCE.

5. Han Dynasty

The Han dynasty is known as a golden age in Chinese history with a prolonged period

of stability and prosperity. It lasted from 206 BCE to 220 AD. A central imperial civil

service was established to create a strong and organised government. It was at this

period that Confucianism flourished.

Society and Culture

Five main Chinese Philosophies governed Chinese Social life:

 Confucianism

 Taoism

 Buddhism

 Mohism

 Legalism
 1. Confucianism

This philosophy was named after the great Chinese philosopher Confucius who lived and

founded it during the Spring and Autumn Period. It is the most influential philosophical

system in China and the essential ideology of Traditional Chinese History.

The main idea of Confucianism is the importance of having a good moral character, which

can then affect the world around that person through the idea of “cosmic harmony.” For

example, if the emperor has moral perfection, his rule will be peaceful and benevolent.

Natural disasters and conflict are the results of straying from the ancient teachings. This

moral character is achieved through the virtue of ren, or “humanity,” which leads to more

virtuous behaviours such as respect, altruism, and humility. The golden rule of Confucianism

is “Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you”.

An important consideration of Confucianism was its emphasis on order. The scale and

structure of a house had to conform to the owner’s identity and status. Even the colour and

decorations of the structure had to have a relationship to the owner. This had great impact on

the architecture of Confucians.

Away from their architecture, Confucius emphasis on order also applied to the general social

life and interactions on the Chinese people. Confucianism taught differentiated love. People

were supposed to love and care for others at different levels depending on the relation. For

example, one would love his family more than he would love others. This belief was subject

to attack from the Mohist Philosophy.

2. Taoism
Taoism has been connected to the philosopher Lao Tzu, who around 500 BCE wrote the main

book of Taoism, the “Te Ching”. The main belief in Taoism is that humans and animals

should live in balance with the Tao or the universe. Taoists believe in spiritual immortality

where the spirit of the body joins the universe after death

Taoism has three main principals which are inaction, simplicity and living in harmony with

nature. The principals rested on a belief in the law of unity of the two opposite forces: Yin

and Yang.

Symbol for Taoism that represents two opposing forces in equilibrium.

3. Buddhism

Buddhism was the third major belief system of ancient China. It was founded by Siddhartha

Gautama, also called the Buddha, who lived in India around the sixth century B.C.E.

Buddhism is a philosophy that focuses on personal development and attainment of deep

knowledge. Buddhists seek to achieve enlightenment through meditation, spiritual learning,

and practice. They believe in reincarnation and that life is impermanent and full of suffering

and uncertainty; the way to find peace is through reaching nirvana, a joyful state beyond

human suffering.

4. Mohism

In between the Warring State Period and the “Spring and Autumn” Period, Mohism emerged

under the philosopher Mozi. Contrary to Confucius teaching, Mohism’s greatest emphasis

was on impartial love and care to everyone. This is because Mozi focused more on ethics

than morals.

Mohism promotes a philosophy of impartial caring; a person should care equally for all other

individuals regardless of their actual relationship to the person. It is the expression

indiscriminate caring that makes a man a righteous being in Mohist thought.

5. Legalism

Legalism in ancient China was a philosophical belief that human beings are more inclined to

do wrong than right because they are motivated entirely by self-interests and require strict

laws to control their impulses.

Legalism promotes the notion of strict law and order and harsh collective punishments, ideas

that influenced Qin Shi despotism and centralized rule. The emperor believed that Legalism

would help him rule his empire and orders legalists to write new laws. The main goal of

legalism was to achieve order in Chinese society during a time of unrest.

The most important symbol of Chinese legalism is the Great Wall of China whose

construction started during the Qin Dynasty in 220BCE.

Religion

Apart from the philosophies mentioned above, Ancient China believed in a Supreme Being

called ShangDi and other lesser gods such as Nuwa and Fuxi. ShangDi was the King of all

gods and all that existed. He was so powerful that he did not interact with mortals directly.

The only way Mortals could link with him was through the highest in clan ranks and through

their ancestors. ShangDi was believed to reside at the Northern pole star because the stars and

all of Heaven seemed to wheel around it. This would have a large influence on their

architecture.

Society and Politics

During the Zhou dynasty, China was run through a feudal state system. However, during the

warring period, these states consolidated into larger states that warred against each other.

Finally, the Qin Empire conquered all other states. Emperor Qin Shih Huang ruled as a brutal

dictator, applying the philosophy of Legalism to his rule. This era of oppression ended with

the fall of the Qin Empire and the start of the Han dynasty. A central imperial Civil service

was established to create a string and Organized government.

Economics

Ancient China's economy, like all economies at that time (which had advanced beyond the

hunter-gatherer stage), were based on agriculture. The vast majority of Chinese families lived

in small farming villages, of a dozen or so families. The increasingly productive farming

economy of China provided the foundations for the development of one of the great

civilizations of world history. Trade and industry expanded, new social classes emerged,

political institutions became more complex, and culture grew in sophistication. Out of this

complex mix of elements would come some of the most important technological advances in
world history. However, agriculture remained at the root of Chinese civilization. Up to the

late 20th century, the vast majority of the people gained their livelihood from farming.

Despite Agriculture however, ancient China also engaged in local and long distance trade.

Key Considerations

Various features (discussed below) characterize Chinese Architecture.

Layout

1. Bilateral Symmetry

Emphasis on articulation and bilateral symmetry signifies balance.

Furthermore, Symmetrical layouts of the compound with the larger main building in the centre

of the compound flanked on all sides by smaller ones or gates placed symmetrically helped to

buffer the important main building from the elements or attacks from the outside. Therefore,

the side and southern buildings blocked the wind and shielded the main northern building from

arrows or other projectiles of attackers.

The wonderland of FangHu in the old Summer palace

2. Use of Enclosed Open Space

The use of open courtyards is a common feature of Chinese architecture, an example being

the Siheyuan. A Siheyuan is a Historical type of residence consisting of an empty space

surrounded either by buildings connected with one another directly or through verandas.

A Siheyuang. It can have one courtyard or multiple courtyards as shown on the right.

A Sky Well is a relatively enclosed courtyard formed from the intersections of closely spaced

buildings and offers a small opening to the sky through the roof space from the floor up.

A sky well in Fujian Temple.

These enclosures serve in temperature regulation and ventilation of the building complexes.

Northern courtyards are typically open and facing the south to allow the maximum exposure

of the building windows and walls to the sun while keeping the cold northern winds out.

Southern sky wells are relatively small and serves to collect rainwater from the rooftops.

They perform the same duties as the Roman impluvium while restricting the amount of

sunlight that enters the building.

3. Horizontal Emphasis
Classical Chinese buildings, especially those of the wealthy, are built with an emphasis on

breadth and less on height, featuring an enclosed heavy platform and a large roof that

floats over this base, with the vertical walls not well emphasized. Buildings that were too

high and large were considered unsightly, and therefore generally avoided. This often meant

that pagodas towered above all other buildings in the skyline of a Chinese city.

Typical One Story Building in Ancient Chinese Architecture

4. Curves

Curves can be observed on almost all ancient Chinese Architecture – bridges have arches,
corridors are winding, and roofs have curves around the edges.

Architectural Concepts

1. Feng Shui
Feng shui also known as Chinese geomancy is a pseudoscientific traditional practice, which

claims to use energy forces to harmonize individuals with their surrounding environment. It is

a practice of arranging the pieces in living spaces in order to create balance with the natural

world. The term 'Feng shui' literally translated as "wind-water". The Feng shui practice

discusses architecture in terms of "invisible forces" that bind the universe, earth and its

elements, and humanity together, known as qi.

The five Chinese Elements are:

1. Wood

2. Fire

3. Earth

4. Metal

5. Water

Abstract illustration showing balance between hills, boulders, and water streams.
Historically, Feng shui was widely used to orient Chinese gardens. The design of the classic

Chinese garden is based on the ideology of "Nature and Man in One", as opposed to the home

itself, which is a symbol of the human sphere co-existing with, but separate from nature.

Therefore, the arrangement is as flexible as possible to let people feel they are surrounded by

and in harmony with nature. The two essential elements of the garden are hill stones and

water.

Painted map of the Master of the Nets garden.

Apart from gardens, Feng Shui was also considered in designing buildings - often spiritually

significant structures such as tombs, but also dwellings and other structures. Depending on

the particular style of Feng shui being used, an auspicious site could be determined by

reference to local features such as bodies of water, stars, or the compass.

2. Cosmological Concepts
Since ancient times, it was believed that Heaven was at the North Star where ShangDi, the

Supreme Being of the Ancient Chinese People, resided. This made them orient their

structures north south, with the Northern most part being the most important, sacred, and

opulent section of the building/complex. The south-north orientation is apparent in the

construction of the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven, the Ming Tombs, and basic

residential Siheyuans.

Temple of Heaven

The use of certain colors, numbers and the cardinal directions in traditional Chinese

architecture reflected the belief in a type of immanence, where the nature of a thing could be

wholly contained in its own form. Beijing and Chang'an are examples of traditional Chinese

town planning that represents these cosmological concepts.

Typologies

a. Imperial palaces
They were originally built to cater for the extravagant lifestyles of the emperors and as well

as to provide a centralized location for demonstrating imperial political control. They were

built on a grand scale with no expense to display the majesty and dignity of the imperial

power of the time. Each successive emperor contributed grandeur to the structures

Shengyang imperial palace

The Forbidden City

b. Defensive walls

Ancient Chinese cities were surrounded by a set of walls outside the cities that mostly served

as defensive fortifications. Examples are:

The Great Wall

It is the world's longest ancient architectural structure. It winds over rugged mountains

around Beijing and the Mongol border, from a beach in East China to a West China desert

corridor between tall mountain ranges.

The original Great Wall had a basic compacted earth and wood construction. However, by the

Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) the characteristic stonework crenulations and various

watchtowers were fully developed.

Xi'an ancient city walls

c. Pagodas

Pagodas are native to India but were introduced to China along with the introduction and

integration of Buddhism. During its integration into Chines Architecture, the standard

structure of the Indian Pagoda changed. The Chinese Version was made more grandiose by

adding more stories. (Up to 12 stories). Each additional story reduced in size. At times,

Balustrades were added on each floor to create an illusion that the spaces were functional

rather than only monumental. Material used was mainly wood because it was light and

allowed greater heights.

Big Wild Goose Pagoda, Tang Dynasty (618–907)

Three pagodas in Dali
 d. Alters and Temples

Altars and temples are important components of Chinese culture. They provided ceremonial

sites for offering prayers and sacrifices to heaven. Sacrifices were also offered to the moon,

the sun, the earth, the mountains, scholars, and ancestors.

The Temple of Heaven

The Temple of Heaven was where emperors undertook an annual pilgrimage during the

winter solstice to pray to heaven for a good harvest

e. Mausoleums

They were built to honour those who had moved on to the other dimension.
Mausoleums display beautiful and elaborate artwork, carvings, and calligraphy. The standard

design of a Chinese mausoleum includes walls around the structure, four open doors facing in

each direction, and four turrets, one on each corner.

Many times, mausoleums were made of stone and brick since they were permanent structures

for the dead. They did not require the flexibility that wood structures provide.

Located according to Feng shui, mausoleums are commonly found on or by mountains.

However, where mountains are lacking, they are found on flatlands and plains.

Distinguishing characteristics of Chinese mausoleums include a path leading up to the

structure as well as statues of humans and beasts on either side of the walkway. Trees are

often part of the landscaping around the mausoleum to create a quiet and solemn atmosphere
The Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang

Ming tombs

Commoner Residences
The architectural style of traditional Chinese residences was functional and suited to local
conditions. For example, in Southwest China, bamboo houses suited the muggy environment
and local resources well. In the northern part of Shaanxi Province where the weather is cold
and dry in winter, the loess-carved dwellings were good at retaining heat and were cheap to
construct.
Stone Bridges
During the Sui Dynasty and afterwards, some builders demonstrated special skill in the
construction of stone bridges that have survived through centuries of earthquakes, floods, and
wars.
The 1,400 year-old Zhaozhou Bridge is celebrated as China's oldest standing bridge and the
oldest open-spandrel stone bridge in the world. Iron was utilized to supporting and stabilize
parts, allowing the bridge to slightly adjust in the case of earthquakes, settling of the ground,
and environmental changes.

Zhazhou Bridge

Geography and Climatic Considerations

As discussed earlier, the settlement of Ancient China can be summarized into three focal

points: Zhongyuan to the North, Southern China around the Canton region, and Jiangnan

in the Yangtze plain.

Zhongyuan’s long history with states and empire led to its culture having a strong emphasis

on social hierarchy. Social hierarchy was valued by Confucius’ teaching that originated from

this location. In a traditional a type of rectangular dwelling, the northernmost building (that

gets the most sunlight and that was closest to the Northern star where they believed heaven
was) was reserved for family elders, who are considered masters of the house. The building

behind it that gets the least amount of sunlight is for unmarried daughters and female

servants, who are on the very bottom the social hierarchy.

In Southern China because of its relative isolation placed a heavy emphasis on protection

and equality among family members. Southern China was plagued by bandits due to lack of
governance thus inhabitants were forced to build fortified communal dwellings to protect

themselves and their properties. A Tulou in Southern China is a tall, rectangular or circular

dwelling for a family clan. It places a heavy emphasis on defense, it has thick walls are

immune to firearms, its doors are made out of fireproof wood, and its roofs facilitate more

accurate firing. Southern China’s isolation from the North also allowed for people to enjoy

relative equality within the family clan, as social hierarchy from Confucius’ teaching was not

as influential as it was in the North. All rooms in Tulous are of the same size and same

building material, with the exception of bigger family branches getting bigger rooms.
Buildings in Jiangnan share many similar motifs with northern China considering their

geographical proximity, such as emphasis on social hierarchy. Nevertheless, at the same time

because of its different geographic factors, it has its own unique architecture. Jiangnan

buildings are often multi-story and intentionally have spaces between walls for ventilation

due to humid weather conditions. Walls are also thinner or else they would not dry. Jiangnan

architecture often integrates rivers into part of their life, taking advantage of the

transportation and trade these water routes provided. Jiangnan buildings have black roofs and

white walls that lack the variety in colors commonly observed in Northern architecture. This

is due to the flowers that bloom almost all year long and therefore it would seem excessive to

paint the walls with different colors. Another iconic feature of Jiangnan is its lavish gardens

that were used as a showcase of their economic power.

Building Materials and Construction Technology

In ancient Chinese architecture, earth, timber, stone, bricks, and tiles are the major materials

developed with construction purposes.

 1. Timber

Wood was used as the primary building material since it was readily available and easier to

work with. Large structural timbers were used for primary support of the roof of a building.

Timber was vulnerable to moisture, fire, insects, and the ravages of time and little of these

structures have survived to this date. Wooden members, especially large trimmed logs, were

used as load-bearing columns and lateral beams for framing buildings and supporting roofs.

Figure1.0 main hall at nanchan temple

Figure 1.2 wooden frame structures

Figure1.3 yingxian wooden pagoda

2. Earth

The earliest walls and platforms in China were of rammed earth construction.
Figure 1.4 mud house, rammed earth

Figure1.5 Earthen walls at the Jiayuguan fortress

Furthermore, Most Structures (I.e. Temples, Halls and Gate Towers) were built on Raised

Platform made of compacted earth and faced with brick and stone.

3. Stone and brick

With time, brick and stone architecture gradually became more common and replaced

wooden edifices. The earliest examples of brick and stone structures are Zhaozhou Bridge,

xumi pagoda and the Great Wall of China. Stone and bricks were utilized for fortification

walls and watchtowers, arch for gates and bridges and vaults for tombs.
Figure 1.6 Chinese stonewall ancient building

4. Glazed Ceramic tiles

Roofing material was majorly glazed ceramic tiles.

5. Thatch

Some of the small private houses of ancient Chinese Communities used thatched roofs.
Techniques

Ancient Chinese communities built using only joinery and dowels. They rarely used glue and

nails. Mortises and Tenon joints were preferred to nails, which gave a better flexibility.

During Earthquakes and ability to quickly rebuild in case of collapse.

Most Building type had regularly spaced timber posts strengthened by horizontal crossbeams

to protect against earthquakes.

Wooden posts supported thatched roofs.

To allow the roof to extend outwards dougong (a bracket joining the top of the post and

horizontal roof beam) projected beyond the wall of the building. The dougong increased the

surface area on which the horizontal beams lay on the vertical columns to allow for greater

spans.

Another technique used by ancient China to ensure structural stability was one-storey

buildings. Wooden structures are susceptible to damp weather, insects, and fire. Therefore,

building a tall wooden structure is rather inconvenient considering the cost of maintaining it

and the risk of failure. Furthermore, one-story buildings present better chances of survival in

the case of an earthquake.

Decoration and ornamentation

Architects in ancient China paid special attention to colour and adornments, from the whole

building to specific parts. They used different colours or paintings according to particular

building functions or local customs. Buildings were often quite colourful.

Aesthetic interiors were created through carved beams, painted rafters, various patterns,

inscribed boards, couplets hung on the pillars, and wall paintings.

The roofs were gabled with tiled roof and corners gently carved outwards and upwards at the

corners

Stone lions, screen walls, ornamental columns, as well as flowers were used to decorate the

exteriors of buildings.

Roofs become more curves at the corners. Decorative tiles and figures were added figures

such as dragons were added to the ends and ridges of the roof.

Curved ceramic roofs with ornamentation.

Elegant Exteriors

There was always an emphasis on beautiful style. Existing examples of ancient Chinese

architecture are greatly praised for their elegant profiles and varied features such as

overhanging eaves, upturned roof corners, and different shapes of roofs.

The unique exteriors not only satisfied a practical function, but they also had wonderful

appearances. They are good examples of practicality and beauty combined.

Symbolism in Ancient Chinese Architecture

Ancient Chinese communities had embedded meanings in different architectural forms.

These meanings stemmed out of their beliefs and culture. Some instances of Symbolism in

Ancient Chinese Architecture include:

a) Number Symbolism

1. The Number 9 had been considered as the imperial number in Chinese architectural

construction. Especially working with the Number 5, it symbolized the power of the emperor.

2. The Number 4, which stands for the four seasons of the year, was seen as a cosmic

association between human being and the universe. Working with the Number 12, it was also

applied as a representation of the emperor associating with heaven.

3. Similar to the Western traditions, the Number 3 was largely found in both religions and

architectural designs, which represented the perfect or purity.

4. The group of odd numbers (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9) was recognized as the “heavenly numbers”,

and was widely used in the architectural design. While the group of even numbers (2, 4, 6, 8)

was believed to be the “earthly numbers”, and was normally avoided in the practical

construction.
Example of an elevators in China, this lacks number 4

This one lacks number 2&4

 Confucianism- As mentioned earlier, this is an ancient Chinese belief system which

focuses on the importance of personal ethics and morality. The space allocation,

which was guided by social status and hierarchy, symbolized the people’s belief in

Confucianism. Furthermore, based on the Confucian Classics, the architectural

tradition reflecting the imperial order, symmetry of space, and formality of space had

been established in Ancient China.

Beijing Temple of Confucius

 Feng Shui Theory

The use of Feng Shui clarified the symbolism in Chinese Architecture especially in terms of

their associations of human beings, animals, seasons, colours, and the Five Chinese Elements.

Feng Shui brings the ideals of function, flow, and harmony into the visions of architectural

ideation.

The ancient capital city, Xi’an

 Symmetry
The symmetry in Ancient Chinese Architecture symbolized balance, harmony, and Order.

Aerial view of The Forbidden City in China

The Forbidden City, China

 Curves

According to Ancient Chinese Beliefs and some contemporary beliefs, curves symbolize the

state of being strong and active (vitality). Due to this, curves are one of the most distinct

character of ancient and contemporary Chinese Architecture.

Kung Fu panda palace

 d) City Planning

The Chinese arranged their city to show the divine authority of the emperor. This was

achieved by the location of public places to the palace and government buildings. The

Chinese built in three stages; the base body and roof. The body was rectilinear in shape, as it

was believed to provide order and balance. The walls represented the concept of space which

symbolized the ruler’s strength and nobility…it was also used to ward off evil spirits as it

created a barrier against negative qi.

The use of expansive spaces inside and outside the buildings philosophically symbolized the

idea of full possibilities and opportunities,

The roof, was made of golden tiles or azure, representing entry into the Chinese sphere of life

and declared China as a force to be reckoned with.

Curved roofs were believed to have the power to ward off evil spirits by allowing them to

slide down the roof and curve upwards forcing them to return from where they came. This

ensured that the lively qi of the prevailing wind would not be blown away. Hence, the
exaggerated upturned rooflines evolved as a symbolic representation of maintaining the

equilibrium between man and nature.

Yueyang Tower in Hunan, China

 Animal symbols

Animal symbols are found throughout China’s rich heritage and culture. They were used as

omens, for example; the butterfly represents love, the crab and fish prosperity and wealth.

Tiger Pagodas
  Ornate carvings and images of dragons

They symbolizing the emperors Mandate to rule. To be a righteous and fair leader to their

people, the emperors-built shrines in which they prayed and thanked the dragons for their

power.

Dragons on the façade of the roofs of

buildings Chinese eastern dragon

In the Forbidden City

 Colour

The language of colour conveys a powerful symbolic message. In ancient China, the depth of

its hues expressed emotion. For example, Bright colours like blue, green, and gaudy red are

considered auspicious, whereas neutral colours like grey are rarely used since they represent
unhappiness and insignificance. Yellow and blue were specific to emperors because they

represented royalty and immortality, whereas red represented good luck and happiness.

The Forbidden City

 Talismans and imagery of good fortune:

Door gods displayed on doorways to ward off evil and encourage the flow of good fortune

Three anthropomorphic figures representing Fu Lu Shou stars are prominently displayed,

sometimes with the proclamation "the three stars are present"

Animals and fruits that symbolize good fortune and prosperity, such as bats and

pomegranates, respectively. The association is often done through rebuses.

 References

Chao, L. (n.d.). The 13 Dynasties that Ruled China in Order. History Hit. Retrieved November 17,

2021, from https://www.historyhit.com/the-dynasties-that-ruled-china-in-order/

Leong, M. (2019, August 19). Chinese Religions and Philosophies. National Geographic Society.

Retrieved November 17, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/chinese-

religions-and-philosophies/

Zhou dynasty | History, Achievements, Art, & Facts. (n.d.). Britannica. Retrieved November 17,

2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zhou-dynasty

Ancient Chinese Architecture.” Historyforkids.org. 2009. Web. 1 Nov. 2009.

“Animals’ Symbolism in Decoration, Decorative Arts, Chinese Beliefs, and Feng Shui.” 2009.

“The Art of Chinese Architecture.” 2005. Chinatownconnection.com. Web. 1 Nov. 2009.

Chin, Annping. The Authentic Confucius: A Life of Thought and Politics. New York: Scribner,

2007. Print.

Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. New York: The Free Press, 1981. Print.