CLassroom Assesment For Teachers - Raymond H. White

Classroom Assessment for Teachers provides students with essential
professional knowledge/skill sets along with contemporary issues surrounding

the assessment of student learning progress and achievement. By utilizing Classroom Assessment
Classroom Assessment for Teachers

an inquiry-oriented approach, pre-service teacher candidates can explore the
essential relationship between assessment and teaching with a deliberate
focus on encouraging students to construct their own assessment framework
and select measures and procedures that are designed to meet their own needs
along with those of their students. Individual chapters are devoted to critical
for Teachers
assessment topics including instruction-learning-assessment alignment,
academic standards and student learning evidence, formative assessment,
self-assessment, summative assessment, grading, Response to Intervention
Raymond H. Witte
(RTI), assessment issues of students with identified learning needs, performance
assessment, affective assessment, as well as high-stakes testing, validity,
reliability, and assessment bias, and the use of applied statistics in the classroom.
Chapter Activities: Learning activities in each chapter connect to the content
MD DALIM #1140067 4/18/11 CYAN MAG YELO BLK

and also tie into the chapter reflection at the end of the readings.
Assessment in Action: Integrated throughout each chapter, this tool provides

an authentic experience/response by a field practitioner, teacher views/
opinions, or samples of classroom assessments.
Focus on Assessment: This key feature in each chapter provides a relevant

example, key issue, or authentic experience related to the chapter topic.
Witte
TM
CLASSROOM
ASSESSMENT
FOR TEACHERS
RAYMOND H. WITTE
Miami University
wit78704_fm_i-xxii.indd i 3/28/11 9:56 AM

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT FOR TEACHERS
Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Witte, Raymond H.
Classroom assessment for teachers / Raymond H. Witte.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-07-337870-1
ISBN-10: 0-07-337870-4
1. Educational accountability—United States. 2. Teacher effectiveness—United States. 3. Academic achievement—United
States. I. Title.
LB3051.W49994 2012
371.1020973—dc22
2010053786
www.mhhe.com
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DEDICATION
This textbook is dedicated to the memories of Dr. Jack E. Weih, my father-in-law, and
Dr. James Sheehan, my colleague and friend. Both of these men made the world a better
place with their kindness, humor, and genuine joy of living.
iii
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Raymond Witte received his Ph.D. from the University of Kentucky in 1991 and
has been teaching at Miami University since 1993. During his tenure at Miami, he has
taught a wide range of courses, including the assessment and intervention courses in both
the undergraduate teacher education program and the graduate school psychology pro-
gram. His areas of research interest and publication include assessment, school transition,
mental health, and diversity. He has authored over 30 articles and chapters in various jour-
nals, professional newsletters, and resource sites. He also directs and manages the Class-
room Assessment Resource Center (http://web.me.com/dr.raymondwitte/Classroom
Assessment/Welcome.html), which is a noncommercial Web site for teachers that is
devoted to providing professional information and resources about classroom assessment.
Dr. Witte has extensive P–12 school experience as a school psychologist, as a preschool/
extended kindergarten program director, and as an assessment coordinator for a public
school district. Dr. Witte is currently working on an assessment textbook designed for
special education teachers.
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface xix
CHAPTER 1
Teaching, Learning, and Assessment 1
Introduction 2
The Instructional Importance of Classroom Assessment 2
Assessment as Part of the Instructional Process 3
Assessment: Serving an Educational Purpose 4
Assessment Reality 4
Introductory Statement of Purpose from No Child Left Behind Act 5
Chapter Activity 6
Classroom Assessment in the Lives of Students 6
Assessment Defined 7
The Instruction, Learning, and Assessment Model 8
Where Are My Students? 9
Where Do My Students Need to Be? 10
How Do My Students Get There? 11
Instruction-Learning-Assessment Alignment 12
Assessment in Action: The Impact of Instruction-Learning-Assessment Alignment 13
Professional and Ethical Assessment Practices 14
Definition of Ethics 15
Ethics in the Classroom 15
National Education Association Code of Ethics 16
Focus on Assessment: Ethics in Assessment 19
Chapter Reflection 20
Chapter Review 20
Conclusion 20
Response to Key Focus Question 21
v
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vi Contents
Assessment Check 21
Resources 22
References 23
CHAPTER 2
Elements of the Instruction-Learning-Assessment
Model 25
Introduction 26
Chapter Activity 26
Classroom Teaching and Assessment 27
Identifying Learning Targets 27
Pre-Assessment 30
Focus on Assessment: Use of Consensus-Grams 31
Assessment in Action: Effective Use of Pre-Assessment 32
Preview of Instructional Material 33
Instructional Approach and Techniques 34
Formative Assessment 35
Learning Feedback 37
Self-Assessment 38
Focus on Assessment: The Teacher as a Self-Assessment Model 39
Summative Assessment 40
Chapter Review 43
Conclusion 43
Assessment Check 45
Resources 45
References 45
CHAPTER 3
Academic Standards and Evidence of Student
Learning 48
Introduction 49
What Do Your Students Need to Know? 49
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Contents vii
Chapter Activity 49
Know What Your Students Need to Know 54
Learning Targets, Objectives, and Goals 54
Ohio Science Academic Content Standards (Approved in 2002) 55
Hierarchical Arrangement of Instructional Planning 57
Demonstration of Learning: Bloom' s Taxonomy 58
Structure of the Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy 61
Structure of the Cognitive Process Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy 62
Planning Your Lessons: Guiding Questions 64
Evidence of Student Learning 65
Gathering Useful Evidence 67
Informal Observation 67
Formal Observation 69
Group Observation 69
Focus on Assessment: The Utility of Observational Information 70
Types of Observations in the Classroom 71
Narrative 72
Interval and Event Recording 73
Checklists and Ratings 74
Questioning 76
Assessment in Action: Questions as Assessment Devices 78
Interviewing 79
Student Products 79
Chapter Review 81
Conclusion 81
Assessment Check 81
Resources 82
References 82
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viii Contents
CHAPTER 4
Validity, Reliability, and Avoiding Assessment
Bias 84
Introduction 85
Validity: Does It Measure What It Is Supposed To? 85
Chapter Activity 85
Content-Related, Criterion-Related, and Construct-Related Evidence of
Validity 87
Assessment in Action: Construct Validity in the Classroom 90
Validity for Teachers 92
Reliability for Teachers 92
Response Requirements and Scoring Guidelines for an Essay Question 93
Reliability: The Same Every Time 94
Stability/Test-Retest, Alternate Form/Parallel Forms, and Internal Consistency/Split
Halves or Odd-Even 96
Focus on Assessment: Speed and Power Test Issues 101
Inter-rater Reliability 101
Avoiding Bias 105
Potential Test Item Bias Influences Examined by the West Virginia Department of Educa-
tion Assessment Office 107
Chapter Review 110
Conclusion 110
Assessment Check 111
Resources 111
References 111
CHAPTER 5
Formative Assessment: Guiding Student
Learning 113
Introduction 114
Formative Assessment Defined 114
Chapter Activity 115
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Contents ix
Focus on Assessment: The Decision 116

Formative Assessment in the Classroom 117
Formative Assessment: Feedback to Your Students 119
Formative Assessment: Reviewing Student Progress 119
Assessment in Action: Formative Assessment on the Tennis Court 120
Selecting Assessment Tools 122
Assessment Methods and Skill Targets 122
Formative Assessment: Maximizing the Effect 123
Using Formative Assessment in the Classroom 126
Use of Formative Assessment in a Classroom Lesson 127
Focus on Assessment: Assessment and Evidence Linkage 128
Formative Assessment and the Teacher 131
Chapter Review 133
Conclusion 133
Resources 134
References 134
CHAPTER 6
Performance Assessment 136
Introduction 137
What Is Performance Assessment? 137
Features of a Performance Event 138
The Focus of Performance Assessments 139
Focus on Student Production 142
Assessment in Action: Performance Assessment and a Driver’s License 143
Different Needs, Different Measures 144
Classroom Portfolios 145
Project-Based Learning 148
Focus on Assessment: Performance Activity within a Health Portfolio 149
Rubrics 151
Building an Effective Rubric 153
Let’s Bake, I Mean Make, a Rubric 155
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x Contents
Checklists 159
Make Sure Your Students Know the Performance Event Well 161
Chapter Review 162
Conclusion 162
Resources 163
References 164
CHAPTER 7
Self-Assessment and Progress Monitoring 166
Introduction 167
Self-Assessment: Connection with the Teaching and Learning
Process 169
Elements of the Self-Assessment Process 170
Self-Assessment Techniques 171
Self-Assessment Review of a Writing Portfolio 176
Steps in the Process 178
A Progress Review Script 179
The Student as Progress Manager 180
Assessment in Action: Self-Assessment and Student Feedback 181
Focus on Assessment: Self-Assessment in a Third-Grade Classroom 183
Self-Assessment Begins with the Teacher 186
Self-Assessment Questions for Teachers 186
Chapter Review 187
Conclusion 187
Resources 188
References 189
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Contents xi
CHAPTER 8
Summative Assessment: Confirming Student
Achievement 191
Introduction 192
Summative Assessment Construction 193
Focus on Assessment: The Unpopular Truth 194
Assessment Construction Procedures 195
General Test Construction Rules 197
Assessment in Action: Verbal Examinations and Confirmation of Learning 199
Selected and Constructed Response Items 200
Selected Response: Multiple Choice 201
Multiple-Choice Test Items: Dos and Don’ts 202
Selected Response: True-False 203
True-False Test Items: Dos and Don’ts 204
Selected Response: Matching 204
Matching Test Items: Dos and Don’ts 205
Constructed Response: Fill-in-Blank and Listing Questions 206
Constructed Response: Short Answer 207
Short Answer and Completion Test Items: Dos and Don’ts 208
Constructed Response: Essay 208
Essay Test Items: Dos and Don’ts 210
Table of Specifications and Your Test 211
Constructed Responses Beyond the Traditional Test 213
Written Construction Performances 213
Visual Construction Performances 214
Verbal Construction Performances 215
Fine/Gross Motor Construction Performances 216
Reviewing Performances with Students 216
Chapter Review 218
Conclusion 218
Resources 219
References 219
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xii Contents
CHAPTER 9
Grading and Student Evaluation 221
Introduction 222
Grading: A Professional Challenge 223
Grading: Purpose Is Everything 224
Grading: A Part of the Educational System 224
Assessment in Action: Grading Is More Than the Numbers 226
Grading: Three Central Issues for Teachers 227
Evaluating Student Work 227
The Composition of Grades 232
Product, Process, and Progress 234
Guiding Principles 235
Focus on Assessment: Electronic Grade Books 237
Professional Consensus 239
Comparison Types 240
Norm-Referenced Grading 240
Criterion-Referenced Grading 241
Aptitude Comparison or Self-Referenced Grading 242
Grading Students with Special Needs 243
The Learning Race 244
Uniform Grading Standard for All Students 245
Grading Based on Effort 246
Grading Based on Progress 247
Grading Adaptations 247
Grading Practices and Realities 248
Chapter Review 250
Conclusion 250
Resources 251
References 251
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Contents xiii
CHAPTER 10
Statistics in the Classroom 254
Introduction 255
Why Do I Need to Use Statistics? 255
Start with Data 256
Distributions 257
Focus on Assessment: Benefiting from Student Evidence 258
Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode 261
Variability or Dispersion from the Mean 263
Normal Distribution 264
Standard Scores 265
Examining Student Performance: Correlation Coefficients 268
Standard Error of Measurement 270
Looking within a Testing Performance 271
Determining the Difficulty Level of Test Items 272
Item Discrimination 274
Assessment in Action: Using Statistics in Reviewing Student Performances 275
Student Responses to Test Items 276
Chapter Review 276
Conclusion 276
Resources 278
Answers to Assessment in Action Activity 278
References 279
CHAPTER 11
Standardized Tests and High-Stakes
Testing 280
Introduction 281
The No Child Left Behind Act 281
Assessment in Action: Confession of a Veteran Teacher 282
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xiv Contents
Norm-Referenced Standardized Tests 284

Skill Mastery in the Classroom 286
Interpreting Test Scores 287
Basic Components in a Test Profile 288
Aptitude Information within an Achievement Test 292
Value-Added Models 294
Test Preparation Is Essential for Students 296
Test-Taking Strategies 297
Focus on Assessment: Testing Common Sense 297
Test Results and Parent-Teacher Conferences 300
Test Scores: A Part of the Educational Experience 304
Chapter Review 305
Conclusion 305
Resources 307
References 307
CHAPTER 12
Assessment of Students with Identified Learning
Needs 309
Introduction 310
Special Education Legislation 311
Individualized Education Plan 311
Special Education Disability Categories 313
Autism 314
Deaf/Blindness 315
Developmental Delay 315
Emotional Disturbance 315
Hearing Impairment 316
Mental Retardation (Intellectual or Cognitive Disability) 317
Multiple Disabilities 318
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Contents xv
Orthopedic Impairment 318

Other Health Impairment 318
Specific Learning Disability 319
Speech or Language Impairment 320
Traumatic Brain Injury 321
Visual Impairment 321
Gifted and Talented Students 322
Section 504 322
Assessment in Action: Helping Bob in the Classroom 323
Assessment Modifications 324
Focus on Assessment: Special Needs in the Classroom 325
Justified Reason for Changing the Assessment Process 326
Outcome Measurement 327
Assessment Change in Presentation 328
Assessment Changes in Time and Setting 328
Assessment Change in Student Response 329
Appropriate and Fair Accommodations 330
An Assessment Accommodation Approach 331
Chapter Review 332
Conclusion 332
Resources 333
References 337
CHAPTER 13
Classroom Assessment and Response to
Intervention (RTI) 339
Introduction 340
How Response to Intervention Works in the Classroom 342
Tier 1 344
Tier 2 346
Tier 3 347
Assessment in Action: RTI in the Classroom 347
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xvi Contents
Research-Supported Practices 349

Curriculum-Based Measurement 351
Positive Behavior Support 351
Focus on Assessment: CBM Usage in the Classroom 352
Teacher as Active Problem Solver and Researcher 353
Action Research Steps for a Teacher to Follow in the Classroom 354
When Classroom Intervention Isn’t Enough 356
Chapter Review 358
Conclusion 358
Resources 359
References 360
CHAPTER 14
Affective Assessment 364
Introduction 365
Know the Limits and Boundaries of Affective Assessment 365
Cautions with Affective Assessment 366
Selection of Affective Assessment Areas 367
Student Attitudes 367
Student Interests 369
Personal Beliefs and Values 370
Personal Perceptions and Viewpoints 371
Assessment in Action: Affective Assessment in the Classroom 372
Generating Affective Assessments 372
Constructing a Likert Self-Report Measure 374
Construction Steps for a Likert Self-Report Measure 374
Topic or Domain Selection 375
Construction of the Items 375
External Review 376
Field Testing 376
Administering the Inventory 377
Scoring and Analyzing Responses 377
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Contents xvii
Using the Data and Educational Implications 378

Future Modifications 378
Focus on Assessment: Assessment of the Whole Child 379
Constructing an Affective Assessment Measure 379
Investigation Area 380
Selection of Statements 380
External Review 381
Pilot/Field Test 381
Administration and Analysis of Findings 382
Educational Implications 384
Measure Revision 385
Chapter Review 386
Conclusion 386
Resources 387
References 388
CHAPTER 15
Getting Started on the Assessment Path 389
Introduction 390
Your Own Classroom Assessment System 391
Focus on Assessment: Take a Look Around You 391
Classroom Assessment Framework Exercise Part 1 395
Determining What Your Assessment System Will Do 395
Determining What Assessment Measures Will Be Used in Your Classroom 396
Aligning Your Classroom Assessments with Instructional Learning Impact 399
Collecting Confirming Evidence of Student Learning 400
Making Informed and Effective Decisions 401
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xviii Contents
Assessment in Action: The Assessment Challenges of Mrs. Green 402

Self-Assessment of Your Assessment Foundation 403
Chapter Review 404
Conclusion 404
Resources 406
References 406
Appendix 1-A: Teacher Standards in Student Assessment Developed by the

American Federation of Teachers, National Council on Measurement in Educa-
tion, and the National Education Association, 1990 407
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
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PREFACE
N ow that confirmation of student progress and learning plays a key role in how
educators and schools are reviewed and evaluated, assessment in all its forms
has become the critical discussion point in education. The field of education
recognizes the importance of accountability, and with No Child Left Behind (NCLB),
state standards, and other accreditation and review boards, the documented advancement
of student learning and achievement is necessary.
Professional and state standards require teachers to be effective assessors in their class-
rooms; this text helps teacher candidates meet those required standards of practice. In
particular, the instruction and practice activities of the text provide pre-service teachers
with opportunities to develop an essential knowledge and skill set that will allow them
to effectively assess, monitor, and confi rm student learning progress in their classroom.
The format of the text and its activities provide the opportunity for teacher candidates
to learn why assessment is done, how it is integrated into instructional delivery, and the
central role it plays in the progress monitoring and review of student performance in the
classroom.
TEXT COVERAGE
A range of topics are covered within the chapters so that each teacher obtains a solid
assessment knowledge and skill foundation. Essential components such as formative
assessment, summative assessment, and self-assessment are covered, along with additional
topics such as performance and affective assessments, construction of test items for class-
room tests, high-stakes testing, interpretation of test scores, validity and reliability issues
with classroom assessments, applied statistical procedures, grading, and the utilization of
student evidence and data in the educational decision-making process. In addition, chap-
ter activities and assessment issues are provided that are designed to engage the learner
in meaningful self-reflection of their current assessment perspectives and future assess-
ment practices. A continuous emphasis throughout this textbook is the importance and
direct linkage of assessment process and content with actual instructional practice in the
classroom. The conceptual and functional reality of classroom assessment as it relates
to instructional delivery is also examined. A pragmatic and interconnected instruction-
learning-assessment model for teachers to follow is provided, along with the important
procedures used in assessing student progress and the documentation of P–12 learning
impact. This is done to demonstrate the essential relationship that exists between assess-
ment and instruction.
xix
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xx Preface
The need of P–12 students to learn and demonstrate self-assessment in regards to their
learning goals and objectives is emphasized. Learner self-assessment represents one of
the growth areas in assessment and is potentially the most important skill domain that
any student will learn. Given its instructional value, an entire chapter is devoted to this
subject. Assessment of learner progress at all levels in the classroom, along with specific
content on assessment as it relates to special needs learners, is addressed. Due to greater
inclusionary practices and the academic standards that are held for all learners, regular
education teachers need to possess greater knowledge and skill levels in evaluating the
progress of all students in the classroom, including those with special learning needs.
In addition, as public mandates for standardized achievement test results grow, teachers
must be able to explain test fi ndings to parents, children, and other interested parties, as
well as be able to use test data to help guide instruction in the classroom.
This textbook explains, in a direct and meaningful way, what classroom assessment
is and why it is essential for teachers to be able to measure the progress of their students.
Making content, concepts, procedures, and applications understandable and useful to stu-
dents is essential, and classroom assessment is the vehicle by which educators can confi rm
the acquisition of learning outcomes for their students.
FEATURES
The following features appear throughout this text.
Chapter Key Focus—Each chapter of the text is centered on a fundamental
assessment question that appears at the beginning of each chapter.
Chapter Objectives—Specific learning objectives appear at the beginning of each
chapter, stating what will be achieved upon successful completion of the chapter.
Key Terminology—Key terms appear in boldface throughout the chapters, and
are defi ned in the comprehensive glossary at the end of the text.
Chapter Activity—A specific learning activity that connects to the content is
presented within each chapter.
Assessment in Action—An assessment example that may include authentic expe-
riences or responses by field practitioners, teacher opinions, or samples of classroom
assessments appears within each chapter.
Focus on Assessment—Within each chapter, a relevant example, key issue, or
authentic experience related to the chapter topic is provided for the reader.
Chapter Reflection—Chapter reflection questions require students to reflect
back on their initial responses to the Chapter Activity presented at the beginning
of each chapter.
Conclusion—Each chapter ends with a summary of the main points presented.
Response to Key Focus Question—At the end of every chapter, a concise
response to the chapter’s key focus question is provided.
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Preface xxi
Assessment Check—These end-of-chapter questions allow students to self-assess

their learning progress relative to chapter content and issues.
Resources—Additional resources are listed at the end of each chapter. These lists
typically include Web and print resources for additional research and information.
References—Within each chapter, a list of referenced journal articles, books, and
other professional materials is provided.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the following individuals for their
valuable and constructive help with this textbook: Dr. Christine Messina, Dr. Susan
Mosley-Howard, Dr. Aimin Wang, Dr. Tom Southern, Dr. Jane Cole, Ms. Teresa
McGowan, Ms. Ellen Hill, Ms. Denise Krallman, and of course my editorial colleagues
Alexis Breen Ferraro, Jennifer Bonnar, and Sarah Kiefer. I would also like to thank the
countless teachers who have helped with this book. It is a pleasure to work with each and
every one of you.
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wit78704_fm_i-xxii.indd xxii 3/28/11 9:56 AM
CHAPTER 1
TEACHING, LEARNING,
AND ASSESSMENT
KEY FOCUS
The central focus of this chapter is to examine the fundamental question:
Why does classroom assessment need to be an integral part of your instructional
process?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
♦ Understand the instructional importance of classroom assessment.
♦ Describe how classroom assessment directly enhances instruction and learning
outcomes for students.
♦ Define classroom assessment and the specific actions and functions that take
place when implemented.
♦ Identify the basic qualities and components of effective classroom assessment.
♦ Answer the three questions of the instruction-learning-assessment model as part
of any instructional activity or lesson.
♦ Acknowledge the concept of instruction-
learning-assessment alignment and its essen-
tial role in the evaluation of student progress.
♦ Distinguish the ethical principles and issues
that are connected to assessment procedures
and practices.
♦ Adhere to professional ethical principles and
standards when assessing student progress and
achievement.
© Creatas/PunchStock
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2 CHAPTER 1
Introduction
A strong subject or content knowledge and skill base has long been identified as an essen-
tial characteristic of a professional educator. Along with other recognized competencies
such as planning and delivering effective instruction, understanding and respecting the
diversity of students, professional collaboration, being an active member of the learning
community, etc., classroom assessment has now been added to the list of professional
characteristics required of teachers. But why does a teacher need to be competent and
skilled in the assessment of student learning?
THE INSTRUCTIONAL IMPORTANCE

OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
The first and immediate response to that question is that assessment is viewed as a profes-
sional requirement; it is now considered part of the job and for that reason needs to be
an official “tool” in every educator’s “toolbox.” This reflects a national expectation as
evidenced by the increasing number of state boards of education that require teachers to
demonstrate and meet specific assessment standards as part of their teaching practice. Sev-
eral states, including Hawaii, Florida, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Vermont, Ohio, and others,
have specific assessment standards requirements for teachers that are already in place along
with expected levels of practice. In addition, many states have focused on the assessment
expectations connected with the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards
(NBPTS) or the model principles developed by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment
and Support Consortium (INTASC). Clearly the field of education, along with the pro-
fessional standards organizations, recognizes that assessment is an essential and functional
professional skill that all teachers must possess and effectively use in the classroom.
When assessment standards are examined and translated into actual classroom prac-
tices, teachers are expected to be competent in several areas. The primary or core areas of
assessment competence include the following:
♦ Knowing and understanding basic assessment terms and procedures and how they
apply to the classroom setting.
♦ Selecting appropriate assessment approaches (e.g., formative assessments, summa-
tive reviews, skill diagnostic assessments) based on the purpose, need, and instruc-
tional situation.
♦ Collecting and communicating data fi ndings and corresponding educational deci-
sions to various educational constituents including students, parents, and related
professionals as well as the general public.
♦ Embedding within learners the skill of self-assessment whereby students are able to
independently monitor and direct their individual goal setting and attainment of
learning outcomes.
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TEACHING, LEARNING, AND ASSESSMENT 3
Assessment as Part of the Instructional Process

Beyond the professional requirements and general accountability pressure lays a more
essential and important reason for the need of classroom assessment. Information and
data that is obtained through classroom assessment can help answer the fundamental
question that every educator asks of themselves: Am I truly effective with my teaching and are
my students learning what they need to learn? With classroom assessment procedures, teach-
ers are able to identify and document, through direct student evidence, whether or not
appropriate progress has been demonstrated. If the students evidence limited progress,
then the collected data can provide the justification to implement necessary instructional
and learning changes so that the intended progress goals can be reached. In this way,
teachers can confi rm whether or not their students have arrived at their intended learn-
ing destination.
The important aspect of “why” teachers assess goes beyond professional obligation
and expectation. An effective classroom assessment system will document what students
have learned and what they still need to obtain. It is important to recognize that teach-
ing and assessment are fl ip sides of the same coin. Assessment serves as a complement to
and direct part of the instructional process. If assessment is not part of the instructional
process, then a classroom lesson is just a teacher-led activity that lacks confi rmation of
learning impact and attainment of desired outcomes for the learners involved in that les-
son or instructional experience.
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4 CHAPTER 1
ASSESSMENT: SERVING AN
EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE
Teachers assess student learning for many reasons, including:
♦ To know where students are in regards to their knowledge and skills before instruc-
tion begins.
♦ To know what knowledge and skills are acquired, and when, by students during
the lesson or learning activity.
♦ To document and confi rm student progress.
♦ To make appropriate instructional adjustments or modifications, if needed, during
a lesson.
♦ To inform each learner of his or her progress based on the stated learning objectives
and expected outcomes of the lesson.
♦ To enhance the effectiveness of teaching and the learning decisions that are made
in the classroom.
♦ To review and evaluate the quality of student-generated work and products.
We assess because we need to know information about students. We need to know
many things, and assessment is the vehicle through which desired information can be
obtained and used. As a professional educator, you are in the business of making impor-
tant educational decisions about students and the education they receive, and you will
be held accountable on a daily basis for those decisions. Having an assessment plan and
system within the classroom will help you make good decisions for and about students,
and that’s what teachers need to be able to do.
Assessment Reality
Until recently, the topic of classroom assessment did not generate high interest or value
for many educators. Assessment was seen by many as involving only standardized or
group achievement testing. It was done because it was connected to state or federal
mandates, and it was often considered “foreign” and outside the boundaries of the
classroom except for the traditional end-of-the-chapter test and/or provided grade.
All of that has now changed. Since accountability of student performance plays a key
role in how educators and schools are reviewed and evaluated, assessment has become
a critical discussion point in schools and districts across the nation. Moreover, with
the impact of No Child Left Behind, the documentation of actual academic progress
of students, particularly those at-risk academically, has taken center stage, and so has
classroom assessment (see the box “Introductory Statement of Purpose from No Child
Left Behind”).
Federal legislation (Public Law 107–110) known as the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) was signed into law by President George W. Bush in January of 2002. NCLB
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 4 2/11/11 10:40 AM

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

FROM NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT
TITLE I—IMPROVING THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
OF THE DISADVANTAGED
Sec. 1001 Statement of Purpose

“The purpose of this title is to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant
opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach at a minimum, proficiency on
challenging state academic achievement standards and state academic assessments.”
requires states (that are receiving federal funds) to utilize a comprehensive academic assessment sys-
tem, which documents the progress and educational outcomes of all students, including those that are
low-achieving, economically disadvantaged, or identified with special learning needs. In particular,
this law mandates that all teachers must be highly qualified (i.e., certificated or licensed),
that “scientifically based research” be used and followed in the schools, that students
have greater public school choice when schools do not demonstrate appropriate academic
progress and/or improvement, and that all students’ academic progress be measured and
followed on a yearly basis. All states at a minimum are required to provide standardized
testing in reading and math in grades 3 through 8, and at least once in high school. By
the 2007–2008 school year, it was established that testing in the area of science had to be
formally conducted at least once in grades 3–5, 6–9, and 10–11.
In addition, adequate yearly progress (AYP), as defined by scoring at the proficient or
better levels on state-required achievement tests, must be demonstrated by all students. In fact,
by 2014, all students must be at or above the proficient level in content skill areas (read-
ing, math, science, etc.); schools that do not meet this benchmark will be identified and
could possibly receive sanctions if progress is not demonstrated. Since these test scores
hold such importance, daily instructional practice is directed toward the preparation and
successful completion of these tests. To a great extent, these mandated tests drive the
instruction in classrooms across the country. Consequently, teachers need to be fully
aware and engaged with this assessment reality so that the best educational decisions can
and are made for students.
The continued importance of assessment is reflected in A Blueprint for Reform: The
Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, released by the U.S. Depart-
ment of Education in March 2010. With the focus on college and career preparation and
under the heading for better assessments, it was stated with presidential approval that:
We will support the development and use of a new generation of assessments that
are aligned with college- and career-ready standards, to better determine whether
students have acquired the skills they need for success. New assessment systems will
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6 CHAPTER 1
better capture higher-order skills, provide more accurate measures of student growth,
and better inform classroom instruction to respond to academic needs (U.S. Depart-
ment of Education, 2010, pp. 3–4).
As a professional field, P–12 education clearly recognizes the importance of account-
ability in accordance with federal mandates, state standards, and other accreditation
and review boards, along with the necessary documentation of the change in students’
knowledge, achievement, and skills. Consequently, teachers must be able to accurately
and efficiently measure the progress of their students even as it relates to daily instruc-
tional practice. Yet even if outside pressures for verification and documentation didn’t
exist, the field of education would still be addressing this desired outcome (with perhaps
less anxiety and discontent). Why? By the nature of being an educator, every teacher
wants and needs to know if their lessons and teaching are truly effective, and that their
students are learning what they need to learn. The selection and use of appropriate assess-
ment measures and procedures can help answer that very question, and answering that
question is critical, both for the teacher and the students that he or she teaches.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
If one of your classmates, a parent, or even a student asked you what classroom assessment
is, what would you tell them? How would you defi ne or describe it? Granted that you are
just beginning to learn about this subject, it is still important to identify at this point in
your professional preparation what you know and believe assessment to be about. So take a
moment and write down your defi nition of classroom assessment.
As you construct your defi nition, be sure to include the specific activities and proce-
dures that make up this process. Also, provide a brief description of your view of the rela-
tionship between teaching and assessment. Again, write it down and if possible discuss your
responses with those of your classmates. Whatever level of review is possible (individual
or group), examine how teaching and assessment are connected and in what ways they are
directly linked.
CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
IN THE LIVES OF STUDENTS
Based on research spanning several decades (Black & Wiliam, 2009; Bloom, 1976, 1984;
Bloom, Hastings, & Madaus, 1971; Boston, 2002; Chappuis, 2005; Fuchs, Deno, & Mir-
kin, 1984; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986; Guskey, 2003; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; McTighe
& O’Connor, 2005; Stiggins & DuFour, 2009), student achievement has been found to
improve, in some cases dramatically, when students are actively engaged in their learn-
ing and receive feedback on their performance during an instructional event. According
to the Assessment Reform Group (1999), based on the extensive assessment and learning
review work of Black and Wiliam (1998a), students (particularly low-achieving students)
can achieve at high levels if five instructional/assessment practices are followed, including:
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 6 2/11/11 10:40 AM

♦ the provision of effective feedback to pupils

♦ the active involvement of pupils in their own learning
♦ adjusting teaching to take account of the results of assessment
♦ a recognition of the profound influence assessment has on the motivation and self-
esteem of pupils, both of which are crucial influences on learning
♦ the need for pupils to be able to assess themselves and understand how to improve
Reprinted with permission from the Assessment Reform Group
When these practices are implemented, students show greater learning and achieve-
ment gains, and teachers that take advantage of these practices are likely to have students
who evidence greater academic success in the classroom (Boston, 2002; Chappuis, 2005;
McTighe & O’Connor, 2005; Stiggins & DuFour, 2009). This is about as close to a learn-
ing guarantee in teaching as you can get. So now that you know assessment contributes
directly to the academic achievement of students, it is time to examine how the assess-
ment process can operate and function in the classroom setting.
ASSESSMENT DEFINED
In the previous section, each reader was asked to provide a definition of classroom assess-
ment. When students in my classes are asked to provide their defi nitions, a wide range of
Bananastock/AGE Fotostock
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 7 2/11/11 10:40 AM

8 CHAPTER 1
descriptions and viewpoints are provided, along with some personal feelings mixed in as
well (e.g., “I hated being graded so I don’t like doing it to my students.”). A fairly consis-
tent but erroneous fi nding is that assessment is often viewed as synonymous with grad-
ing and that it serves the same purpose. Not surprisingly, pre-service teachers, as well
as those already in the field, possess a variety of viewpoints, experiences, and personal
expectations about assessment and its potential role in their classroom and professional
career.
Central to the purpose of classroom assessment is that meaningful evidence of student
learning must be obtained. Consistent with Black & Wiliam (1998b), the following defi-
nition of classroom assessment is provided: classroom assessment is viewed as an active
process of systematically collecting and analyzing student learning evidence in order to make effective
educational decisions, which are designed to promote student learning. Four essential actions are
required within this defi nition of classroom assessment:
1. Classroom assessment requires a consistent and ongoing process of student learning
evidence collection. This may include the collection of different types of informa-
tion over extended periods of time based on a particular need.
2. The examination and review of that evidence is necessary and expected so that it
can be determined whether effective learning is taking place and students are pro-
gressing because of it.
3. Important instructional decisions and adjustments need to be based on the critical
review of the collected information.
4. Instructional decisions need to be made with the intent of promoting learning for
all students in the classroom. This is the purpose and a big “why” of the assess-
ment process: to make decisions that are in the best interests of students and their
learning.
Some readers may be surprised with this defi nition and the actions that need to take
place. Assessment is not focused on, or restricted to, giving and/or grading tests. It’s really
about collecting needed information to make good instructional and learning decisions.
It’s important to understand that testing and evaluation is an important process in educa-
tion as well as in most other human endeavors. Testing must be used correctly and for its
intended purposes; if that is done, then true benefits can be obtained. However, testing
as a formal evaluation process is only a part of a much larger process recognized as class-
room assessment.
THE INSTRUCTION, LEARNING, AND

ASSESSMENT MODEL
So how does all this work? Let’s begin with a simple and pragmatic teaching foundation of
three basic questions. In regards to teaching and assessment practices, Stiggins, Arter, Chap-
puis, and Chappuis (2004) encourage teachers to ask three critical questions: (1) “Where am
I going?” (2) “Where am I now?” and (3) “How can I close the gap?” (p. 41). Based on the
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 8 2/11/11 10:40 AM

Assessment Teaching
Preview and Pre-Assess Where are
my students?
Formative Assessment
and Learning Feedback
How do my
students get there?
Instruction-
Student (e.g., cooperative
Assess progress Learning-
Self- learning activities,
“midstream” Assessment
Assessment modeling,
Alignment
inquiry-based
learning)
and Learning Feedback
Intended L earning Targets/

Academic Standards Where do
my students
Post-Assessment/ need to be?
Summative Assessment
FIGURE 1.1 INSTRUCTION-LEARNING-ASSESSMENT MODEL
pragmatic pedagogical approach shown in Figure 1.1, there are three modified assessment
questions that need to be asked relative to your students and the instruction they receive:
1. Where are my students?
2. Where do my students need to be?
3. How do my students get there?
These basic but essential questions are connected to core assessment processes within this
teaching model that involve each of the instructional questions.
Where Are My Students?

To begin to address the “Where are my students?” question, the instructional process
needs to involve a preview of lesson material and pre-assessment (i.e., determining
the specifi c content knowledge and skills) of the learners before the delivery of the formal lesson or
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10 CHAPTER 1
learning activity. Pre-assessing is an important instructional activity but it is often ignored,

dismissed as not important or perhaps attempted but in a very cursory manner. All of this
adds up to the instructor having little to no knowledge of what the learners know and
understand prior to teaching.
Sometimes instructors assume they know what their students know either by asking
random questions of a few students in the class or just by informally judging their skills
and knowledge levels based on one or two quick class observations or performances. As
a teacher, it is imperative to know where all students are, relative to their knowledge and
skills, prior to the teaching of a lesson or class activity. Pre-assessment doesn’t have to
take much time or effort, and it can provide valuable information for a teacher that can
influence the potential learning impact of any lesson that is taught.
With valuable pre-assessment information, informed teachers can accurately match the
instructional material and skill demands to where the students are currently functioning
so that they move forward and continue to make progress in their learning (Chappuis,
2005; McTighe & O’Connor, 2005; Stiggins & DuFour, 2009). This approach of starting
the instruction at the level of the students with the intent of moving them to the next or higher levels
of understanding and profi ciency is referred to as scaffolding. This is necessary if learners are
to experience instruction at the optimal level and thereby receive the maximum learning
benefits. This sets the critical starting point of the primary instructional question “How
do my students get there?”
An additional necessity is informing the students, prior to instruction, of what they
will be learning and identifying their actual learning goals and targets (Guskey, 2003;
Marzano, 2006; McTighe & O’Connor, 2005). In this process, a fully informed learning
community is created, along with a comprehensive understanding of the learner’s prior
knowledge and understanding relative to the content that is to be taught. As soon as a les-
son is started and embedded learning activities completed, information on student learn-
ing progress is available to both the teacher and often to the students themselves.
Once the task or activity is understood, students can actively attempt to complete the
required task. In that process, they seek successive learning adjustments or approxima-
tions to get closer to the desired behavior or outcome. During the instructional period,
formative assessment (i.e., feedback that can be provided during, as well as after, a learning
event) can be provided at any time and it can be provided by both the teacher and in some
cases the students themselves (Brookhart, Moss, & Long, 2008; Chappuis & Chappuis,
2008; Stiggins & DuFour, 2009).
Where Do My Students Need to Be?

During a teaching lesson, it is important to provide periodic learning status checks in
order to monitor the learning progress of your students. At the very least, a learning sta-
tus check halfway through a learning activity serves the valuable function of providing
students a review of their learning and informing them of their progress. It also draws
attention to the importance of assessment and its functional importance to the lesson and
the measurement of student progress. Assessment at this point within a lesson is usually
formative in design but it could also serve a summative assessment function if desired
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 10 2/11/11 10:40 AM

(i.e., formal evaluation of progress and/or performance). The primary purpose is to assess the
progress of the students so that they can be informed of what they still need to learn if
they are to reach the intended learning targets of the lesson that is being taught (Boston,
2002). Think of this process as an educational map where the teacher as well as the stu-
dents must be able to locate themselves on the learning path, ascertain whether or not
they are headed in the right direction, and determine what knowledge and skills still
need to be acquired before the intended destination is reached.
How Do My Students Get There?

When following any educational map, it is essential that teachers and their students know
where they are and where they want to go in regards to any planned learning activity.
Yet knowledge of these two points is not enough. They have to get there. For educators,
this is where the art of teaching is combined and interconnected with assessment. Deliv-
ering content in a meaningful way for students is important; however, making sure that
the information or skills have been truly acquired by the intended audience is essential.
Verification that learning has occurred (or not occurred) is necessary, and an effective
assessment model and process provides this for an instructor. Moreover, when this pro-
cess is connected with instructional delivery it can provide learning feedback to students
on a daily basis, instead of through the traditional summative end-of-the-lesson exam,
resulting in strong student learning interest and involvement.
All of this activity should be directed toward answering the fundamental and primary
instructional question of “Where do my students need to be?” The instructional end
point needs to be determined well before any formal lessons are ever provided. Clear,
detailed student outcomes that are directly connected to required academic standards,
competencies, objectives, etc., need to be identified, communicated, and then “cap-
tured” by the students. That is why it is critical that students be informed of all intended
learning goals before any lesson is started.
In addressing and answering these essential instructional questions (“Where are my
students?” “Where do my students need to be?” “How do my students get there?”),
the collection of student evidence to confi rm learning progress is essential. The need to
know and confi rm student progress has no age or grade boundaries; consequently, assess-
ment is a necessary element of the instructional process that must be present when a child
fi rst enters school until he or she graduates from high school. Moreover, there are no
specific assessment techniques or measures that only apply to elementary school students
compared to middle or high school students. Clearly, developmental issues should and
must be recognized and incorporated within one’s teaching and selection of assessment
practices; however, all types of assessments have utility and potential application for stu-
dents, regardless of their age and maturational status.
For example, for young learners in preschool to the early elementary grades, the
reliance on generated work samples (e.g., early literacy products in a portfolio) and the
demonstration and confi rmation of emerging reading and math skills through check-
lists, observations, and progress graphs is common in most classrooms. Performance
events (e.g., how to write a letter or showing how a plant grows from a seed) as well as
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12 CHAPTER 1
traditional paper-and-pencil tests (e.g., math facts for addition, subtraction, multiplica-
tion, and division) are also typically utilized and completed. Several different measures
can and should be used in order to collect evidence of learner progress.
What is interesting and important to recognize and understand is that all of the listed
assessments have as much relevance and utility for the fi rst or second graders at the ele-
mentary level as for the seventh or tenth graders at the middle and high school levels. The
sources of student evidence and how it is collected may vary, but the need does not. In
addition, the use of multiple sources of confirming data allows for a comprehensive and
balanced approach in confi rming student progress. What is clear from a measurement
perspective is that the reliance on one primary source of data as evidence for student
progress is not effective or defensible from an assessment standpoint.
Therefore, it is important to view assessment measures (e.g., portfolios, tests, journals,
checklists, rubrics) as not age, grade, or content specific but as individual “tools” that are
needed based on a particular assessment job or need. So if it is important to document
the specific skill levels of a student or a group of students, direct observation and verifica-
tion through a skill checklist will likely be needed. On the other hand, if the acquisition
and retention of a specific knowledge base or set must be confi rmed, a traditional test
would be effective in assessing the acquired knowledge of the students, especially if lim-
ited time constraints exist. What is important is to make sure that, as the instructor, you
have many assessment “tools” that can address any particular need or issue that may arise
within the classroom.
INSTRUCTION-LEARNING-
ASSESSMENT ALIGNMENT
A fundamental requirement with the instruction-learning-assessment alignment model
is that instruction in the classroom must align with intended standards and performance
expectations. Standards are written statements, usually at the state or national level, that
specify what students are expected to know and be able to do based on preset perfor-
mance or competency levels within certain content and knowledge areas. The classroom
assessment must be designed so that the students’ progress in accomplishing the learning
outcomes that are connected to those standards is accurately measured. Assessment is most
effective and useful when it matches with the instructional content that is taught in the classroom,
thereby providing instruction-learning-assessment alignment (Beck, 2007; Cohen &
Hyman, 1991). For example, if a teacher is following the state mandated academic con-
tent standards that are approved and required for a specified grade level, then the stu-
dents’ progress relative to that academic content (e.g., math, science, history, English)
should be assessed and evaluated, since students are ultimately held accountable for learn-
ing and obtaining competency with that identified material.
Unfortunately, assessment targets can sometimes become lost and other skills or areas
are taught that are not part of the intended standards. If this occurs, instruction-learning-
assessment alignment can go off-target and something other than the intended standards
may get measured and evaluated. It is crucial to maintain a clear focus on the desired
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 12 2/11/11 10:40 AM

ASSESSMENT IN ACTION
THE IMPACT OF INSTRUCTION-LEARNING-

ASSESSMENT ALIGNMENT
A group of fi rst graders participated in a “Color in Nature” activity. As part of a 90-minute
class in the art room, students were given the opportunity to use primary, secondary, and
tertiary colors in the construction of insects and animals found in nature. The learning
outcomes connected with this activity involved the identification of primary, secondary,
and tertiary colors. In addition, students were expected to place colors into their respective
color category.
Two days before the lesson, Ms. Smith, their art teacher, pre-assessed these students on
their knowledge of primary, secondary, and tertiary colors. She gave them a sheet with all
the colors and color words and the students had to draw a line connecting the color to the
correct color word. Under the headings of “primary,” “secondary,” and “tertiary,” the stu-
dents also had to mark with their crayons which color went with each heading. The results
from the pre-assessment activity indicated that as a group the students could identify the
primary colors (red, yellow, blue) and secondary colors (orange, purple, green) accurately.
However, they could not identify tertiary colors and could not accurately identify which
colors fell within each color category.
At the beginning of the lesson, primary, secondary, and tertiary colors (magenta,
amber, indigo) were reviewed (color to color word and color to color category) with
the students using the aid of a color wheel. During the coloring activity, students were
encouraged to draw and color pictures, and use colored pipe cleaners, colored cotton
balls, and additional materials to create their nature scenes and creatures. As the students
worked, Ms. Smith moved around to each student and asked them questions about the
colors that were part of their nature scene. In particular, she asked them whether they
were primary, secondary, or tertiary colors, and she used the color wheel to help the stu-
dents check their answers.
Toward the end of the lesson, each student was given a sheet of nine white stickers with
the words primary, secondary, or tertiary printed on them (three for each category). They
then had to accurately place the stickers on the colors in their scenes or on the scene that
Ms. Smith had created (she had included all the colors in her nature scene). All but three
of the 20 students correctly identified all of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors and
made all the correct color-category associations during this lesson. Those students who
could not correctly identify all of the colors were about 70 to 80 percent accurate with their
color-category connections.
The Color in Nature activity serves as a good example of how classroom assessment can
be effectively used to contribute to the instructional focus and learning success of a lesson.
In this lesson, Ms. Smith, through her pre-assessment activity, collected information about
the skill and knowledge levels of her students regarding the material to be taught. She then
used that data to direct her instruction and maximize the learning effect with the students
during the lesson. Because the instruction and the assessment of the learning effect were
connected and accurately matched, a strong learning performance for these fi rst graders
was evidenced.
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14 CHAPTER 1
TABLE 1.1 QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE CLASSROOM

ASSESSMENT
What classroom assessment is: What classroom assessment is not:

An active process of data collection and review Just giving tests or quizzes to get grades
A continuous feedback loop for students Disconnected and inconsistent student feedback
Identified learning targets and goals known by Unidentified or vague outcomes or learning endpoints
students
Awareness of student knowledge and skills before Starting a lesson without knowing students’ pre-
lesson objectives are pursued knowledge and skill levels
Use of appropriate measures to obtain needed Using whatever measure is available, provided, or
information convenient
A professional skill that requires both time and A quick pick-up skill for a teacher
practice
If taught, a lifelong skill for both teacher and pupil A narrow and restricted process skill
A way of confi rming teaching effectiveness A needless requirement and a waste of time and effort
goals for the students and to possess valid and reliable assessment measures so that mean-
ingful data on actual student progress can be obtained. Teachers can and often go beyond
the required educational outcomes in lesson plans, and that is completely acceptable. The
assessment system, however, should be “laser accurate” when it comes to evaluating stu-
dent accomplishments relative to all required learning outcomes.
As Earl (2003) has identified, “there is no single activity called classroom assessment”
(p. 3). Classroom assessment is made up of many parts that constitute a teacher-directed
process that strategically collects student data that is used to help direct and enhance the
instructional process. Yet as important as it is to know what classroom assessment is, it
is just as important to know what classroom assessment is not. The comparisons listed
in Table 1.1 provide a review of the core elements that are recognized as essential to an
effective assessment system compared to one that is not (Guskey, 2003; Marzano, 2006;
McTighe & O’Connor, 2005).
PROFESSIONAL AND ETHICAL

ASSESSMENT PRACTICES
As a classroom teacher it is essential to have a well-designed assessment system, and the
right “machinery” and approach need to be in place (see Figure 1.1; Table 1.1). But it is
not all about the parts and procedures. For all of this to work well for students, a teacher
must make good professional and ethical decisions regarding assessment practices.
Assessment results, and the decisions that are influenced by those assessment results,
have both short- and long-term implications for students. Obviously these results can
have a significant impact on the educational careers of students. Consequently, teachers
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 14 2/11/11 10:40 AM

have a strong ethical responsibility to make sure the results they obtain are as accurate
and reliable as possible and that the procedures and measures used in obtaining those
results are genuine for their intended purpose and use.
Definition of Ethics
The terms “ethical standards” or “ethical decisions” are often used in professional discus-
sions, but what actually constitutes a person’s professional ethics is not always constant
and consistent across disciplines and/or professional organizations. If asked to define or
describe one’s ethics, many, if not most, people indicate that ethics direct one’s professional
conduct and actions, which are based on a set of recognized standards of practice that are established
and followed by a member of a certain profession. Professional standards are in place and fol-
lowed in order to provide the necessary safeguards for the individuals or clients (i.e.,
students) that are directly impacted by the actions and decisions that are provided by cer-
tain individuals (i.e., doctors, psychologists, educators). Within the educational profes-
sion, professional competencies are emphasized and expertise in general areas of practice
or knowledge are usually expected (e.g., learner characteristics, instruction, assessment)
along with the desired and/or expected professional behaviors that are connected with
those areas.
In the case of educators, since students are in the direct care and supervision of teach-
ers, professional care must be provided as part of any action or decision that impacts
a student. Life-changing or altering decisions (e.g., selection into advanced placement
courses, receiving scholarships, passing or failing classes, qualifying for special education
services) can be made or influenced by teachers and for that reason ethical guidance and
direction is always expected.
The National Education Association (NEA) code of ethics, including its Preamble
and Principles I (Commitment to the Student) and II (Commitment to the Profession),
is provided in the box on pages 16–17. The NEA has over 3 million members and is the
nation’s largest education association.
Ethics in the Classroom

So how should ethical principles translate into actual practice? What is the ethical frame-
work that educators need to work from on a daily basis in the classroom? These are
obviously complex questions that each educator must examine and reflect upon before
answers are found. To start this process and journey, a few basic principles and issues
teachers must deal with in regards to their assessment role are examined.
One major ethical principle or dimension that teachers must recognize and adhere to
in their teaching and instruction centers on the idea of fairness and providing and pro-
moting equal learning opportunities. All students are entitled access to quality instruction
and should be able to receive educational benefits from that instruction in the classroom.
In order to accomplish this, teachers must be in a position to gather and review student
learning evidence that is valid and reliable, and effective teacher-generated assessment
procedures are required if accurate data is to be collected.
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16 CHAPTER 1
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

CODE OF ETHICS
PREAMBLE AND PRINCIPLES I AND II
Preamble
The educator, believing in the worth and dignity of each human being, recognizes the
supreme importance of the pursuit of truth, devotion to excellence, and the nurture of the
democratic principles. Essential to these goals is the protection of freedom to learn and to
teach and the guarantee of equal educational opportunity for all. The educator accepts the
responsibility to adhere to the highest ethical standards.
The educator recognizes the magnitude of the responsibility inherent in the teaching
process. The desire for the respect and confidence of one’s colleagues, of students, of parents,
and of the members of the community provides the incentive to attain and maintain the
highest possible degree of ethical conduct. The Code of Ethics of the Education Profession
indicates the aspiration of all educators and provides standards by which to judge conduct.
The remedies specified by the NEA and/or its affi liates for the violation of any provision
of this Code shall be exclusive and no such provision shall be enforceable in any form other
than the one specifically designated by the NEA or its affi liates.
Principle I
Commitment to the Student
The educator strives to help each student realize his or her potential as a worthy and effec-
tive member of society. The educator therefore works to stimulate the spirit of inquiry, the
acquisition of knowledge and understanding, and the thoughtful formulation of worthy
goals.
In fulfi llment of the obligation to the student, the educator—
1. Shall not unreasonably restrain the student from independent action in the pursuit of
learning.
2. Shall not unreasonably deny the student’s access to varying points of view.
3. Shall not deliberately suppress or distort subject matter relevant to the student’s
progress.
4. Shall make reasonable effort to protect the student from conditions harmful to learn-
ing or to health and safety.
5. Shall not intentionally expose the student to embarrassment or disparagement.
6. Shall not on the basis of race, color, creed, sex, national origin, marital status, politi-
cal or religious beliefs, family, social or cultural background, or sexual orientation,
unfairly—
a. Exclude any student from participation in any program
b. Deny benefits to any student
c. Grant any advantage to any student
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 16 2/11/11 10:40 AM

7. Shall not use professional relationships with students for private advantage.
8. Shall not disclose information about students obtained in the course of professional
service unless disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is required by
law.
Principle II
Commitment to the Profession
The education profession is vested by the public with a trust and responsibility requiring the
highest ideals of professional service.
In the belief that the quality of the services of the education profession directly influ-
ences the nation and its citizens, the educator shall exert every effort to raise professional
standards, to promote a climate that encourages the exercise of professional judgment, to
achieve conditions that attract persons worthy of the trust to careers in education, and to
assist in preventing the practice of the profession by unqualified persons.
In fulfi llment of the obligation to the profession, the educator—
1. Shall not in an application for a professional position deliberately make a false state-
ment or fail to disclose a material fact related to competency and qualifications.
2. Shall not misrepresent his/her professional qualifications.
3. Shall not assist any entry into the profession of a person known to be unqualified in
respect to character, education, or other relevant attribute.
4. Shall not knowingly make a false statement concerning the qualifications of a candi-
date for a professional position.
5. Shall not assist a noneducator in the unauthorized practice of teaching.
6. Shall not disclose information about colleagues obtained in the course of professional
service unless disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is required by
law.
7. Shall not knowingly make false or malicious statements about a colleague.
8. Shall not accept any gratuity, gift, or favor that might impair or appear to influence
professional decisions or action.
Adopted by the NEA 1975 Representative Assembly. Reprinted with permission.
For example, ensuring that instruction-learning-assessment alignment exists is critical

so that an accurate picture of what was taught corresponds to what is actually learned,
as confi rmed through collected student evidence with the classroom assessments. Also,
informing students of and exposing students to the content and the types of learning
tasks required (e.g., essay questions, performance activities) before formal assessments are
completed is important in order to obtain a true and valid indicator of a student’s real
knowledge and skill level. In addition, teachers must be able to recognize the limitations
of the evidence that is collected as well as the bias that can exist and potentially distort
those fi ndings.
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 17 2/11/11 10:40 AM

18 CHAPTER 1
Constructing and implementing well-developed tests is another way of ensuring fair-

ness and equal learning and performance opportunities for students; they also foster
experiences that promote a sense of fairness and genuineness within the assessment pro-
cess. This is especially the case when assessment modifications for students with special
learning needs are warranted. Beyond legal mandates, regular education teachers, as part
of their ethical responsibilities, must ensure that special education students are provided
fair and meaningful classroom assessments in order to ensure the accurate measurement
of student progress and achievement.
In the drive to serve and help educate the students in their charge, teachers must also
recognize and maintain the responsibility of confidentiality. Teachers, by the nature of
their position, gain access to a considerable amount of private information about their
students. This information must be carefully guarded and should not be shared with oth-
ers, except for appropriate educational personnel, without parental permission. Student
information is private and personal and it is imperative that it be safeguarded at all times.
Competency is a recognized ethical responsibility and mandate for teachers, as it is for
many other professionals. Competency is typically viewed as being highly qualified and
demonstrating a clear level of expertise and being able to provide a high level of service
to a client. Teachers often feel very competent when it comes to the material or content
they are required to teach and impart to their students. However, teacher competency
also includes classroom assessment and teachers are expected to possess the knowledge
and skills to accurately assess the learning progress of their students.
In regards to a teacher’s expected competency in educational assessment, the edu-
cation field already possesses a foundational set of standards in educational assessment.
Through the collaborative efforts of several educators ( James R. Sanders, John R. Hills,
Anthony J. Nitko, Jack C. Merwin, Carolyn Trice, Marcella Dianda, and Jeffrey Sch-
neider) representing several professional organizations (the National Council on Mea-
surement in Education, the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, the
American Federation of Teachers, and the National Education Association), the Standards
for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students were constructed in 1990. After
two decades these standards continue to reflect the essential professional skill require-
ments for teachers entering the classroom. Seven core competency standards were devel-
oped for teachers in regards to the educational assessment of their students. These seven
standards are as follows:
Standard 1—Teachers should be skilled in choosing assessment methods appropri-
ate for instructional decisions.
Standard 2—Teachers should be skilled in developing assessment methods appro-
priate for instructional decisions.
Standard 3—Teachers should be skilled in administering, scoring, and interpreting
the results of both externally-produced and teacher-produced assessment methods.
Standard 4—Teachers should be skilled in using assessment results when making
decisions about individual students, planning teaching, developing curriculum,
and school improvement.
Standard 5—Teachers should be skilled in developing valid pupil grading proce-
dures that use pupil assessments.
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 18 2/11/11 10:40 AM

FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
ETHICS IN ASSESSMENT
Examine the following ethics pledge and imagine that you have been asked to review and
sign it.
ETHICS PLEDGE
I, (sign your name here), hereby agree to accept and abide by the code of ethics established within my
profession as a teacher throughout my entire professional career. I understand that the primary purpose
of these ethical principles and guidelines is to protect the students I teach and not to safeguard myself or
my practice as an educator. I also understand that the advocacy for the rights and educational needs of
children may create potential conflicts with the school system that employs me. Consequently, I must
adhere to my code of ethics even if doing so adversely impacts my personal status in that system. I also
accept the responsibility of remaining current on new developments and professional responsibilities so
that I can work proactively on enhancing school policies and procedures and ultimately on serving the
interests and needs of all children in the classroom.
If you were asked to sign this ethics pledge, or one like it, would you? Why or why not? If
possible, sit down with a small group of your peers and colleagues and discuss the potential
challenges to adhering to an ethics pledge like the one just presented. Discuss the role eth-
ics will play in your professional career as a teacher.
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 19 2/11/11 10:40 AM

20 CHAPTER 1
Standard 6—Teachers should be skilled in communicating assessment results to

students, parents, other lay audiences, and other educators.
Standard 7—Teachers should be skilled in recognizing unethical, illegal, and oth-
erwise inappropriate assessment methods and uses of assessment information.
All of these standards, and the skills subsumed under each one of these standards, have
been encouraged to be incorporated into teacher training and licensure programs so that
pre-service teachers come into the profession with well-developed assessment skills. The
specific skill expectations provided for each standard are listed in Appendix 1-A at the
end of this book. These standards clearly defi ne the range of assessment competency that
is expected of teachers in the classroom.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
Reexamine the defi nition of classroom assessment that you completed earlier in the
chapter. Along with your defi nition, you may be envisioning how, as a process, assess-
ment might take place in your future classroom. You also completed a brief description
of the relationship between teaching and assessment in that chapter activity. At this time,
would you make any further changes or modifications to your defi nition? If so, what
would those changes be and why would you make them? Compare your new defi nition
with your original and examine what has remained and what has changed. Are you sur-
prised with your fi ndings? Why or why not?
In generating your own defi nition of assessment, you begin to make it real and per-
sonal for yourself as a future educator. Don’t be surprised if that defi nition continues
to change; that’s not unusual. What’s most important (and underlies the instructional
purpose for completing this activity) is to help make assessment a relevant and meaning-
ful issue for you at this time in your professional preparation. As the assessment journey
continues, you will hopefully begin to see more critical connections between teaching
and assessment, which are examined in more detail in the next chapter.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
As Black and Wiliam (1998b) have stated, “Learning is driven by what teachers and pupils
do in classrooms” (p. 139). Because of that reality, what becomes critical is the purpose-
ful and accurate measurement of the learning of students. Through a strategic approach
of addressing the instructional questions of where students are, where they need to be,
and confirming their educational destinations through the collection of data or learn-
ing evidence, teachers can follow and support instructional plans with confirmation of
P–12 learning impact. In this way, teachers can consistently evaluate the knowledge and
skill levels of their students before, as well as while, a lesson is being delivered, identify
the end point and outcomes of the instructional process, and determine the instructional
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 20 2/11/11 10:40 AM

pathways that will need to be taken, along with monitoring the learning status of the
students during the process.
Assessment exists as the essential complement to teaching: the fl ip side of the instruc-
tional coin. With an effective classroom assessment system in place, a valid demonstra-
tion of student learning and progress connected to classroom instruction and experience
can be confi rmed. In addition, if the classroom assessment system is aligned with the
intended academic content standards, then direct evidence that students have acquired
expected knowledge and skills mandated by district, state, or national standards can be
provided.
Assessment is now an expected skill for teachers, and competency must be demon-
strated. It is a skill that is expected to grow and develop over one’s professional career
and one that must be guided by the highest standards and ethics of the profession. On
a personal level, accurate assessment of learning in the classroom provides the affi rma-
tion that a teacher’s professional effort and time helped to generate positive, and poten-
tially life-enhancing, accomplishments for his or her students. Along with this comes
an undeniable sense of pride and satisfaction that students have truly benefited from
the lessons and the learning experiences they have been provided.
Response to Key Focus Question

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: Why does class-
room assessment need to be an integral part of your instructional process?
In attempting to answer this question, you were exposed to the necessity of integrating
assessment (in all its forms and functions) into and throughout the instructional process. By
making assessment a part of the teaching process, it becomes an essential element of every
educational experience that is provided in the classroom. Classroom assessment is by design
a continuous process where specific student product information (e.g., pages read and
review questions answered, two-digit multiplication problems solved, Shakespeare project
completed, questions answered in class) is examined and reviewed to make sure appropriate
and genuine progress toward an identified learning goal or target (i.e., what students are
expected to know and be able to do once the instruction is complete) is being made.
Moreover, assessment procedures and practices can be selected and set up so that every-
one within the classroom assessment system has the potential to truly learn what is being
taught. The following chapters will provide information, ideas, and considerations to exam-
ine and review as you begin to consider and construct your classroom assessment system.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
It is important to make sure that the major concepts and issues that have been covered
become a part of your expanding knowledge and skill base. With that in mind, answer
the following questions in order to provide your own self-check or progress review on
the learning impact of this chapter.
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 21 2/11/11 10:40 AM

22 CHAPTER 1
1. If a classmate asked you to explain the benefits of a decision-making model that

is based on student learning evidence, what would you say? As a teacher, what do
you gain by utilizing a system that collects and uses student learning evidence for
making educational decisions in the classroom?
2. How does the instruction-learning-assessment model presented in the chapter
connect the areas of instruction and the assessment of student learning? What
instructional questions do you want to address with the classroom assessment sys-
tem in your future classroom?
3. If asked to explain the term instruction-learning-assessment alignment, how
would you describe it? Gauge its value relative to the overall process of confi rming
student learning.
4. Imagine that a friend calls you up and asks you to explain what classroom assess-
ment is. What would you say? At this time, do you believe your defi nition of
classroom assessment would be helpful in guiding and developing the assessment
system of your future classroom? Why or why not?
5. What ethical principles need to be connected to assessment practices and proce-
dures in the classroom?
RESOURCES
The Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students at www
.unl.edu/buros/bimm/html/article3.html demonstrate the profession’s recognition for
teacher assessment competency.
Currently, the book Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational
Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on
Measurement in Education, 1999) provides the most up-to-date information on the
standards that need to be recognized and followed whenever testing and assessment
procedures are implemented (e.g., test construction, fairness in testing, the use of test
findings, educational testing and assessment).
The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) at www.nbpts.org pro-
vides detailed information on the five core standards (including assessment and monitor-
ing student learning) that must be met in order to receive the distinction of a National
Board Certified Teacher.
The Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) at www.ccsso.org is a national orga-
nization consisting of state and federal school officials that examine and review major
educational issues that affect K–12 education. Connected to that site is information on
the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). INTASC
is a consortium of state education agencies and national educational organizations that
directly influences the preparation and professional development of teachers. Along
with content standards, INTASC has created 10 core professional standards, and Stan-
dard 8 deals exclusively with assessment.
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 22 2/11/11 10:40 AM

No Child Left Behind information at www.ed.gov is an extremely valuable resource for

anyone seeking to better understand this law and its impact on the children of America.
The Georgia Professional Standards Commission maintains the Georgia Public Schools
code of ethics Web site at www.gapsc.com/Ethics/index.asp. This is a comprehensive
site that includes several information sources including the Georgia Public Schools’
current code of ethics, acknowledged acts of moral turpitude, a listing of disciplinary
action terms, how to fi le a complaint, and a description of the hearing process. In addi-
tion, other state departments of education (e.g., New York, Florida, Kentucky) also
have sites devoted to the expected professional ethics and behavior of teachers.
REFERENCES
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, &
National Council on Measurement in Education. (1999). Standards for educational and
psychological testing (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Assessment Reform Group. (1999). Assessment for learning: Beyond the black box. Cambridge,
UK: University of Cambridge School of Education.
Beck, M. D. (2007). Alignment as a psychometric issue. Applied Measurement in Education,
20(1), 127–135.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Educa-
tion, 5(1), 7–74.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the black box: Raising standards through class-
room assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–148.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educa-
tional Assessment, Evaluation, and Accountability, 21, 5–31.
Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction
as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13, 4–16.
Bloom, B. S., Hastings, J. T., & Madaus, G. F. (1971). Handbook on formative and summative
evaluation of student learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brookhart, S., Moss, C., & Long, B. (2008). Formative assessment that empowers. Educa-
tional Leadership, 66(3), 52–57.
Boston, C. (2002). The concept of formative assessment. Practical Assessment, Research &
Evaluation, 8(9). Retrieved from http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=8&n=9
Chappuis, J. (2005). Helping students understand assessment. Educational Leadership, 63(3),
39–43.
Chappuis, S., & Chappuis, J. (2008). The best value in formative assessment. Educational
Leadership, 65(4), 14–19.
Cohen, S. A., & Hyman, J. S. (1991). Can fantasies become facts? Educational Measurement:
Issues and Practice, 10(1), 20–23.
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 23 4/12/11 4:53 PM

24 CHAPTER 1
Earl, L. (2003). Assessment as learning: Using classroom assessment to maximize student learning.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
Fuchs, L. S., Deno, S. L., & Mirkin, P. K. (1984). The effects of frequent curriculum-
based measurement and evaluation on pedagogy, student achievement, and student
awareness of learning. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 449–460.
Fuchs, L., & Fuchs, D. (1986). Effects of systematic formative evaluation: A meta-analysis.
Exceptional Children, 53, 199–208.
Guskey, T. R. (2003). How classroom assessments improve learning. Educational Leader-
ship, 60(5), 7–11.
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research,
77(1), 81–112.
Marzano, R. J. (2006). Classroom assessment and grading that work. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
McTighe, J., & O’Connor, K. (2005). Seven practices for effective learning. Educational
National Education Association (NEA). (1975). Code of ethics. Retrieved from http://
www.nea.org/home/30442.htm
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (ESEA), Pub. L. No. 107-110 (2002).
Stiggins, R., Arter, J., Chappuis, J., & Chappuis, S. (2004). Classroom assessment for student
learning: Doing it right—using it well. Portland, OR: Assessment Training Institute, Inc.
Stiggins, R., & DuFour, R. (2009). Maximizing the power of formative assessments. Phi
Delta Kappan, 90(9), 640–644.
U.S. Department of Education. (2010). A blueprint for reform: The reauthorization of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/
policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/blueprint.pdf
wit78704_ch01_001-024.indd 24 2/11/11 10:40 AM

CHAPTER 2
ELEMENTS OF THE INSTRUCTION-

LEARNING-ASSESSMENT MODEL
KEY FOCUS
How do the instruction-learning-assessment components fit together during a
classroom activity or lesson?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Identify the key elements of the instruction-learning-assessment model.
♦ Explain the components of the instruction-learning-assessment model.
♦ Justify the necessity of sharing intended learning targets with students.
♦ Acknowledge the purpose and value of pre-assessment.
♦ Organize a pre-assessment activity.
♦ Identify the purpose of an instructional
preview.
♦ Acknowledge the requirement of research sup-
port for instructional approaches or techniques
used in the classroom.
♦ Understand the importance of feedback and its
impact in promoting effective learning.
♦ Differentiate the purposes of formative assess-
ment, summative assessment, and self-
assessment and how evidence from these
approaches can be used to promote student
learning.
25
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 25 2/11/11 10:38 AM

26 CHAPTER 2
Introduction
The relationship and the components that link teaching, learning, and assessment
together are examined in this chapter. In addition, as a teacher-in-training, it is impor-
tant to know the assessment expectations that you will be held accountable to and more
importantly how these assessment competencies will impact your role as a teacher. To
help start this investigation, please complete the following activity.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Many, if not most, states have specific assessment standards and competencies that teachers
are expected to meet and demonstrate as part of their teaching practice. Can you identify
and list the assessment standards and skills that teachers in your state are expected to dem-
onstrate as part of their teaching? If you can, that’s great, since most pre-service teachers
are not typically exposed to that knowledge set early in their program of study. You are just
beginning to develop your assessment foundation; however, familiarity with the assessment
standards that you will be expected to demonstrate and will possibly be evaluated against
is very important.
When conducting a search on assessment standards, one of the fi rst places you may want
to visit is your state education Web site to see if specific teacher assessment standards exist
and where that information can be obtained. In addition, university faculty and teachers
in the field are excellent resources, as they can provide useful information and insight into
the assessment demands of a teacher in the classroom. As you conduct your online search
and participate in discussions with professional colleagues, ask yourself if you possess the
knowledge and skills that are necessary to demonstrate at least a beginning level (i.e., a level
of understanding and skill that is expected for current practitioners) of proficiency relative
to the listed competencies.
Based on the following assessment competencies (selected from the Ohio, Hawaii, and
Wisconsin educator assessment standards), rate your current assessment knowledge and
skills on a scale of 1 (extremely weak) to 5 (very strong) relative to these statements:
a. Knowledge of various assessment types, their appropriate uses, and the data they can
generate. (1 2 3 4 5)
b. Ability to identify, develop, and utilize a variety of assessments (e.g., formative, sum-
mative, self ). (1 2 3 4 5)
c. Ability to use data to review and monitor student progress and learning, and to plan or
differentiate instruction based on collected data. (1 2 3 4 5)
d. Ability to collaborate with and effectively communicate academic progress to students,
parents, and colleagues. (1 2 3 4 5)
e. Ability to involve students in self-assessment and goal setting in relation to their learn-
ing goals. (1 2 3 4 5)
Now examine your ratings for these items. Don’t worry if you couldn’t give yourself 4s
and 5s across these listed competencies. For now it’s just important to fi nd out where you
see yourself relative to these skill areas. Please record your answers, as your ratings for these
items will be discussed at the end of the chapter.
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 26 2/11/11 10:38 AM

ELEMENTS OF THE INSTRUCTION-LEARNING-ASSESSMENT MODEL 27
CLASSROOM TEACHING
AND ASSESSMENT
Pre-service teachers possess the unique advantage of being able to construct and refi ne
their classroom assessment system before they begin their teaching career. Clearly, much
can be learned, developed, and formulated before your system becomes operational in
a real classroom setting. Unfortunately, a real drawback of any theoretical system is the
limited opportunity to try out and conduct actual assessment practices in a classroom
setting. The fi rst chance to try out an assessment system typically occurs during student
teaching, and that is still a limited, full-time experience.
For practitioners in the field, the use and integration of an effective classroom assess-
ment system typically requires changes and adjustments to existing classroom routines
and instructional procedures. As pointed out in Assessment for Learning by Black, Har-
rison, Lee, Marshall, and Wiliam (2003), considerable time and effort may be necessary
for teachers when incorporating effective assessment practices into the classroom. But it
can and should be viewed as an organized redistribution of effort (not adding more to
an existing work foundation) that is developed over time in a careful, methodic manner.
As Black et al. point out, “the message is not about working harder, but about working
smarter” (p. 2). But before you can get somewhere, you need to know where you are, and
that surely applies to the practice of classroom assessment.
Whenever you focus on teaching you must also focus on assessment, because they are
directly connected (Earl, 2003). Assessment as a process serves as an important decision-
making tool that teachers use to enhance the learning progress of their students. Since
assessment must function as a seamless part of the teaching process, several intercon-
nected parts or components should be present and operational during any formal lesson
plan or planned learning activity in order to maximize instructional impact (Figure 2.1).
Let’s examine each of these instructional components.
Identifying Learning Targets

Prior to any formal learning event or planned instructional activity, the intended learn-
ing targets (what students are going to be expected to learn and be able to do because of the
instruction they receive) and expected student outcomes (specifi c academic or behavioral
responses or actions learners will need to demonstrate) (e.g., accurately calculate and complete
two-digit addition and subtraction problems) must be selected and should be shared with
the students. This is a simple yet essential element of the instruction-learning-assessment
system. There must be no guesswork or ambiguity about what is to be learned in a lesson.
The learning targets should be truly meaningful and align with the learning objectives or
outcomes that exist in the school or district curriculum or that are identified in a particu-
lar course of study. The learning targets need to be clear and specific in order for students
to understand completely what they will be expected to learn and be able to do as part of
this experience.
If you are teaching in a state that has mandated academic standards or competen-
cies (and most states do), then the lesson would need to align itself and be directed
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 27 2/11/11 10:38 AM

28 CHAPTER 2
Identified
Learning
Targets
Summative Pre-Assessment
Assessment of Students
Instruction-
Learning-
Assessment
Self- Model Preview of
Assessment Instruction
Instructional
Formative
Approach and
Assessment
Techniques
FIGURE 2.1 COMPONENTS OF THE INSTRUCTION-

LEARNING-ASSESSMENT MODEL
toward acquiring the expected grade-level standards and proficiencies appropriate for
the students you are teaching. Typically, a district’s curriculum guide is designed to
help with this process, along with state supports and resources. In addition, many states
(e.g., Hawaii, Alaska, Indiana, Idaho, Georgia, Oregon, Louisiana, and Ohio) have cre-
ated exceptional instructional management Web sites that help teachers create lesson
plans that are matched up with the appropriate grade-level learning goals. In particu-
lar, the “Instructional Management System” section on the Ohio Department of Edu-
cation’s Web site (ims.ode.state.oh.us) provides valuable instructional resources that can
be used to develop lessons specific to content and grade level that are directly aligned
with the recognized academic content standards for that state. Customized lesson plans
and potential assessment items for the classroom are generated within this system. The
Ohio Resource Center (ohiorc.org) also provides instructional assistance and support in
regards to grade-mandated standards and competencies. Many states provide these kinds
of resources, usually in the form of Web pages or Internet links.
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 28 2/11/11 10:38 AM

Along with curriculum alignment, learners need to know and understand the
expected performance standards that are connected with the lesson and its material. This
is where identifying the knowledge and cognitive processing levels, according to Bloom’s
modified taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001), is most helpful for both teacher and
students. The level of understanding and performance needs to be clearly articulated
by the instructor and understood by the intended learners. For example, if the higher
order processing skills of analysis and evaluation are expected, then those skills need to
be taught and practiced within the lesson in order for the students to acquire those very
skills. Yet if knowledge and comprehension skills are emphasized in the classroom, then
students will most likely acquire and use those processing levels in their work. Remem-
ber that what is taught, and at the skill level at which it is taught, is what will likely be
demonstrated by those who receive the teaching.
Also, classroom assessments must directly align with the intended learning targets of
the lesson. For example, if a teacher presents a lesson on the significance of the rights that
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 29 2/11/11 10:38 AM

30 CHAPTER 2
are protected under the First Amendment, and the instruction is formatted toward that
goal but at the end of the lesson a test is given on the three branches of government and
their responsibilities, a clear mismatch and instruction-learning-assessment misalignment
exists.
Pre-Assessment
Once learning targets are known and shared with the intended learners, pre-assessment
prior to the teaching of a lesson is needed for the diagnostic purpose of fi nding out
what students know and don’t know about the planned learning activity (Oberg, 2009).
Two basic areas typically reviewed in pre-assessment include (1) assessment of prerequi-
site skills, and (2) assessment of the information and skills to be taught. Both areas are
important. Assessment of prerequisite skills, however, is not always necessary given that
information from previous assessments or progress reviews can confi rm the existence of
certain knowledge and comprehension as well as skill levels.
Pre-assessment is usually designed to focus on determining how well-informed stu-
dents are about a new topic (e.g., the causes and impact of the American Civil War) or the
strength of a skill area (e.g., multiplying two-digit numbers with and without regroup-
ing). For example, for a third-grade English lesson designed to teach skills and strategies
for writing persuasive paragraphs, an effective pre-assessment activity may involve ask-
ing students to write a paragraph expressing and defending a point of view relative to
an article they have just read. With this kind of activity, the teacher can determine the
students’ writing skills and their performance levels before the lesson is started. With the
use of learner or student pre-assessment data, a lesson can proceed as originally planned
or it can be appropriately modified based on the collected fi ndings.
Important pre-assessment considerations should include the realization that all of the
intended learners need to be pre-assessed in order to get an accurate assessment of the
entire classroom. Getting a “representative sample” where the selection of a few students
reflects the entire class, even if that is possible, is likely to be difficult and inaccurate.
Therefore, involving the entire class in the pre-assessment activity or review provides the
most valuable and accurate performance picture. Also, the pre-assessment activity should
gauge the students’ current skills and knowledge relative to the learning targets and out-
comes of the intended lesson or activity that is to be provided.
Pre-assessment typically requires a short period of time and can be easily embedded
within the normal instructional process. In some cases, it can occur before the actual
instructional unit is even started. For example, if the pre-assessment is focused on deter-
mining whether the students have the prerequisite skills necessary for the current lesson,
a review of the last test performance and/or current work products that involved these
skills should provide that needed information. All that is required is checking previous
work, prior to the lesson, to determine that they have the necessary skills and under-
standing to benefit from the lesson that is to be provided.
When the pre-assessment involves reviewing how much students know relative to the
information and skills that are to be covered with the current lesson or learning activity,
then a checklist can be completed to determine whether or not they are demonstrating
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 30 2/11/11 10:38 AM

these skills in their current work. The checklist review can take place a day or two before
the new lesson is to be provided. If new content is being introduced, then a pre-test of
the new material, in the form of a short paper-and-pencil performance, computer-based
review program, or small group oral question-and-response approach, could be admin-
istered. Obviously, these activities would need to be administered before the new lesson,
since the acquired information is critical in determining whether the lesson proceeds as
originally designed or whether it should be modified.
Pre-assessments can be packaged in different ways. For instance, they can take the
form of pre-tests that review specific content and material or they can be checklist-
oriented approaches that list the necessary steps for certain operations, such as a suc-
cessful computer search or the solution of an algebraic equation. Whatever method is
considered, the pre-assessment should confirm that the intended learners have the prior
knowledge and the prerequisite skills to complete the work (Sousa, 2006) in the intended
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
USE OF CONSENSUS-GRAMS
If time is limited or committed to other lesson components, an attempt to acquire “per-
ceptional” information from students can be made through the use of a consensus-gram. A
consensus-gram usually takes the form of a chart turned away from the class that contains a
low to high scale for students to anonymously mark to indicate their perceived understand-
ing, skills, and/or performance level relative to a statement or specific question asked by
the instructor. This will not reflect a direct skill or knowledge review, but it can provide
a general measure of the students’ perceptions and/or beliefs regarding their skill level and
comfort with the topic that is to be presented.
For example, the students could be asked to rate their knowledge from 1 (very low) to 5
(very high) based on the following question: “List and explain the steps that occur during
the process of photosynthesis.” The responses would then be reviewed to see, in general,
how confident the students are in their knowledge of the steps that occur during photo-
synthesis. This information can help give a teacher a better understanding of the learning
status of his or her audience before actual content or instruction is provided.
Overall, a consensus-gram is:
• A quick and relatively nonstressful self-appraisal activity for students.
• Useful in generating students’ perceptions of the skill/knowledge sets that are to be
used and/or developed during the instructional process.
• A tool that provides information that can be used to inform and direct instruction.
A simple show of hands (or a thumbs-up/thumbs-down) might also work, but realize
that there tends to be a “false positive” or a “fake good” effect with that practice. In order
to avoid social embarrassment and ridicule, students will often indicate that they know or
can do something when in reality they can’t do it at all or as well as indicated by the show
of hands.
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32 CHAPTER 2
lesson, as well as verify that the material in the soon-to-be-delivered lesson has not been
previously learned or mastered.
Beyond the mechanics of providing an accurate pre-assessment lies the importance
of understanding what students understand about the subject area before the lesson is
started and the new content is examined ( Jensen, 2005). An important consideration
with any preview is that teachers understand the pre-existing knowledge base of the
intended learners. As reported by the National Research Council (2000), “teachers need
to pay attention to the incomplete understandings, the false beliefs, and the naïve ren-
ditions of concepts that learners bring with them to a given subject” (p. 10). Teachers
must deal with this reality, because “If students’ initial ideas and beliefs are ignored, the
understandings that they develop can be very different from what the teacher intends”
(National Research Council, 2000, p. 10). It is imperative for teachers to know what
their students know and how well they understand it before embarking on new material
or understanding.
EFFECTIVE USE OF PRE-ASSESSMENT

Mr. Morrison teaches fi fth-grade math at Thomas Paine Elementary. As he prepared for his
fi rst lesson of the school year, he wasn’t sure what material should be covered. He antici-
pated the need to provide a review of math skills and operations that were acquired by the
students last year. He assumed, and rightly so, that many of the students had regressed and
lost some of their math skills and accuracy over the summer months. However, without
obtaining some actual performance data, he couldn’t be sure where his incoming students
were relative to their current math skills. As the instructor, he needed to have an accurate
profi le of the entire class, complete with individual student skill strengths and weaknesses.
Mr. Morrison decided to readminister the fi nal math exam that was completed by all the
fourth graders last year in order to see which specific skills and operations were still strong
and which had weakened over the summer. Based on the student performances on that test,
Mr. Morrison decided to review some key concepts before he started covering any new
material.
In this case, Mr. Morrison used a pre-assessment activity—last year’s math fi nal—to
obtain important student information and evidence that he then used to direct his instruc-
tion. In essence, he matched his instruction with where his students were in regards to their
knowledge and skills. This provided for an effective review and positive beginning to the
school year for his students.
What is most important is assessing the pre-lesson knowledge and skill levels of students
to determine if the lesson, as constructed, is appropriate or if it should be modified based on
the pre-assessment fi ndings. To maximize the effectiveness of your instruction, you need to
understand your students’ current knowledge and skill levels so you can provide the most
meaningful and relevant instruction relative to their needs. This represents a fundamental
requirement with any instructional lesson or activity.
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 32 2/11/11 10:38 AM

Preview of Instructional Material

As part of good teaching practices, teachers are encouraged to provide a preview of the
material to be covered to the group of learners before delivering a lesson. This prim-
ing event directly corresponds to the instruction-learning-assessment model. Students
need to know where they are going in any educational lesson or activity; if that clarity
is not provided at the outset, then students run the potential risk of getting “lost” on the
journey. Providing a preview helps ensure they receive a clear picture of what they will
be learning and how this information and these skills fit into their overall educational
plan. Along with understanding where they are going, learners need to be told what
they will be expected to know and be able to do based on that learning. Sharing of the
actual learning targets and outcomes with students provides clarity and connects with
the relevancy and purpose of what they will be learning as part of the lesson (McTighe &
O’Connor, 2005).
An instructional preview, a pre-lesson summary provided by a teacher regarding the instruc-
tional content that is to be covered, can be formatted in many ways (e.g., visual maps/designs,
lesson objectives/goal listings, verbal reminders), but they usually provide information to
learners in these general areas:
1. Content or information to be covered.
2. Skills and/or applications that are to be gained from the new knowledge.
3. Relevancy and functionality of the new information and skills.
© image100 Ltd
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34 CHAPTER 2
A carefully constructed preview can provide learners with a valuable setup and frame-
work that can be used to structure all subsequent lessons and activities. It sets the tone
and provides the educational expectation of where everyone should end up when the
instruction is completed. It is basic human nature to want to know where you are going;
students at every grade and age level are no different. A preview provides the impor-
tant road signs that need to exist throughout the educational journey, as well as at the
intended fi nal destination.
Instructional Approach and Techniques

The selection of an instructional approach and the teaching techniques used in the class-
room represents the significant delivery decision made by every teacher. There are clearly
many ways to teach and provide instructional content, such as large group lectures with
small group reviews, inquiry-based instruction, cooperative learning groups, one-on-
one tutoring, and online instruction, as well as other pedagogical methods. The potential
range of delivery reflects both excitement and consternation in education.
Teachers have the professional freedom to decide how they will teach and deliver
academic content. That is how it should be. However, regardless of which instructional
techniques are selected, evidence-based research and support verifying the effectiveness
of that instruction needs to exist. As was mentioned earlier, this is mandated in No Child
Left Behind (NCLB) as part of the evidence-based practice requirement. For example, in
the area of reading instruction, considerable evidence exists for providing oral language
training (i.e., phonemic instruction and decoding) to emerging readers. This approach is
supported by research and has been found to be effective in generating competent early
readers (De Graaff, Bosman, Hasselman, & Verhoeven, 2009; Yeynes, 2008). This con-
stitutes an evidence-based approach that teachers can and should consider implementing,
since confi rmation of its instructional effectiveness has been documented.
Assessment as a process is neutral relative to the type of instructional technique that is
used in a classroom. One approach doesn’t necessarily hold favor over another. Yet from
an assessment perspective, regardless of the instructional technique or approach that is
used, instruction-learning-assessment alignment must exist. What is taught and hope-
fully learned (i.e., what you want your students to be able to do) is what is assessed
and measured in some systematic manner. Teachers instruct and orchestrate the learn-
ing event, while the assessment process confi rms the learning status and progress of the
learners and provides essential feedback to both the instructor and the learners.
In addition to the instructional techniques that are considered and ultimately imple-
mented within the classroom setting, the ability to individualize and differentiate
instruction for students, when necessary, is critical in generating successful learning out-
comes. This differentiation could potentially involve all instructional components of the
lesson plan as well as the actual measurement of the learning progress through tests or
other formal measures. Although differentiated instruction (the provision of a variety of
instructional approaches and methods to make learning connections for students) is typically recog-
nized for students identified with special learning needs (Tomlinson, 2001; Tomlinson et
al., 2003), the reality is that all students, at one time or another, require and can benefit
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 34 2/11/11 10:38 AM

from individualized instruction and a variety of learning techniques in the classroom

(Lawrence-Brown, 2004; Tomlinson et al., 2003). One size does not fit all, and that is
especially the case when teaching students in any classroom.
Within the field of assessment, no area has received more recent attention or contains
greater potential educational opportunity for teachers and students than formative assess-
ment (Brookhart, Moss, & Long, 2008; Fisher, Grant, Frey, & Johnson, 2008; Heritage,
2007; Stiggins & DuFour, 2009; Wiliam, 2006). Formative assessment, or “assessment
for learning,” serves an essential and direct purpose: to provide the learner, as well as the instructor,
with useful feedback regarding his or her present performance in order to improve or enhance that per-
formance in the future. As Black and Wiliam (1998) have indicated, assessment recognized
as formative serves this purpose only when student learning evidence is used to directly
influence the teaching process. Students are active participants in the classroom setting,
but it is the teacher who facilitates the learning process by providing helpful observations,
quick checks, or other active feedback, corrective or otherwise, to the student during a
lesson or activity. This type of assessment is not evaluative by design, so a “no cost” effect
is associated with the performances or products that are generated by students. Conse-
quently, learning and performance mistakes, if made, do not alter or directly impact a
student’s formal status, grades, or general standing within a class.
Research has documented the substantial impact of formative assessment on increasing
academic achievement, particularly for low-performing students (Black, Harrison, Lee,
Marshall, & Wiliam, 2003; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986). The instruc-
tional framework of the corrective feedback aspect of the formative process connects to
the theoretical work and earlier research of Bloom and his “mastery learning” approach
(Bloom, 1971, 1974). Consistent with the instructional model was the use of formative
learning assessments that were designed to give students individualized feedback on their
learning, including areas of accomplishment as well as issues that required further work
and practice (Bloom, 1976). In this way, minor or temporary learning problems that
exist are addressed and corrected, thereby minimizing the likelihood of the development
of significant long-term learning issues. As reported by Guskey (1997), Bloom’s mas-
tery approach centers on two primary components: (1) learning performance feedback
(including corrective and enrichment support), and (2) instructional alignment. Students
need to know what they have acquired and can complete independently, as well as what
they haven’t learned.
According to Bloom, specific performance feedback is only part of the needed
response. A corrective process and response is also necessary. For identified problem
areas (e.g., skill deficits, weak or minimal skill progression, inconsistent performance
levels), remediation strategies and procedures need to be followed in order for students
to continue to make sustained progress. Students need to be informed and shown that
they have not acquired the desired learning targets. When this happens, their instruction
should be modified to incorporate needed intervention strategies that will help acquire
the intended learning objectives and outcomes, recognizing that a variety of strategies
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36 CHAPTER 2
TABLE 2.1 NECESSARY ELEMENTS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL

ALIGNMENT IN MASTERY LEARNING
1. Clear learning goals
2. Effective instruction
3. Meaningful feedback and instructional modification (when necessary)
SOURCE: Guskey, T. R. (2005, April). Formative classroom assessment and Benjamin S. Bloom: Theory, research,
and implications. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal,
Canada.
and techniques may be necessary given the wide range of student needs. This reflects the
“re-teaching” or continued instruction that should be a part of any formative assessment
process (Heritage, 2007).
Guskey (2005) stipulates that Bloom’s notion of instructional alignment consists of
three interconnected foundations (see Table 2.1). First, clear and identifiable learning
goals or standards need to be identified. This notion corresponds directly to “where stu-
dents need to be” in the instruction-learning-assessment model. A clear endpoint with
skill and performance expectations should exist, and this “learning destination” must
be communicated to the learners before the instructional lesson is ever started. As you
and your students follow your educational map, this is the place you want them to end
up when the journey is completed. This would be followed by appropriate and effective
instruction that should generate informed and competent learners relative to the pro-
vided lesson plan material.
In combination with the instruction comes the feedback and corrective instruction
that is necessary in order for the learners to maintain the proper instructional pathway
and the intended level of progress. As Guskey (2005) has stated:
Providing feedback, correctives, and enrichments; and ensuring instructional
alignment takes relatively little time and effort, especially if tasks are shared col-
laboratively among teaching colleagues. Still, results show that the systematic use
of these elements helps many more students learn well, significantly reduces varia-
tion in student learning outcomes, and closes gaps in the achievement of different
groups of students (p. 9).
Formative assessment is focused on giving systematic confi rming or corrective
instructional feedback to students along the instructional pathway. In this way, student
learning should not veer off the intended pathway, at least not without the awareness
of the teacher, and if misdirection does occur, corrective action can immediately take
place. Throughout the process, students remain informed of their relative progress and
the learning challenges and goals that remain as part of the provided lesson plan or learn-
ing activity. Formative assessment in conjunction with learning feedback allows a teacher
(along with his or her students) to confi rm, refi ne, and direct self-correction procedures,
if correction is necessary. Through this process, students are more likely to achieve genu-
ine competency or “mastery” of the knowledge and skills of the presented lesson.
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 36 2/11/11 10:38 AM

Learning Feedback
A major factor that contributes to successful and effective learning is feedback. Critical
elements of effective teacher feedback that have been identified include the following
(Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Van Houten, 1980):
♦ identifying and addressing a specific aspect of a performance;
♦ precise performance feedback;
♦ immediate feedback as opposed to delayed feedback;
♦ feedback frequency;
♦ positive feedback regardless of performance;
♦ correct modeling of the desired response; and
♦ differential feedback with an emphasis on improvement.
Collectively, these practices are typically recognized by educators as basic and founda-
tional to student learning success. So how can these practices be used to directly influ-
ence the feedback process in the classroom? What should the feedback that is provided in
your classroom look like? In general, feedback needs to be specific (as opposed to general)
in scope to the individual learner’s performance and to the task that is to be completed.
It is viewed as more effective if provided as soon after the event is completed as possible,
and preferably more than once over the course of the activity. More feedback is prefer-
able to less, and receiving feedback over multiple occasions is more effective. In addition,
positive statements and actions are much more powerful and reinforcing than those that
are negative or punitive in nature.
Based on a comprehensive review of the literature, particularly in feedback systems
for school improvement, Visscher and Coe (2002) have determined that the research on
academic feedback is still developing and requires continued investigation. Yet despite
the lack of detailed information on the complex factors that influence the effectiveness
of feedback in the classroom environment, a few tentative findings have been identified
that are connected with the beneficial effects of feedback on school performance. They
include the following:
♦ Feedback should focus specifically on the obtained and desired performance as it
relates to the learning task. Moving beyond the task itself to focus on self-esteem
issues or additional skills can potentially lessen the impact of the classroom feed-
back process relative to the desired learning task and target.
♦ Ensuring perceived competency in the learner, along with providing and selecting
useful intervention suggestions (e.g., greater effort, more review, different learning
strategies), is important for learner success.
♦ Individual performance comparisons should be followed, as opposed to compari-
sons to others, and feedback should be designed to develop specific goals that are
needed to meet the desired performance level.
♦ Feedback should be directed toward completing the primary task. Although valu-
able and necessary, completing secondary aspects of the task should not overshadow
the need to address the central aspects of the task.
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38 CHAPTER 2
Bananastock/PictureQuest
♦ Feedback should be useful, accurate, and fair. It must have perceived value for the
learner. If it does not, then the feedback will not be relevant or desired, and an
intended change in behavior is unlikely.
As a matter of actual classroom practice, many teachers differentiate their feedback, usu-
ally informally, into the areas of descriptive feedback (informing the learner of what was
done correctly as well as incorrectly); corrective feedback (providing specific help and
clarity on amending incorrect work); and evaluative feedback (how strong the student’s
work or performance was based on the requirements of the task or project). Providing
different levels of information and feedback to students is essential if student progress is to
be maintained. Learning feedback is really about giving useful information to the learner
in such a manner that it is positively received and acted upon. This requires knowing
what to do, knowing what to say, and knowing how to say or present it so it is accepted.
As a teacher, it is important to recognize the immense value that feedback has on the
learning process.
Self-Assessment
Self-assessment or “assessment as learning,” according to Earl (2003), is an expansion area
in the field of assessment that holds great learning potential for students as well as teach-
ers. Within the educational arena, self-assessment as a process involves the internal review
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 38 2/11/11 10:38 AM

of an individual’s progress along with the recognition of required adjustments and modifi cations,
based on that review, that need to be made to reach an intended learning target. With this form of
assessment, students learn to self-monitor their own learning progress and to recognize
needed learning “corrections” (e.g., to re-examine certain terms or follow a set of pro-
cedural steps in proper order) along the way so that they can attain the intended learning
outcomes of the lesson or activity. In order to develop this skill, however, conditions and
opportunities must be provided in the classroom where students can learn and practice
how to evaluate and monitor their own learning progress.
An internal review process requires the active instruction of procedures and tech-
niques that the learners are to demonstrate independently. For example, activities such as
implementing periodic progress checks, work completion reviews, and additional repeti-
tions or practices can all be included within a student’s self-assessment program. But pro-
viding instruction, giving opportunities, and even modeling procedures are often needed
for self-assessment development. If teachers follow a self-assessment process, then this
will not only enhance their instruction but will also help their students acquire the skill
in question.
Educators are in the best position to review their own teaching and its impact on
students. A teacher is the fi rst one to know what worked and what didn’t when a lesson
is provided or when an instructional activity is completed. As part of the self-review
process, teachers can systematically determine what should be kept and what should
be eliminated based on the desired effect of the learning activity. When instructional
adjustments are made, classroom feedback from students, along with their acquired and
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
THE TEACHER AS A SELF-ASSESSMENT MODEL

On a routine basis, you as the teacher can serve as a model for self-assessment for the stu-
dents in your classroom. As part of this learning experience, only a few basic steps would
need to be completed:
1. Identify and share a desired instructional outcome for yourself with your students (e.g.,
implement a five-second wait time before obtaining an answer to a question from a
student).
2. Review the steps or procedures that will be followed in order to document that this
goal is being addressed and achieved; for example, videotape lectures and discussions;
use an internal counting routine after any generated question (e.g., one Mississippi, two
Mississippi . . .); have the class “catch” you being good (satisfies the five-second wait
period) or bad (fails the five-second wait period).
3. Examine the progress of the plan in front of the students and discuss potential adjust-
ments that might be needed in order to reach the goal. Encouraging students to get
involved in the review and suggest modifications is important, as their input is essential
to the overall success of your self-assessment process.
4. With repeated events and practice opportunities, an internal review and self-assessment
process could be acquired and used by your students.
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40 CHAPTER 2
demonstrated skill attainment, can provide confi rmation as to whether or not the desired
instructional and learning effects were obtained.
Self-assessment is a process that requires effort, practice, and critical review on the
learner’s part, and it needs to be a community event. It should be “public” because one
of the primary ways we learn is by watching and modeling the behaviors of others, and
students defi nitely watch their teachers (Bandura, 1969, 1973, 1977; Bandura & Walters,
1963). By modeling self-assessment as a productive and useful learning tool, teachers can
provide direct instruction to their students as well as provide practical experience with
the process.
Beyond the benefit of teaching students to be more effective learners in the classroom,
self-assessment is a life skill that can serve learners in many aspects. Given the complexity
and challenges of today’s world, we want young people to make “good decisions” and the
“right choices.” In order to do this, they need to possess an effective review process, and
self-assessment can help with that mission.
Summative assessment, or “assessment of learning,” is the confirmation of accumulated
learning through a formal evaluation process and represents the formal and traditional measure and
evaluation of a student’s accumulated learning. Within the classroom, summative assessment
involves the formal measurement and evaluation, often in the form of testing, of stu-
dent learning at some predetermined point. Chapter tests or fi nal exams serve as key
classroom examples of this kind of measurement, and they are designed to evaluate an
individual’s acquired learning. Most tests that are given in school are used to fulfi ll a
summative function.
Anyone who has gone through a formal education system has experienced the effects
of summative assessment. It gets the most attention from both the field of education and
the general public. Information from summative assessment is used for various official
school purposes such as grading, report cards, promoting students to the next grade, or
selecting students for advanced study courses. This form of assessment is important and
clearly essential, given its basic function of measuring learning gains of students; how-
ever, because of the continuous push for accountability and ever-higher test scores, the
importance of summative assessment often overshadows other forms of assessment.
Results from standardized achievement tests are summative in design and are consid-
ered and often used as official indications of a student’s skill level and learning progress
in certain content areas such as reading, math, and science over a specified period of time
(usually an academic year). Review of academic progress often involves state and national
comparison levels. International comparisons are also available with some standardized
achievement tests. In addition to wanting to know if students can perform specific tasks
and demonstrate certain skills, we, as a demanding public, also want to know how well
the students we teach perform when compared to their peers, whether they are in the
next town, state, or country, and this desire will likely never go away. Like it or not,
many envision the educational process as a race and want to know how the children are
performing relative to one another in that race.
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 40 2/11/11 10:38 AM

Achievement tests that are completed in school are often viewed as “high stakes” tests
due in large part to NCLB. By law, school districts are held directly accountable for
the performance and progress of all students. If reasonable progress (determined by each
state) is not evidenced, possible fi nancial restrictions and other sanctions can be adminis-
tered. What is unique about NCLB is that all children must demonstrate academic prog-
ress, including students with special needs and English language learner (ELL) students,
as well as other students who traditionally score poorly on standardized tests. School
districts have a vested interest in making sure all students are performing and progressing
appropriately in the classroom in order to have the greatest opportunity to perform well
on these measures. And that is as it should be, although this places intensive demands on
each and every school, especially those with limited resources and support (e.g., instruc-
tional materials, classroom aides) to meet this mandate.
Summative assessment serves as the formal evaluation of student learning progress at
designated instructional points. Due to this important function, this form of assessment
will not diminish now or in the future. Therefore, it is essential that valid and effective
measures be constructed and utilized by teachers. It is imperative that any constructed
summative assessment link directly to the learning objectives or outcomes that are iden-
tified with the provided lessons or learning projects that are completed as part of an
instructional unit.
For students to genuinely learn and benefit from instruction, formative assessment,
summative assessment, and self-assessment all need to be part of the instructional pro-
cess. Although configured for different purposes, these assessment practices collectively
provide the opportunity for academic success to be maximized for all learners in the
classroom (Table 2.2). All have value and purpose and need to be considered and utilized
with any classroom assessment system.
TABLE 2.2 KEY DIFFERENCES IN FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT,

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT, AND SELF-ASSESSMENT
Formative assessment Summative assessment Self-assessment

Design Immediate feedback of Formal measure of acquired Personal review of progress
learning progress, usually learning at specific and feedback
provided by teacher and/or instructional points (end of
event lesson)
Effect Quick, corrective input with Evaluative in nature, Self-corrective monitoring
no learning cost often used for grading and function
comparison purposes on
desired outcomes
Delivery Throughout the lesson or At designated points; usually at Throughout the lesson or
activity the end of a lesson or activity activity
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42 CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER REFLECTION
At the beginning of the chapter, you were asked to complete a self-rating on a composite
list of professional educator assessment skills. Now take a moment to review your ratings.
The five assessment competencies represent a broad range of expected skills. In particu-
lar, the fi rst competency (a) deals with general knowledge of assessment (which usually
has the highest rating), while the second (b) and third (c) competencies deal with the
ability to construct and implement assessments in the classroom and revise instruction
based on the data collected from those assessments. The second and third competencies
constitute the real “doing” part of assessment, and pre-service teachers, as well as practi-
tioners in the field, typically demonstrate less confidence with these skills; consequently,
their ratings are usually lower than their ratings on the fi rst competency.
The fourth competency (d) deals with the capacity to work with and communicate
assessment results effectively to others. Teachers often see themselves as possessing a real
strength in this area, due to the interpersonal aspect of this skill and its implementation.
Competency number five (e) represents a greater understanding of assessment, since this
involves “teaching” students how to self-assess their progress and set academic goals. This
is more than just knowing, it’s about teaching actual assessment concepts and content to
students in the classroom. This is generally perceived as more difficult, and many teachers
provide a lower rating, in fact maybe their lowest rating, with this competency relative
to the others listed.
These assessment competencies are representative of the professional skills that are
typically expected of teachers practicing in today’s classrooms across the nation. As is
evident from this short list, the expectation of multiple skills and the ability to use those
skills to monitor and improve instruction, as well as the direct instruction of this content
to students, exists for every teacher, regardless of content specialization and program
training. This is the reality and the challenge that faces each educator in the classroom.
When this form is used with teachers (both pre-service and practitioners), many, if
not most, generate ratings of 2s and 3s at best across the listed competencies. These
results are not surprising for pre-service teachers, as they are just beginning to develop
their assessment knowledge base and have had limited opportunities to develop and
practice their assessment skills, particularly in actual classroom settings and under real
classroom conditions. Because of this, as a group the ratings are usually low. However,
this pattern can also be found with practitioners in the fi eld, as some teachers receive
little formal instruction or training in the area of classroom assessment. What they have
learned about assessment they have learned in the fi eld as part of on-the-job training.
But it is important to note that what is learned on the job doesn’t automatically make it
“the right stuff.”
If you generated mostly 3s and 4s, some comfort or even perceived strengths may exist
within the skills that received those ratings. If 5s are listed across the board, then it’s pos-
sible you will gain little from the information in this book. This kind of rating profi le,
however, is unusual and does not represent the majority of pre-service or current teach-
ers. The important message here is that regardless of your particular ratings, it’s impor-
tant to know where you see yourself regarding the assessment skills and competencies
that will certainly be expected from you as a teacher.
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If your ratings are low or lower than you would like, don’t worry. This is not a sign
that you will be a bad teacher. On the contrary, this should be viewed as a good teacher
becoming an even better one, since gaining new information will extend this evolving
professional skill to its highest level. This becomes an area of development, something
that requires opportunity, time, practice, and effort in order to develop into a strong,
useful skill.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Teaching, learning, and assessment are directly connected. This interconnected process
contains several key parts and components that need to work together in order to pro-
duce effective learning results. As you continue to examine and integrate this model into
your future teaching design, keep these components and their essential qualities in mind:
Learning Targets
♦ Clear, precise learning outcomes of what the students are expected to do must
exist.
♦ Targets need to be directly connected to the provided instruction and curriculum
(i.e., the specific subject content and skills that are covered in lessons).
♦ All assessment needs to be aligned with the learning outcomes or targets.
♦ Learners need to be informed of the learning targets prior to instruction.
Pre-Assessment
♦ All students should be involved in pre-assessment activities.
♦ Pre-assessment activities should measure intended learning targets.
♦ Pre-assessment data should be reviewed and instruction modified, if necessary,
based on that review.
Preview of Instruction
♦ Learners should be informed of what they will be learning and what they will be
expected to know and be able to do.
♦ The importance and relevancy of what is to be learned should be explained.
Selection of Instructional Techniques
♦ Evidence-based methods and techniques should be considered and selected.
♦ Plans for differentiated instruction need to exist.
Feedback
♦ When using feedback in the classroom, be as specific to the task and the student
performance as possible.
♦ Try to provide feedback as soon and as frequently as possible.
♦ Positive feedback and encouragement are much more effective and desired than
negative or punishing responses.
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44 CHAPTER 2
♦ This tool reflects an active feedback collection process used to make necessary
instructional decisions and to help address individual student learning needs and
issues.
♦ This is “learning at no cost,” as mistakes that are made are corrective, not evalua-
tive, in design, so there is no impact on a student’s grade.
♦ Formative assessment should provide helpful information and learning feedback to
every student along the instructional pathway.
Student Self-Assessment
♦ Students need to be taught how to assess their own learning progress and to make
essential adjustments based on information they collect.
♦ Students should be able to model self-assessment approaches by directly watching
and interacting with their teachers.
♦ Self-assessment is a lifelong skill that can serve students in every aspect of their lives.
♦ Summative assessment is a needed indicator of acquired learning at a particular
instructional point and is most often completed at the end of a lesson or activity.
♦ The assessment needs to link up directly with the intended learning objectives or
outcomes that are identified with the lesson or learning project.
♦ This assessment is evaluative in nature, where the quality of the learning and the
demonstration of the acquired skills is examined and reviewed.
♦ Constructing valid and effective summative assessments (e.g., quizzes, rubrics, or
exams) is a very important component in the overall classroom assessment process.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How do the
instruction-learning-assessment components fit together during a classroom activity
or lesson? Throughout this chapter, the arrangement, importance, and impact of the
instruction-learning-assessment components (learning targets, pre-assessment, instruc-
tion preview, instructional approach/techniques, formative assessment, self-assessment,
and summative assessment) within an orchestrated learning event or activity have been
reviewed. All of these components are essential to the instructional process, and all are
intimately connected to each other.
In summary, the actions used to identify learning targets, pre-assess students, and pre-
view the instructional content need to connect with the instructional delivery model and
path that is selected. Whatever teaching path is taken, the focused and directed effects of
formative assessment and self-assessment must be received by the intended learners during
the learning experience in order for the derived benefits to be evidenced in the summative
or formal evaluation process. During the learning journey, these integrated components
provide the opportunity to maximize the learning impact for students, and the student data
and evidence that is collected should show the extent and effect of that learning experience.
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ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. How do you see the various components of the instruction-learning-assessment
model operating together as a connected process?
2. What is gained (in regards to student learning) when teaching and assessment are
integrated together?
3. How can these instruction-learning-assessment elements fit within your current
lesson plan design?
RESOURCES
Many states possess specific assessment standards for teachers. Prospective teachers should
visit the Web site for the department of education of the state they intend to work in
so that they are aware of the assessment expectations for teachers within that state.
Teacher assessment standards and expectations are particularly comprehensive on the
following state sites: Ohio (esb.ode.state.oh.us), Hawaii (www.htsb.org), and Wiscon-
sin (dpi.wi.gov/tepdl/standards.html).
The Instructional Management System section of ims.ode.state.oh.us/ode/ims/lessons
serves as an excellent resource for teachers in Ohio in developing instructional lesson
plans that are integrated with effective assessment techniques and measures. Many
states have similar instructional resources.
Regarding NCLB, two major Web sites that provide current information, evidence,
and research on evidence-supported instruction include the What Works Clearing-
house (ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc) and The Promising Practices Network (www.promising
practices.net).
The New Zealand Te Kete Ipurangi Web site at www.tki.org.nz/r/assessment provides
useful information on assessment and feedback and how these factors contribute to
successful learning.
REFERENCES
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assess-
ing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modifi cation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
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46 CHAPTER 2
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2003). Assessment for learning:
Putting it into practice. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom
assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–148.
Bloom, B. S. (1971). Mastery learning. In J. H. Block (Ed.), Mastery learning: Theory and practice
(pp. 47–63). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bloom, B. S. (1974). An introduction to mastery learning theory. In J. H. Block (Ed.),
Schools, society and mastery learning (pp. 3–14). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brookhart, S., Moss, C., & Long, B. (2008). Formative assessment that empowers. Educa-
tional Leadership, 66(3), 52–57.
De Graaff, S., Bosman, A., Hasselman, F., & Verhoeven, L. (2009). Benefits of sys-
tematic phonics instruction. Scientifi c Studies of Reading, 13(4), 318–333. doi:
10.1080/10888430903001308
Fisher, D., Grant, M., Frey, N., & Johnson, C. (2008). Taking formative assessment
schoolwide. Educational Leadership, 65(4), 64–68.
Guskey, T. R. (1997). Implementing mastery learning (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Guskey, T. R. (2005, April). Formative classroom assessment and Benjamin S. Bloom: Theory,
research, and implications. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, Montreal, Canada.
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback, Review of Educational Research,
77(1), 81–112.
Heritage, M. (2007). Formative assessment: What do teachers need to know and do? Phi
Delta Kappan, 89(2), 140–145.
Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Lawrence-Brown, D. (2004). Differentiated instruction: Inclusive strategies for standards-
based learning that benefit the whole class. American Secondary Education, 32(3), 34–62.
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National Research Council. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school.
Washington, DC: National Academic Press.p
Oberg, C. (2009). Guiding classroom instruction through performance assessment. Jour-
nal of Case Studies in Accreditation and Assessment, 1, 1–11. Retrieved from http://aabri
.com/jcsaa.html
Sousa, D. A. (2006). How the brain learns (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Delta Kappan, 90(9), 640–644.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. Alexan-
dria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. A., Brighton, C., Hertberg, H., Callahan, C. M., Moon, T. R., Brimijoin,
K., Conover, L. A., & Reynolds, T. (2003). Differentiating instruction in response to
student readiness, interest, and learning profi le in academically diverse classrooms: A
review of literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 27, 119–145.
Van Houten, R. (1980). Learning through feedback: A systematic approach for improving academic
performance. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Visscher, A. J., & Coe, R. (Eds.). (2002). School improvement through performance feedback.
Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers.
Wiliam, D. (2006). Formative assessment: Getting the focus right. Educational Assessment,
11, 283–289.
Yeynes, W. (2008). A meta-analysis of the relationship between phonics instruction and
minority elementary school student academic achievement. Education & Urban Society,
40(2), 151–166.
wit78704_ch02_025-047.indd 47 2/11/11 10:38 AM

CHAPTER 3
ACADEMIC STANDARDS AND

EVIDENCE OF STUDENT LEARNING
KEY FOCUS
What do my students need to learn in the classroom and how do I use student-
generated evidence to confirm that learning?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Identify the need to connect district and/or state curriculum requirements to
daily lesson plans.
♦ Understand the importance of connecting classroom assessment procedures to
identified learning goals and outcomes in the classroom.
♦ Utilize Bloom’s taxonomy table when integrating learning objectives into a
lesson plan.
♦ Explain the importance of empirical evidence in documenting the learning
progress of students in the classroom.
♦ Implement observation methods to record and examine
student performance in the classroom.
♦ Utilize questioning and interviewing as assessment
tools to confirm student understanding and progress.
♦ Select student products that provide useful evidence of
obtained learning outcomes.
♦ Utilize a variety of data collection measures and
methods for the documentation of student learning
© Getty Images outcomes in the classroom.
48
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ACADEMIC STANDARDS AND EVIDENCE OF STUDENT LEARNING 49
Introduction
“What do students need to learn and be able to do in the classroom?” is a fundamental
question in education and it is as relevant today as it was 50 or even a 100 years ago.
Not surprisingly, the answer to that question has changed many times based on what
has been determined to be the necessary knowledge and academic skill base for young
people. Even today, as the needs of society continue to change (e.g., technology, global
communication), our educational system must be able to recognize and adjust to those
evolving needs by providing meaningful learning experiences and opportunities that
prepare lifelong learners for the demands of an ever-changing world (Breivik & Senn,
1994; Longworth, 2003; Senge, Cambron-McCabe, Lucas, Smith, Dutton, & Kleiner,
2000).
WHAT DO YOUR STUDENTS

NEED TO KNOW?
If you were asked to identify what today’s students need to be able to do in order to be
productive, competitive, and informed learners in the global community of the 21st cen-
tury, what would you put on your list? Being literate in two or more languages? What
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
On a piece of paper, list the 10 most important things that you believe you learned in
school. The list can include actual skills (operating a computer, reading, doing mathemati-
cal calculations, etc.), a specific knowledge base (foreign language, health, specialty areas
such as digital technology, etc.) or general life skills (interpersonal dynamics, functional
independence, social awareness, etc.), or any other acquisition that comes to mind. Once
the list is complete, ref lect on how these skills were acquired. Did they start in preschool
(e.g., reading) and develop throughout your educational career, or was it more of a later
post-secondary learning experience (e.g., public speaking)? Also, look at each of your list-
ings and determine why they are so important to know or be able to do. If possible, share
your list with your classmates or friends for comparison purposes and then answer the fol-
lowing questions:
1. Do you believe having these skills and possessing this knowledge makes you a produc-
tive and competitive member in today’s society? Why or why not?
2. Do you believe these skills and knowledge sets can be traced back to particular learn-
ing goals and outcomes that existed within the curriculums you were exposed to as a
student? Or were they obtained merely by educational chance or opportunity because
of the schools you attended?
3. Compared to your parents, do you believe you have been taught similar or different
skill and knowledge sets, and why do you think that is the case?
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50 CHAPTER 3
about mathematical processing? What level of computation and analysis is needed for
today’s high school graduates? What about technology? What about general problem-
solving skills, personal wellness, or interpersonal-based goals such as cooperation, col-
laboration, or critical thinking? It is likely that many of us would agree that foundation
life skills, perhaps even the ones just listed, are important and essential (Marzano, 2006).
Moreover, what about specific knowledge or content bases (e.g., science, social studies)
and the skills connected to these areas?
Without question, teachers identify personal learning goals for their students within
the academic realm (e.g., be able to read and comprehend material at or above grade
level, develop an enjoyment or even a love of learning, pass the AP exam in calculus)
although behavior-based goals (e.g., improved attendance, positive peer interaction) are
not unusual. Beyond the personal goals that teachers may hold for their students, each
school district maintains the responsibility to generate and follow a curriculum guide
that sets forth the expected academic goals and objectives, across subjects and within each
grade level, that all students within grades P–12 are expected to acquire and demonstrate
as part of their school performance.
What skills were essential for these students to be competitive learners in the early 20th century?
© Dynamic Graphics/JupiterImages
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A curriculum guide reflects a school district’s documented plan of the goals and learning
outcomes that are expected to be acquired by students as they move from grade to grade. It essen-
tially serves as the educational list of learning requirements that students are expected to
meet before they graduate. For instance, in the sixth grade in the Lakota School District,
an expected learning outcome for students is to be able to independently write a letter,
complete with a stated purpose and function, using standard business letter format (Fig-
ure 3.1). Beyond the obvious importance of this information for the sixth-grade teacher
(where this skill must be taught and mastered), work on the prerequisite skills necessary
to complete this task must be done and completed in the earlier grades. Moreover, in the
later grades, teachers will be utilizing and building on this expected student-acquired
skill and competency to connect with more involved and detailed projects and products.
For a school district, a curriculum guide truly represents the master educational schedule
with the expected arrival times (i.e., grade or grade bands) and skill “destinations” that
are anticipated and required if students are ultimately to graduate with all their neces-
sary competencies. It also serves as an educational contract, in that the responsibility for
creating learning opportunities to acquire those skills, experiences, and knowledge sets
rests with the schools and the instruction that is provided throughout all the classrooms
in the district.
Curriculum guides are direct ref lections of mandated changes and requirements at the
state and/or national levels regarding expected student proficiency and skill development
(see the box “Ohio Science Academic Content Standards” on page 55). Included within
the curriculum guides are embedded standards, which are broad statements of academic goals
and competencies that students are expected to acquire, and benchmarks, or identified learn-
ing goals that are expected to be accomplished by a specified time, usually set at certain grade lev-
els. These learning goals are written and supported by professionals in academic content
areas (e.g., science, math, language arts) and endorsed through professional associations
that eventually appear as specific knowledge and skill expectations through identified
learning targets and outcomes for students in your classroom.
State-mandated academic standards require school districts to address specific learning
goals, usually at specified grade levels or grade bands (e.g., K–2, 3–5), and in so doing
try to ensure comparable learning outcomes for all students within a state. Therefore,
student learning goals and outcomes identified in school curriculum guides need to be
connected to the standards and benchmarks that are endorsed by state departments of
education. This connection is critical, as each statewide testing program, which is man-
dated in NCLB, will ref lect those intended learning goals. In order for students to dem-
onstrate strong test performances and results, each school district must make sure that
daily instruction ref lects the state standards, since those tests are specifically designed to
address and measure those learning outcomes and skills.
This is at the heart of the debate around high-stakes testing and accountability in P–12
education today. Most educators, along with the general public, are not against account-
ability. It is a necessary attribute of any formal profession and it is an essential quality for
a profession that is involved in the documentation of human learning. The controversial
part is determining what sources of student learning evidence should be used to measure
and make up that accountability.
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52 CHAPTER 3
FIGURE 3.1 SIXTH-GRADE LANGUAGE ARTS STUDENT

OUTCOMES FROM LAKOTA CURRICULUM
GUIDE
Language Arts—Sixth Grade the index, appendix, and table of contents;

and online tools (search engines) to locate
The learner will: information
• define the meaning of unknown words by using • analyze examples of cause and effect and fact and
context clues and the author’s use of definition, opinion
restatement, and example • identify an author’s purpose for writing (to
• apply knowledge of connotation and denotation explain, entertain, persuade, or inform) and
to determine the meaning of words argument or viewpoint, and assess the adequacy
• identify analogies and other word relationships and accuracy of details used
including synonyms and antonyms to determine • identify the main and minor events of the plot,
the meaning of words and explain how each incident gives rise to the
• apply the knowledge of roots and their various next
inf lections, prefixes, and suffixes to analyze the • explain first, third, omniscient, limited, subjec-
meanings of words tive, and objective points of view, and explain
• determine the meanings and pronunciations of how voice affects the text
unknown words by using dictionaries, thesau- • identify recurring themes, patterns, and symbols
ruses, glossaries, technology, and textual features found in literature from different eras and
such as definitional footnotes or sidebars cultures
• establish and adjust purposes for reading includ- • engage in a variety of purposeful writing expe-
ing to find out, to understand, to interpret, to riences using the writing process: prewriting;
enjoy, and to solve problems drafting, revising, and editing; and publishing
• predict or hypothesize as appropriate from infor- • write narratives that maintain a clear focus and
mation in the text, substantiating with specific point of view and use sensory details and dia-
references to textual examples that may be in logue to develop plot, characters, and a specific
widely separated sections of text setting
• summarize the information in texts, recogniz- • write responses to novels, stories, poems, and
ing important ideas and supporting details, and plays that provide an interpretation, critique, or
noting gaps or contradictions ref lection and support judgments with specific
• answer literal, inferential, and evaluative ques- references to the text
tions to demonstrate comprehension of grade- • write letters that state the purpose, make
appropriate print texts, electronic, and visual requests, or give compliments and use business
media letter format
• monitor own comprehension by adjusting speed • write informational essays or reports, includ-
to fit the purpose, or by skimming, scanning, ing research, that present a literal understanding
reading on, looking back, note taking, or sum- of the topic, include specific facts, details, and
marizing what has been read so far in text examples from multiple sources, and create an
• use text features such as chapter titles, head- organizing structure appropriate to the purpose,
ings, and subheadings; parts of books including audience, and context
wit78704_ch03_048-083.indd 52 2/11/11 10:38 AM

• write persuasive essays that establish a clear reports to present information that supports a
position and include organized and relevant clear position with organized and relevant evi-
information to support ideas dence about the topic or research question
• write legibly in both formal and informal • demonstrate active listening strategies (e.g.,
writing asking focused questions, responding to cues,
• utilize spelling strategies to spell words correctly making visual contact)
in daily writing
• summarize the main idea and draw conclusions
• use correct capitalization and punctuation when from oral presentations and visual media
writing
• interpret the speaker’s purpose in presentations
• identify and use knowledge of all eight parts of
and visual media (e.g., to inform, to entertain,
speech (e.g., noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjec-
to persuade)
tive, conjunction, preposition, interjection) to
improve writing • identify the persuasive techniques (e.g., band-
• use knowledge of subject–verb agreement with wagon, testimonial, glittering generalities,
collective nouns, indefinite pronouns, com- emotional word repetition, and bait and switch)
pound subjects, and prepositional phrases to used in presentations and media messages
improve writing • demonstrate an understanding of the rules of
• generate a topic (assigned or personal inter- the English language, select language, and adjust
est) and open-ended questions for research and speaking content appropriate to purpose and
develop a plan for gathering information audience
• identify appropriate sources, and gather relevant • deliver formal and informal descriptive presen-
information from multiple sources (e.g., school tations that convey relevant information and
library catalogs, online databases, electronic descriptive details
resources, and Internet-based resources)
• deliver informational and persuasive presenta-
• compare and contrast important findings and
select sources to support central ideas, concepts, tions (e.g., expository, research) that: support
and themes the main idea or position with relevant facts,
details, examples, quotations, statistics, stories,
• use quotations to support ideas
and anecdotes; organize information, including
• use an appropriate source of documentation, a clear introduction, body, and conclusion and
with teacher assistance, to acknowledge sources follow common organizational structures when
(e.g., bibliography, works cited) appropriate (e.g., cause–effect, compare–
• use a variety of communication techniques contrast); and draw from several sources and
including oral, visual, written, or multimedia identify sources used
Reprinted with permission.
As part of effective assessment practice, there should be multiple sources of student per-
formance, but often the single measuring stick that the states and the federal government
rely on are mandated group achievement tests. The reasoning behind their use is that if
these mandated tests are well constructed and centered on identified academic standards,
consequently the results from these tests should provide useful and accurate data on how
well students are actually acquiring and learning those identified competencies.
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54 CHAPTER 3
KNOW WHAT YOUR STUDENTS

NEED TO KNOW
Teachers must be clear about what their students are expected to learn and be able to
demonstrate relative to the knowledge and skills they are taught. What is taught is just as
important as how it is taught. Therefore, every teacher needs to be familiar with the state
and district curriculum standards that have been developed for students at each grade
level. In addition to having a solid awareness of the instructional standards that exist
within the grade level you teach, familiarity with earlier grade skills and outcomes as
well as those that are to be acquired in future grade levels is important, too (see the box
“Ohio Science Academic Content Standards”).
Knowing the curriculum continuum or “educational stream” and the expected
skills associated with different grades is helpful. This way you will know what students
should be entering into your classroom with, relative to their skills, and also what
they will be expected to do once they leave you. Also, it’s important to recognize that
curriculum guides set the standards of performance that must be reached, but do not
exclude other material and skills from being covered and acquired. Teachers can cer-
tainly exceed the requirements of the curriculum guide and often do, but they must
first ensure that their students have mastered the required and expected learning goals
and objectives.
LEARNING TARGETS, OBJECTIVES,

AND GOALS
Along with a familiarity among curriculum standards, a teacher must be able to identify
learning targets that exist within the listed standards for his or her students. But what
exactly is a learning target? A learning target is a detailed statement of student performance
that describes what a student should know and be able to do after a specific lesson or instructional
activity is completed. In regards to performance, an expectation also exists that the student
can perform the action whenever requested and with a high degree of accuracy. In fact, a
competency level such as 80 percent, 90 percent, or even 100 percent proficient is some-
times attached to a learning target and ref lects the level of accuracy that is required as
part of the performance. How well something is done and the standard used to gauge a
performance is an arbitrary yet important part of the successful attainment of a learning
target.
Learning targets can take multiple forms, such as using a problem-solving method to
address a current ecological or social problem or concern, solving a series of chemical
equations, or creating an original piece of writing or research. They can also be directed
toward constitutional changes within the learners themselves. Learning targets can be
directed at molding or changing perceptions and values of learners through experiences
that emphasize important issues such as cooperative and collaborative learning, diversity
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OHIO SCIENCE ACADEMIC CONTENT STANDARDS

(APPROVED IN 2002)
K–12 SCIENCE CONTENT STANDARDS
Grade 2
Physical Sciences
Forces and Motion
1. Explore how things make sounds (e.g., rubber bands, tuning fork, and strings).
2. Explore and describe sounds (e.g., high, low, soft, loud) produced by vibrating objects.
3. Explore with fl ashlights and shadows that light travels in a straight line until it strikes
an object.
K–12 SCIENCE BENCHMARKS (COMPLETED

BY THE END OF THE K–2 PROGRAM)
Physical Sciences
1. Discover that many objects are made of parts that have different characteristics.
Describe these characteristics and recognize ways an object may change.
2. Recognize that light, sound, and objects move in different ways.
3. Recognize sources of energy and their uses.
Benchmark 1: Recognize that light, sound, and objects move in different

ways.
Kindergarten
Explore that things can be made to move in many different ways, such as straight,
zigzag, up and down, round and round, back and forth, or fast and slow.
Investigate ways to change how something is moving (e.g., push, pull).
Grade 1
Explore the effects some objects have on others even when the two objects might
not touch (e.g., magnets).
Investigate a variety of ways to make things move and what causes them to change
speed, direction, and/or stop.
Grade 2
Explore how things make sounds (e.g., rubber bands, tuning fork, and strings).
Explore with flashlights and shadows that light travels in a straight line until it strikes
an object.
and appreciation of others, acceptance and tolerance, and social justice, as well as other
important learner goals. Learning targets can be identified that go beyond specific aca-
demic issues.
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56 CHAPTER 3
PhotoDisc/Getty Images
The term learning outcome, or what a student should know and be able to do because of
an instructional experience, is often used interchangeably with learning target; however, an
outcome is usually viewed as a desired effect whereas a learning target is an anticipated
aim or mark that is to be acquired. For example, in completing this chapter, an antici-
pated learning outcome for each reader would be that they recognize how various kinds
of student evidence can be used to confirm learning change and progress. Yet within this
chapter, learning targets would focus on specific and recognized acquisitions such as the
selection and usage of an observation technique to collect student data, or the completion
of a taxonomy table that lists the knowledge and cognitive processing levels of a lesson’s
objectives. The desired learning outcome, if obtained, comes about only if learning tar-
gets are met, and that is what you want your students to hit.
However, before a student reaches the level of an identified learning target, broader
guiding instructional elements are involved in the hierarchical arrangement of instruc-
tional curriculum (see the box “Hierarchical Arrangement of Instructional Planning”).
For instance, students’ progress in the classroom is examined relative to the educational
goals that are identified. An educational goal is recognized as a broad statement of what
students are expected to be able to do. Goals can be written so that they are general or very
specific, but they usually require an extended period of time to acquire as they are rarely
accomplished within a short period of instructional time. Some goals may require several
weeks or perhaps even months before they are accomplished.
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Educational objectives are based on the broader educational goals but are more nar-
row statements of expected student performance that are to be achieved upon completion of an entire
instructional unit of study. Also, just like goals, objectives can be written so that they are
general and allow for considerable instructional variation, or they may be very specific
and particular relative to a desired performance. No matter how they are constructed,
objectives must clearly state in an action verb format (e.g., students will list, describe,
produce, analyze) what students must be able to do and accomplish as part of the instruc-
tion, and evidence needs to be collected to show that indeed the students have acquired
the knowledge, skills, and expectations of the objectives.
Consider the following educational objectives:
♦ Based on an unknown data set, students will identify the three measures of central
tendency (mean, median, and mode) and the variance with 100 percent accuracy.
♦ On a map of the human brain, students will locate and identify the lobes of the
cerebral cortex along with their primary, secondary, and tertiary cortical functions.
These objectives possess clear action verbs (i.e., identify, locate) so it is apparent to
the students what specific actions and skills are needed in order to meet these objec-
tives. In addition, a criterion and accuracy expectation of 100 percent is presented in
the first objective. The conditions, or how the learning performance will be conducted
(i.e., unknown data set and a map of the human brain), are also provided, which helps
the learners to know and practice in advance of the classroom performance of these
objectives.
Clearly stated and specific learning targets and outcomes need to exist within les-
sons. This “essential clarity” corresponds directly to the end question of the instruction-
learning-assessment model (“Where do my students need to be?”). Classroom assessment
connects with learning targets through the instructional questions that are generated in
your instructional planning. Assessment as a process requires collecting needed evidence
that is to be used to address and answer questions involving student progress. This is vital
because if relevant evidence is not collected, as an instructor you have no way of con-
firming the ongoing progress of your students.
HIERARCHICAL ARRANGEMENT
OF INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
Goals
(General learning aspirations for students)
Objectives
(Statements of what students should be able to successfully complete)
Learning Targets
(Accomplishments a student seeks and attempts to acquire)
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58 CHAPTER 3
As part of this connection, an assessment question that a classroom teacher needs to

ask is, “What do I need to know about my students, and will the information that I am
collecting help answer that question?” Assume that you need to know if your students
can do the following:
♦ Analyze and evaluate the environmental impact of a district’s water control and
drainage system on the local ecosystem.
♦ Examine and evaluate the historical factors that contributed to America’s decision
to use nuclear weapons during World War II.
♦ Identify the year Walt Whitman’s book of poems entitled Leaves of Grass was first
published.
Along with identifying what students need to know and understand goes the expectation
of how they are to demonstrate that new knowledge and skill base. For example, analyz-
ing the environmental impact of water control and drainage on an ecosystem involves
the integration of several different knowledge and skill sets and a comprehensive prob-
lem-solving model, as compared to identifying the publication date of Leaves of Grass.
Both are important, but they require the use of different skills.
Different tasks and outcomes require different skill sets and operations, and this needs
to be recognized as part of the instructional process. This recognition is essential, as
assessments need to be designed to collect evidence that the expected skills and out-
comes have indeed been taught and learned. To help with this process, we turn to Ben-
jamin Bloom, as differentiated levels of cognitive processing have been recognized and
hierarchically ordered within his taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom, Englehart,
Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956; Bloom, Hastings, & Madaus, 1971).
DEMONSTRATION OF LEARNING:
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Bloom’s original taxonomy of the cognitive domain includes six major categories,
including (1) knowledge, (2) comprehension, (3) application, (4) analysis, (5) synthe-
sis, and (6) evaluation. The cognitive categories are placed in ascending order based on
growing complexity and abstraction (Krathwohl, 2002). Knowledge is viewed as the foun-
dational processing level involving simple recall and memorization of information (e.g.,
the student identifies the parts and structures of the mosquito larva; the teacher plans and
organizes the science content for the lesson). Comprehension ref lects basic understanding,
awareness, and use of information (e.g., the student identifies and executes the proper
sequence of steps in operating a compound microscope; the teacher follows the pre-
scribed delivery and implementation steps of the lesson plan). Application involves the use
of new and/or existing knowledge in addressing and finding solutions to various prob-
lems or questions (e.g., the student examines and illustrates the functions of the body
structures on the presented slides; the teacher uses observation techniques and checklists
to document proper microscope operation and student learning).
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Analysis requires the learner to break an idea or concept into its various parts and
thereby expose the relationship of those parts to the collective or unified whole or sys-
tem (e.g., the student identifies observed structures and organizes them into specific
functional categories such as respiration, elimination, or general defense; the teacher
gathers pre-assessment information to determine prior knowledge/skills of students
before the lesson). Synthesis requires the learner to integrate related pieces in order to
form a complete pattern or idea similar to the experience of matching and combining
pieces of a puzzle (e.g., the student connects all structures and functions of body parts in
order to describe the initial water experience of larva; the teacher collects and organizes
student learning evidence in order to confirm and document the learning status of each
student).
Finally, evaluation involves the critical review and examination of some product, idea,
or procedure, complete with identified assets and limitations (e.g., the student interprets
the functional integrity of the mosquito larva as a living organism within the food chain;
the teacher evaluates the learning progress of the students and determines whether they
have met the desired learning outcomes of the lesson). All of the aforementioned cogni-
tive skills and corresponding learner actions are necessary and important to master if
students are to become effective learners (Table 3.1).
In addition to the cognitive dimensions, an affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, &
Masia, 1973) was also generated with the categories hierarchically arranged in the fol-
lowing order:
1. Receiving phenomena (i.e., basic awareness and attention to the environment and
events occurring within it);
2. Responding to phenomena (i.e., focused attention and active engagement in an
event or experience);
3. Valuing (i.e., attaching worth or value to something with potentially strong com-
mitment to a set of beliefs and/or principles);
4. Organization (i.e., the continual examination of a life view through the integration
of different values, experiences, and knowledge/skill sets); and
5. Internalizing values (i.e., the creation of a value system that consistently directs
one’s behavior and decisions).
These skill areas require educators to recognize the importance of consciousness and
sensational awareness and the role that they play in the overall learning experience. All
too often we focus only on the cognitive dimension and forget that the learner’s feelings,
attitudes, and personal perceptions directly impact any learning event or activity that
is created. Specific skills were not produced or arranged by Bloom for the psychomo-
tor domain. However, other theorists have generated models that are recognized when
focusing on the development of physical coordination, behavior, and complex motor
skills (Harrow, 1972; Simpson, 1972).
Since many learning tasks and projects require work that involves more than one skill
category, all identified skill levels need to be recognized and targeted, as well as assessed,
if mastery of those intended skills is to be demonstrated. As a general rule, knowledge
and general comprehension is expected for every instructional piece or content area that
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60 CHAPTER 3
TABLE 3.1 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY CATEGORIES AND EXPECTED

LEARNER ACTIONS
Categories Potential learner actions

Knowledge define, memorize, repeat, record, list, recall, name, relate, collect, label, specify, cite,
enumerate, tell, recount
Comprehension restate, summarize, discuss, describe, recognize, explain, express, identify, locate,
report, retell, review, translate
Application exhibit, solve, interview, simulate, apply, employ, use, demonstrate, dramatize,
practice, illustrate, operate, calculate, show, experiment
Analysis interpret, classify, analyze, arrange, differentiate, group, compare, organize, contrast,
examine, scrutinize, survey, categorize, dissect, probe, inventory, investigate,
question, discover, text, inquire, distinguish, detect, diagram, inspect
Synthesis compose, setup, plan, prepare, imagine, produce, hypothesize, invent, incorporate,
develop, generalize, design, originate, formulate, predict, arrange, contrive, assemble,
concoct, construct, systematize, create
Evaluation judge, assess, decide, measure, appraise, estimate, evaluate, infer, rate, deduce,
compare, score, value, predict, revise, choose, conclude, recommend, select,
determine, criticize
Note. “Learner Actions Associated with Cognitive Processes.” Provided by A. T. Wyatt, 2008. Reprinted with permission of
the author.
is covered, for without this acquisition, more enhanced skills such as evaluation are not
possible. This explains to some extent why the lowest processing levels are the most typi-
cally identified in educational objectives (Krathwohl, 2002). But if more developed skills
are to be acquired, they need to be part of the active instructional process; otherwise they
remain unidentified and are not intentionally taught, and more importantly not prac-
ticed and learned by students that need to acquire them.
Building upon Bloom’s original work, Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised
Bloom’s taxonomy by incorporating the cognitive process across four knowledge dimen-
sions. The four knowledge dimensions (factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, pro-
cedural knowledge, and meta-cognitive knowledge) indicate what kind of knowledge
set is to be learned in an objective or goal (e.g., the scientific method as procedural
knowledge, the central and peripheral nervous systems as conceptual knowledge) and the
six dimensions of the cognitive process (remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate,
and create) ref lect what the learner is supposed to be able to do with that knowledge
(see the boxes “Structure of the Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy” and
“Structure of the Cognitive Process Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy”). This system
allows teachers and other professional educators to clearly identify the knowledge and
skill areas that are to be developed within the specific learning objectives and goals listed
in a lesson plan. This new taxonomy generates a useful two-dimensional table known as
the taxonomy table, where the specific skill performance(s) within an instructional objective can
be plotted relative to both the knowledge and cognitive process dimensions.
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STRUCTURE OF THE KNOWLEDGE DIMENSION

OF THE REVISED TAXONOMY
A. Factual Knowledge—The basic elements that students must know to be acquainted

with a discipline or solve problems in it.
Aa. Knowledge of terminology
Ab. Knowledge of specific details and elements
B. Conceptual Knowledge—The interrelationships among the basic elements within a
larger structure that enable them to function together.
Ba. Knowledge of classification and categories
Bb. Knowledge of principles and generalization
Bc. Knowledge of theories, models, and structures
C. Procedural Knowledge—How to do something; methods of inquiry and criteria for
using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods.
Ca. Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms
Cb. Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods
Cc. Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures
D. Metacognitive Knowledge—Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness
and knowledge of one’s own cognition.
Da. Strategic knowledge
Db. Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and condi-
tional knowledge
Dc. Self-knowledge
Structure of the Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy. From Anderson, Lorin W., David
R. Krathwohl. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Edu-
cational Objectives. Published by Allyn and Bacon/Merrill Education, Boston, MA. Copyright 2001 by
Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Bloom’s revised taxonomy provides an essential framework that can be used in design-
ing and delivering effective instruction in the classroom. With the revised taxonomy,
different levels of knowledge are recognized and can be focused on relative to a hierarchy
of cognitive skills and levels. It allows a teacher to directly target specific knowledge
elements and processing qualities within a predetermined coverage domain or area in a
lesson.
For example, if you are providing a lesson on the human brain and objective 1 of that
lesson includes the identification and function of A. R. Luria’s three cortical units of the
brain (Luria, 1966; 1973), conceptual knowledge is being utilized (i.e., knowledge of
brain structures and how they function) along with factual knowledge (i.e., knowledge of
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62 CHAPTER 3
STRUCTURE OF THE COGNITIVE PROCESS

DIMENSION OF THE REVISED TAXONOMY
1.0 Remember—Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
1.1 Recognizing
1.2 Recalling
2.0 Understand—Determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral,
written, and graphic communication.
2.1 Interpreting
2.2 Exemplifying
2.3 Classifying
2.4 Summarizing
2.5 Inferring
2.6 Comparing
2.7 Explaining
3.0 Apply—Carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation.
3.1 Executing
3.2 Implementing
4.0 Analyze—Breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the parts
relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose.
4.1 Differentiating
4.2 Organizing
4.3 Attributing
5.0 Evaluate—Making judgments based on criteria and standards.
5.1 Checking
5.2 Critiquing
6.0 Create—Putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or to make an
original product.
6.1 Generating
6.2 Planning
6.3 Producing
Structure of the Cognitive Process Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy. From Anderson, Lorin W.,
David R. Krathwohl. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives. Published by Allyn and Bacon/Merrill Education, Boston, MA. Copyright
2001 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
terminology and details of the brain). In Table 3.2, 1s have been placed in accordance with
the knowledge and cognitive process being tapped within that objective. For objective 2,
however, students must review the cortical damage of a head trauma victim and provide
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© David Ashley/Corbis
an intervention/recovery plan based on the findings of that case. Different skills are being
asked for with objective 2. In particular, conceptual as well as procedural knowledge sets
(e.g., knowing how brain structures and neural systems work together) are involved with
this task along with higher processing skills such as evaluation and creation (e.g., generat-
ing and producing a rehabilitation plan for this patient based on the unique qualities of
the trauma). Number 2s in the table represent the skills involved with this objective. Both
objectives are important, yet they involve the development and use of different skills, and
this coverage is important to document before the lesson is ever provided.
With this approach, any instructional objective, goal, or standard can be reviewed and
examined relative to the knowledge base and cognitive processing skills that are needed
and required for the identified learning outcome. The use of the taxonomy table provides
an excellent way of predetermining what areas of knowledge will be learned, along with
TABLE 3.2 BRAIN LESSON TAXONOMY TABLE
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create

Factual K 1 1
Concept K 1 1 2 2
Procedure K 2 2
Meta-Cog K
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64 CHAPTER 3
the corresponding cognitive skills that will be utilized and developed. This serves as a
coverage map and shows very clearly what knowledge and skill areas are being empha-
sized within a specified lesson.
PLANNING YOUR LESSONS:

GUIDING QUESTIONS
Assessment does involve the use of evidence collecting measures and techniques, but it
is the instructional questions that guide and direct the student learning process. In order
for this to happen, basic instructional questions need to be addressed and answered before
a lesson plan or learning activity is taught. As a teacher, you can’t collect an unlimited
amount of data on your students, and you don’t want to. In fact, you only want to collect
information that is needed and that serves a critical purpose for you and your students.
This requires that each educator decide which questions need to be addressed (and the
collection of the corresponding data that can help answer those questions) before the
instructional process begins.
Which questions should guide the planning of your lessons? Are there core instructional
questions that should be addressed in each and every lesson you construct? In Chapter 1,
three instructional questions (“Where are my students?” “Where do my students need to
be?” and “How do my students get there?”) were introduced and discussed. Now let’s look
at more detailed queries that need to accompany that important triad of questions.
♦ What is the primary purpose and focus of the intended lesson? As the instructor, you
must know why certain information is being covered, what skills will be developed,
how this information will be used, and how it connects with current and future
lesson material. It must be abundantly clear what is to be accomplished by both the
teacher and the intended learners. What are your students supposed to learn and
retain because of this educational experience? Answering that question and keeping
this perspective is important. If a science lesson on the solar system is being taught,
specific instructional outcomes need to be identified (e.g., identify the individual
planets, orbit patterns and moons, the planets’ relationship to the sun, specific char-
acteristics of the Earth). Secondary coverage of material (e.g., comets and meteor-
ites, space travel) can and is often covered in this content. Yet as interesting as this
material may be, if it does not connect with and enhance the primary purposes of
the lesson, it will lessen the impact and the potential effect of that lesson.
♦ What instructional activities are going to take place in order for the learners to meet
the intended lesson outcomes? This constitutes the true fun and excitement of teach-
ing. The selected learning activities (e.g., living history enactments, taking and
analyzing water samples from a stream, collecting data as part of a controlled exper-
iment) that are designed by the teacher to help explain, illuminate, and expand
the understanding of the content should be directly connected to and enhance the
students’ acquisition of the goals and outcomes of the identified lessons. Anything
less becomes an excursion that misses the instructional target, and the students will
be less prepared, relative to the set outcomes of the lesson, because of it.
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♦ What evidence is needed to confirm that the students acquired the desired outcomes
from the lesson? It was not long ago that some teachers held the professional mind-
set that if a lesson was taught, then that was enough. No evidence of actual student
learning was necessary or even expected. The contention that “I taught the mate-
rial, therefore you have learned it” permeated their instructional delivery. Due to
recent changes and expectations in the classroom, that notion has basically faded
away. Evidence of academic improvement and progress or behavior change must
now exist. In the field of education today, and consistent with the intent of NCLB,
direct evidence of student learning impact must be demonstrated. Beyond the rec-
ognition that evidence needs to be collected and used comes the critical question
of determining what kinds of data need to be collected. This is where each educa-
tor decides on how the different forms of assessment, pre-assessment, formative
assessment, summative assessment, and self-assessment are to be used and integrated
within the instructional plan and in the classroom setting.
♦ Does instruction-learning-assessment alignment exist within the lesson? Directly
assessing the learning progress of the students on the presented material and content
is a necessity. Regarding the solar system lesson mentioned in the first question, the
knowledge of the planets of the solar system, characteristics, and orbit patterns, as
well as additional planetary information, is the focus of that instruction. However,
if students are assessed not on their knowledge of that information, but rather on
the Greek and Roman gods’ inf luence on planetary names or the constellations of
the zodiac, then an instruction-assessment misalignment exists. Therefore, a basic
alignment question that a teacher should always ask is, “Do I have tangible evi-
dence that my students have acquired the desired learning goals and desired out-
comes of the presented lesson?” If that can be answered in the affirmative, a teacher
can be confident that instructional success and impact has been obtained with the
lesson.
Are there additional questions that should be added to this list? If so, what questions
would you add and why? As stated earlier, assessment is really about what is done for, and
not to, your students. What is most important is the information that is collected and
how it is used. That is the essence of this process. As a teacher you want to make sure
that the information you are collecting allows you to make necessary and effective edu-
cational decisions for the students in your classroom.
EVIDENCE OF STUDENT LEARNING

Collecting information on student learning may seem to be a relatively straightforward
process. For example, students complete a certain task or problem, and information of
some kind is collected (e.g., answers are recorded on paper, responses are entered into the
computer, ratings on a rubric are checked or circled) and the activity is completed. But
what did the students really “learn” and demonstrate in that work, and what is the best
way to quantify the presumed academic progress in a measurable form? When acquiring
confirming evidence of student progress, a clear idea of what is to be collected and why
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66 CHAPTER 3
it is to be collected must exist. The right information or data has to be found relative to
the question that is being asked. It’s not just about collecting information, but about col-
lecting the right information.
The terms “information” and “data” are used interchangeably both within this text
and by most educators. Evidence is comparable to these terms, yet it does exceed them
in meaning. Evidence implies correctness or rightness to what is collected; it is proof that helps
confirm the finding. Educators are no different from other professionals in their need to find
confirmatory evidence of work effectiveness and impact. Teachers need to know that
students have learned the desired goals of the lesson; in essence, teachers seek out and
collect confirmatory evidence that desired progress toward (perhaps even mastery of )
intended outcomes has been met.
When collecting evidence of student learning, certain assumptions are made that must
be recognized. We like to think certain things exist of their own accord. For example,
few people have difficulty accepting and acknowledging the concept of achievement. In
truth, achievement is an explanatory concept that exists by inference. Let’s consider the
following example. When a child takes a test and performs well on that test, we say that
he or she has achieved something, has evidenced academic success, or has learned certain
content or skills. In reality, a child has taken a test, and we infer from that test perfor-
mance certain things such as achievement, mastery of material, and academic excellence.
We never experience or encounter in an empirical or directly observable sense concepts
such as achievement, motivation, aptitude, or other hypothetical constructs. What we are
able to experience (and measure with considerable precision) and document are behaviors
and performances (e.g., completing addition problems, writing a paragraph, completing a
literature search) that are believed to represent those constructs.
Academic achievement is confirmed to exist through collected evidence such as skill
observations, test performance, problems that are correctly solved, or by homework that
is completed. Discrete behaviors and skills that are directly observable and measurable are referred
to as empirical evidence, and this evidence is used in the confirmation of the concept.
It is important that we as educators are aware of these assumptions and recognize the
limits of the data and information that we collect and attribute to various concepts. Now,
recognizing these limitations doesn’t necessarily weaken the constructs. In fact, it could
be argued that these concepts are actually strengthened because they force us to carefully
select our confirming data sources, and also require us to rely on multiple sources of sup-
portive information to justify those confirmations.
Empirical evidence has direct implications for how educators document student learn-
ing and progress in the classroom. For classroom assessment, empirical evidence is rec-
ognized as evidence that is directly observable and measurable and that can be reported
in clear and meaningful ways. Momentary impressions, estimations of progress, or other
unsystematic approaches that are based on subjective and inconsistent determinations do
not meet the standard of evidence confirmation. Given higher accountability standards
in education, it is essential that teachers, as well as students themselves, be able to produce
direct evidence for learning and mastery of material, and obtaining information from
more than one source is needed in order to triangulate or “fix” onto a student’s learning
progress. As Butler and McMunn (2006) indicate, there is no set number of measures that
must be completed in this process. However, relying on only one measure of progress
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provides limited information and places great pressure on the accuracy of that measure
and its findings. In the case of confirming evidence, more is always better.
Gathering Useful Evidence

Teachers are expected to collect evidence on students to document their learning prog-
ress. But since there are many ways to gather information, how do you decide what to
use and when? As the instructor you need to determine what specific evidence needs
to be collected to demonstrate that your students have acquired the learning goals and
intended outcomes of the lesson. When selecting your evidence, it is important to acquire
as much relevant data as possible through multiple sources, so that the most accurate and
comprehensive picture of student learning can be obtained.
Once a lesson or learning activity has begun, a clear evidence trail needs to exist that
can then be followed and monitored by anyone who reviews the learning progress of the
students in the classroom. Pieces of evidence (e.g., tests, projects, observations) collected
at different times during the instructional lesson serve as progress or performance snap-
shots. As this information is collected, it can be reviewed individually as well as cumu-
latively so that adjustments or modifications can be made throughout the duration of the
learning experience. With repeated measurements over time, a student’s relative progress
can be tracked and proper modifications made during the instructional process.
When collecting evidence on student progress in the classroom, three major sources
are usually involved, which include (1) observation, (2) questioning and/or interviewing,
and (3) student-generated work. In reality, these evidence collection areas can and do
often overlap and should not be considered mutually exclusive categories. For the pur-
poses of instruction and review in the chapter, however, they are presented and exam-
ined individually.
Informal Observation
Informal observation, a relatively unstructured approach to the collection of information, some-
times referred to as anecdotal observation, is one of the most common ways that teachers
collect information on students (Figure 3.2). As teachers move about the room and check
on students and their work, they are continuously adding information to the active mem-
ory files that they keep on their students. During these “spontaneous reviews,” the collec-
tion of formal data (e.g., percentage of on-task time, behavior frequencies) is unlikely, but
behavior occurrences, general impressions, and basic information may still be acquired.
Informal observations often occur at random times without preset notions of what to
look for and why. The primary advantage with this approach is that the teacher is not
predisposed to look for something in particular. Consequently, behaviors or problems that
do emerge during the observation may represent true concerns or issues for that student,
especially if a pattern can be demonstrated (e.g., observed on multiple occasions and across
academic settings). This provides for a technically unbiased viewing, and that is important
because all too often we can convince ourselves that a problem or issue exists (i.e., shop-
ping for evidence to support an unsubstantiated problem) when in reality it may not.
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68 CHAPTER 3
OBSERVATION RECORD
Date: September 5, 20XX

Setting: Mrs. Smith’s Preschool Classroom
Time: 10:30–11:15
The children had just finished their group activity and were
getting in line. A child (Sarah) got in front of the line and tried to
lead the group out of the classroom. Her teacher (Mrs. Smith)
told her that it was not her turn to lead the group and Sarah
started to cry. She then pushed the girl next to her and started
walking toward the end of the line. Mrs. Smith stopped Sarah and
talked with her and the entire class about the importance of not
hitting or pushing others. She also went over the rules of how
someone becomes a line leader. The students then went down to
the restrooms. They then returned and were allowed to play at a
center of their choice. At the math center, a boy (David) was
matching up numbers with flash cards that had the correct set of
items on the cards. He was able to match the numbers 1–10 with
the correct flashcards. He then left the center to get his teacher so
she could see what he had done.
FIGURE 3.2 SAMPLE OF A PRESCHOOL INFORMAL

OBSERVATION
A major limitation with this approach is that because the collection process can be
open and nonspecific, few if any particular details or issues may emerge from the obser-
vation. Also, the recording process can get cumbersome, as information may or may not
be recorded during an informal observation. If notes are taken in the process, the scripted
notes can be recorded and collected without any focus or direction. Also, considerable
time demands are often required. Since time is a valuable commodity in the classroom,
this type of observation must be carefully considered. Collected pieces of information
can get jumbled and easily rearranged, especially if a consistent recording process is not
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followed. In addition, one of the biggest limitations with the informal approach is the
lack of comparability of the results from one observation to the next (e.g., a specific
behavior or event is not consistently reviewed and recorded). The ability to extend the
collected findings to other settings and situations is limited.
Formal Observation
In order to generate more meaningful and stronger empirical-based data that has greater
accuracy, permanency, and functional utility, more structured formal observation (a
planned and structured review usually focused on a specific issue or condition) recordings, com-
plete with data collection and recording requirements, are needed. However, it must also
be recognized that even with highly systematic procedures, an absolute and complete
recording of a student’s behavior can never really be accomplished during one observa-
tion, and that is why several observations need to take place over a period of time before
a “representative sample of the behaviors” begins to emerge (Sattler, 2002).
Formal observations, and the data that are generated from them, are considered most
effective when intended behavioral targets have been clearly identified and defined. This
allows the observer to focus on an identified behavior while avoiding nonessential behav-
iors during the recording period. For example, if during in-class work time a teacher
notices that several students are experiencing what appears to be confusion, frustration,
and general disengagement with their math worksheets, a focused observation process
on just the math skill being practiced and demonstrated in the exercise (e.g., two- and
three-digit division problems) may be in order. In this way, the skill acquisition process
of the students could be examined and reviewed in greater detail in order to determine
if a skill competency issue is connected to the student difficulties. If competency can be
ruled out, then other possible contributing factors (e.g., number of problems to complete,
amount of time given to complete items) can and should be examined and reviewed.
As Sattler (2002) has stated, “Observational methods are particularly useful for
(a) studying behaviors that have a relatively high frequency, (b) assessing global behav-
iors such as aggression, social withdrawal, sociability, and attention, and (c) evaluating
a child’s progress over time” (p. 86). Since teachers deal with academic and behavioral
problems that demonstrate high or consistent rates of occurrence, formal observation
formats can be helpful for documentation purposes as well as for collecting data on how
effective changes in instructional practices are on the identified concerns.
Group Observation
Observations are often focused on collecting information on an individual, but group
observations, designed to collect information on multiple participants, can be easily completed
and can be extremely helpful. In fact, there are some situations, including group projects
and team activities, where observation of a group of students is desired and necessary.
Consider the following observation that involves a group project in a ninth-grade social
studies class. Students are required to work in small groups of five or fewer students on
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70 CHAPTER 3
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
THE UTILITY OF OBSERVATIONAL INFORMATION

Imagine that a colleague wants to talk to you about a student who is having difficulty in
her class. Johnny is a third-grade student who has been having difficulty completing his
math work over the past two to three weeks. In particular, during math computation time
he attempts and finishes very few problems and so far has not completely finished one math
sheet as compared to his classmates; most of them have attempted and completed all of the
problems on the worksheets. Your colleague is not quite sure what is going on, so you rec-
ommend that she start by conducting observations of Johnny during math time. The aide
in your classroom is available and agrees to sit in the classroom to complete the observa-
tions in two separate sessions lasting 20 to 25 minutes each. During independent seatwork
time, the aide sits in the corner of the room, 10 to 15 feet to Johnny’s right side where she
has a clear view of him at his seat, and she begins to observe.
As the children begin their work, Johnny is searching for his pencil, and once he locates
it then he leaves his chair to sharpen it. While at the pencil sharpener, he tries to chat with
some of his friends before coming back to his seat. Once seated, he starts to put his name
on the math sheet but he begins to sketch and darken the letters of his name. That goes on
for a couple of minutes before Johnny starts on the first problem. He completes the first
row of problems, but then he stops and looks at the doorway at a class moving down the
hallway. He looks around the classroom and smiles at the students in the next row. They
exchange glances and quick words. The students all go back to work except for Johnny.
He stares at his classmates as they complete their work. After a while (approximately two
to three minutes), Johnny goes back to the worksheet. The math sheet has 30 computation
problems and the students are given 20 minutes to complete the activity. If they finish early
they are allowed to do any free reading of their choice, or they can draw. After 15 minutes
most of the students are finished, and they are beginning to complete different activities.
This provides for some distractions, and at this time Johnny has stopped working and is
now watching the students draw or read their books. This goes on until the end of the
observation, as the class begins to transition to go to the cafeteria for lunch. Eleven out of
20 problems that Johnny completed are correct, and his general rate of completion (50–60
percent) and pattern of providing correct answers to items that are completed have been
evidenced across all the math worksheets. Additional observations generate similar find-
ings, and potentially interesting issues begin to emerge for Johnny. Consider the following
possibilities:
• Johnny is having difficulty maintaining a focused effort throughout the math work-
sheet assignment and may have some attention and/or concentration issues.
• Johnny is bored with the assignment and considers this kind of activity “busy work,”
so he quickly loses interest.
• Johnny is hungry and thinking about what will be served for lunch in the cafeteria.
• Johnny is a “social butterf ly” and wants to network with other students about upcom-
ing issues such as the seating arrangements for lunch or the impending recess activities.
• The extended seat activity may be too overwhelming for Johnny, especially just before
lunch.
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• Some combination of the listed possibilities is likely, as most school and learning issues
are complex and can involve a number of contributing and overlapping factors and
inf luences.
• Other possibilities?
Because of the observational information, Johnny’s teacher is more informed as to what
is happening and can begin to examine the potential issues that are surrounding and con-
tributing to this issue. She is in a much better position to make changes to see what might
work to improve Johnny’s compliance with the activity. For example, having him start his
math work earlier in the day may provide him with the additional time that may be needed
to complete this task. Also, determining if he is actually bored with the practice items on
the worksheet must be examined and resolved. Simply moving him closer to the teacher’s
desk may increase his on-task behavior and completion of the math sheets. Starting to col-
lect information on Johnny’s ability to focus and sustain his attention may also be neces-
sary, especially if this pattern is evidenced in other activities during the day.
Clearly, there are many possible reasons for Johnny’s current behavior, and with useful
information such as observational data, effective learning strategies and interventions can
be implemented. What becomes important in utilizing observations is clearly identifying
what questions need to be answered and then selecting the recording methods that will
provide the most relevant information to help answer those questions.
a Civil War project in the classroom. The teacher wants to document how well the stu-
dents work together on this project. Therefore, the focus and purpose of this observation
is on student collaboration and cooperation. The observation checklist lists the desired
collaboration behaviors (i.e., active discussion with members of the group, taking turns
to address the group, listening to others, sharing responsibilities and duties for the group)
that should be demonstrated in this exercise. The skills are listed on the form, as are the
names of the students within each group (Figure 3.3). Moving from group to group, with
comparable observation time for each group, the teacher records with Xs what behav-
iors are demonstrated and by whom. A section at the bottom of the form also allows the
teacher to record information and other details associated with the observation (e.g., time
of day, noted distractions, energy level of the group, task demands).
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS
IN THE CLASSROOM
When observing and recording student behavior, several methods can be used, but with
each method there are recognized advantages as well as limitations that exist as information
is collected. General descriptions of the primary observation approaches used with students
in classrooms are provided in the following sections, along with relevant examples.
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72 CHAPTER 3
GROUP OBSERVATION
Observation Target - Group Work Activities Group 1
Susie Sarah Carol Alice Sally

Meets/Greets Group Members X X X
Active Discussion of Project X X X
Takes Turns Within G roup X X X
Supports Group Members and Ideas X X X X
Demonstrates Active Listening X X
Shares Work R esponsibilities X X X X
Completes Assigned Work for Project X X X X X
Provides Positive “Can Do” Attitude X X X X
Additional Notes:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
FIGURE 3.3 SAMPLE GROUP COLLABORATION OBSERVATION FORM
Narrative
A narrative record involves the chronological recording of an event as it is taking place. Usually
set within an identified setting or school event, such as recess or fifth-period English
class, and for a specified amount of time, information can be recorded in general terms
with limited details or in great detail relative to specific conditions or specific target
behaviors (e.g., quality of classroom work, student-to-student interaction). The observer,
like a photographer who has telephoto capabilities with his camera, has considerable
f lexibility to focus on specific issues as they evidence themselves during the observation.
As an evidence collection method, the narrative observation gives a teacher a simple
way to record the behaviors and learning events of students in the classroom or in other
educational settings. It can provide a snapshot, albeit a limited one, of what is currently
happening for students. Its greatest value lies in providing a foundation for more specific
and focused evidence collection. It can identify important observation targets or issues
that may need to be examined further. Since the narrative approach does not follow
uniform and systematic data collection operations, major evidence limitations, including
generalization of findings, comparability of findings across observers, and the limited
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production of quantitative data, must be mentioned (Sattler, 2002). In summary, narra-

tive observation is an important and necessary first step in an evidence collection process
that requires detailed data that must be obtained through more systematic procedures.
Interval and Event Recording

Interval recording or time sampling involves the recording of specific pre-identified behav-
iors based on set time segments or intervals. The observational period is broken up into seg-
ments of time, usually of short duration (e.g., 10- or 20-second intervals). During each
of those segments, if the identified behavior is observed, it is recorded or marked on the
observation form. Two forms of interval recording can be used during an observation.
Whole interval recording requires that the behavior occur throughout the entire time
interval, whereas with partial interval recording, a recording is made if the behavior
occurs at any time during the time interval.
Interval recording provides a temporal record pattern of behaviors and is particularly
effective in documenting behaviors that are consistently evidenced and maintained for
long periods of time in the classroom. An interval recording or time sampling form gen-
erally consists of a series of boxes, and the observer makes a mark (e.g., a plus sign if the
behavior is demonstrated and a minus sign if it is not) in each box at the designated time
interval (e.g., five seconds). Sometimes a second set of boxes is included so that a matched
peer can also be observed and used for comparison purposes. A percentage of occur-
rences can be calculated by adding the number of times the behavior is observed divided
by the number of observation intervals (e.g., 20 intervals) multiplied by 100.
For example, in Figure 3.4, the target student, Bill, was off task (off task being defined
as not directly working on and completing seatwork) during seven out of the eight obser-
vation intervals. Each interval represents a minute, and a whole interval recording was
followed. So that means Bill was off task approximately 87 percent of the time he was
observed (a total of eight minutes) and was not engaged in completing any seatwork. In
comparison, his peer was engaged in his seatwork for 100 percent of the observed time.
Event recording, which focuses on documenting the rate of a behavior, is similar to interval
recording in that specific behaviors are pre-selected for examination. However, event
recording is not dependent on time for documentation, but on the behavior itself. This
approach is especially useful with behaviors that possess clear beginning and end points
and generate student products that can be easily observed and recorded. Essential issues
in the classroom such as work completion (e.g., the number of items attempted and
accurately completed on math worksheets, the number of vocabulary words defined)
and classroom interaction (e.g., the number of times students raise their hand, verbal
Interval 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Target + + + - + + + +
Peer - - - - - - - -
FIGURE 3.4 INTERVAL RECORDING DATA
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74 CHAPTER 3
Name: Jim
Grade: 2
Task: Addition of two-digit numbers with and without carry-over
Behavior Minute Interval Total

1 2 3 4 5 5 minutes
Addition roblems
P Completed 5 5 3 4 3 20
20 Addition Problems Finished 20/20 100% Completion

16 out of 20 Answers Correct 16/20 80% Accuracy
Completion Rate - 20/5 Approximately 4 problems per minute
FIGURE 3.5 OBSERVATION RECORDING FORM
outbursts in class, the number of times a student is out of his seat), along with other
important factors, can be documented with this approach.
A frequency recording, or how often a behavior or specific event occurs within the observa-
tion period, can be generated with this approach, along with the ability to generate a rate
of behavior measure. This involves a simple calculation of dividing the number of occur-
rences of the behavior by the time of the observation period. In Figure 3.5, the record on
Jim demonstrates the quantitative data that can be generated from a simple event record-
ing. In this particular case, Jim completed all 20 addition problems within the provided
time, answered 16 correctly, demonstrating 80 percent accuracy, and completed on aver-
age about four problems per minute.
Checklists and Ratings

With checklists, presented as a listing of specific items connected to a certain task, procedure, or pro-
cess, an index of the essential parts and elements of specific behaviors or skills can be pro-
vided. In this way, it can be determined if the student is demonstrating some or all of the
required subskills needed to complete a task or to address a specific problem (Figure 3.6).
It can also serve a diagnostic function in helping to identify any skill problems that might
be demonstrated during an observation. In addition to instructional intervention, a check-
list review can provide confirmatory evidence of successful learning and skill acquisition.
Ratings allow for the examination of identified behaviors based on a predetermined scale, usu-
ally involving a range of point values, for example, 1–5 or 1–10. Ratings are designed to help
quantify the impressions of an observer, as well as provide an indication of the degree or
magnitude of the observed behaviors. One of the most common rating scale formats used
involves the scale of 5 (always), 4 (frequently), 3 (sometimes), 2 (seldom), and 1 (never).
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MICROSCOPE OPERATION CHECKLIST
Name: ___________________________
Date: ____________________________
Yes No
Was any lens touched? ___ ___
Was lens tissue, a lens cloth, or a lens pen used
in cleaning a lens? ___ ___
Were all parts of the microscope known and
correctly identified? ___ ___
Were slides correctly prepared with cover slips? ___ ___
Were slides correctly placed on the stage with
stage clips? ___ ___
Did the student start with the low power
objective first? ___ ___
Was the proper light control set? ___ ___
Was proper focusing demonstrated? ___ ___
Does the student understand the opposite rule
for moving slides? ___ ___
Did the student demonstrate appropriate care
and safety around the microscope during the lab? ___ ___
After the lab did the student return all materials
to their correct places and demonstrate proper
clean-up procedures? ___ ___
FIGURE 3.6 MICROSCOPE OPERATION CHECKLIST

EXAMPLE
One of the primary benefits of this approach is that information can be added to an
observation that makes it more robust, since more descriptive detail about the behavior
and its impact is obtained.
Narrative rating scales do not use numbers or point values but instead use descriptive
adjectives connected to explanatory text to gauge or rate a student’s behavior. The fol-
lowing is an example of a common but imprecise narrative rating scale.
♦ Excellent: The student meets all knowledge, skill, and performance requirements.
The student is able to perform at the highest functioning level based on current
classroom information.
♦ Acceptable: The applicant meets most of the knowledge, skill, and performance
requirements. The student is able to perform at a satisfactory level based on current
classroom information.
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76 CHAPTER 3
♦ Not Acceptable: The applicant does not meet the knowledge, skill, and perfor-
mance requirements. The student is unable to perform at a satisfactory level based
on current classroom information.
So what makes this rating scale imprecise and therefore ineffective? The qualitative
descriptors that are used are only as good as the text clarity and detail provided to delin-
eate one level from the next. Rating descriptors such as “outstanding” or “acceptable” by
themselves are not sufficient for review purposes. That is why the text used to describe
the categorical adjectives must be clear and specific in order to ensure rating consistency
and accuracy, and that is not the case with this scale.
For example, to earn an “acceptable” rating, a student must meet most of the knowl-
edge, skill, and performance requirements. But what does “most” involve? What per-
centage or majority of requirements must be met to in order to receive this rating? Also,
the knowledge, skill, and performance requirements connected to this rating must be
identified. In addition, the rating stipulates that the student must be able to perform at a
satisfactory level based on current classroom information. Therefore, “satisfactory” must
be clearly defined. Overall, the level of clarity in the descriptor narratives must be such
that anyone reviewing a student work product would be able to unmistakably identify
whether it meets that rating or not. In addition, the student must also clearly understand
what is required and expected as part of any provided ratings.
In order to make this rating more precise, “most” could be replaced with “80 percent”
or “four out of the five” knowledge, skill, and performance requirements. The listed
or expected requirements would need to be precisely stated, such as the following first
grade requirements:
1. Identifies all letters of the alphabet by sight
2. Identifies all alphabet sounds
3. Produces all alphabet sounds on command
4. Identifies numerals 1–10 by sight
5. Performs correct number-object associations for numbers 1–5
Finally, “satisfactory” could be defined as the student independently and accurately
completing a teacher-initiated task at least two out of three times. Based on these sug-
gested changes for the “acceptable” rating, how could you clarify the “excellent” and
“not acceptable” ratings? More information about rating scales and rubrics and how they
can used in the classroom is provided in Chapter 6.
QUESTIONING
Direct questioning involves the collection of evidence through the verbal responses of students; it
is a discussion or dialogue with an intended purpose. Educators use this technique throughout
the school day. It serves as a quick and authentic way to confirm students’ understanding
of presented material, use of procedures, and skill execution, as well as a way to confirm
progress. Used as part of or as a follow-up to a lesson or class activity, teacher-directed
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questioning can generate valuable learning feedback that can result in skill correction
while the learning event is actually taking place.
These moment-driven questions can be connected to reviews, skill checks, or other
activities that are conducted during the normal course of the class day. Typically individu-
alized to the situation and student’s work, well-constructed and delivered questions can
serve to confirm that the student truly understands the task demands through his or her
verbal responses. Often the spontaneous questions that are generated have their origin in
the confirming questions (who, what, where, when, and why), since these are natural ques-
tions to ask when new information or skills are acquired or connected to a pre-existing
knowledge or skill base. In addition to asking individualized questions, the integration of
standard questions that are asked of all students is important. Asking key questions ensures
that the students as a whole understand and have processed the intended material of the les-
son. This confirmation is crucial for current and future extensions of that learning.
Due to the need to confirm retention of information and/or general understanding
of material, teacher-generated questions directed toward students often focus on the
foundational processing skills of Bloom’s revised taxonomy. Clearly, students need to be
able to remember and understand information and possess a strong foundation of gen-
eral knowledge. But most would argue that there is an even greater need for asking
questions that require students to directly apply their knowledge and/or skills, or that
pose situations requiring students to critically analyze informational sources and examine
the underlying relationships that may exist. The practice of using information is impor-
tant, and this “mental practice” only happens when educational circumstances are cre-
ated (e.g., higher-level questions and requests are made of students) in the classroom that
require students to think and respond with the skills and at the level necessary to answer
the questions. This is particularly the case when the cognitive skills of evaluation and
creation are involved. In order for students to develop strong evaluation and construction
skills, they must be placed in situations where they are required to use those skills.
Beyond the questions that are crafted at the moment, predetermined “probing ques-
tions” that have a specific instructional purpose can be constructed so that they tap into
specific processing skills, along with different areas of knowledge as described in Bloom’s
revised taxonomy. However, an important aspect must be acknowledged when asking
questions of students. Students naturally provide responses that answer only the questions
that are asked. For instance, if asked basic knowledge or comprehension questions, those
are the types of responses that are typically generated by students. However, if asked
higher-level processing questions, those types of responses must be generated by the stu-
dents. What is asked for in the questions is what is generally received in the answers that
are provided, and as the instructor you have complete control over the level and type of
questions that are asked of your students.
For example, if new information is being examined and the students have no back-
ground knowledge about the subject area, then a basic knowledge and comprehension
questioning approach would certainly seem justified, especially at the beginning of the
lesson. As additional information and understanding is acquired, a focus on higher-level
questions may be desired. In all likelihood, questions that ref lect all levels, from the most
basic to the highest, should be involved at different times if an instructor really wants to
know the extent of the students’ knowledge, skills, and usage of the material that they are
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78 CHAPTER 3
expected to learn and master. Teacher-directed questions have tremendous instructional

impact that directly inf luences the level of student processing and understanding of the
material that is presented to them.
Teachers use questioning techniques in order to check their students’ understanding of
current material, as well as to determine how much that information has been processed
and incorporated into the student’s larger knowledge and skill foundation base. In addi-
tion, questioning skills can serve a teacher well, since asking the right questions at the
right time is important for learners as they connect elements of various learning experi-
ences and events. Moreover, when learning concerns arise, focused questioning can be
the investigative tool that helps provide a teacher with greater understanding relative to
the learning status of a students and which instructional modifications need to be imple-
mented to help remedy the situation.
Obviously, direct questioning is a fundamental information-gathering device for
teachers and will remain that way. But this technique has its limitations, and caution
must be exercised. For example, with the questioning format, the verbal reporting of
students can be unreliable due to classroom dynamics and social pressures; students can
answer questions yet still not fully understand the material. Also, if teachers ask questions
of only a few students or the same students, over time this will likely provide distorted
QUESTIONS AS ASSESSMENT DEVICES

Imagine yourself as a fifth-grade social studies teacher slowly moving about the classroom
as your students complete an in-seat assignment on Native American tribes of the Mid-
west. As the students complete a location activity of native tribes with their original home-
lands, you ask the following questions: (1) Where did the Chippewa, Miami, Ottawa, and
Shawnee tribes live before the arrival of the white man? (2) Who were their geographical
neighbors? (3) When and why did they leave their homelands? Asking these questions, or
questions like them, gives a teacher an important check on how well the students under-
stand this basic material and are incorporating it into their existing knowledge base. The
aforementioned questions require responses that involve the basic foundation of cognitive
processing levels of Bloom’s revised taxonomy.
The students then complete an independent reading on the relocation of those Native
American tribes after the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. Specific questions are asked that
require the students to extend their thinking and understanding beyond the factual nature
of the material. For example, the teacher might ask (1) What legal or social status did
Native Americans hold in the eyes of white settlers? (2) Was their forced relocation and
compensation for their lands comparable to what would be done today? Questions like
these require students to develop and exercise their higher-level processing and integration
skills, and these kinds of questions can be embedded within most lessons if desired. As nec-
essary as these questions are, it doesn’t make much instructional sense to ask higher-order
questions at the very beginning of the lesson or as the students are developing the founda-
tion of their knowledge base. All questions are important, they just need to be asked at the
right times in order to maximize the learning impact for students.
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and inaccurate feedback and will not ref lect the learning impact on the classroom as a
whole. As with any data collection method, this approach must be used carefully and in
combination with other data sources, and be focused around key instructional questions
and outcomes that are connected to the provided lesson or learning activity.
Interviewing
As part of the traditional interview, the classic image of two people engaged in a focused
discussion comes to mind. An interview, by design, is a directed conversation where specific
information is obtained from the interviewee by way of direct questions from the interviewer. Teach-
ers rarely engage in formal interviews due to the lack of extended time that is required to
complete an interview. However, during the course of the school day, teachers are some-
times able to visit with students for a limited period of time to review progress or address
other school issues. Through informal mini-interviews or sessions, teachers are often able
to collect information that can then be used to directly assist those students.
The mini-interview, a time-restricted personal meeting centered on a specific issue, is typi-
cally associated with the mental health field and is used by some medical schools in the
selection of physician candidates and other health field professionals (Eva, Reiter, Rosen-
feld, & Norman, 2004a, 2004b), but it has direct implications and usage in the classroom.
For example, during a mini-interview, questions that are particular to a specific child
can be asked; in the process, in-depth and valuable information can be obtained. In
addition, standard questions that are asked of every child can also be completed. In this
way, general feedback from the class can be obtained along with specific and individual
information from each child. This one-on-one time that is generated as part of “review
sessions” during class time can also help to form the student-teacher bond and strengthen
important interpersonal connections that will be needed over the course of the academic
year. Individual time with students is generally time well spent. Unfortunately, it is dif-
ficult to come by given all of the daily demands in the classroom.
STUDENT PRODUCTS
Data collected through observations can be used to document learning progress. In addi-
tion, specific responses to instructor-generated questions can also serve as confirmation
of what students know as well as what they do not know. Still, what students generate
as a matter of their classroom work is the gold standard of student learning evidence. As
educators, we rely on student production as a critical indicator of their progress and abil-
ity to take what they have learned and generalize it to other activities, including real-life
situations outside the classroom. Student products meet the requirements of empirical evi-
dence, as they have recognizable beginning and end points; generate tangible, concrete constructions
that can be examined; reflect the direct work and effort of the individual (under most conditions); and
meet the accountability mandate of “show me.”
Student products can and do represent multiple skills and talents and involve different
output responses such as verbal performances (e.g., speeches, debates, group discussions,
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80 CHAPTER 3
stage productions) and written expression performances (e.g., short stories, essays, let-
ters, journal entries, portfolios, research papers), as well as traditional test performances
(e.g., completing various test items including multiple-choice questions, matching, fill-
in-blanks, essays). The use and collection of a variety of student products is important
because it allows for a more accurate and detailed assessment and evaluation of a student’s
progress and growth, especially with skills that are expected to develop over time. In
regards to instruction, multiple student products and performances create opportunities
for greater and more focused intake, development, and refinement of new content, along
with hierarchical skill development.
The typical range of learning activities and instructional assignments require the
combination and integration of several learning modalities (e.g., visual, auditory, motor
skills), but most student products or performances are identified with a primary modality
output. For example, a speech is normally considered a verbal product, and a visual prod-
uct is the construction of a map or a drawing. In this process, students are constructing a
response or product, so the term constructed response is used to describe work and a per-
sonal product that is generated solely by each student in response to a given question or instructional
request. Writing a paper falls in the constructed response category, since each student must
construct an original text to meet the requirements of the assignment.
A constructed response is typically associated with paper-and-pencil tests and with
specific test items that require a student to create novel responses to those items. Well-
recognized constructed response forms include traditional essay and short answer ques-
tions that are often included in classroom tests and exams. There are many other types
of activities that require constructed responses and products from students, including
journals, presentations and performances, research projects, experiments, and portfolios.
The other type of student product is referred to as selected response, and this format is
used predominantly in classroom tests or exams. With selected response items, a student
is required to select the correct answer or response from a set of potential answers that are provided.
This approach is used with many standard test items, including true/false, matching, and
multiple-choice items.
In the classroom setting, students are typically asked to complete a variety of learn-
ing products. Student products, along with observational data and verbal reports, are the
main forms of evidence that teachers use to document student learning. In addition to
documenting knowledge and skill gains, these types of evidence can be used to judge or
evaluate the quality and extent of that learning. The following chapters include specific
information on how different types of evidence can be embedded and collected within
classroom assessment processes (i.e., formative, summative, and self-assessment), along
with the formal evaluation of student work through grading practices.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
At the beginning of this chapter, you constructed your “top ten list” of the most impor-
tant things learned in school. As you look over that list again, answer this final question:
What skills and knowledge sets do the students in your current or future classroom need in order
to be productive and competitive contributors in today’s society as well as the world of tomorrow?
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Keep in mind that these students will be competing on an international level and will be
expected to possess a “world class” education.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Educators are obligated to make sure that their students learn the material and skills that
they will be held accountable to regardless of their level of instruction. That is why lesson
goals need to match up with the intended district and/or state academic standards that
students are required to demonstrate and master at their respective grade levels. Included
with standards-driven instruction is the important process of determining and clearly
identifying learning targets and outcomes that are connected to those specific curricu-
lum and academic content standards. This includes a clear identification of what students
are supposed to be able to do, and must include the processing levels and cognitive skills
that are connected with those outcomes. The teacher, as he or she directs the classroom
activities, must keep the intended learning targets in sight, as must the students who are
required to obtain them; both must know what is to be accomplished. In the pursuit of
student learning targets and outcomes in the classroom, empirical evidence needs to be
collected in order to confirm whether these desired targets and outcomes are reached.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: What do my students
need to learn in the classroom and how do I use student-generated evidence to confirm that
learning? Due to the impact of mandated academic standards, teachers are held accountable
for recognizing and confirming that expected grade-level learning goals and outcomes are
met in the classroom. Because of this reality, teachers need to ensure that classroom instruc-
tion aligns with required standards to make sure all students demonstrate proficiency both
with the intended knowledge base and with cognitive processing dimensions.
Educators must provide authentic and appropriate evidence to support and confirm
that a learning change has occurred for a student. Learning evidence that can be directly
observed and/or measured to confirm that new knowledge or skills exist, or that greater
or expanded understanding is demonstrated, is expected with any student progress
review. Different forms of evidence can and should be used given the variety and unique
needs of learning activities in the classroom. Whatever forms of evidence are chosen and
collected, they must directly validate the learning progress and/or change of the student.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
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82 CHAPTER 3
1. Describe the importance of teaching to recognized learning targets and outcomes
that are based on the academic standards that exist within a school district’s cur-
riculum guide. Why does evidence to document student learning progress need to
be collected?
2. Does Bloom’s revised taxonomy provide a helpful structure and framework for the
development of your lessons and what you want and expect from your students?
Why or why not?
3. Do you feel comfortable recognizing and potentially using the different methods
identified to collect student learning evidence that are presented in this chapter?
Why or why not?
RESOURCES
Education World at www.education-world.com/standards/national/index provides an
extensive listing of national standards across major content areas including math, Eng-
lish, and social studies. Content and subject standards for each state are also provided
on this site.
For more reading on observation and different observation formats, this chapter pro-
vides an excellent overview on the subject: Hintze, J. M., Volpe, R. J., & Shapiro, E.
S. (2008). Best practices in the systematic direct observation of student behavior. In
A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 319–335).
Bethesda, MD: The National Association of School Psychologists.
REFERENCES
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assess-
ing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Bloom, B. S., Englehart, M. D., Furst, G. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956).
Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook I: The cognitive domain. New York: David
McKay Company, Inc.
Bloom, B. S., Hastings, J. T., & Madaus, G. F. (1971). Handbook on formative and summative
evaluation of student learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Breivik, P. S., & Senn, J. A. (1994). Information literacy: Educating children for the 21st century.
New York: Scholastic Inc.
Butler, S. M., & McMunn, N. D. (2006). A teacher’s guide to classroom assessment: Under-
standing and using assessment to improve student learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Eva, K. W., Reiter, H. I., Rosenfeld, J., & Norman, G. R. (2004a). An admissions OSCE:
The multiple mini-interview. Medical Education, 38, 314–326.
wit78704_ch03_048-083.indd 82 2/11/11 10:38 AM

Eva, K. W., Reiter, H. I., Rosenfeld, J., & Norman, G. R. (2004b). The relationship between
interviewer characteristics and ratings assigned during a multiple mini-interview. Aca-
demic Medicine, 79, 602–608.
Harrow, A. (1972). A taxonomy of psychomotor domain: A guide for developing behavioral objec-
tives. New York: David McKay.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory into
Practice, 41(4), 212–218.
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of educational objectives:
The classifi cation of educational goals: Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David
McKay Company, Inc.
Longworth, N. (2003). Lifelong learning in action: Transforming education in the 21st century.
London: Kogan Page.
Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher cortical functions in man. New York: Basic Books.
Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain. New York: Basic Books.
Marzano, R. J. (2006). Classroom assessment and grading that work. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Sattler, J. M. (2002). Assessment of children: Behavioral and clinical applications (4th ed.). San
Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc.
Senge, P., Cambron-McCabe, N., Lucas, T., Smith, B., Dutton, J., & Kleiner, A. (2000).
Schools that learn: A fi fth discipline fieldbook for educators, parents, and everyone who cares about
education. New York: Doubleday.
Simpson, E. J. (1972). The classifi cation of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain.
Washington, DC: Gryphon House.
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CHAPTER 4
VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, AND

AVOIDING ASSESSMENT BIAS
KEY FOCUS
How do you construct classroom assessments that accurately and consistently mea-
sure student performance?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Define validity and its essential role in the
assessment process.
♦ Describe the different aspects of validity and their
importance in constructing accurate classroom
assessment procedures and measures.
♦ Define reliability and its essential role in the
assessment process.
♦ Explain the different forms of reliability and
their importance in developing consistent class-
room assessment procedures and measures.
♦ Understand the critical relationship between
validity and reliability.
♦ Identify assessment bias and its detrimental
effects on the collection of student evidence.
♦ Describe how to minimize assessment bias when
collecting student evidence through classroom
Bananastock/AGE Fotostock assessments.
84
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VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, AND AVOIDING ASSESSMENT BIAS 85
Introduction
Student evidence can be collected through an array of measures. Whatever the method or
technique, no matter its form or function, it must accurately measure what it is designed
and intended to measure and it must be consistent in the data that it provides. Validity and
reliability are essential qualities and components of any measurement activity, whether it
involves a fourth grade in-class writing project or district-wide testing. Due to the wide-
ranging impact of these factors, all educators need to understand the importance and
value of validity and reliability and their inf luence on any assessment process, wherever
it takes place. In addition, avoiding assessment bias is critical if a teacher really wants to
collect accurate and useful information and evidence on student learning progress.
VALIDITY: DOES IT MEASURE WHAT IT

IS SUPPOSED TO?
Validity is the most critical element of measurement, and it is the essential core attribute
of any assessment process. Results obtained from tests, measures, or assessment proce-
dures must be valid; otherwise, inaccurate inferences will be made and getting consistent
and reliable results each time won’t change that fact. The scale in your gym or bathroom
can give consistent and reliable weight measurements, but if those results are being used
to estimate or determine something other than your weight (e.g., blood pressure), then
an obvious and serious validity problem exists.
Until recently, validity as a construct has been presented as being composed of three
different types, including content, criterion, and construct validity, and evidence has
been collected and reported to support each of these domains. However, as reported in
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
At this very moment, scan your immediate surroundings. This could take place in your
room, the library, at the kitchen table, or a thousand other places. Regardless of your loca-
tion, identify five objects that are located close to you. Once those objects have been found,
determine if these objects are valid (they do what they were designed to do) and if they are
reliable (they perform their function in a consistent and uniform way).
In most instances it is likely that all of your chosen objects will meet these criteria,
unless they are broken or in need of repair, and there is a very important reason for that.
We depend on products, machines, various operations, and other human-engineered events
to meet those requirements. If they did not, then their utility and effectiveness would be
compromised and nothing of value would be obtained. Meeting these two conditions are
critical in the area of assessment, as well. A measure, procedure, test, demonstration, or any
other classroom condition or event must be valid and accurate for its intended purpose,
and it must also be reliable so that the same or comparable measurements are obtained each
time the procedure is implemented.
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86 CHAPTER 4
How is a metronome both a valid and reliable

measure?
Polka Dot Images/JupiterImages
the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1999), validity is now viewed
as a unitary entity, and evidence is collected to support the accuracy and authenticity of
test scores and their interpretation. In particular, five categories of validity confirmation
exist and include (1) evidence based on test content, (2) evidence based on response pro-
cesses, (3) evidence based on internal structure, (4) evidence based on relations to other
variables, and (5) evidence based on consequences of testing.
This is a positive move for the measurement field, and the consideration of validity as
a unitary concept certainly improves the psychometric properties of tests and other eval-
uation procedures. Yet not all of the aforementioned validity confirmation areas relate
directly to teachers and their classroom issues, so a modified validity review is in order.
Therefore, with a focus on classroom instruction and validity issues related directly to
standardized tests, a review of validity evidence (ref lecting the established elements of
content, criterion, and construct-related validity) connected to specific functions and
purposes is provided in order to connect it directly to the needs and uses of the teacher.
For classroom assessment purposes, validity involves accurately measuring what a test or
procedure has been designed for and is intended to measure so that the results can be accurately inter-
preted and utilized (Reynolds, Livingston, & Willson, 2006). For example, it is assumed
that a math test can and does measure a student’s math achievement. If relevant test items
wit78704_ch04_084-112.indd 86 2/11/11 10:37 AM

and questions are selected and these items correspond to and evaluate identified math
skills, the math results should be interpreted as accurate indicators of the students’ math
learning and progress. As mentioned in the last chapter, it is important to recognize the
fact that we are actually inferring achievement by way of performance on the provided
test items. We can’t directly see a student’s achievement, but we can see his or her written
computation responses to questions that we then infer ref lect the student’s achievement
and learning progress. So as a teacher you infer student progress based on assessment
results and make decisions based on that information, and that is why it is critical that
assessment and procedures used in the classroom be valid. If valid results are obtained,
then effective instructional and educational decisions can be made. That is ultimately
what assessment is all about: providing educators and their students with valid data that is
then analyzed in order to make good educational decisions.
Content-Related, Criterion-Related, and Construct-Related

Evidence of Validity
There are three forms of evidence for validity that directly impact and inf luence the
assessment process in the classroom setting (Figure 4.1). For example, content-related
evidence of validity refers to the review and confirmation of material that is supposed to be
measured by a test or other assessment procedure (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). With the math
test mentioned previously, it would be seen as demonstrating evidence of content valid-
ity if the test items match up with and measure the intended instructional objectives and
student outcomes of the presented math lesson. In many states, classroom teachers help
establish the content validity foundation of their lessons and evaluations by ensuring that
the state required academic content standards for their respective grade level are ref lected
in and directly connected to the instructional process.
So how does content validity impact what the classroom teacher does? Teachers
need to check and review, in a consistent and systematic manner, various test items,
Validity:
The degree to which a test
or instrument measures what
it is intended to measure
Criterion-Related Validity: Construct-Related Validity:

Content-Related Validity:
How well does a performance How well does a test or
How well do the test items
on one test or measure performance reflect the
and activities represent the
correspond to some other construct or concept that it
content to be measured?
activity or performance? is supposed to measure?
FIGURE 4.1 ASPECTS OF VALIDITY
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88 CHAPTER 4
questions, or other classroom tasks to ensure that they accurately represent the material
and ref lect the skills that are expected to be covered and acquired as part of an instruc-
tional plan. And the key is to make sure that the instructional material that is covered
aligns with and is appropriately represented and examined within the selected class-
room assessment. A test or other evaluation measure should be carefully constructed so
that the desired knowledge and skills that the students are expected to acquire are accu-
rately evaluated. That is why teachers need to develop a table of specifications whenever
they construct a formal summative test.
A table of specifications is essentially a graphic framework that identifies the test items
or other measures (e.g., rubric) that are constructed to tap the listed objectives and outcomes of the
lesson. The value of this practice is that it provides a visual display and confirmation
of the assessment alignment between what has been taught and what is being formally
evaluated. Both general content, ref lected in the identified questions or items, and the
required cognitive processing skills necessary to answer those questions are identified.
A table of specifications for an algebra test (pre-test and post-test) for seventh graders
appears in Table 4.1. It provides a visual map of the test items (listed as Question 1, 2, 3,
etc.) and the knowledge and cognitive skill domains that are being covered. The example
in Table 4.1 demonstrates a consistent coverage of material and skill levels for both the
pre- and post-tests, and the teacher has a clear idea of what objectives are being measured
and the cognitive levels and skills that are required to correctly answer those test items.
Criterion-related evidence of validity examines the relationship between scores on a
particular test with some external criterion. In the field of education, you might see this used
in the prediction of potential college achievement success based on the performance on
an early entrance exam like the American College Test (ACT) or the SAT Reasoning
Test. Predictive and concurrent and validity evidence represent the two basic approaches
to demonstrate this validity.
With the predictive approach, a test is given followed by a specified interval of time,
and then the criterion or performance is evaluated. For example, it is now common for
preschool programs, as well as in kindergarten, to have students complete a screening or
entry test, and the results from those tests are often used to predict a student’s potential
academic success if enrolled. When the completion of the test and the criterion evaluation occur
at the same approximate time, then we have concurrent criterion-related validity. The perfor-
mances from the two measures are compared and a correlation coefficient, or more accu-
rately, a validity coefficient, is generated to measure the degree to which one measure
estimates the performance on some other criterion measure.
Predictive validity evidence involves the capacity to determine how well someone will
perform a future task based on a previous measured performance. This kind of evidence holds
particular importance in education as test score performances, especially in the areas of
achievement or general aptitude, are sometimes used in the selection process for admis-
sion into certain courses, programs, or other educational experiences. If a test or measure
demonstrates strong evidence of predictive validity—that is, if it possesses a strong valid-
ity coefficient—then it can be used to support and validate educational selections.
For example, a math entry exam demonstrates a high predictive validity coefficient
(r = .85) with later academic success in an advanced statistics class. Knowing students’
scores on this test can help identify the students that will likely do well and others who
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TABLE 4.1 TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR MS. BLACK’S ALGEBRA PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST
TABLE OF
BLOOM' S TAXONOMY
wit78704_ch04_084-112.indd 89
SPECIFICATIONS
Pre-assessment areas Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Justify a general rule for a pattern Question 2 (FK) Question 4 (CK) Question 7 (PK)
or a function by using physical
materials, visual representations,
words, tables, or graphs.
Use variables as unknown Question 6 Question 3 (CK)
quantities in general rules when (FK) Question 5 (PK)
describing patterns and other Question 7 (CK)
relationships.
Model problems with Question 1 (FK)
physical materials and visual Question 2 (FK)
representations, and use models,
graphs, and tables to draw
conclusions and make predictions.
VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, AND AVOIDING ASSESSMENT BIAS
Post-assessment areas Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create

Justify a general rule for a pattern Question 7 Question 2 (FK) Questions 10–11 Questions 13–15
or a function by using physical (FK) (PK) (CK)
materials, visual representations,
words, tables, or graphs.
Use variables as unknown Question 8 (FK) Questions 3–6 Question 12 (CK)
quantities in general rules when (PK)
describing patterns and other Questions 13–15
relationships. (PK)
Model problems with Question 1 (FK) Question 9 (PK)
physical materials and visual Question 2 (CK)
representations, and use models,
graphs, and tables to draw
conclusions and make predictions.
FK—Factual Knowledge
89
CK—Conceptual Knowledge
PK—Procedural Knowledge
2/11/11 10:37 AM
90 CHAPTER 4
may likely require more help and assistance in the class. Of course it is important to be
aware that correlation evidence is not causative, so anticipated outcomes are possible
but certainly not absolute. Many factors contribute to academic success, and the entry
test that is examining current skill level is an important factor, but it still is only one of
many that will affect the eventual outcome of a student’s performance in the statistics
class.
Construct-related evidence of validity involves the collection of confirmatory evidence
that demonstrates the existence of a recognized concept or construct that a test purports to measure
(Worthen, Borg, & White, 1993). As was mentioned previously, hypothetical constructs
are created to help provide understanding and recognition of complex human phenom-
enon. For example, depression is a psychopathological condition, a clinical diagnosis, and
a hypothetical construct. If you mention depression in a conversation, almost everyone
has some idea of what you are referring to, yet it doesn’t exist as a physical entity. At best
it is manifested as a chemical imbalance within the brain, but even today that is diffi-
cult to identify and confirm relative to the standards of empirical evidence. In fact, the
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY IN THE CLASSROOM

What does construct validity have to do with teaching students in the classroom? Actually,
it has a lot to do with what kids are taught and how their learning is assessed. For exam-
ple, when achievement or aptitude (i.e., intelligence) tests are administered, you naturally
assume they are measuring a child’s achievement or aptitude. The same assumption is made
for measures that examine motivation, anxiety, hyperactivity, problem solving, or other
related concepts. And it doesn’t matter whether the findings are from formal standardized
tests or from teacher-generated classroom tests. The basic assumption is that the assess-
ment results are genuine and accurate performance indices of the construct that is being
examined. If an achievement test is being used, then an accurate measure of the student’s
academic learning and performance is expected to be collected. But how that achievement
is defined and measured, relative to that test, will determine what is ultimately collected
through the obtained test scores.
The construct that is being measured, regardless of its specific domain, needs to be
clearly identified, and so do the items and questions that will be used to accurately measure
it, since the construct itself can be viewed (and measured) differently and can potentially
ref lect a variety of qualities and characteristics. For example, reading comprehension mea-
sured by one test can look different than reading comprehension measured by another test.
How about the notion of intelligence? It is very possible that your students may end up
taking an aptitude test that defines intelligence by way of a number of skills and abilities
including logical reasoning, visual sequencing and analysis, short-term memory, receptive
and expressive vocabulary, and fine and gross motor skills, or they could take an aptitude
test that concentrates primarily on prior knowledge and verbal-based learning skills. Both
tests will claim to measure intelligence but go about it in different ways, and different find-
ings can be generated because of how the construct is defined.
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Just as car shoppers soon realize that all cars are not the same (e.g., different styles, func-
tions, amenities, cost, maintenance requirements), educators need to possess and use that
same review “lens” when examining tests or instruments and the constructs they claim to
measure. As a professional educator, it is important to make sure the constructs are justified
(i.e., that they are clearly defined and supported by corroborating evidence and/or support
from other relevant studies and findings) and can stand up to your personal review. Con-
sider the following questions as part of the review process:
• Does the test or instrument define the construct in a clear and meaningful way?
• Does the test (or other assessment procedure) material really measure what it says it
does? Is the supporting evidence that is provided convincing?
• Does the construct (and its provided definition) match with your expectations as well
as those of your colleagues in the school or district?
• Are there any inconsistencies in what is stated as being measured and what is actually
being measured?
Make sure the answers to these questions are satisfactory before you buy into the notion
of any construct and how it is measured. Be a cautious and appropriately demanding edu-
cational consumer when it comes to any measure or procedure that involves your students,
particularly when they, and their skills, are being formally evaluated. It is your assessment
right and responsibility to ensure that adequate information and evidence exists that con-
firms the construct’s validity as well as the measure’s utility in the classroom.
acceptance of hypothetical constructs is widespread. Consider the following hypothetical

constructs and determine their general acceptance and usage to examine and/or explain
human behavior on a daily basis:
♦ intelligence
♦ personality
♦ self-esteem
♦ prejudice
♦ motivation
♦ job satisfaction
♦ personal space
♦ others?
The awareness and usage of hypothetical constructs is common. Nevertheless, depres-

sion, as well as other common constructs encountered on a daily basis that are directly
connected to a test or other measure, must be associated in a clear and direct way in
order for it to be seen as measuring that concept. Consequently, evidence is collected to
help support the connection between the concept and its measurement, and previously
mentioned evidence of validity (content-related and criterion-related validity) is often
collected to help provide support for the validation of the construct and the accurate
measurement of that construct.
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92 CHAPTER 4
Validity for Teachers

On the validity side, you need to make absolutely sure that the items and tasks are really
measuring the concept or skill that they are supposed to measure. For example, the ques-
tion “List and describe the steps of the scientific method” is evaluating knowledge and
comprehension of this concept. This question as written is not requiring a student to use
or apply this skill. Therefore, this question is focused on obtaining basic factual knowl-
edge of the process and not its usage; if that is the intent of the question, then this item is
valid for that purpose. If you are really trying to evaluate a student’s abilities to apply the
scientific method, then that item is not valid for that purpose. On a larger measurement
scale, a fourth-grade reading test would not likely serve as a valid measure of the reading
skills of the students in a seventh-grade English class, since these students would possess
skills that would not be evaluated as part of that test.
Whatever is constructed in the classroom—a test item or question, a test, or a com-
prehensive exam or project covering material over an entire semester—you want the test
or activity to be valid for a specific purpose (e.g., the identification and pronunciation of
the letters of the alphabet) for a specific group of students (e.g., Mrs. Jewell’s kindergar-
ten class). Therefore, validity needs to be attached to a specific assessment purpose and
function along with a designated group. It is important to review selected items or the
activity to make sure it really does measure what it is intended to; otherwise the validity
doesn’t exist as assumed.
As you have seen, there are different aspects to validity, but the most relevant and
necessary validity for the classroom teacher is content validity. Teachers have control rel-
ative to what material is covered, reviewed, and evaluated in class. Instruction-learning-
assessment alignment serves as your best evidence of content-related validity. The better
the alignment and connection, the greater confidence you can have with your assessment
results and the decisions that will be made based on them. As the teacher, you are respon-
sible for covering the information and content that the students are eventually tested on,
and the assessment (e.g., test, demonstration, project) must contain a representative and
appropriate sample of the material that was covered.
For example, if instruction on the economic changes and developments of the world
after World War II is provided, and a test only has questions pertaining to the changes
in the United States, then a problem with the content validity of that exam exists, as
representational items do not exist for all the content that was covered in preparation for
this exam. Since you, the instructor, provide the actual teaching of the material and skills
in the classroom, you are in the unique position of being able to directly confirm what
material is covered, and in this way you regulate the content validity of any assessment
practice that occurs within the classroom. Consequently, you are able to ensure that what
is taught is directly measured and evaluated with an adequate set of appropriate items or
tasks.
Reliability for Teachers

As the teacher, you must ensure that any assessment activity that is implemented is valid
for its intended purpose. However, reliability must also exist, because if it doesn’t then
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inconsistent scores or ratings will eliminate the possibility of getting any meaningful
results from which to make appropriate inferences (i.e., based on the collected findings,
the students have or have not learned the material and desired skills from the lessons). In
order to ensure high reliability, teachers need to implement basic yet important regula-
tory procedures during their assessments. The following are essential reliability mainte-
nance procedures that need to be adhered to.
♦ Proper review of material prior to an examination provides a uniform and consis-
tent preparation for the students.
♦ Directions for any assessment activity must be clear and understood by all partici-
pating students.
♦ Consistent administration procedures must be followed at all times during all
assessment activities.
♦ Test items or tasks need to be accurately and uniformly presented and evaluated
(requiring objective scoring methods).
♦ Maintaining uniform and appropriate completion time helps to ensure equity and
fairness for all those involved in an assessment activity.
♦ Elimination of distractions and interruptions during an assessment is essential.
All of the listed procedures are important; however, the consistency in scoring items or
student performances generally draws the most attention, and that is why objective scor-
ing methods must exist. What must be avoided is assigning different scores or ratings
when an item is scored. This is relatively easy to accomplish with selected response items
(e.g., picking the right answer from a set of responses as is done with multiple-choice
items) but can be more difficult for constructed response items like essay questions. That
is why grading responses to essay questions must be completed prior to the administra-
tion of a test, and must evidence clear scoring guidelines based on the information that is
provided, or not provided, in the student response (see the box “Response Requirements
and Scoring Guidelines for an Essay Question”).
RESPONSE REQUIREMENTS AND SCORING

GUIDELINES FOR AN ESSAY QUESTION
For question #12 (“List and describe the primary functions of the three branches of the
United States government”), in order for a student to receive a score of 3 (1 point for each
correct component), at a minimum the following elements and descriptions must be present:
1. Legislative Branch—is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives and
has the primary responsibility of making the laws.
2. Executive Branch—includes the President, who is the head of this branch, and makes
sure that the laws of the United States are obeyed.
3. Judicial Branch—involves the Supreme Court, which includes nine justices, or
judges, who review arguments about the meaning of laws, how they are applied, and
whether they follow the rules of the Constitution.
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94 CHAPTER 4
Also, in regards to the internal consistency of test items within a classroom test, teach-
ers need to be observant and recognize general performance patterns for individual stu-
dents as well as the collective group. In particular, a student’s performance on items that
measure a specific content area or skill base should be consistent, given that the items
are measuring the same or similar knowledge base or skill. For instance, if the student’s
learning and preparation has been strong within certain areas or skills, then it would be
expected that all items tapping that area or skill would be passed or that the performance
would be strong overall. On the other hand, if the learning and preparation were poor,
the opposite pattern would be anticipated.
Regarding the impact of reliability, a teacher must be able to demonstrate the sys-
tematic execution of all assessment administrations in the classroom so that the same
consistent measurement can be expected each time a test or other assessment activity is
conducted. But remember that reliability doesn’t just involve the measure, since what
the student does, or doesn’t do, can affect the consistency of the test results. That is why
school letters go out to parents about making sure their child gets enough rest, eats well,
and is ready to do their best on whatever tests are being administered by the district.
The effort and motivation of the students can directly affect the results of any exam or
performance. If a student gives his or her best effort on one day and “blows off ” a test
the next, then unstable and inconsistent test results are generated. Getting the best effort
from every student is just as important in obtaining reliable results as ensuring that a
test or activity is procedurally consistent in its administration and internally sound in its
construction.
RELIABILITY: THE SAME EVERY TIME

Reliability, which involves the consistent and dependable execution of a procedure or operation, is
a term that almost everyone is familiar with, and as a general rule is something we expect
most (if not all) things in our lives to demonstrate. Recently I stayed at a hotel that used
sensor locks and cards. Keyless rooms are now commonplace, and to find a hotel that
gives out true keys is rare. For the majority of hotel chains, a magnetic card is inserted
into the door lock; the strip is read and the door light f lashes green, indicating that you
can open the door. External doors to a hotel typically have the same entry system, except
perhaps for the front lobby doors. During my stay, I went to my car in the parking lot to
retrieve a bag, and when I inserted my card into the lock of the side entry door, of course
the card was not recognized and I could not get in. I had to walk around the entire
building and enter through the front door of the hotel.
The door-unlocking experience serves as a good example of the necessity of reliabil-
ity, and in this particular case demonstrates how magnetic cards can be inconsistent and
unreliable and may compromise the entry system of hotels from time to time. Obviously,
reliability and inconsistency problems don’t just happen in hotels. The need for reliable
measures and procedures is paramount in today’s world, and nowhere is that more evi-
dent than in the field of education, where the critical task of measuring student learning
and progress takes place.
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Reliability is a measurement necessity that must exist for any assessment process. But
what exactly is reliability? As Gronlund (1985) stated, “reliability refers to the consistency
of assessment results” (p. 212). In regards to classroom assessment, reliability involves the
obtainment of consistent findings where the same or similar results are acquired each
time a measurement takes place. When the findings from an instrument or procedure has
high reliability, you have confidence that the information you have received would be
the same or similar to information if a measurement was taken at a different time or over
a series of several times. Of course certain procedures demand a high reliability factor.
Take, for instance, the importance of obtaining consistent readings from a blood pressure
gauge. Uniform pressure readings over multiple administrations must exist if it is to have
meaningful diagnostic medical value. The same standard applies to a weight scale. Stable
and consistent readings each time the device is used is expected and necessary if it is to be
considered reliable and valuable to the user.
Reliability is an essential element in the measurement process, but how is it obtained?
First of all, a high level or degree of reliability is desired and sought after, since reliability
is not an all-or-nothing condition (i.e., you either have it completely or you don’t). Reli-
ability exists as a matter of degree and magnitude, and the further and higher you move
along the reliability continuum, the more certainty will exist with your findings and sub-
sequent decisions. Therefore, in order to acquire a high level of reliability, actions must
be taken to obtain it, such as taking steps to minimize error within measurement instru-
ments as well as the assessment procedures that are used. Every measurement instrument
and procedure contains some amount of error, so measurement error cannot be entirely
eliminated. However, by taking steps to minimize procedural error (e.g., giving clear
administrative directions and procedures, ensuring appropriate item coverage and dif-
ficulty level, determining appropriate number of test items), the integrity and stability of
the measurement instrument and the process can be established and hopefully maintained,
thereby ensuring consistent and reliable findings during each and every administration.
Now you might say to yourself, “Why should I use or develop some test or procedure
that has error associated with it?” That is a very good question to ask, by the way. As
Worthen, Borg, and White (1993) state, “Educational measures do not need to be per-
fect to be useful” (p. 139). The key is to create measures and procedures that generate
comparable results each time they are implemented. As a teacher, you assume a measure
(e.g., a classroom test) that is given to a student will generate reliable and consistent scores
or findings whenever that test is given. And as an educator you desire this quality in
all school procedures, especially when examining the progress of students. If scores or
ratings that are generated do not possess high reliability, then those scores have limited
value for you and your students, and the collected confirming evidence of student learn-
ing is suspect.
For example, if a student receives a score of 100 (ref lecting 100 percent accuracy) on
a certain test and then takes the same test (containing the same test items) later that same
day and receives a score of 70 (ref lecting only 70 percent accuracy), then a high level of
inconsistency with these scores is demonstrated. The reliability associated with this test
is very suspect, since highly discrepant performances on the same test material over a
very short testing interval have been evidenced. Since it is highly unlikely that this stu-
dent lost significant information and skills between the two completions of this test, the
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96 CHAPTER 4
disparate results indicate that the test is not a useful and reliable measure of how well the
student comprehended and mastered the covered material.
Several contributing factors or conditions could be at work, thereby interfering
with and minimizing the stability of the results. For instance, given such a huge dif-
ference between the two performances, perhaps the print quality and clarity of the test
items differed between the two tests, providing a high degree of reading inaccuracy. If
machine-scoring sheets were used, maybe response items were filled in incorrectly or the
answer sheets were misread and incorrectly scored. Student performance factors could
have contributed to these findings. Perhaps the student suddenly experienced a migraine
headache, which could have caused nausea problems during the second testing, thereby
explaining the lower test performance. Since these and other situations are possible, they
would need to be considered and independently ruled out. In this way, the stability and
associated confidence of the reliability of your test can be maintained. If procedural
integrity is not pursued, reliability is suspect with these test scores, or any other test
scores, ratings, etc., and confidence regarding the stability of a student’s performance can
never really be obtained.
As busy people, we expect our watches or cell phones to be reliable and consistently
function no matter the time or place. We need to contact individuals at various times of
the day as well as get to class on time. Unfortunately, if your watch runs fast during one
hour and slows during another, or stops altogether, then your work is compromised and
your life quickly starts to resemble chaos theory. The same applies to the measurement of
student learning and achievement. As educators, we cannot function if faced with the real-
ity that a student’s science project could be rated as advanced in the morning and deficient
in the afternoon. We expect findings to be consistent regardless of when a measurement
or evaluation is conducted. This is critical, because important school decisions are based
on information or data that are automatically assumed to be reliable and stable over time.
In regards to educational measures and tests, three major types of reliability (i.e.,
stability/test-retest, alternate form, and internal consistency) are considered essential
(Gronlund, 1985; Worthen, White, Fan, & Sudweeks, 1999). Reliability plays a direct
role in regards to the usefulness of information that a teacher collects on his or her stu-
dents in the classroom, and as such it is essential for teachers to understand how it oper-
ates and inf luences the stability of educational results (Figure 4.2). As these issues are
reviewed, however, it is important to recognize that even when these reliabilities are
demonstrated with a test or project, that still does not automatically ensure a high and
continued consistency status. In order to obtain high reliability in the classroom, it must
be constantly sought after and confirmed through vigilance and effort.
Stability/Test-Retest, Alternate Form/Parallel Forms,

and Internal Consistency/Split Halves or Odd-Even
Reliability, when associated with any educational activity, involves the degree to which
it provides a consistently accurate score within some measurement process. By design,
these types of reliability share commonalities as well as differences, and all are essential
for their given purpose (Table 4.2).
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Reliability:
The consistency of the
scores obtained from a
test or measure
Alternate Form:
Internal Consistency:
Stability or Test-Retest: Sometimes referred to as
Involves the completion
Involves the same form parallel and involves
of one test or instrument
of a test or instrument two different versions of
at one time
a test or instrument
FIGURE 4.2 FORMS OF RELIABILITY
A key reliability issue deals with the consistency and stability of results that are gen-
erated from a measure or procedure. This is referred to as stability reliability, and it
involves the consistency and stability of a measure’s results over repeated administrations. This type
of reliability is usually referred to as test-retest reliability. The common way that the
relationship between two administrations is examined is through a correlation coef-
ficient, a number that is used to represent the strength and direction of a linear relationship between
two events, and in this particular case it functions as a reliability coefficient. This coef-
ficient can range from +1.0 to –1.0, and represents the strength of similarity between the two scores
or ratings. A correlation of +1.0 represents a perfect relationship between the measures,
0 represents no relationship at all between the measures, and –1.0 represents a perfect
inverse relationship between the measures.
As an educator, you need to know that the measures you use and complete in your
classroom would yield the same or comparable findings and results. Therefore, you
TABLE 4.2 ELEMENTS OF RELIABILITY TYPES
Type of
reliability Participants Material Administration
Stability
(Test-Retest) same same test different times (twice)
Alternate Form
(Parallel Forms) same different but same time
comparable tests
Internal Consistency
(Split Halves/Odd- same different items within same time
Even) same test (same
construct)
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98 CHAPTER 4
should be able to ask, “Would my students get the same or similar scores and ratings each
time their tests or projects are evaluated?” and be able to answer that affirmatively with
confidence, and only a measure with internal stability can provide that. This assurance
is important, since with all measurement procedures there are limitations that must be
recognized and understood.
For example, as the amount of time between administrations increases, the reliabil-
ity of the scores typically decreases, especially considering qualities like achievement,
motivation, and anxiety, that by their nature change over time. As more time elapses
between administrations, the potential effect of other factors on the measurement process
will likely increase and affect the reliability of the findings. Also, a carryover effect from
taking the same test twice can inf luence the internal stability of a test or procedure. As
Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson (2006) point out, “When evaluating the stability of
test scores, one should consider the length of the test-retest interval in the context of the
characteristics being measured and how the scores are to be used” (p. 92).
As a teacher you are probably saying to yourself, “When in the world would I give
the same test to the same group of students?” Once again this is a reasonable question to
be asking. In most situations you will not have the need. This type of reliability is com-
monly completed with standardized tests and batteries in order to provide measurement
confidence with the test forms that are produced. However, there are potential classroom
implications and uses. Since lessons are becoming more standards-focused, the tests and
performances that are conducted to measure learning progress relative to those standards
are now very important.
The need to check and confirm, or reconfirm, student progress and skill retention
has dramatically increased, so repeated testing of similar material is not unheard of
in schools. In fact, it is becoming a more common practice, as teachers want to make
sure their students have mastered content that is evaluated as part of district- or state-
mandated achievement testing. For example, in Mrs. Clark’s third-grade classroom, her
students have taken the same 50-item computation test involving single-digit multi-
plication problems on two separate occasions (with a two-week interval between the
administrations). She wants to know if her students have memorized and maintained
their mental math facts in regards to single-digit multiplication. Here are the findings
from those administrations:
First administration Second administration
Carol 49 50
Susie 48 48
Marji 48 47
Ray 47 48
Sarah 46 48
Riley 45 47
Joy 44 46
Alice 42 43
Sally 40 42
Jack 39 41
Mean 44.8 46
Test-Retest Correlation: .961
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What does the data tell you about the performances of these students?
♦ Collectively, these students demonstrate strong math computation skills based on
both administrations, with an overall group performance increase during the sec-
ond testing.
♦ The students have retained their relative “rank” or position based on the second
test administration.
♦ As a group, it appears that they have been able to maintain and in some cases fur-
ther refine their math skills based on the most recent performances.
♦ An exceptionally strong reliability coefficient was demonstrated between the two
test administrations.
♦ The two-week interval between administrations did not appear to adversely affect
the student performances. (There is no recognized uniform or correct time interval
as this always depends on the skills or behaviors being reviewed.)
♦ Other findings?
In addition, test-retest reliability information is typically reported as part of formal
achievement tests and batteries; consequently, it is important to know and understand
what reliability is claimed with tests. For instance, if a test-retest reliability coefficient
of .92 is reported for an advanced placement science test that is being used in your class,
school, or district, as an educator you can hold confidence in the internal stability of this
placement test and in the consistency of the results that would be generated from this
measure.
An additional type of reliability generated for some standardized achievement tests is
alternate form reliability. This type of reliability occurs when two parallel or equivalent forms
of a test are developed. Reliability is obtained when both test forms are administered and
a correlation between the two sets of scores is computed. Having two comparable test
forms is quite valuable and necessary, especially for high-stakes tests. Additional work
and effort, however, is needed in order to develop two tests with strong alternate form
reliability. Both forms must be comparable to each other in several key areas, such as
material coverage and content, item difficulty, length, and general administration.
Teachers sometimes report that they do not have the time to develop comparable
test forms. Yet in many instances, equivalent test forms can be a valuable commod-
ity for the classroom teacher. For example, having alternate test forms is very useful
when summative assessments with large groups of students are involved. Also, different
forms can be administered to different classes, thereby lessening potential cheating and
other performance inf lation issues. This can also lessen the advantage for students who
take these exams later on in the day or week, depending on the testing schedule. Even
if alternate test forms are not emphasized in your classroom, familiarity with alter-
nate form reliability and its function is important. Remember, parents and the general
public will assume you know and understand most everything about tests, what they
measure, how accurate and reliable they are, and so on, and being a knowledgeable
consumer is very important.
Internal consistency reliability is focused on examining how consistently items within
a test correspond to each other and uniformly measure a concept or attribute (e.g., multiplication
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100 CHAPTER 4
skills, knowledge of the Civil War). By design, questions and items that make up a test
should be correlated if they are attempting to measure the same thing, and this form of
reliability attempts to quantify the internal consistency of the actual test items. There
are two basic approaches that are used to determine internal consistency: split halves and
odd-even.
The split halves reliability approach involves separating a single test into two equal halves
(e.g., first half as compared to the second half ) and generating a correlation between the scores
of each half-test. The Spearman-Brown formula, a formula designed to examine reliability
based on test length, is typically used to generate the reliability coefficient for items that are
viewed as dichotomous (i.e., only two possible options), which generate either a correct
or incorrect outcome. However, this only works if the difficulty level of the test items is
equally distributed throughout the test. When tests are constructed, especially classroom
tests, the easier items are sometimes placed at the beginning of a test, with the harder
items at the end of the test. If the split halves approach is used under these conditions,
an inaccurate reliability coefficient would be generated. In order to contend with this
possibility, the odd-even reliability approach can be used. With this approach, all even-
numbered test items make up one half of the test and the odd-numbered items make up the other
half. This way a more even balance of the difficulty level of the items is obtained, so a
more accurate reliability estimate can be determined.
Since only one test administration is necessary to generate an internal reliability coef-
ficient, and basic consistency information is provided, this method is very useful and
popular in determining the reliability of classroom tests (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2007). It
is important, however, to acknowledge the assumption that we make here, which is that
both halves of the test are equivalent. In reality, this may not be the case. Also, this
approach is not effective with tests that are considered to be speed tests. A speed test
contains a large number of items and questions (usually selected response items) with the expecta-
tion that few students will answer all the questions within the time limits of the test, compared
to power tests, which typically contain a combination of selected and constructed response items
that are specifically designed and administered to provide adequate time so that most, if not all, stu-
dents can complete the test. With speed tests, inf lated reliability estimates are usually found.
However, if a power test approach is taken, then split half reliability estimates tend to be
effective and accurate.
Another approach that is used to estimate the reliability of test scores from a single test
involves the use of the Kuder-Richardson formulas (known as formulas KR-20 and 21),
in which all test items are compared with each other instead of with different halves of
the test. As reported in Worthen, Borg, and White (1993), these formulas are designed to
provide an “estimate of what the average reliability would be if all possible ways of split-
ting the test into halves were used” (p. 154).
For test items that are not dichotomously scored, Cronbach (1951) developed the
coefficient alpha, which is more commonly referred to as Cronbach’s alpha, to measure
the internal consistency of a single test or measure. This approach is consistent with
the Kuder-Richardson formulas, but allows for a greater variety of test item formats,
including essay questions and items that have partial-credit scoring (Worthen, Borg, &
White, 1993). Given that this approach is computationally complex, classroom teachers
are usually not in the position (and perhaps do not possess the desire) to complete this
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FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
SPEED AND POWER TEST ISSUES

Under most classroom circumstances, the teacher controls whether his or her students are
consistently confronted with speed or power test conditions. As just described, a speed test
is typically designed to cover an extensive amount of information (such as a large set of
multiple-choice test items) that a student must complete within a specified amount of time.
The emphasis is on accurately completing as many items as possible within a designated
time limit. Many standardized tests (e.g., the ACT) are formatted in this manner. On the
other hand, a power test is focused more on depth of understanding rather than breadth of
coverage, resulting in a more robust measure of an individual’s performance; consequently,
greater time allotments to complete a test or performance are often necessary. In addition,
teachers that provide extra time to complete or finish up a test or performance are adhering
to a power test orientation.
What is important to realize is that as the teacher, you will have a great deal of control
over which approach is followed in the classroom, and there are many practicalities that
must be addressed. For example, there are clear and obvious limits to the amount of time
that can be devoted to classroom activities, and that includes assessment performances and
activities. As a teacher you will not have unlimited time. In fact, you will have just the
opposite. Due to that reality, careful consideration must be given to the time that is con-
nected to any assessment process. On principle, adhering to a uniform standard of time
provides a measurement stability factor that is objective and technically equal for all par-
ticipants. Also, giving additional or disproportionate amounts of time can directly affect
and diminish the reliability and score accuracy of an assessment measure.
However, whether the number of items and the skill level required to process those
items are appropriately matched with the provided completion time is an important ques-
tion that must be considered with any assessment activity. The key is providing and match-
ing the assessment task, whatever its design, with an appropriate to optimal range of time
so that the classroom measure ends up being a time-appropriate, power-oriented test or
performance for a student.
calculation, or others, without assistance. However, computer programs specifically

designed to calculate this reliability coefficient are standard on most commercially
available statistical packages, and can be easily loaded onto desktop or laptop comput-
ers, which eliminates the need for personal computation.
Inter-rater Reliability
Another important reliability measure for teachers to know about is inter-rater reliability.
Inter-rater reliability examines the consistency that is demonstrated between two or more rat-
ers that independently score a test or project. When a test is scored, a correlation is calculated
based on the scores of the raters. Generating a correlation, however, may not work well
within the boundaries of the classroom. Therefore, consistent with this approach, an
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102 CHAPTER 4
BananaStock/JupiterImages
inter-rater agreement (specifically joint-probability of agreement) examines the consis-

tency and consensus, by way of a generated percentage, of the raters, providing the same
scores on a selected student product (Figure 4.3, page 104).
This approach is often followed when reviewing and evaluating performance assess-
ments in the classroom when rubrics are used to evaluate the products. The inter-rater
agreement is the number of times the same rating is provided by each rater divided by the
complete number of ratings.
Consider the following English assignment and how inter-rater reliability worked for
this project. In Mrs. Hamilton’s Honors English class, each student was required to gen-
erate a personal review and analysis of Lord Byron’s poem “When We Two Parted.”
After the assignment was completed, Mrs. Hamilton, along with her colleague Ms.
Pham, independently rated each of the 20 student responses through a blind review pro-
cess (numbers replaced names for identification purposes) according to the ratings (1–3)
and criteria provided below. Mrs. Hamilton completed this inter-rating reliability exer-
cise in order to verify, as well as refine, the selection accuracy of the ratings.
Rating of 3—A concise, detailed, and focused written response is provided. A clear
progression and logic of the author’s analysis of the poem is presented, along with
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solid grammar, pacing, and appropriate choice of words and expression. The stu-
dent provides a clear perspective and analysis of the poem.
Rating of 2—A general or generic analysis is provided. The logic in the author’s
thinking is clear, but the analysis lacks specific focus. A lack of clarity of the
author’s perspective is evident. Grammar is usually correct but may lack style and
expression.
Rating of 1—No recognizable analysis and focus on the work is apparent. Minimal
interpretation and review is provided, and grammar limitations, including errors
in spelling, noun–verb agreement, and awkward phrasing, are evident. The writ-
ing style is fragmented, inconsistent, and generates little to no f low or personal
expression.
Based on the provided ratings for this assignment, examine this sample of student work.
What rating would you give it and why?
The poem “When We Two Parted” by Lord Byron describes the loss of a love and
the intense feelings associated with that loss. In this work, he mourns the break-up of
a romantic relationship and focuses on his personal feelings and mood at the moment
when both lovers are forever parted. The author’s emotional viewpoint and tone is evi-
dent by the use of phrases such as “in silence and tears,” “half-broken-hearted,” and
“truly that hour foretold sorrow.” A personal self-indulgent approach is taken in the
poem as opposed to an emphasis on the love or romantic bond that existed. The secret
despair, sense of rejection, and pervasive sorrow are emotional elements there are found
throughout the entire poem.
A personal coldness and emotional numbness is also described. He states that, “the
dew of the morning sunk chill on my brow—it felt like the warning of what I feel
now.” He cares but he doesn’t want to care any longer as he has been hurt and has
sustained a wound that he will never recover from. At the conclusion of the poem, he
grieves silently and assumes that if he ever sees his beloved again, “after long years,”
he would be met “with silence and tears.” Clearly, Lord Byron emphasizes the mel-
ancholy and deep despair of a love that was never to last. But his emotional reaction
appears reasonable, controlled, and never seems over the edge or irrational.
Lord Byron uses simple but effective wording to portray a strong sense of melan-
choly to the poem. The words he uses are clear and focused with obvious meaning and
emotion attached to them. Because Lord Byron never reveals his beloved’s name, nor
gives any details or explanations for the break-up, an element of curiosity and wonder
exists. The reader is left to make assumptions and interpretations on their own which
adds to the poem’s appeal and mystery.
Both Mrs. Hamilton and Ms. Pham rated this particular piece of student work as a 2.
They agreed that they liked the expression in the writing, but that a general, not specific,
analysis of the poem was provided. Ideas and sentences were not arranged in a clear order
and style. It was presented as a collection of impressions without organization or a clear
progression from beginning to end. Both agreed that with some work, this piece could
be rated a 3.
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104 CHAPTER 4
Ratings of Judge 1 (Mrs. Hamilton)
1 2 3
Ratings of Judge 2 ___________________________
(Ms. Pham)
3 0 2 7
2 0 8 3
1 5 1 0
Inter-rater Agreement = Number of Cases with Same Scores × 100

____________________________
Total Number of Cases
Inter-rater Agreement = 20/26 × 100 or 77%
FIGURE 4.3 INTER-RATER AGREEMENT
A respectable inter-rater agreement is demonstrated in this example. In particular, for

the rating of 3, there was agreement for seven cases; for the rating of 2, there was agree-
ment for eight cases; and for the rating of 1, there was agreement for five cases among
the judges. Only six ratings were different between the raters, and those involved differ-
ences in the ratings of 2 and 3. A higher inter-rater reliability should be pursued, and the
scoring differences could probably be further minimized by reviewing the listed perfor-
mance criteria for each of the rating levels, especially the ratings of 2 and 3. When using
ratings or rubrics, it is very important to have clear and distinct performance criteria at
each level so that a rating of 3 is distinctly different (based on the criteria) from a rating
of 2 and that a rating of 2 is clearly different from a rating of 1. This helps to increase the
accuracy of the rating, and consequently the reliability, when multiple raters are involved.
Test scores or ratings will not ref lect perfect measurement of human performance. If a
test or procedure claims that it does, it’s not worth your time to review it. If, on the other
hand, classroom tests are carefully constructed, administration factors are held constant,
and special or unique events do not occur (e.g., specialized training, a contagious f lu
virus infects the class) in the time period between administrations, then scores obtained
at one time should closely ref lect scores obtained at another time. If reliability exists in
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results obtained from classroom measures and procedures, then consistent information
and findings can be expected and used with confidence in educational decisions and
actions.
AVOIDING BIAS
As valuable as validity and reliability are, so too must teachers be aware of bias, the subjec-
tive preference or penalization of some individuals over others, and how it can adversely inf lu-
ence student learning evidence. Now at first glance, you might be surprised to find bias
being discussed in an assessment textbook. When bias is mentioned, most people imme-
diately think of a subjective viewpoint or prejudiced act that is committed against some
individual, group, or race. In regards to assessment, we need to look at a specific condi-
tion referred to as assessment bias. As Popham (2008) has reported, “Assessment bias
refers to qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of
students because of students’ gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religion, or
other group defining characteristics” (p. 73).
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106 CHAPTER 4
Assessment bias is directly connected to the materials and measures that teachers may
use in their classrooms. In particular, biased instruments and procedures create a disad-
vantaged learning situation for a specific student or students that can consequently limit
their academic progress, while at the same time creating a potential learning advantage
for others. It is important to note from the start that as professional educators, teachers
don’t go out and try to develop biased assessments in their classrooms. Genuine attempts
to offend or penalize certain groups of students aren’t part of their pedagogy and cer-
tainly aren’t encouraged in their training programs and in the schools where they teach.
It is more often the case that teachers are unaware of how utilized procedures or con-
tent may cause certain students distress and limit their progress compared to others in
the classroom. A lack of knowledge is certainly not an excuse, and that is why this topic
is being examined and reviewed. As a teacher candidate, valuable information can be
obtained with this topic so you can avoid assessment bias in your classroom.
Bias is most typically found in material that is used to test or evaluate students’ knowl-
edge or skills. Assessment bias can also be demonstrated in actual assessment procedures.
For example, when administering certain district math tests, it is common to require that
students keep their own calculators at home and use calculators provided by the school
as part of the testing. This is done to avoid cheating by bringing in more powerful cal-
culators, and it provides for uniform technology support for all the students. In general,
this is a good procedure. However, if we find that a certain group of students are totally
unfamiliar with this type of calculator, then an assessment bias is present for that group.
Also, if laptop computers are used as part of a test and only a certain kind of computer is
provided to the students, then students who are familiar with that type of computer may
have a distinct advantage over those who do not. This constitutes bias within the assess-
ment process itself, and though rare, it can occur. When it does, it provides for an inac-
curate measurement of student learning and accomplishment.
Bias is more often found with material that is used for tests or other evaluative mea-
sures. This typically involves individual tasks and items that are constructed as part of
the measures. For instance, if sport examples are used in a test, these items may be biased
in favor of students who are athletes and biased against those who are not. The student
athletes may not have a greater skill base, but because they have a greater understanding
of the context and detail of sporting situations, their chances of being successful with
these items are enhanced. Also, if music-generated items are used, or a music background
provides an advantage, then students who are band members are likely to be advantaged,
while their nonmusical classmates are not. These events ref lect an unfair penalty because
they advantage one group while at the same time disadvantaging other groups. Student
performance must be determined by the ability, effort, and preparation of each student
without any outside advantage or disadvantage. When this is accomplished, as a teacher
you can have confidence that students have truly earned their marks and that fairness has
been maintained.
Items can also be offensive by portraying individuals within a group in unattractive,
demeaning, and insulting ways. It wasn’t very long ago that on test items, physicians
were always portrayed as men and nurses were always women. That gender stereotype
has been basically and appropriately eliminated. New possibilities, however, are always
emerging. For instance, recently a political cartoon was reviewed as part of a government
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class. The cartoon displayed a young skateboarder with tattoos smoking a cigarette and
hanging out on a street corner. Under the cartoon was the line “The future of America.”
How do you think the students in the class who skateboard or have tattoos are impacted
by that assignment? What stereotypes and misconceptions are being generated by this
cartoon? Even if the intent of the instructor is to have students evaluate existing stereo-
types, some students are immediately placed in a biased and potentially confrontational
situation, and are viewed differently from students who do not possess these character-
istics. This is the kind of material that needs to be reviewed, and possibly eliminated, if
bias is to be avoided in the classroom.
As a classroom teacher you typically don’t have the luxury of having a group of inde-
pendent reviewers examine your assessment procedures and material to determine if
students could be offended or biased. This is usually reserved for more comprehensive
district- or state-generated assessment and testing (see the box “Potential Test Item Bias
Inf luences Examined by the West Virginia Department of Education Assessment Office”).
So what is a teacher supposed to do about assessment bias? You do your best to be
aware of assessment bias and you make sure that it does not become a systematic part of
POTENTIAL TEST ITEM BIAS INFLUENCES

EXAMINED BY THE WEST VIRGINIA DEPARTMENT
OF EDUCATION ASSESSMENT OFFICE
BIAS REVIEWS
The Internal and External Bias Review Committees considered the following topics while
evaluating assessment items:
• Gender
• Race/Ethnic
• Religious
• English as a Second Language
• Age
• Disability
• Socioeconomic
• Other General Considerations (Example: Does the material present infl ammatory or
highly controversial themes except where they are needed to meet test specifications?)
The bias review is essential to verify that the WESTEST items are appropriate for all West
Virginia students. Bias reviews ensure quality test items for WESTEST. Information from
the bias reviews is critical to the establishment of evidence for the validity of the test results.
The data from the reviews reflect community/state principles and assure that West Vir-
ginia Department of Education provided a system of checks and balances to verify that the
WESTEST items are free of bias.
SOURCE: West Virginia Department of Education Assessment Office
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108 CHAPTER 4
your teaching and assessment. Biased results invalidate any findings that you have, and
that must be avoided at all costs. In developing your sensitivity to this topic, you may
become aware of things that you do or ideas that you hold that need to be examined
and possibly changed. As teachers we never want to acknowledge that what we do in
the classroom or any other aspect of our teaching is biased against any student or group
of students. But the possibility exists, and for that reason we, as professional educators,
need to recognize that reality and implement review procedures on a consistent basis to
safeguard against assessment bias.
Consider the following suggestions as you develop your own set of guidelines to min-
imize and/or eliminate assessment bias in your classroom:
♦ Don' t assume common prior knowledge and/or experiences exist for your students.
Since students come in with varied backgrounds, interests, learning opportunities,
and so on, their “inconsistency” of experience needs to be recognized, particularly
when testing and assessment activities are involved. When constructing test items
or other assessments, try to create items, questions, or tasks that all the students
have directly experienced, preferably those that they have all shared under your
supervision within the classroom. For example, consider the following essay test
item dealing with cardinal points or directions:
During a spring kayaking trip to Alaska, two campers run into a blizzard two
days into their trip and are forced to travel by land to try to get back to their
base camp. They need to identify basic directions (north, south, east, and west)
but are without the aid of a compass or GPS and are out of radio contact. How
can they go about determining direction, and what materials, if any, will they
need? Answer: During the day, the shadow-stick method with the sun can be
used, and during the evening, locating the North Star might work.
This question is a good example of a biased test item, since it is set up as an
outdoor camping question that contains certain references some students may not
be familiar with, especially those who may come from urban or suburban settings
(e.g., students have to know what a kayak and base camp are). Students who are
knowledgeable about the outdoors would have an undue advantage over students
who do not have that kind of experience. A more unbiased approach would be
to use a shared common experience among the students to set up the test item or
activity. For example, consider this replacement item:
In class last week, we investigated the concept of cardinal points and learned
how to determine these directions without the aid of modern instruments. Now
imagine that you are in the soccer field behind the school and you need to
determine all the primary directions (north, south, east, and west). Without the
aid of a compass, GPS, or other instruments, how can you go about determining
direction, and what materials, if any, will you need?
This is a better test item because it sets or primes the students, as the first sen-
tence serves as a learning reminder about the topic. Also, the directional task is
completed in a recognizable setting. This item accomplishes the same measurement
end as the prior item and minimizes potential assessment bias.
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♦ Don' t assume directions are clear and understood by all your students. To maximize
the directions of a test or activity, make sure clear and basic words are used that all
your students can understand. The “readability” or reading level required to follow
and comprehend the directions should never exceed the grade level of the students
being tested; in fact, the directions should be below grade level so the weakest stu-
dents can read and understand the directions. Also, stay with a set script or template
with your directions, and use this script during in-class activities whenever pos-
sible, so that your students are familiar with and understand what you want them to
do during an assessment event.
♦ Don' t surprise your students with test items or tasks they haven' t seen before a test or
activity is administered. It is important for your students to have as much experience
as possible with test questions (as they are asked, complete with skill level expecta-
tions) that they will see on a test prior to that event. This is essential, because as a
teacher you want to really find out what they know and understand, and familiar-
ity with the test items and tasks will maximize that effort. Otherwise, you end up
measuring how well students can figure out the directions and the unique aspects of
the items, and the measure of the desired knowledge or skill becomes a secondary
issue. The best approach to take is to use the same assessment items and procedures
with classroom work and learning activities that you use in more formal assessments
or evaluations with your students. Don’t ask your students to complete questions
that they haven’t seen before or have not practiced in the classroom (e.g., extended
response items), since this will impact the accuracy of the results and interfere with
obtaining a true measure of what your students have learned.
♦ Make sure the grading process and evaluation of student work is clearly explained
and understood by your students. In addition to following good assessment practices
when constructing and implementing tests, it is important for your students to be
fully informed of how their work and learning will be evaluated. Once again,
there should be no surprises, and the system should be clearly explained. A fair and
equitable grading system for all your students needs to be in place, a topic that will
be more fully discussed in Chapter 8.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
At the beginning of the chapter, you were asked to identify five common objects and
evaluate the importance that both validity and reliability play in the functional utility of
those objects. Validity and reliability are essential conditions for any procedure or measure
and that certainly applies to all assessment procedures utilized in the classroom. Continue
the validity/reliability search the next time you are in a classroom, even if it is part of
another class or a personal visit. During that visit, identify the assessment practices in that
classroom and try to determine if those measures or procedures meet the necessary valid-
ity and reliability conditions. As you now know, having one doesn’t necessarily mean the
other will be present. Unfortunately, you can find situations where a test or procedure has
validity but not reliability, or more tragically, where it’s reliable but not valid.
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110 CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Both validity and reliability must exist for any measurement process, whether it occurs
inside or outside the classroom, and teachers need to be knowledgeable about these con-
cepts. Moreover, deliberate efforts to develop and maintain high levels of validity and
reliability within all classroom assessments need to be made because without these essen-
tials, assessments may generate questionable and misleading data, from which inaccurate
inferences can be made, followed by truly damaging decisions.
As the teacher and assessment professional in the classroom, you need to make every
effort to ensure that any measures utilized (for which multiple sources of data should
exist) truly measure what they are supposed to in order to use the results to make accu-
rate inferences about students and their learning. Without strong indices of validity and
reliability, the measurement process and classroom assessments are essentially worthless.
On the other hand, when practices and procedures that maximize these qualities are fol-
lowed, teachers can reap tremendous long-term instructional benefits and can be confi-
dent in the accuracy of the student evidence that is collected. That is why teachers need
to make validity and reliability awareness part of their standard routine and practice.
Only an introduction to the concepts and impact of validity and reliability on class-
room assessment have been provided here, and in no way should this review be seen as
exhaustive coverage of these topics. Readers are encouraged to seek out other resources,
some of which will be listed in the Resources section.
The issue of assessment bias was also examined in this chapter. Teachers need to be
sensitive to and identify procedures or content that might offend or disadvantage students
simply because they are a member of a particular group. Bias is something that must be
looked for specifically; otherwise it may go unnoticed. Most importantly, bias invalidates
any assessment results that are obtained, resulting in the collection of inaccurate data.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How do you
construct classroom assessments that accurately and consistently measure student perfor-
mance? Classroom measures that are used as assessments, as well as the results from those
measures, must be constructed and confirmed from the start as being both valid and reli-
able for their intended purposes. Just as assessment has to be part of instruction, validity
and reliability have to be part of any measure that is used in the classroom. This is the
number-one priority that must be followed throughout the construction or independent
selection of a classroom measure. Always ask, “Does it accurately measure the knowledge
or skill set that it is being used to evaluate? And does it do it consistently every time it is
used?” Confirming the accuracy of the measure against its intended purpose, along with
implementing consistent administration procedures, goes a long way in helping to ensure
the validity and reliability of any assessment measure.
In addition, the awareness and active avoidance of bias in any assessment process
is vital to the stability of any assessment measure. Review of items, content, required
wit78704_ch04_084-112.indd 110 2/11/11 10:37 AM

experiences, and so on needs to take place in order to ensure that individuals or groups of
individuals are not unfairly penalized during any assessment process.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. What does obtaining stable and consistent results from tests and other classroom
performances provide a teacher with? Describe the important relationship between
reliability and validity.
2. Identify and explain the different forms of validity evidence and their importance
in obtaining accurate assessment findings. In order to make correct inferences and
learning decisions, what must exist for you as a teacher?
3. What actions are you going to take to address assessment bias in your future class-
room? How is becoming aware of and sensitive to assessment bias the first step?
RESOURCES
The Social Research Methods Web site at www.socialresearchmethods.net provides a
number of resources and links that teachers will fi nd useful regarding basic statistical
issues and terms including reliability and validity.
For a complete review and explanation of basic validity and reliability concepts, the Sage
publication entitled Reliability and Validity Assessment (1979) by Edward Carmines and
Richard Zeller should be considered.
For a comprehensive review of assessment bias with culturally and linguistically diverse
groups, read the 1994 article by Robert Hernandez in The Journal of Educational Issues
of Language Minority Students, “Reducing Bias in the Assessment of Culturally and Lin-
guistically Diverse Populations” (Volume 14, pp. 269–300).
REFERENCES
Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage Publications.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika,
16, 297–334.
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112 CHAPTER 4
Gronlund, N. E. (1985). Measurement and evaluation in teaching (5th ed.). New York: Mac-
millan Publishing Company.
Kubiszyn, T., & Borich, G. (2007). Educational testing and measurement: Classroom application
and practice (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Popham, W. J. (2008). Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know (5th ed.). Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
Reynolds, C. R., Livingston, R. B., & Willson, V. (2006). Measurement and assessment in
education. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. (1999). Washington, DC: American
Educational Research Association.
Worthen, B. R., Borg, W. R., & White, K. R. (1993). Measurement and evaluation in the
schools. New York: Longman Publishing Group.
Worthen, B. R., White, K. R., Fan, X., & Sudweeks, R. R. (1999). Measurement and
assessment in schools (2nd ed.). New York: Longman Publishing Group.
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CHAPTER 5
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: GUIDING

STUDENT LEARNING
KEY FOCUS
How do I promote student learning during an instructional activity or lesson?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Define formative assessment and
differentiate it from summative
assessment.
♦ Distinguish the purpose of formative
assessment practices for students in
the classroom.
♦ Utilize different approaches and
measures in generating formative
feedback to learners.
♦ Develop an effective and usable
formative assessment approach for
learning events in the classroom.
♦ Acknowledge the importance of
integrating formative assessment
into your instruction.
♦ Identify the role formative assess-
ment should play in teacher review
and evaluation of instruction.
© Roy McMahon/Corbis
113
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114 CHAPTER 5
Introduction
The formal recognition and evaluation of a student’s work and progress is not designed to
be an isolated educational event. It only has real value and instructional meaning when
it occurs in combination with systematic formative assessment. Summative assessment is
connected to the instructional plan of where you want your students to end up regard-
ing their educational destination, but formative assessment is a critical component in the
instructional process of getting them to that place; in essence, it promotes student prog-
ress and provides instructional direction as the learning experience unfolds.
Formative assessment results provide a teacher with essential information on what his
or her students know and what they do not know, so that necessary instructional adjust-
ments can be made (e.g., information or skills can be retaught) based on that informa-
tion. As Wiggins (1998) has posited, “imagine an educative assessment system that is
designed to improve, not just audit, student performance” (p. 1). It helps to provide that
all-important mirror image and progress ref lection of student learning status at different
points during the learning process. Consequently, formative assessment must be viewed
as a necessary component of the “real time” part of teaching, where students receive crit-
ical review, confirmation, and correction as they complete their work and make desired
progress in the classroom.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT DEFINED

Formative assessment or “assessment for learning” is directly connected to the teach-
ing mandate of the instruction-learning-assessment model of “How do my students get
there?” Instructional delivery of actual academic content is one of the most important
tasks of a teacher. Deciding what pedagogical approach and methods to use is dependent
on many factors, including research support, best practices, professional training and ori-
entation, and academic content/learning goals. However, once an instructional approach
has been determined, then learning experiences can be set up and delivered within the
classroom setting. Regardless of whether a teacher uses an inquiry-based approach to
teaching or a lecture-discussion format, he or she must be able to facilitate and monitor
student progress as lessons are taught.
As Earl (2003) reports, “Clearly, teachers are the central characters in Assessment for
Learning” (p. 24). When teachers are asked to define formative assessment, they will
often say that it is “the stuff I do to check on my students” or “making sure my students
got what I covered that day,” and they are correct, but it’s also more than those practices.
Formative assessment involves measures and/or procedures that are used to gauge where
students are in their learning progress as well as to improve or enhance that progress.
This is consistent with Wiggins’ (1998) notion of educative assessment, where “the aim
of assessment is primarily to educate and improve student performance, not merely to audit
it” (p. 7). An assessment is formative only if it is used to make changes for the learner, an
essential quality that was documented early on by Bloom (1969). Moreover, formative
assessment needs to provide teacher-generated feedback that is directed toward increasing
student understanding and achievement in the classroom (Chappuis & Chappuis, 2008;
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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: GUIDING STUDENT LEARNING 115
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Formative assessment provides the essential feedback and information that is needed in
order to successfully learn and complete a task. Remember back to when you first learned
how to ride a bicycle. Every attempt at riding was a critical learning experience, and as the
rider you knew almost immediately, through muscle and balance feedback, how success-
ful your efforts were in trying to maneuver and master this fascinating machine. Assessing
learning as it is occurring is an essential need for most activities, especially those that take
place in the classroom.
Now respond as if your current instructor has provided you with the following ques-
tions to answer:
1. Define formative assessment and identify its purpose for any learning event or activity.
2. Who should be the primary beneficiaries of formative assessment?
3. What will formative assessment “look like” in your classroom?
Through the lens of the “instructor,” the generated responses to these questions can
help indicate how well individual students, as well as the class as a whole, understand the
material. And from the perspective of the “student,” this information provides essential
feedback on key concepts that you understand or still need to work on depending on your
performance on these particular items. By the way, how complete were your responses?
Did you answer all of the questions? If you did, that’s great, but it’s unlikely given that you
only just started reviewing this chapter. If you didn’t, you know what is coming and what
to focus on as you read the chapter. What is so helpful for a learner regarding formative
assessment is that vital performance feedback is provided without a grade or mark. Students
can learn from their responses (including mistakes) without a formal cost or evaluation
placed on their performance.
Geoff Manasse/Getty Images
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116 CHAPTER 5
Nichols, Meyers, & Burling, 2009). Once a student’s learning progress and educational
status is determined, instruction can be maintained and support and instructional clarifi-
cation can be provided, if needed, to help keep the learner on the intended academic path
(Boston, 2002).
The quality and effectiveness of the information that is gained from a teacher’s forma-
tive assessments is invaluable and has tremendous impact on the current and cumulative
learning effects for the student who receives it. It can be the difference between a student
understanding a presented concept or not. It’s the difference between acquiring a skill
and the accurate future demonstration of that skill or not being able to do so. Many con-
tend, and justifiably so, that meaningful formative assessment and feedback can be the
educational deal breaker for any student. As Stiggins (2005) has pointed out:
The students’ mission is no longer merely to beat other students in the achievement
race. At least part of their goal must be to become competent. Teachers must believe
that all students can achieve a certain level of academic success, must bring all of their
students to believe this of themselves, must accommodate the fact that students learn
at different rates by making use of differentiated instruction, and must guide all stu-
dents toward the attainment of standards (p. 326).
The issue of differentiated instruction is relevant for all students, not just those with
special needs, and formative assessment is essential in providing learning feedback
information as various approaches and modified instruction techniques are considered
for students who struggle to learn and acquire expected learning outcomes. Formative
assessment and differentiated instruction are essential instructional partners, and as such
need to be viewed as inseparable. The topic of differentiated instruction is covered in
more detail in Chapter 12.
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
THE DECISION
Integrating formative assessment within the fabric of your daily teaching regime requires
a certain amount of time and effort. Now you may ask “do I have to do this?” and the
answer is “no,” since as the teacher you retain direct control of the instructional process in
the classroom. But if you ask “do I really need to do this?” then the answer is absolutely
“yes,” since educational feedback is essential to your students, who must master the cov-
ered material. Moreover, knowing what your students have and have not acquired during
the learning event is critical to you as the instructor of the lesson. As an example, consider
this scenario: Would you send your students off on a 20-mile hike through an unmarked
section of forest armed with only a basic map and compass without providing them with
effective formative feedback on how to use a compass and read a map prior to the event?
Obviously you wouldn’t, and the instructional challenges in your classroom, while perhaps
not survival-oriented, are no different.
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Formative Assessment in the Classroom

What does formative assessment look like and what forms can it take in the classroom?
Imagine that sixth-grade students are working on an in-class science assignment involv-
ing the basics of the cell and how it functions. Specifically, they are working at their
desks on identifying the parts of a cell and their functions. A diagram of a cell has been
provided and they have been instructed to identify all provided parts of the cell, along
with their functions (Figure 5.1).
Their teacher is going around the classroom, checking on the progress of the students.
She carries with her the cell picture with all the parts identified and defined, along with
additional structures and details (Figure 5.2). She quickly scans each student’s work and
provides immediate feedback on the accuracy of their responses. If a mistake is noticed,
the teacher may ask the student to examine the item and its listed function, find the rel-
evant information in the book, or directly compare the pictures of the cells and initiate a
quick discussion on the discrepancy between them.
In this scenario, the teacher is conducting a formative assessment of the students’ work
and progress. She is providing valuable feedback on the accuracy of the work within the
normal operating parameters of the classroom. No grades or formal evaluation or report-
ing of student performances are generated as part of this review, not at this point in the
instructional process. However, considerable and meaningful feedback is provided early
on to the students, which is important because the information that is being reviewed
will be evaluated later on as part of some summative assessment measure.
nucleus
nucleolus
lysosome cell membrane
ribosome
cytoplasm mitochondrion
FIGURE 5.1 ANIMAL CELL DIAGRAM IN SIXTH-GRADE
SCIENCE CLASS
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118 CHAPTER 5
pinocytotic microtubules nucleus nucleolus

vesicle cell (plasma) membrane
cytoplasm rough
lysosome endoplasmic
reticulum
centrioles
Golgi
apparatus
smooth Golgi
endoplasmic vesicles
reticulum ribosome
mitochondrion
FIGURE 5.2 TEACHER COPY OF ANIMAL CELL
With this particular exercise, and based on the formative findings, this teacher found
that the majority of the students could accurately identify the listed structures in the cell.
Just a few students required more individual work and review. Most generated accurate
diagrams; however, the explanations of the structures and how they worked together
varied tremendously within the class. Some students clearly understood all the structures
and their functions, while others were still unclear or confused. This formative exercise
provided important learning feedback, and based on that feedback a review was planned
the next day on the cell structures and their interconnected functions.
The observation-based review just described is an effective assessment technique
for this teacher with this activity. There are many ways to check and monitor student
learning and progress, including observation, practice work activities, checklists, dem-
onstrations, and performances. To further extend the formative assessment effect of this
particular exercise, student self-assessment procedures could also be embedded in it. For
instance, after the students complete the cell diagram and label all the parts, they could
be given a copy of the teacher’s cell picture to compare to their own.
To enhance this learning activity, the additional cell structures found on the teacher’s
copy could then be identified as part of a “challenge” follow-up search once the pri-
mary structures have been identified. Additional information sources such as compre-
hensive textbooks, Internet resources, or biological reference books could be used as part
of the follow-up work. Work dyads could also be set up so that students could review
wit78704_ch05_113-135.indd 118 3/10/11 4:26 PM

their work and responses in small peer work groups. One or all of these accuracy review
strategies could be utilized. In the process, a better product is constructed and students
are engaged in autonomous, self-directed review practices. In addition to more accurate
work production, the students learn to review and evaluate their own learning progress,
which is a critical life skill that serves students well beyond their school career. More
information on self-assessment is provided in Chapter 7.
Formative Assessment: Feedback to Your Students

As part of the formative assessment process, teacher responses can usually be separated
into specific components of descriptive, corrective, and evaluative feedback. Descriptive
feedback involves the review and explanation of the performance and how it was com-
pleted. An overall summary is provided, along with the primary steps that are followed
or executed.
On the other hand, corrective feedback provides for the identification of the needed
changes that are required to complete the task as required. These may be quick correc-
tive comments or guided work practices that need to be completed. In addition, mod-
eling of the desired behavior or skill by the teacher or another participant can help to
confirm what is needed by the student in order for the activity to be completed. For-
mative feedback can also have an evaluative quality, although not in a true summative
fashion, in that a standard of performance (e.g., rubric, desired level of competency) can
be provided to help the student gauge his or her progress throughout the instructional
experience. Providing this standard at the beginning of an activity provides a clear mes-
sage as to what the students are supposed to accomplish, as well as how the work will be
reviewed and formally evaluated upon its completion.
For example, Figure 5.3 is the review form used in Ms. Leutzinger’s fourth-grade
classroom. As part of weekly story readings, each student receives a standard rating (1–4)
as well as individual comments for the two-paragraph written summary that is provided.
This review has a formative function and serves as systematic practice for a summative
reading assessment that is completed at the end of each grading quarter.
Formative Assessment: Reviewing Student Progress

What makes an activity a formative assessment, or for that matter any other type of
assessment, is its intended purpose and how it is used in the classroom (Herman, Asch-
bacher, & Winters, 1992; Nichols, Meyers, & Burling, 2009; Wiliam, 2006). Collecting
feedback on student performance and understanding through student-generated mea-
sures (e.g., exit slips, quick writes, thumbs up/down) or recognized teacher-generated
measures (e.g., observations, interviews, rubrics) can clearly take multiple forms (exam-
ples of these can be found throughout Chapters 5–7). It is important to recognize and
understand that data collection techniques, procedures, or measurement items are not
aligned to one specific form of assessment function (Chappuis & Chappuis, 2008). For
example, a test doesn’t have to be a formal or summative assessment. The user (typically
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120 CHAPTER 5
Determining Importance
4 Identifies most (greater than 90 percent), if not all, presented key concepts, ideas,
Exceeding and/or themes in the story. Explains in significant detail how they are important
Standard to overall text meaning.
3 Identifies an expected (80–90 percent) number of concepts, ideas, and/or
Meeting themes in the story. Explains with adequate detail how they are important to
Standard overall text meaning.
2 Identifies a minimal (less than 80 percent) number of all the presented key
Approaching concepts, ideas, and/or themes in the story. Explains with minimal detail how
Standard they are important to overall text meaning.
1 Guesses randomly and inaccurately attempts to identify important concepts,
Not Meeting ideas, or themes. No explanation of text meaning is provided.
Standard
Name: _______________________________ Assignment: _____________________________
FIGURE 5.3 DETERMINING IMPORTANCE
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT ON THE TENNIS COURT

Imagine that you have just joined a club tennis team. As a player, you do not know how to
serve a tennis ball or feel you don’t do it well, so you need proper instruction on serving.
How could formative assessment be used to help in the process of developing a tennis serve?
To start the process, the learning goal and expected outcome needs to be identified. In
this particular case, the learning goal has been identified as correctly serving a tennis ball
in the court in 8 out of 10 attempts for 80 percent serving accuracy.
Proper instruction combined with formative assessment and practice will be the essen-
tial ingredients to meet this challenge. Assuming adequate coordination on your part,
the instructional task is teaching the serving motion, which is broken down into several
components. In this way, each component can be practiced and mastered and then linked
together to form a complete serving motion. This exercise deals with the first component
of the serving chain: tossing the ball (Figure 5.4).
One of the most critical skill components of serving is the toss of the tennis ball, as
an effective ball toss is essential to a successful serve. So with the nondominant hand you
begin to practice these behaviors in the following sequence:
1. placing the ball in the tossing hand;
2. while holding the ball, lowering the arm so that it touches your leg/knee area;
3. after touching, raising the arm, keeping it straight over your head and letting the ball
roll from your fingers and palm;
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4. keeping your head up during this tossing

motion;
5. finally, catching the ball in the tossing
hand as it comes down, without moving
your feet.
As you practice this routine, the ten-
nis coach would be there providing verbal
feedback on the execution of these behaviors
(descriptive feedback). The verbal feedback
is directly related to the visual review of
your performance and is designed to do one
thing: confirm that you have consistently
executed a correct ball toss, which is your
instructional target. In addition to the ver-
bal feedback, your coach would likely dem-
onstrate and model the tossing motion and
have you imitate the identified behaviors.
Much of the formative feedback that is
provided to athletes comes in verbal form by
way of clarifying and corrective statements
as well as visual demonstration and model-
ing of the desired action; this is the same
process for students who are acquiring aca- FIGURE 5.4 TENNIS BALL
demic behaviors in the classroom (corrective TOSS MOTION
feedback). Repeated practice would then be DURING A SERVE
expected, to the extent that you could catch Photo reprinted with permission from Joe
the ball every time it is tossed in the air. By Maiorana, www.impactactionphotos.com.
the way, if you practice and actually follow
this instructional sequence, you will definitely improve your tennis toss and more than
likely your serve as well.
Once the tossing component has been mastered, the holding of the racquet and the
serving movement would be taught in the same manner. Specific individual behaviors
would be identified, sequenced, and practiced. All of these individual behaviors would
then be connected into one unified and complete performance that is recognized as serving
a tennis ball. Accurately completing all the required tasks along with the confirming prog-
ress (e.g., by way of a checklist, videotape, and/or actual serving on a tennis court) serves as
evaluative feedback for a learner.
When used effectively, formative assessment and feedback allows a coach or teacher
to provide useful information to a learner during the acquisition of new learning or in
the enhancement of one’s current knowledge and skill base. It is the essential educational
“glue” that maximizes instructional impact over the course of a learning activity. As was
mentioned in Chapter 2, a research support base has been established for the use of forma-
tive assessment in the classroom in increasing student academic achievement (Bloom, 1971,
1974; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2003; Fuchs &
Fuchs, 1986; Heritage, 2007). In particular, helping to identify student learning issues (e.g.,
skill deficits, minimal practice effects) and then implementing specific corrective strategies
to address and remedy those problems is at the heart of formative assessment.
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122 CHAPTER 5
the teacher) decides how the assessment is to be implemented based on its intended pur-
pose. A test could just as easily function as a formative assessment, and in many instruc-
tional situations it is used for that very purpose. A test that measures learning progress
over a specified amount of material doesn’t have to possess a formal evaluation function;
it can serve as practice and/or as a preliminary review for a later test that does function as
an official summative measurement.
A variety of evidence collection techniques can serve a formative function if the need
exists. It is a matter of carefully sorting out the best techniques to use in the documenta-
tion and monitoring the achievement progression of your students. The selection of a
measure is important because it serves as the primary gauge of the learning accuracy of
the students. In addition, it needs to fit well within the routine and rhythm of the lesson
and the instructional style of the teacher. The more seamless it appears, the better, as the
assessment should exist as a natural part of the teaching process. Since teachers need to
follow the progress of their students over the course of a lesson, more than one collection
period and measure is desirable before students are formally evaluated at the end of an
instructional unit. These review points can also be designed so that they utilize minimal
classroom instruction time.
Selecting Assessment Tools

In order to document student learning and teaching effectiveness, teachers must utilize
assessment measures, techniques, or tools in the classroom on a routine basis. Moreover,
it’s important for every teacher to have as many tools as possible in their professional
toolbox. If a teacher only possesses a few measurement techniques, those will be the only
ones that are used, even if circumstances call for other methods. That is why it’s impor-
tant to have a variety of measurement tools from which you can select the best tools pos-
sible based on the instructional needs. As a young child I would watch my dad fix things
in the house, and he always took great pride in his tools. He would say to me, “Take care
of your tools and they will take care of you,” and he was right. The same is true of the
assessment tools that teachers acquire and use in their classrooms. If learned and utilized
well, they can help answer important learning questions and challenges in the classroom.
Assessment Methods and Skill Targets

In Chapter 3, the importance of obtaining empirical evidence to confirm a learning
change or modification in a student’s behavior or performance was reviewed. Clearly,
assessment methods that are to be considered and used must collect the required evidence
that is needed to confirm student progress. Some methods are better designed to collect
certain forms of evidence than others, and of course method selection depends on the
type of skills that are to be acquired as part of the identified learning targets in the lesson
or unit exercise (Table 5.1). It’s important to choose methods that will provide you with
the kind of evidence and verification you need.
For example, the student product of selected response is a format used almost exclu-
sively with classroom tests (e.g., multiple-choice items). This is a highly effective approach
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in measuring a student’s retention and understanding of a large quantity of information

and content in a short amount of time. Test items can be written to examine all cognitive
processing levels such as application, evaluation, and analysis; however, most items are
written to evaluate general knowledge and comprehension. Consequently, tests are found
to be very effective measures in the collection of basic information that require students
to identify terms, definitions, significant individuals, or events depending on the mate-
rial and content. If the need, which is connected to the learning outcomes, is to deter-
mine the students’ grasp of basic information, then that is an excellent choice. On the
other hand, if the need is to demonstrate the integration of knowledge and skills into the
construction of a unique and individualized piece of student work (e.g., essay question,
research paper, construction of a model), then a selected response approach is not the way
to go. It simply isn’t going to give you the kind of confirming evidence that you want.
As is evident from Table 5.1, there is often more than one method that can provide the
type of student evidence needed to confirm a desired learning skill target, and having a
variety of measures is good. Also, multiple sources of confirmatory data are important as
well. This helps to provide a “triangulation” effect, which is an approach whereby dif-
ferent sources of data are used to confirm an overall result. For example, using several
assessments, including in-class questions and student-generated work along with obser-
vation and the confirmation of skills through a checklist, can provide a convergence
effect where several sources of data supporting a consistent finding is demonstrated (or
not). Both outcomes are important, as both require different teacher responses; the lesson
plan is continued (or deviated from) based on the collected student evidence.
For instance, providing focused questioning is a useful and efficient method with
which to determine whether a student truly understands what is happening in the class-
room. However, asking every student directly in order to determine their learning status
requires a considerable amount of time. Due to basic classroom necessity, many teachers
direct questions to the entire class in hopes of getting confirming nods and assurances
that all students are following the instruction. As was mentioned before, this is not a reli-
able approach, as those who do not understand are not typically going to announce it in
front of the class. Therefore, maybe selective questioning becomes a possible method to
be used for those students who evidence difficulty or confusion with the material based
on other collected student information (e.g., observation of incomplete or missing work,
practice quiz performances).
Finding a collection of formative assessment methods that work together is the key.
These methods need to provide useful information on the progress of your students so that
both they and you can be most informed relative to their learning status in the classroom.
Formative Assessment: Maximizing the Effect

As formative assessment becomes integrated within the fabric of your teaching, consider
the following questions and the answers you would generate to respond to them.
1. Do the selected formative measures require the students to demonstrate the knowledge and/
or skill sets of the desired learning outcomes of the lesson? To reach maximum benefit,
the formative assessment measures should examine and review progress across all
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124
wit78704_ch05_113-135.indd 124
TABLE 5.1 APPROACHES USED TO ASSESS DESIRED LEARNING TARGETS
Constructed Selected
student student
Target Observation Checklist Questioning Interview Rubrics evidence evidence
Awareness and Not designed to Not designed to Good approach Can confi rm Not designed Good approach Good approach
understanding confi rm con- confi rm content for confi rming information for (or efficient to confi rm to confi rm
of information tent retention: retention: can comprehension as retention, but in) the review understanding of understanding
and content can document confi rm specific well as depth and time consuming of this kind of information and of informa-
knowledge specific actions actions taken that breath of knowl- and limited to a skill target strong confidence tion; efficient
or responses that may be based edge base few individuals with evidence and effective
may be based on acquired at a time due to required way to confi rm
on acquired knowledge self-generated acquisition of
knowledge responses large amounts of
content
Application Can confi rm Good approach Good approach Can confi rm Good approach Good approach Good and effi-
of informa- specific actions for documenting for determin- applied knowl- to rate the for examining a cient approach
tion and/or followed along the steps taken ing the extent edge and proce- learner’s student’s concep- for confi rming
procedural with the cor- and executed of the applied dures; typically demonstration tualization and student’s under-
understanding rectness and/ during an activity knowledge and limited by time and utilization implementation standing and gen-
or effectiveness or event procedures requirements of the knowl- of knowledge and eral application
of demonstrated and classroom edge and/or skill sets; requires of knowledge
actions resources procedures time and effort to and/or imple-
obtain results mentation of set
procedures
CHAPTER 5
4/12/11 5:20 PM
Constructed Selected
student student
Target Observation Checklist Questioning Interview Rubrics evidence evidence
wit78704_ch05_113-135.indd 125
Reasoning Not designed to Can be con- Can provide Good approach Good approach If items or Limited in deal-
and evalu- examine, review, structed so that useful evidence for obtaining for determin- requested prod- ing with skills
ation skills or confi rm ele- specific compo- and insight into detailed informa- ing the quality ucts are well of this kind and
with authentic ments in the nents of a process the components tion from the evidenced in designed, useful level
data, cases, or reasoning or are acknowledged and the thought learner; requires the demonstra- information and
scenarios evaluation pro- and confi rmed; process from a high time tion of these clarity can be
cess; can confi rm quality ratings the learners’ requirement skills and provided; high
overt behaviors can be added to perspective that usually does their usage level skills (e.g.,
and responses this method not exist in the with authen- writing, oratory)
inferred to be classroom tic events and may be required
involved in the situations with these
demonstrated demonstrations
process
Generation of Can confi rm the Can be used in Can be used to Comparable Good approach Good approach Extremely lim-
original prod- existence of the the confi rmation obtain a more effect as described for assessing the to confi rm ited in provid-
ucts or work product or work of meeting listed detailed under- in the question- attributes of the students’ ideas, ing any useful
and its intended criteria associated standing of the ing method, but product; quali- unique interpre- information with
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: GUIDING STUDENT LEARNING
effect, along with the piece of internal creative even more so tative distinc- tations, and gen- this skill target
with qualitative work process, along given the capac- tions allow for erative processes;
anecdotes with the specific ity to extract more precise most effective
details and ele- more information performance when written
ments unique to feedback expression is
each piece involved
125
4/12/11 5:07 PM
126 CHAPTER 5
anticipated learning targets. Specific instructional elements can be singled out (e.g.,
parts of the cell) if needed; however, information on whether the students have
acquired the final learning outcomes (e.g., understand the internal mechanisms and
physiology of the human cell) is most important.
2. Is the formative measure strategically placed in the teaching process to provide maximum ben-
efit to both the instructor and the learners? For instance, make sure that if only one
formative assessment is planned, it occurs no further than halfway through the
instructional sequence or learning activity. This should provide enough time to
make instructional adjustments if necessary, and also provide recovery time for stu-
dents who have veered off (or never got on) the intended learning pathway.
3. Are your students familiar and comfortable with the measurement forms and items that appear
in the formative measures? Do they know the purpose of these measures and that
there is a “no-cost” tag attached to these exercises? Full disclosure of the formative
assessment process and its function with the students in the classroom is imperative.
This will help to alleviate any stress or perceived anxiety that might be connected
with this assessment, especially if it possesses a “test-like” form or delivery.
Using Formative Assessment in the Classroom

Imagine that you are a fourth-grade teacher and your students need to demonstrate that
they know how to correctly use the index of a book—a simple yet important educa-
tional skill. What assessment methods would be effective in providing feedback, as well
as confirming the progress and competency of your students, and why? As you ponder
what approach you would take, examine the following method and evaluate its learning
impact.
To start with, many teachers find active modeling or the demonstration of an intended
procedure a natural instructional vehicle, so the benefits of walking your students
through the steps of using a subject index are potentially significant. As part of the dem-
onstration on how to use a subject index, a description of how the major subjects, topics,
and categories of the book are listed alphabetically in the back of the book (along with
the corresponding page number of where that subject is found in the text) is provided.
During the instruction, the implementation steps of first locating the index at the back
of the book, then locating the subject term, and so on, are presented to the students in
sequence, and understanding and compliance is to be verified through verbal prompts
and visual confirmation. To confirm a student’s successful completion of this proce-
dural activity, different methods could be used. For example, as in-class exercises (such
as locating a subject in the index, identifying page numbers, and recording requested
information on the subject from the text) are completed, you observe and record on a
checklist the steps that are followed and executed by the students as they complete this
task. Getting confirming data on every student is important and should be set as the
assessment goal. Obtaining a rating for every student, however, may prove to be difficult
and even impractical at that moment. If that is the case, random students can be selected
to confirm their learning. For follow-up with students who did not receive a checklist
review during the instructional period, a performance check can be provided at another
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time (e.g., independent seatwork, homework completion) in order to confirm that the
student acquired the desired skill.
The checklist information would be handed back to the students for their review,
along with any individual comments. Once again, formative supports and assessments
need to be designed and embedded within the instructional process, and can include the
following:
♦ the modeling, by the teacher, of the actual process of locating subject topics or
terms in a book;
♦ the verbal description and elaboration of the process that is provided along with the
demonstration;
♦ recording of procedural accuracy of the students via direct observation and check-
list documentation.
This approach could work for any procedural activity, and it provides written docu-
mentation on the performance status of each individual student. With this event, a clear
“show me” assessment approach is followed and is appropriate given the task and skill
target involved. Also, the generalization and continuation of this skill can and should be
checked at various times in order to confirm skill maintenance.
Considering a variety of assessment measures and determining those that fit best
within your instructional methods is important, since the assessment measures need to
be a natural part of the instructional process yet still provide essential learning status
information. As the learning progress data of the students is reviewed, they are separated
into two general groups: the group of students that is understanding and gaining mastery
of the information and skills that are being taught, and the group of students that is not.
This confirmatory information is important for both groups but especially for the latter,
as necessary adjustments and instructional modifications will be needed in order to get
them back on the expected learning pathway. The fact that some of your students may
not respond well to the academic instruction that is provided signals that alternative or
modified instructional methods are needed in order to reach those students.
Using formative assessment procedures to set up in a lesson doesn’t automatically
ensure that student learning will improve. Simply going to school doesn’t make you
successful, it’s what you do and learn in school and the application of your acquired
knowledge and skill sets to your future endeavors that define your success. Students
only benefit when the information that is collected from formative assessments is used to
enhance personal understanding and growth. It has to be meaningful and relevant to the
individual learner, and it has to be applied within the immediate instructional process.
Use of Formative Assessment in a Classroom Lesson

At this time, assume that you are teaching a four-day statistics and measurement unit as
part of an accelerated math activity that involves your ninth-grade students. This content
has not been covered before, and the students possess minimal knowledge about statistics
and educational measurement practices. The goals of the unit are for the students to be
able to understand, generate, and interpret basic statistical and measurement operations
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128 CHAPTER 5
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT AND EVIDENCE LINKAGE

Consider this assessment challenge: Your students are required to objectively review the
impact of the reintroduction of the gray wolf into the Yellowstone National Park ecosys-
tem. What assessment methods would be effective in providing formative feedback to your
students and for documenting proficiency with this topic, and why? Clearly, higher cogni-
tive processing skills and assessment demands are required with this activity. Therefore,
given the intended target skill areas, what assessments would be best able to generate the
kind of student evidence you need?
As you begin to ref lect on potential assessment options, consider these possibilities.
How do these suggestions fit with this activity? What additional suggestions would you
consider?
• Descriptive options:
• Students generate bullet reviews of all readings, documentaries, and other provided
reports of the gray wolf that are available in class and via Internet searches.
• Students share those reviews among themselves in small groups and compare the
similarities and differences of the collected data.
• Individual group findings are recorded and provided to the teacher for review and
response; teacher feedback is provided to both individual groups and then collec-
tively to the class.
• Students are given time to conduct direct interviews or e-mail conversations with
field scientists, park rangers, cattle owners, and other relevant professionals associ-
ated with this topic; this collective information is also reviewed by the teacher and
feedback is provided to the class.
• Corrective options:
• Individualized corrective feedback is provided to the separate work groups by way
of an itemized checklist and a short narrative response; a follow-up face-to-face
meeting with each group is provided to go over any identified items as well as to
provide needed clarification.
• General feedback on any inaccuracies or misconceptions of the collective research
of the project is provided to the entire class as part of a PowerPoint presentation;
video clips and follow-up interviews are used to clarify and confirm specific data,
positions, official reports, etc.
• A project to-do list of required steps and needed materials is provided so that stu-
dent groups can refer to this throughout the learning activity.
• Evaluative options:
• Generate an impact report, a rubric listing the necessary elements/criteria and the
level of performance expected.
• Different groups complete different sections of the project; student participation is
part of the group project checklist to confirm active contribution to the collective
project.
• Post this report on the Internet for both professional and public review, comment,
and critique.
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Image Source/Getty Images
(e.g., normal distribution and its characteristics, measures of central tendency, variance,
standard scores) and procedures. A summative test covering all of the presented mate-
rial, along with the interpretation of a case study, will be used at the end of the unit to
formally evaluate student accomplishment. During this unit, you want to monitor the
learning progress to ensure that your students are acquiring and demonstrating all the
knowledge and skills that are connected with the lesson goals. Terms, procedures, calcu-
lation, and interpretation of these operations are to be covered through lecture, discus-
sion, and small group learning sessions.
At this point, address and answer the following questions.
♦ Given the identified learning outcomes, what formative assessment techniques
would you consider? Why?
♦ How would you embed these activities within the daily instructional routine?
♦ Once you have identified the techniques and activities, discuss your selections with
your classmates. Are your reasons and justifications for their usage similar to your
colleagues’? Why or why not?
♦ Are the formative assessment activities strategically placed throughout the instruc-
tional process?
♦ As the teacher, would you be getting the student progress information and per-
formance feedback early enough to make appropriate instructional adjustments if
needed?
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130 CHAPTER 5
Blend Images/Getty Images
The selected assessment methods should depend on the kind of evidence that is
needed. For example, the students must be able to recognize and differentiate specific
statistical terms and operations. Therefore, different approaches to measure those skills
and provide evidence on the students’ proficiency relative to those skills (e.g., small work
groups responsible for the solution of a statistical problem, crossword puzzle of statisti-
cal terms) could be used. In addition, the rationale for the use of those measures is also
important. Just like students, educators need to be accountable for what they do in the
classroom, and that includes the use of assessment methods.
Now let’s move on and compare selections. With this exercise, I selected three differ-
ent formative assessment measures to be incorporated within the unit. First, a formative
or “practice” exam containing the terms and procedures to be completed is constructed.
This is to be administered halfway through the unit to make sure the students are acquir-
ing the basic understanding of the material. Since this is a formative exam and no grade
is given for this test, the students can check their answers and review steps and computa-
tions once they complete the test to determine which, if any, concepts are still unclear
and need additional work. Also, selected parts of this exam or the entire test can be taken
more than once if desired.
Second, two case studies that are comparable to the one provided in the summative
test are examined in order to help the students understand the various scores and their
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meaning, along with the instructional implications of the presented test performances. In
essence, these cases serve as practice and review for the case study that is included in the
final exam at the end of the unit.
Also, exit slips are completed by the students at the end of every class period. Stu-
dents anonymously respond to listed questions and complete them before they exit the
classroom. The collective findings are examined and used as review for the next day. For
instance, the following question is listed on the exit slip: “What is still confusing to you
about what was covered in today’s class?” The student responses to that question would
be collected, and the listed concerns, if any, would be discussed at the beginning of the
next class period. This review process serves as a good way of recycling the previous con-
tent as well as checking for understanding before moving on to new material. In addi-
tion, selective questioning and review could be done with students who are observed to
be struggling with the material during class time.
Documentation of progress can be provided with these measures. With the formative
exam, accuracy percentages can be recorded by both the teacher and the student. In addi-
tion, error analysis (i.e., identifying correct and incorrect student responses) can help deter-
mine what specific areas or concepts the student is having difficulty mastering. For the
case studies, accuracy percentages can be calculated for the listed questions. More qualita-
tive information is usually obtained from exit slip responses, but even they can be modified
to get ratings or response percentages if so desired. Also, these three formative measures
can be easily constructed and embedded within the instructional framework of the lesson.
Now review and answer these questions.
♦ How similar were your selected methods to the ones just described?
♦ Do you agree that these are appropriate formative assessments for this unit? Why or
why not?
♦ What changes, if any, would you make to the selected list?
In today’s classroom, accountability of student progress is an expectation, and with

formative assessment the documentation of that progress over the instructional period
can be provided. But it’s not just about documenting and confirming the learning status
of students. Actually improving and increasing student understanding is the key focus
of formative assessment (Ainsworth, 2007). Basically, formative assessment should guide
your instruction, and it should be implemented in such a way that essential learning feed-
back is directly understood by your students as the actual learning experience is taking
place.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
AND THE TEACHER
The ultimate purpose of formative assessment is to provide the learner with informa-
tion that directly helps improve his or her learning in the classroom. But there is an
equally important consequence with the use of formative assessment. As students gain
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132 CHAPTER 5
understanding and improve their skills relative to the instructional tasks in the lesson,
so too should a teacher acquire better understanding of the instructional effectiveness of
his or her teaching and its delivery. It is important for the teacher not to ignore the for-
mative feedback that is automatically provided as part of the instructional experience.
Don’t forget that you as the teacher are learning right alongside your students, and that
you can use your experiences to modify your own instruction based on what student
evidence tells you. Formative assessment lets you know whether or not your students
understand the presented material. If they do, then you should continue. If they don’t,
then re-teaching is needed before further progress can be obtained. Given that immedi-
ate student performance feedback is available, the following questions are natural ones
to ask.
♦ Was the lesson effective? Can the students demonstrate the intended outcomes?
♦ Did the students understand and connect the ideas and skills that were presented?
Do all students need further instruction with this material, or just a few? Should
the material be reviewed in a large group, a small group, or individually?
♦ Could the content be presented in a different way to be more effective? If yes, how?
How do teachers find the answers to these questions? Since students are not likely
to comment on how well or poorly a subject or concept is covered or explained (“Mrs.
Davies, you did a bang-up job of covering the difference between direct and indirect
objects today!”), every teacher needs to be able to use evidence collected from formative
assessment to gauge the progress of their students, as well as the instructional effective-
ness of the lesson that has just been provided to them. As experienced teachers would say,
“You need to be able to read the signs.” Just make sure those signs have student data and
evidence connected to them. Remember that how well your students do is dependent to
a great extent on your instructional performances, so these need to be done well. That is
why effective teachers use student performance information to guide their instructional
practice (Heritage, 2007; Stiggins & DuFour, 2009). The most important information
you receive is from your students, but it is only useful if it is recognized and integrated
into your teaching.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
Whether you are riding a bike or completing a lesson in class, information gained from
formative assessment is essential both for the teacher who orchestrates the learning expe-
rience and the students who are held responsible for learning the material and skills that
are covered as part of the instruction. What did your results from the formative assess-
ment questions that were completed at the beginning of this chapter tell you as a prospec-
tive teacher? What role will formative assessment play in your classroom? Information
from a formative assessment should provide clarity on a student’s progress and his or her
continuing needs while the learning process is unfolding, and that is why it needs to be a
part of the instructional process.
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CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Formative assessment, which is under the instructional control of every teacher, is
designed to examine and improve the learning progress of students as they proceed
through material provided in their lessons. This assessment is focused on the learning
process as it is occurring, and the resulting impact on each learner. As Blaz (2008) states,
“Formative assessment should help determine what the students have mastered, what
they still need, and what needs to happen next” (p. 29). Moreover, the collected student
information directly inf luences the adjustments, if needed, to your instruction, along
with the consideration of other instructional techniques. What makes this assessment
form so essential is that the corrective information holds a “no risk” status for the learner.
Benefits are obtained in the acquisition of greater knowledge or a new skill without hav-
ing a formal evaluation attached to one’s performance.
Formative assessment helps to confirm that your students are making progress as well
as to maintain that progress toward their expected learning goals. Stiggins (2005) has
reported that
When used effectively, assessment FOR learning always triggers an optimis-

tic response to assessment results from within the learner. It starts by provid-
ing students with a clear, student-friendly vision of the achievement target to be
mastered, including models of strong and weak work. These examples reveal to
learners where we want them to end up. Then the teacher provides learners with
continuous access to descriptive feedback, which consists not merely of grades or
scores but also of focused guidance specific to the learning target (p. 328).

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How do I promote
student learning during an instructional activity or lesson? Enhancing and promoting stu-
dent learning in the classroom requires creating instructional activities that embed and
utilize formative assessments within them. Formative assessment by design is directed
toward the review and improvement of student learning as it is occurring. The instruc-
tor has complete control over its usage, and it should ideally take place at several points
throughout the instructional activity. This allows for students to receive multiple epi-
sodes of feedback and confirmation of learning progress.
In addition to the benefits of giving progress feedback to students, teachers also benefit
from formative assessment procedures. Based on acquired student information and per-
formance, teachers are better able to understand the instructional needs of their students
and then to make appropriate instructional adjustments designed to maximize teaching
effectiveness and learning impact. To be effective, formative assessment must be both a
continuous action in the classroom and an educational attitude.
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134 CHAPTER 5
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. How important is formative assessment in the planning of your classroom routine?
What functions will it serve?
2. How will you integrate formative assessments within your daily and weekly lessons?
3. How will you select the approaches needed to function as formative assessment
measures in your classroom? Are multiple measures considered and incorporated
so that more than one source of student learning and feedback exists?
RESOURCES
The Formative Assessment for Students and Teachers (FAST) at www.ccsso.org is an
extremely valuable resource initiated by and maintained through the Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). The FAST mission is to encourage discussion about
formative assessment, examine its use in impacting student learning, and support high-
quality teaching and learning in the classroom. Additional informational resources are
also provided and include related topics such as school accountability, English language
learners, and math and science assessment initiatives, as well as special education sup-
ports. Typing in “FAST” in the search bar on the CCSSO site will take you to this
information. Additional information can be obtained by typing in “assessment and
standards.”
The Educator’s Reference Desk at ericir.syr.edu contains thousands of documents and
references that can be examined on a wide variety of educational issues, including
formative assessment resources.
The Exemplars Web site at www.exemplars.com/index.php contains useful information
about formative assessment and how it can be integrated within the classroom. Infor-
mation and examples of rubrics are also provided.
REFERENCES
Ainsworth, L. (2007). Common formative assessments: The centerpiece of an integrated
standards-based assessment system. In D. Reeves (Ed.), Ahead of the curve: The power of
assessment to transform teaching and learning (pp. 79–101). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree
Press.
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Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2003). Assessment for learning:
Putting it into practice. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education,
5(1), 7–74.
Blaz, D. (2008). Differentiated assessment for English language arts. Larchmont, New York: Eye
on Education.
Bloom, B. S. (1969). Some theoretical issues relating to educational evaluation. In R. W.
Tyler (Ed.), Educational evaluation: New roles, new means (National Society for the Study of
Education Yearbook, Vol. 68, Part 2, pp. 26–50). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bloom, B. S. (1971). Mastery learning. In J. H. Block (Ed.), Mastery learning: Theory and
practice (pp. 47–63). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bloom, B. S. (1974). An introduction to mastery learning theory. In J. H. Block (Ed.),
Schools, society and mastery learning (pp. 3–14). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Boston, C. (2002). The concept of formative assessment. Practical Assessment, Research &
Evaluation, 8(9). Retrieved from http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=8&n=9
Earl, L. M. (2003). Assessment as learning: Using classroom assessment to maximize student learn-
ing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
Heritage, M. (2007). Formative assessment: What do teachers need to know and do? Phi
Delta Kappan, 89(2), 140–145.
Herman, J. L., Aschbacher, P. R., & Winters, L. (1992). A practical guide to alternative assess-
ment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Nichols, P. D., Meyers, J. L., & Burling, K. S. (2009). A framework for evaluating and plan-
ning assessments intended to improve student achievement. Educational Measurement:
Issues and Practice, 28(3), 14–23.
Stiggins, R. (2005). From formative assessment to assessment for (FOR) learning: A path
to success in standards-based schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(4), 324–328.
Delta Kappan, 90(9), 640–644.
Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative assessment: Designing assessments to inform and improve student
performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wiliam, D. (2006). Formative assessment: Getting the focus right. Educational Assessment,
11, 283–289.
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CHAPTER 6
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
KEY FOCUS
The central focus of this chapter is to examine the fundamental question: How
can performance assessment activities be effectively utilized within the classroom
setting?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Define a performance event and identify its two major parts.
♦ Distinguish the primary features of a performance event.
♦ Select an appropriate assessment method for a chosen performance event.
♦ Differentiate the basic forms and functions of portfolios.
♦ Explain the advantages and disadvantages of
using a portfolio in the classroom.
♦ Understand and follow the basic steps in con-
structing a portfolio.
♦ Comprehend the aim of project-based learning
(PBL) activities for a classroom.
♦ Describe the characteristics and purpose of a
rubric.
♦ Differentiate a holistic rubric compared to an
analytical rubric.
♦ Complete the needed steps in constructing a
rubric for a classroom performance event.
♦ Identify the importance of checklists in confirm-
ing student behavior and progress.
© Tim Pannell/Corbis
136
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PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT 137
Introduction
Both inside and outside the classroom, students are expected to possess and demonstrate
integrated skill sets and behaviors, and performance events are a natural way of assessing
multiple learning dimensions (Cohen & Spenciner, 2003; Moss, 1992; Wiggins, 1989).
Through learning demonstrations and authentic work projects, students are given the
opportunity to perform a particular activity with the expectation that it be will done
accurately and independently with minimal outside guidance. These kinds of learn-
ing verifications meet the confirmation that is ref lected in Missouri’s state nickname of
“Show Me,” and are viewed as highly desirable by those connected to the learning pro-
cess: teachers, students, parents, and the general public, which includes future employers.
Ongoing professional interest, measurement support and research evidence, and other
advances have helped to continue the use and refinement of this assessment approach in
the classroom (Bond, 1995; Brennan & Johnson, 1995; Green, 1995; Wiggins, 1992).
WHAT IS PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT?
A performance assessment requires a learner to complete a performance event. A perfor-
mance event involves the presentation of some specific individual and/or group-based performance
that typically involves an external reviewer, usually the teacher or some other appointed official, who
observes and critically evaluates the performance based on a pre-set list of criteria. In addition to
the actual performance, the skills or competencies required to generate the specific work
product (e.g., the creation of a Web site, defending a position during a debate) are often
reviewed and evaluated as part of the process. There are two major parts that compose a
performance assessment. First, there is the actual performance-focused task, which can
be referred to as the performance event, and the evaluation of the task, which deals with
the assessment of the student’s or group’s performance relative to that event (Stiggins,
Arter, Chappuis, & Chappuis, 2004).
The tennis toss activity that was discussed in Chapter 5 can be considered a small per-
formance assessment event. The overall acquisition of the tennis serve, however, would
serve as a better example of a comprehensive performance event. As would be expected,
performance assessments often include several elements or components, given the com-
plex nature of the product or performance that is being produced by the participant
(Linn, Baker, & Dunbar, 1991; Wiggins, 1993, 1998).
For example, at sports development camps, it is now standard practice for junior play-
ers to receive a DVD and video analysis of their skill demonstrations and a review of
techniques, along with practice and game play review. In addition, skill checklists based
on various aspects of the game, such as technical position execution, agility, strategy,
physical and mental conditioning, and rules of the game, along with performance rat-
ings and individualized feedback response boxes, are often provided as part of the review.
Multiple formative assessments are used in order to generate multiple sources of feedback,
and this is a very effective approach for both short- and long-term learning conditions.
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138 CHAPTER 6
For the short term, it maximizes the time element by providing considerable information
to examine and review. With long-term conditions, developmental progress can be more
fully examined, progress monitoring can be documented, and a substantial record can be
provided.
If a teacher is looking to demonstrate standards-related progress and skill changes of
his or her students over an extended time period, performance assessments would be a
logical and appropriate assessment choice (Bhola, Impara, & Buckendahl, 2003; Moon &
Callahan, 2001). However, time and effort is required on the teacher’s part in the devel-
opment and implementation of performance assessments. With that prerequisite under-
stood, the amount and level of information that is provided to both the teacher and the
student certainly makes this a desirable assessment consideration.
Most work that is generated in the classroom involves a construction of some kind
(e.g., generating an answer to a question usually requires a writing performance). Never-
theless, performance events and assessments are by design focused on substantial criteria
and typically require distinguished and refined responses from students. There are sev-
eral critical learning characteristics or qualities associated with performance assessments
(Linn & Miller, 2005). For example, performance assessments require a student to per-
form, sometimes in front of others, and participate in an identified activity or task such as
a recital or the creation of a product such as a pen-and-ink portrait.
Within a performance event, a demonstration of high-level skills would be expected,
along with an extensive understanding of the knowledge connected with this event. This
level of understanding is often expected to be at such a level that the student or group can
independently perform and complete the activity. Moreover, students can obtain a level
of competency and relative mastery that enables them to instruct and teach the knowl-
edge and skills to other learners upon request. Also, the integration of several skills and/
or knowledge sets is often necessary in order to complete the performance event (see the
box “Features of a Performance Event”). As mentioned earlier, these events are authentic
in that they are designed to duplicate real-life events and required skills for work or other
functional life purposes.
FEATURES OF A PERFORMANCE EVENT
• Higher level cognitive processing skills are typically required in the completion of the
performance event.
• Multiple skill integration involving different knowledge, skill, and ability sets are
evidenced within a performance event.
• Performance events reflect real world skills, experiences, and the capacity to do and
complete a task.
• Performance events are typically reviewed through an objective, systematic scoring
of the quality of the student work based on listed standards or proficiencies.
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© Image Source
The reviewer involved in a performance assessment must be fully informed and well
trained when evaluating performance events. Clear, specific standards or performance
criteria need to be identified and consistently followed when reviewing student work,
and they must also be known and made available to the participants involved in the per-
formance assessment. So the event, with its knowledge and skill requirements, along with
the formal and systematic evaluation of the students’ performances relative to that event,
needs to exist as part of the performance assessment. For example, examine the perfor-
mance rubric in Table 6.1, used in the audition process for students interested in joining
a music performance ensemble. This measure serves as an initial review of the student’s
performance and is also used two or three times during the grading period to review the
quality of the student’s individual work (and progress) at those specific review times.
THE FOCUS OF PERFORMANCE

ASSESSMENTS
Performance assessments, like other classroom assessments, need to be constructed to
accurately measure student learning and progress in accordance with the identified stan-
dards and learning objectives of a specified lesson. By their design they often examine
complex skill sets and behaviors. This is particularly helpful and essential as teachers
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140
TABLE 6.1 SAMPLE ENSEMBLE PERFORMANCE RUBRIC
5 4 3 2 1
wit78704_ch06_136-165.indd 140
Tone Quality Tone quality is clear Tone quality is clear Tone quality suffers Tone quality is Tone quality is
and appropriate to and appropriate to minor mistakes often unclear. The unclear throughout.
the instrument at the instrument most at times. Proper instrument does The instrument
all times. Constant of the time. Air air support and not sound as it never sounds clear
appropriate air support and speed speed only occur should. Proper air and appropriate. Air
support and speed. occurs often. occasionally. support and speed support is lacking
only occurs for brief throughout entire
moments. excerpt.
Intonation Candidate performs Candidate encounters Candidate encounters Candidate encounters Candidate performs
excerpt with no 1–2 notes that are out 3–4 notes that are numerous intonation entire excerpt
intonation issues. of tune (sharp or f lat) out of tune (sharp or issues. Tuning of with inappropriate
All notes are in tune within the key of the f lat) within the key instrument may intonation. Tuning
within the realm of excerpt and intended of the excerpt and have been executed of instrument clearly
the key signature. pitch. intended pitch. inaccurately. did not occur.
Rhythm Candidate performs Candidate Candidate Candidate Candidate
with no rhythmic misinterprets 1 misinterprets 2 misinterprets 3 misinterprets 4+
errors. All rhythms rhythm within the rhythms within the rhythms within the rhythms within the
are executed passage. passage. passage. passage.
successfully.
Dynamics Candidate Candidate Candidate takes Candidate adheres Candidate performs
successfully adheres successfully adheres account of dynamic to some, but not all entire excerpt at
to all dynamics to dynamic markings markings but their dynamic markings. one dynamic level.
within the excerpt within the excerpt interpretation does Interpretation of No adherence to
as indicated within as indicated within not ref lect what is on dynamics does not or interpretation of
the music, including the music. However, the page. ref lect what is on the indicated dynamics
ideas such as candidate misses page. exists.
crescendos and sFp, crescendos, etc.
etc.
Note Accuracy Candidate performs Candidate performs Candidate performs Candidate performs Candidate performs
excerpt with excerpt with excerpt with excerpt with 5+ pitch with numerous pitch
no note errors. 1–2 pitch errors. 3–4 pitch errors. errors. Candidate errors resulting
Performer adheres Performer adheres Candidate adheres adheres to key from misinterpreted
to key signature and to key signature and to key signature but signature but ignores key signature
CHAPTER 6
accidentals. accidentals but makes ignores accidentals. accidentals. and ignorance of

1–2 mistakes. accidentals.
4/12/11 5:09 PM
5 4 3 2 1
Articulation The articulation 1 articulation error 2–3 articulation 4+ articulation errors All articulation
interpretation of occurs in context errors occur in occur in context of indications are
wit78704_ch06_136-165.indd 141
the performer is of the excerpt, but context of the the excerpt. The ignored. All notes
f lawless and ref lects candidate otherwise excerpt. The general general interpretation are performed slurred
everything indicated executes articulations interpretation of of style of the excerpt or tongued. Style
on the page. effectively. style of the excerpt is is misinterpreted. of piece is ignored
slightly off. and indications such
as “marcato” are
ignored.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
Tempo The tempo is The tempo is The tempo is off The tempo is off by The tempo is
appropriate given the appropriate given by 10–20 clicks and 20–40 clicks and completely off from
marking in the piece the marking in the does not ref lect the does not ref lect the the appropriate
and style of the piece. piece and style of the style of the piece. style of the piece. tempo and does not
Performer adheres to piece. Performer does Performer does Student ignores ref lect the style of the
all tempo changes. not execute tempo not execute tempo tempo changes. piece. No adherence
changes effectively. changes effectively. to tempo changes
exists.
Continuity Candidate performs Candidate stops and Candidate stops and Candidate Student is unable to
the excerpt with restarts once in order starts 2–3 times in consistently stops finish the excerpt.
no stutters or stops. to regroup. order to regroup. and starts in order to
Beginning to end in regroup but makes
one take. it to the end of the
piece.
Posture/Embouchure Candidate is seated Candidate sits Candidate sits Candidate’s Candidate never
Formation with perfect posture down properly but down properly initial posture is sits with proper
from beginning to posture is affected but immediately inappropriate for the posture. Consistent
end. Embouchure by playing at times. shifts upon playing. given instrument. slouching and
formation is Embouchure Embouchure Embouchure laziness observed.
appropriate to the formation is formation is formation is passable. Embouchure is
instrument. appropriate to the acceptable. inappropriate for the
instrument. instrument.
Scale Scale performed Scale performed with Student misses the Student misses two Student misinterprets
f lawlessly. Pitches one missed note but same note on the notes up and down entire key signature
and tone quality recovery and tone way up and down the the scale. Tone of scale. Tone quality
suffer no mistakes. quality are observed. scale. Tone quality is quality may begin to may begin to suffer.
passable. suffer.
141
SOURCE: Reprinted with permission from Aaron West, 2010.
4/12/11 5:09 PM
142 CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Take a moment and try to identify the performance events that you complete during the
normal course of a day. These events are often tied to essential needs and purposes, yet they
become so automatic we often take them for granted and forget their significance. They
can include a wide range of events, including cooking breakfast, balancing a checkbook,
driving to school or work, completing a computer search, and helping run your school’s
soccer or cheerleader practice, as well as a hundred more activities. The fact is that each of
our days is made up of performance events (many of which may be interconnected with
each other), and the success of our day and our immediate and long-term future is often
tied directly to how well they are completed.
As part of this activity, identify two performance events that you have to address and
complete as part of your daily routine. Based on those experiences, answer the following
questions.
1. Are the selected performance events essential to the daily goals and outcomes that you
(or someone else) have identified? Why or why not?
2. How would you rate your performance on each of them? Were they done well? How
do you know? Were there natural consequences and/or external feedback?
3. Are internal and/or external expectations associated with these performances?
Hopefully this exercise has pointed out how prevalent and relevant performance events
are within one’s daily experience, and as such represent the essential “doing” part of our
work and life.
move students beyond the foundation levels of cognitive processing (e.g., understand-
ing, comprehension) to higher processing skills. This provides an opportunity of going
beyond merely writing about a subject or topic and actually doing it. For example, per-
forming experiments during a science lab ref lects an “active doing” process, where stu-
dents are required to merge information and skills together in order to understand a
chemical process, identify specific chemical compounds and the elements that they are
made of, or perhaps identify a new pollutant that has entered a ground water system.
Focus on Student Production

The “active doing” part of a performance event does not have to be centered on a spe-
cific physical demonstration (e.g., diving from a 10-meter board) nor have extensive
motor demands connected to it. A science laboratory serves as a good setting where
the integration of higher processing and problem-solving skills must be completed in
combination with the effective sequencing of specific and detailed motor actions that
must take place during an experiment (e.g., measuring and mixing chemicals accurately,
placing solutions in beakers and heating them to precise standards). Moreover, a critical
analysis and review of a particular literature or knowledge base, the active integration
of new information from different fields of study, or an action research project designed
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to extend what is known within a certain research field could all constitute meaningful
performance events for students in the classroom. With the research opportunities that
the Internet now provides, extensive literature searches, current research reviews, and
professional contacts are almost unlimited for students as they complete various perfor-
mance assessments within the classroom.
The nature of a performance event and the assessment of a student’s progress relative
to that event are to create a situation where a student is required to integrate his or her
knowledge and skills and demonstrate that understanding in some form of a demon-
stration or learning product. With performance assessments there is typically a deliber-
ate focus on the creation of original individual work that meets or exceeds specified
criteria. What is desired is to generate a student product that stands as clear evidence
that the required academic and learning outcomes and objectives identified as part of
the classroom lesson have been met. The performance event and the learning outcome,
as identified through the expected academic standards, must match up. Instruction-
learning-assessment alignment is as necessary here as it is for any assessment activity.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT AND A DRIVER’S LICENSE

One of the most recognized performance assessments required in society is the process
of obtaining a driver’s license. With the required documentation of driving with adult
supervision for several hours (50-plus hours in some states) under different conditions (e.g.,
day, night, raining) and surfaces (e.g., interstate highways, two-lane roads), future driv-
ers are expected to integrate their knowledge and factual information about the rules of
the road and the operation of the car with a performance-based competency of driving
itself. As part of the driving preparation process, a young driver must acquire the neces-
sary technical information and knowledge (e.g., laws, rules of the road, operation of the
vehicle) and utilize that knowledge in the operation of the automobile based on authentic
on-road conditions. The knowledge and skill of operation must be demonstrated and the
performance must reach a minimum level in order to pass the driver’s test and receive a
permanent license. This performance event involves and requires both the passage of con-
tent knowledge and the implementation of that knowledge through the demonstration of
specific driving-related skills.
But actually, the need for continued practice and refinement before true driving mas-
tery is obtained is recognized by most, especially those who undergo the initial qualifica-
tion process. Within the driving assessment process, the written test performance combined
with the car driving performance event really serves as the initial assessment process for
novice drivers. Actual driving review and performance would be needed if driving skills
(e.g., the ability to control and maneuver a car, braking/steering skills, reaction time) and
on-road competency (e.g., miles traveled under various conditions, number of accidents,
safety checks passed) were to be truly evaluated. With higher standards of expected driving
performance would come more skilled drivers, but greater resources of time, professional
training, and practice would also be needed.
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144 CHAPTER 6
DIFFERENT NEEDS, DIFFERENT

MEASURES
Different types of student work products, as listed in previous chapters, can be effectively
evaluated through the use of performance assessments. Student products can and often
do ref lect multiple skills and involve different output responses. Most learning activi-
ties require the overlap of several learning modalities (e.g., visual, auditory, motor skills).
However, due to instructional and assessment necessity, most student products or perfor-
mances are identified with a single or primary modality. Consider the following examples:
Verbal performances:
♦ speeches
♦ debates
♦ group/team competitions
♦ stage productions
♦ history reenactments
Written performances:
♦ short stories
♦ essays
♦ professional/personal letters
♦ journal/lab entries
♦ portfolios
♦ research reports
Motor performances:
♦ dance recitals
♦ music recitals
♦ marching band presentations
♦ sporting events
Visual performances:
♦ studio art
♦ graphic design
♦ digital construction
♦ photography
Many if not all of these performances ref lect the integration of multiple sensory and
motor skills, but one emphasized modality tends to stand out with each particular per-
formance. In addition, this list is by no means exhaustive, but it does clearly demonstrate
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that there are multiple ways to demonstrate a student’s acquired learning and skill devel-
opment, and many of these by design can be utilized as performance events.
One of the most common student products that is connected with performance assess-
ments is the portfolio (Arter & Spandel, 1992; Butler & McMunn, 2006). A portfolio can
be specific to a content area (e.g., writing), a certain medium (e.g., pastel or watercolor), or a certain
professional focus (e.g., photographic documentary), and it reflects an integration and development of
skills and/or experiences over an extended period of time (e.g., a student teaching portfolio). The list
of possible performance events is limited only by the imagination and determination of
the teacher in identifying those learning events. Since these events are “real world” in
their direct application and usage, they provide valuable data on learner progress to both
the teacher and the students themselves.
Classroom Portfolios
A classroom portfolio involves the collection and personal review of pieces of work,
sometimes referred to as artifacts, that demonstrate the growth and development of spe-
cific knowledge or skill sets. Traditionally, portfolios have been recognized as the pri-
mary work evidence in certain professions, including art, architecture, and photography.
However, this method has been assimilated into the field of education, and many teach-
ers find this approach particularly effective at documenting the process and progress of
student learning as it occurs over an instructional period (Butler & McMunn, 2006).
Different types of portfolios are designed to fulfill specific functions. For instance, the
developmental or process-oriented portfolio contains artifacts or student work produc-
tions that demonstrate, over time, the development of the student’s skills as evidenced by
the tasks that are completed in the portfolio. For example, for a research portfolio project,
this would include the construction of the outline of the research paper, the first draft
of the literature review and prior research, a reworked draft with teacher feedback, con-
struction of the second draft of the research literature, collection of data and/or responses
from the subjects interviewed as part of the study, analysis of the data/responses, etc. The
portfolio can be theme- or skill-focused, and the emphasis is on the continuous refine-
ment and improvement of the student’s work product throughout the process (Valencia &
Calfee, 1991). This type of portfolio is common in elementary settings, as teachers desire
evidence that their students are acquiring and improving certain foundation knowledge
and skill sets (e.g., a writing or math portfolio).
A product or best-pieces portfolio follows a showcase format, where the student’s best
quality pieces are demonstrated, and usually several different types or kinds of pieces are
collected (e.g., different types or styles of writing pieces, a variety of art pieces using dif-
ferent mediums such as charcoal, ink, or oil). The finished products, and not the process
that generated these products, are the focus of this type of portfolio. The selection of the
best pieces, usually based on a set of specific criteria, can be left up to the student, or it
can be a joint decision made with the teacher. Pre-selected standards for each artifact
are needed in order to facilitate the selection of the individual pieces. This approach is
common at the middle or secondary school level, given the high skill levels that typically
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146 CHAPTER 6
exist for more mature learners and students. Whatever method is selected, a portfolio
assessment can provide rich and detailed information about your students and ref lect
many desirable learning qualities. For instance, portfolios
♦ require and encourage self-assessment skills of the students as they complete the
required assignments;
♦ involve the creation and use of performance criteria and rubrics in the evaluation of
the quality of the work that is generated;
♦ can be connected to and reviewed by a wider public audience (e.g., portfolios can
be exhibited and/or judged as part of a community event, school- or district-wide);
♦ can be utilized at any grade level, although this format may be difficult to imple-
ment with the youngest of learners.
Due to the authentic and active construction nature of portfolios, instructional ben-
efits are recognized with their use. Yet as with any assessment method, there are limi-
tations, and the portfolio is no exception. In particular, some of the most recognized
benefits and shortcomings of this method are the following:
Advantages/strengths of portfolios:
♦ allow for the examination of the unique work of each student
♦ can involve one or multiple content areas (e.g., reading, writing, science) and the
integration of skills across knowledge and/or discipline areas
♦ directly involve each student in the review of his or her progress and in the plan-
ning of future learning behaviors
♦ require considerable student–teacher communication, interaction, and collabora-
tion on a consistent basis
♦ encourage student ownership and responsibility of the portfolio and its successful
completion
♦ focus is on continued improvement and the effort to achieve or even exceed per-
formance standards or outcomes
Disadvantages/weaknesses of portfolios:
♦ extensive time requirements
♦ if additional assessment measures (tests, homework, other projects, demonstrations)
must be completed in the classroom, even less time is available for portfolios
♦ clear portfolio goals, performance criteria for work products or artifacts, adherence
to timelines, and so on must be established before a portfolio is initiated
♦ the progress monitoring caseload can be overwhelming if not carefully managed
♦ scheduled individual meeting times with students are necessary, which further
limit general classroom instruction time
♦ due to the systematic collection and review of student work, teacher commitment
to the successful implementation of this assessment method is essential
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The Portfolio Construction Process

So what is involved in completing a portfolio and what are the basic steps to follow? Steps
that are followed in the implementation of a portfolio are typically associated with these
elements:
1. determination of purpose and desired learning outcomes of the portfolio
2. collection of student products and artifacts
3. selection of artifacts to include in the portfolio
4. personal and/or external review and ref lection of the selected artifacts
5. confirmation of work in meeting portfolio outcomes
As with any assessment procedure, it is important for students to know and under-
stand what the instructional purpose and demands are for an activity, and that certainly
applies to a portfolio. Sharing the expected learning outcomes prior to and through-
out the learning experience is essential, especially as a portfolio project may involve an
extended period of time, and students may need to be reminded of their expected goals.
In the collection phase, a student is required to collect most, if not all, of their prod-
ucts and constructions. Documentation of work in all its forms (e.g., class notes, first
drafts, journal recordings, diagrams, timelines) is necessary as the process unfolds and the
student gains a better understanding of how all these pieces of work start to form a pat-
tern for the learning process.
In the selection phase, depending on the type of portfolio, artifacts are identified that
will be used to judge the quality and extent of the knowledge/skill accomplishments that
are rendered in the collected works. This can vary from a set list of required items (e.g.,
first draft, second draft, peer and teacher review, and final copy) that everyone submits,
along with items chosen individually by the student. The role and selection power of the
student is clearly controlled by the teacher and the guidelines that are reviewed prior to
the implementation of the portfolio assessment. For example, a project rubric that lists
pre-selected criteria along with the ratings associated with various quality/performance
levels can be used independently by the student and/or jointly with the teacher to iden-
tify the status of the product, in order to determine whether it is ready to be included in
the final review process of the work in the portfolio.
Personal review and ref lection involves the direct evaluation of a student’s work by
the actual student or in collaboration with the teacher. This process involves direct self-
assessment, where the student, as objectively as possible, critiques his or her performance,
determines what has been achieved, and more importantly, what still needs to be com-
pleted or refined. Portfolios carry the potential for high-level self-assessment of a student’s
progress, and provide clarity to an instructor as to whether continued or modified instruc-
tion is needed in order to maintain and enhance student knowledge and skill improve-
ment. At this stage, students are expected to look into the “learning mirror” and provide
the most honest and direct accounting of their learning and their work as they can.
Finally, confirming the learning connections and outcomes is the critical endpoint
that must be provided in a portfolio assessment. Students should know and be able to
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148 CHAPTER 6
Image Source/Getty Images
answer the question “What has been gained?” relative to their own learning, and the
teacher should have ample student-generated evidence among the collected artifacts to
confirm the answers that are provided. Whether it is to document student progression
along a skill continuum, provide evidence of actual skill proficiency, or identify one’s
functional status or level (e.g., emerging, proficient, advanced) within an instructional
module or unit, the purpose of the portfolio assessment must be clear and understood by
all participants.
Connections to larger learning issues and/or problems in a community or even the
larger world may be forged through this kind of learning and assessment activity. The
potential for extensive learning acquisition and integration is very high with a portfolio
assessment, but at the same time it requires a well-managed and guided instructional pro-
cess. In addition, it is important to make sure students are ready, capable, and inspired to
complete a portfolio project, since considerable time, effort, and resources are required in
order to complete an activity of this kind.
Project-Based Learning
Performance-based events and assessments are also usually connected to project-based
learning (PBL) activities. As an instructional approach, PBL attempts to address and solve
real-world issues through the use of active problem solving, which often incorporates
performance-based learning. This process requires critical student review (e.g., problem
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FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
PERFORMANCE ACTIVITY WITHIN A HEALTH PORTFOLIO

Mrs. Erb requires each of her eighth-grade students to complete a health portfolio. As
part of the portfolio, which is worked on throughout the school year, the students must
complete individual projects, review health products and trends, and examine research
that deals with general health and wellness. The projects in particular are focused on self-
exploration and awareness relative to the health status of each student in the class.
For example, a calorie consumption project is a required component of the portfolio. In
this activity, each student records the amount of calories consumed as part of after-dinner
snacking. Baseline data are collected over a two-week period, followed by a student-designed
intervention for two weeks that is designed to limit and/or eliminate the consumption of
calories after dinner. A graph of each student’s collected data (Figure 6.1) is provided, along
with a listing and description of selected interventions (e.g., a visual reminder on the refrig-
erator not to snack, snacks hidden from student, noncaloric drinks substituted for food). In
addition to counting calories, each student is asked to place his or her consumed calories
into basic categories such as (1) candy or snacks, (2) drinks (e.g., soft drinks, energy drinks),
or (3) fast food. In addition, an exercise program is also required, complete with a listing of
specific exercises and estimated calories burned based on exertion level and duration.
This evidence-based activity allows each student to visualize his or her after-dinner
calorie consumption pattern, as well as the relative effectiveness of the calorie reducing
interventions that are implemented. In addition to being an interesting and personally rel-
evant experience for the students, this activity serves as a good example of how distinct
performance activities can be used and embedded within a larger performance assessment
device such as a portfolio.
Student Calorie Intake

900
Baseline Intervention
Evening Calories Consumed
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Consecutive Days
FIGURE 6.1 STUDENT CALORIE INTAKE CHART
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150 CHAPTER 6
identification, general problem solving, decision making, and overall investigative analy-
sis) and results in a publicly presented product or performance.
Students, working individually or in small research groups, serve as the primary inves-
tigators in identifying and addressing a relevant topic of concern or interest. Teachers
serve as facilitators, working to help refine the investigative questions and assisting in the
review process, as well as assessing student progress throughout the completion of the
project. The use of high-level thinking skills, along with an emphasis on creativity and
independent, autonomous functioning, are expected with PBL. The use of self-assessment
and peer reviews are also desired in this process. Projects are typically multidisciplinary in
scope and often rely on technology as part of the investigative process or when conducting
a research review.
For example, at a local high school, the final exam for approximately 80 physics and
engineering students was to design and construct a sustainable filtering system for fresh
drinking water to be used as part of a health clinic in a remote district of Tanzania, East
Africa. The submitted projects were reviewed by doctors, nurses, and engineers from the
nonprofit organization responsible for building the clinic and providing health services
to the people of the villages in that area. Student teams (ranging from two to four stu-
dents) presented their collected research, designs and models, and construction materials,
along with the results of their preliminary findings on how effective the systems were in
removing impurities from dirty water. Some designs were successful and some were not,
but the actual project engineer acknowledged that several interesting ideas were provided
by the students, many of which had not been considered by the organization prior to this
activity. This high-level “real-world” water filtration project is characteristic of the top-
ics that are addressed with PBL.
PBL as an instructional process has been connected to a wide range of grades and
domains (Foulger & Jimenez-Silva, 2007; Mitchell, Foulger, Wetzel, & Rathkey, 2009;
Polman, 2000) and provides genuine opportunities for students to engage in active learn-
ing and meaningful dialogue as they refine their problem-solving skills. As active seekers
of knowledge, they are responsible for the accuracy of the data they collect and the find-
ings that are generated from that data. But as with any instructional method, there are
issues that must be recognized with PBL.
For instance, there are no universally recognized standards for what constitutes a
“project.” In addition, considerable time and effort are needed for PBL to be correctly
implemented, and it must be carefully orchestrated and managed as a learning experi-
ence. A project-oriented learning event needs to have clear outcomes that involve the
examination of defined content and expected skills. Moreover, performance assessments
must be carefully designed and selected in order to collect needed student learning evi-
dence. Highly motivated, skilled, and task-oriented students are certainly required for
PBL activities.
With the creation of performance events comes the requirement of determining the
means by which they will be reviewed and evaluated. A student’s performance is usually
examined relative to a standardized set of steps or completed products through criteria
that are designed specifically for the review of that performance or product. Creating
the desired performance event is important. However, generating a clear assessment and
review of the performance event is just as important if accurate information on student
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progress is to be obtained. One of the most prevalent and popular measurement tech-
niques used in the review of performance events involves the use of rubrics.
RUBRICS
Rubrics, as defined by Arter and McTighe (2001), are “scoring tools containing cri-
teria and a performance scale that allows us to define and describe the most important
components that comprise complex performances and products” (p. 8). The selected cri-
teria clarify the qualities that the work must possess in order to receive a certain score
or rating. In addition, if shared before or during the construction of a project, rubrics
provide each student with a clear and unmistakable image of the quality of the work
that is required. Rubrics are particularly useful in reviewing student work within the
classroom setting. With stated ratings, criteria, and work expectations, a rubric provides
every learner with a clear performance standard prior to the completion of a project. In
addition, once the work is started, it can provide useful feedback to a student throughout
the completion of the project.
Rubrics can be designed and constructed to serve as a general review for several work
products or activities; consequently, these serve as general rubrics. Conversely, rubrics
can also be created so that they are very selective or task specific and used for only one
particular activity or project. A teacher is likely to need both kinds of rubrics.
For instance, the advantage with general rubrics is that they can be used with differ-
ent activities and across a variety of settings and events. A specific rubric doesn’t have to
be developed for each separate activity. If the science teachers at your school had decided
that the use of the scientific method throughout the school year is a priority, then the use
of a general rubric could be used to evaluate students’ progress in following the scientific
method across a number of different science projects. General rubrics are particularly
economical in regards to development and construction work. A general rubric also pro-
vides assessment clarity and uniformity to the students in regards to the necessary execu-
tion of the skills or criteria that make up the rubric.
On the other hand, there are instances when only a focused rubric will work, given
the instructional need. When that is the case, a task-specific rubric must be designed to
meet that assessment need and provide detailed information to the learners on what is
required for the successful completion of the assignment.
No matter the breadth or focus of a designed measure, within each listed rubric, per-
formance criteria are identified so that different point values can be attributed to particu-
lar levels of performance. Rubrics are also designed to be either holistic or analytical in
their function. A holistic rubric involves a scoring mechanism where a single score or rating is
used to represent a student’s entire work (Table 6.2). The teacher or rater examines the entire
process or product, including all elements of that work, and then selects a single score or
rating that best represents the entire project (McMillan, 2007; Nitko, 2001). On the other
hand, an analytical rubric is designed to rate or score each identified criterion of the required
project (Table 6.3). These individual scores can also be combined to generate a total or
overall score (McMillan, 2007; Nitko, 2001). For instance, if there are four specific cri-
teria associated with an assignment, then four scores or ratings would be generated, with
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152 CHAPTER 6
TABLE 6.2 SAMPLE FICTION WRITING HOLISTIC RUBRIC

5—All parts of the story including the (1) plot, (2) setting, and (3) character development
are fully completed and well organized. All questions surrounding the who, what, where,
when, and why of the story are thoroughly explained using proper grammar and story
detail.
4—Two parts of the story are completed and organized well, with only one of the
parts missing or incomplete (plot, setting, or character development). All questions
surrounding the who, what, where, when, and why of the story are addressed. Adequate
explanations and/or grammar and story detail are evident.
3—One part of the story is completed and organized well. A few of the questions (one or
two) surrounding the who, what, where, when, and why of the story have not been fully
addressed. Adequate explanations and/or grammar and story detail are evident.
2—One part of the story is completed and organized well. Many of the questions (three
or more) surrounding the who, what, where, when, and why of the story have not been
fully addressed. Missing or inaccurate explanations and/or grammar and story detail are
evident.
1—No parts of the story are addressed and most of the questions (four or more) involving
the who, what, where, when, and why of the story are not answered. Missing or inaccurate
explanations and/or grammar and story detail are evident.
each one rated based on its respective set of criteria, as well as a total composite score.
The analytical approach can provide more detailed “diagnostic” feedback to students
regarding their performance and the relative strengths and weaknesses of their work, as
opposed to the holistic approach.
Both holistic and analytical rubrics are useful and should be considered when assess-
ing classroom projects and performances. Due to how they are structured, they possess
particular strengths as well as limitations. As the instructor you need to decide which
approach best fits your assessment needs in regards to the intended purpose of the rubric,
and that should be accomplished before the project is initiated. Many factors (e.g., the
instructional nature of the activity, classroom resources, time restrictions) can inf luence
which rubric approach is chosen.
In general, a holistic rubric provides an overall indicator of performance with minimal
feedback. In contrast, an analytical rubric is designed to provide considerable feedback in
particular skill areas, depending on how the rubric is constructed. In fact, a criterion pro-
file can be generated that allows a student to examine their areas of relative strength as
well as those that require further refinement. However, this wealth of information comes
at a cost, and that cost is in the form of time. Analytical rubrics are typically more time
consuming in regards to construction than the holistic rubrics. In addition, considerably
more time is needed to review projects that are evaluated using an analytical rubric. Both
rubric types serve useful purposes, and it is up to you as the learning planner to decide
which works best with a given instructional project.
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TABLE 6.3 SAMPLE CONTOUR MAP ANALYTICAL RUBRIC
ANALYTICAL RUBRIC FOR CONTOUR MAPS (EARTH SCIENCE)

Construction Accuracy
Map is clear; no isolines overlap, no stray pen or pencil marks, and overall appearance shows 3 points
care and attention to detail. Numbers are legible; symbols are unmistakable.
Map is clear; only one or two minor construction errors are evident. Isolines do not cross, and 2 points
stray pencil marks are minimal or mostly erased. Numbers are legible; symbols conform to
handout guidelines.
Map lacks clarity. Isolines are imprecise; extraneous marks are on the page. Numbers and 1 point
symbols are not identifiable.
Map possesses no construction clarity. No attempt at accuracy is evident. 0 points
Construction Completeness
Every isoline is present on map and clearly labeled. Proper lines are used for topographic 3 points
elements, and symbols represent all known or discernible structures.
Required isolines are present; some labels may be missing. Most identifi able structures in 2 points
landscape are represented by appropriate symbols.
Some isolines and/or labels are missing. Few structures are represented by the appropriate 1 point
symbols.
More isolines are missing than are present; labels are rare to nonexistent. Symbols for other 0 points
structures are not present.
Representational Accuracy
Map clearly corresponds to given landscape. Geologic formations are clearly identifi able, and 3 points
distances between objects on map are directly related to reality.
Map represents general landscape. Contours are identifi able, although details may be slightly 2 points
off. Distances are consistent with reality.
Map is a gross interpretation of reality. Hills and valleys exist, but shapes vary from given 1 point
landscape. Distances between objects are only roughly proportional to given landscape.
No representational accuracy evident in the construction. 0 points
SOURCE: Reprinted with permission of Joel Stachura, 2009.
No matter which rubric approach is utilized, identifying the performance criteria

and sharing them with students before a project is started helps to ensure that their work
effort and eventual product will be guided by those standards. In this way, the teacher
can help the students understand the important criteria that their work will be judged
against as they begin their projects. There should be no surprises when it comes to know-
ing how the work will be judged, regardless of the assessment function the rubric serves.
Building an Effective Rubric

A well-designed and effective rubric can provide useful information to both a teacher
and his or her students. But how is an effective rubric constructed? What should it look
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154 CHAPTER 6
like and what are the construction steps? Before you invest time and effort into designing
a rubric, make sure you are clear about its purpose. Make sure it will provide you with
the information you truly need. Assuming that a rubric fits your assessment needs, it then
must possess certain qualities, such as:
♦ instruction-learning-assessment alignment;
♦ clear representation of criteria and performance levels across that criteria;
♦ distinct point values associated with each skill/performance level;
♦ meaningful performance descriptors.
For instruction-learning-assessment alignment, the skill criteria listed in the rubric

that serve as student performance measures should ref lect and connect with the intended
goals and outcomes of the provided lessons. This basic alignment requirement exists for
all assessment measures, and that includes any rubric that is developed and used to review
student work (Bhola, Impara, & Buckendahl, 2003). The skill criteria should match up
with what has been taught in the classroom and be consistent with the requirements of
the construction of the student project that is being reviewed (Arter & McTighe, 2001).
Suppose your students recently completed a unit on research writing, but the rubric
designed to assess their learning only evaluates their computer search skills. There is an
obvious validity problem and an assessment disconnect between what they have been
taught and how that learning is being assessed. However, even when the instruction and
assessment line up correctly, problems can still exist. For example, if the research writing
instruction takes place at the beginning of the grading period, but the use of the rubric
and the assessment of the students takes place at the end of the grading period, the latency
between the events can create problems and potentially limit the rubric’s effectiveness in
reliably measuring the research skills of the students.
The criteria that will be used in the rubric to assess and review the students’ products
must be clearly described. Since only a few criteria are typically identified and used in
a rubric (four to five criteria are common), it is essential to make sure these criteria are
truly important and serve as the critical review elements. Detailed descriptors connected
to each of the separate criteria also need to exist in order to provide direction to learners
as they try to meet the requirements of each rubric criterion. It is important to provide
several meaningful descriptors at each identified level so that it is clear to the learners what
characteristics differentiate one performance level from another (Arter & McTighe, 2001).
Included in the description of the different performance levels should be the listing
of point values associated with each level. Students need to know how their work will
be judged, and providing this information helps to generate a full disclosure of how the
scoring process will work. This can eliminate misunderstandings and perceived inconsis-
tencies when it comes to the evaluation of student work. In addition, providing samples
of previous student work, especially exemplary products, allows students to see how the
work of other students was rated based on the performance descriptors of the rubric.
The more exposure the students have to your rubric and the desired performance levels,
the higher quality products you will obtain as part of that classroom activity. If effective
rubrics are used consistently in the classroom, don’t be surprised to see the quality level
for any given student product or activity increase with this assessment process.
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A rubric should contain performance descriptors that provide meaningful feedback

to any learner that uses it. Performance labels associated with certain performance levels
(e.g., excellent, acceptable, or unacceptable) should provide each learner with a clear pic-
ture of the quality of his or her work at any time during the work process. In this way,
the rubric can be helpful to students throughout the work cycle, especially if it is submit-
ted for a final summative review.
Let’s Bake, I Mean Make, a Rubric

Instead of listing and examining a specific content rubric (e.g., language arts, science)
and creating immediate disinterest for a portion of the readers not directly connected
with the selected rubric, I chose a topic outside the classroom that uniformly connects to
every person. Everyone eats, and the preparation of food is an important and essential life
activity. And to show that rubrics are applicable across a wide range of topics, both inside
and outside the classroom, the process of developing a rubric to review the cooking
process will be examined. Content is certainly important when developing a rubric, but
what is most important is the process and steps that are followed in the construction of a
rubric. So as the rubric construction process unfolds, carefully examine the steps that are
completed and then apply them to your respective subject or content areas and classroom
assessment needs.
Royalty-Free/Corbis
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156 CHAPTER 6
As mentioned earlier, it is critical to ensure instruction-learning-assessment align-

ment, so specific learning goals must be identified as part of the cooking lessons. There-
fore, for instructional ease, assume the following are the desired learning outcomes from
the cooking lessons.
1. To be able to accurately follow proper and healthy food preparation procedures that
involve the use of fresh and correct ingredients.
2. To be able to accurately follow cooking directions when preparing food in a con-
ventional oven.
3. To produce an edible and tasty food dish in a safe manner.
A couple of quick assumptions must be clarified before we move ahead. The students
involved in the cooking lessons and project can read at an eighth-grade level or higher, so
comprehension of the material or reading of cooking directions is not a problem. All stu-
dents have access to standard cooking equipment (e.g., conventional ovens, pots, utensils)
as well as the necessary foodstuffs and other basic cooking ingredients. All students are to
be exposed to the same content and given opportunities to develop their cooking skills.
Regarding the cooking task that is connected to the rubric, each student is required to
independently prepare and bake a pot roast.
The aforementioned goals need to be connected to the assessment measure, and in this
particular case a rubric has been chosen, so specific criteria need to be established that
directly ref lect those outcomes. Therefore, generate a quick criteria list below and com-
pare your selections with those that have already been identified.
QUICK CRITERIA LIST

Possible criteria?
Potential Criteria List

1. Equipment operation/safety
2. Food preparation
3. Cooking process
4. Dish completion
5. Taste and appeal of the food
Now examine the criteria that you have generated with those that are already pro-
vided. Which ones match up best with the lesson outcomes? The criteria that are going
to be evaluated within the rubric have to be selected. Therefore, let’s agree that five cri-
teria are essential for the rubric and this project and that they must connect directly with
the objectives of the lessons. One of the five will be selected to serve as a working exam-
ple as the rubric is constructed. When identifying criteria for your rubrics, it is important
to match them directly to the expected standards and learning outcomes connected to
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the instruction. Using standards-based wording and clarity helps ensure the instruction-
learning-assessment alignment exists.
Selected Criteria
1. Food preparation
2. ?
3. ?
4. ?
5. ?
Food preparation was selected since it relates directly to the first lesson objective of the
cooking unit, and there would be no disagreement that it should exist as an expected cri-
terion for the rubric. Once a criterion is selected, the performance levels must be estab-
lished, along with the key descriptors and identifiers associated with each performance
level. It is important to make sure that the performance levels are distinct from each
other so that clear response differences are evident. This is essential for rating purposes as
well as for justifying the point values that exist for each of the levels. The goal is to cre-
ate a rating mechanism wherein each student’s work is accurately identified according to
the listed performance level and descriptors within that respective level. If done well, it
will enhance the rating reliability of the instructor as he or she reviews each project and
accurately rates a student’s performance based on the listed criteria.
The number of performance levels can vary among different rubrics. However, it is
generally best to keep the levels to a minimum and not to exceed seven, as the ability to
differentiate between levels becomes more difficult as the number of levels increases. On
the other hand, a minimum of at least three levels should be considered when construct-
ing a rubric. The selection of the number of performance levels is completely under the
control of the educator who is creating the rubric. Based on what has been presented so
far, how many performance levels do you think should exist in the baking rubric? As you
provide your answer, make sure you provide a rationale for your decision.
Number of Performance Levels ____

Rationale?
Given the straightforward nature of the material and the cooking task to be demon-
strated, as well as the desire to ensure high accuracy in rating the cooking performances,
a three-performance-level system seems appropriate. Sometimes simple and direct is
the best method, and that approach will serve us well with this task. Assuming that
there is agreement that a three-performance-level system is best for the cooking rubric
that is being developed, the following labels will be used to identify each of the three
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158 CHAPTER 6
performance levels: Level 3—Superior, Level 2—Acceptable, and Level 1—Unaccept-

able. Rating labels are commonly used to differentiate between the highest and lowest levels,
and these descriptive labels (i.e., observable and expected behaviors or actions) are designed to help
students identify and understand what qualities their work must possess in order to obtain a specific
label and rating.
For the food preparation criteria, examine the following descriptors for the three per-
formance levels:
Level 3—Superior (all listed criteria must be met)

• entire cooking space clean
• proper cooking utensils used
• all necessary ingredients present
• fresh ingredients (no food used beyond expiration date)
• all necessary ingredients washed and cleaned
• all necessary ingredients properly prepared
• all necessary ingredients ready for use
• oven preheated
Level 2—Acceptable (only four descriptors are met, three of which must include clean
cooking space, fresh ingredients, and washed and cleaned ingredients)
• entire cooking space clean
• fresh ingredients (no food used beyond expiration date)
• all necessary ingredients washed and/or cleaned
• one additional criteria
Level 1—Unacceptable (only one or two of the required Level 2 descriptors are met)
Given that food preparation involves several discrete procedures, critical elements of
that practice have to be identified. As the instructor, you would determine which spe-
cific elements or descriptors (sometimes referred to as anchors) are required to be dem-
onstrated for each respective level. A list of required elements was constructed for Levels
2 and 3. Another approach could have been to collapse these items together and provide
more detailed narrative text (including a representative performance used to illustrate
each required criteria), but since a simple and straightforward approach was taken regard-
ing this assignment, the listing of essential actions and events seems to be most appropri-
ate with this rubric.
Now examine the four remaining criteria and determine how they would be pre-
sented along a three-performance-level system. Once the criteria and their respective
performance levels have been established and qualified with the descriptors, seeking out
professional feedback on the rubric from your colleagues is an important and necessary
step before it is used in reviewing each student’s work on their pot roast project. Also,
if possible, conducting a small pilot or initial test of the rubric would be valuable. As an
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assessment measure, this rubric would require the observation and review of the entire
cooking process, from the pre-baking stage to the final process of tasting the roast.
Since this rubric contains performance levels across five identified criteria, an analytic
rubric exists and rating feedback can be provided across those five areas. In addition,
specific point values need to be associated with each criterion and performance level. If
all five criteria are seen as possessing equal value relative to the cooking process, then it
is reasonable that all of them should be seen as having equal importance, and no criterion
should be weighted more (or given more point value) than any other. Regarding the
performance levels, different point values need to exist for each level. Since three levels
exist with the cooking rubric, a simple matching approach of assigning points according
to level could be followed (e.g., Level 3 is worth 3 points, Level 2 is worth 2 points, and
Level 1 is worth 1 point). A different point scaling could also be used. For example, Level
3 is worth 5 points, Level 2 is worth 3 points, and Level 1 is worth 1 point. In this pro-
cess it is important to (1) determine the relative importance of each performance level,
(2) provide good logic for implementing that point system, and (3) make sure that the
point system is understood by the learners completing the project or activity. In regards
to assigning point values to different levels, whole numbers and not fractions should be
used. For measurement purposes, the use of an ordinal scale (e.g., recognized ratings
and rankings of 1, 2, or 3 and the points that correspond to those ratings only) does not
account for fractional usage and it would severely limit the rating format of the rubric, as
well as confound the findings and the potential decisions that would be generated from
the obtained ratings. It is always best to use the rating scale of a rubric as it is designed to
be used and not to modify it based on personal preference or convenience.
You have now gone through the essential process of developing a rubric. How does it
feel? Still need practice? Of course you do; everyone does. You will want to repeat this
process with lessons and tasks that are specific to your content area and interests. How-
ever, with repeated practice, your knowledge and experience base will grow along with
your general sense of confidence, and that’s a very good beginning.
CHECKLISTS
As useful and popular as rubrics have become, it’s important to understand that a rubric
is not always necessary with every classroom performance activity. Sometimes other
measures, such as a checklist, can better serve your assessment needs. Checklists involve
the listing of essential components of a behavior or procedure, and are not as robust in
regards to the collection of assessment data as the rubric. Checklists are typically used
when a teacher needs to review student work or when learning needs to be confirmed.
They serve an important but basic function of recording whether or not certain behaviors
are exhibited. Therefore, if during the instructional process you need to check whether
or not certain behaviors or conditions are present or a set of skills has been demonstrated,
a checklist is well suited for that assessment purpose.
When completing a checklist, the teacher provides a mark or check from a list of items
and indicates whether a certain behavior is demonstrated as part of the performance. A
simple recording process is typically followed, and no qualitative variations are noted
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160 CHAPTER 6
IN-CLASS PRESENTATION CHECKLIST
______ Introduces topic/subject to audience

______ Maintains eye contact with the audience
______ Speaks clearly and with appropriate loudness
______ Enunciates words clearly
______ Speaks at an appropriate pace (not too fast or too slow)
______ Provides appropriate pauses between verbal statements
______ Stays within allotted time
______ Has prepared notes (recorded on note cards)
______ Uses those notes sparingly
______ Provides a summary
______ Allows for questions and answers
FIGURE 6.2 IN-CLASS PRESENTATION CHECKLIST

unless the checklist is designed to identify the quality of a performance (e.g., accurate
completion, correct spelling). For example, if each student in your class is required to
provide a 10-minute presentation, then the checklist in Figure 6.2 could be used to doc-
ument whether key skills are evidenced during their in-class performances.
Alternatively, if the class is required to produce a poster or some other visual produc-
tion, such as a collage highlighting the dangers of drinking and driving, then the check-
list in Figure 6.3 could be used to evaluate each student production.
An approach that can be followed in generating a score from a checklist (which is not
recommended for grading purposes) is to add up the number (or percentage) of com-
pleted items. Before that is done, however, it is important to make sure all the desired
DRINKING AND DRIVING PRESENTATION
______ Facts and statistics accurately portrayed

______ Images are evenly spaced and balanced
______ No extraneous markings are visible
______ Relevant drawings/figures/graphs are used
______ Clear message is communicated
FIGURE 6.3 DRINKING AND DRIVING PRESENTATION

CHECKLIST
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behaviors are noted on the checklist. In addition, checklists can also be connected to
specific observations or used to check whether specific steps have been followed during
a specific activity (e.g., a math equation or a science experiment). In general, checklists
provide a focused structure for the content that needs to be reviewed within an activity.
By the nature of its design, a checklist provides an array of separate tasks, steps, or
behaviors that are recognized as necessary by the creator of the list. Because in most
instances the author of the checklist is the teacher, checklists become important listings
of skills that must be acquired and demonstrated by students. They become recognizable
and tangible goals of immediate instructional targets because of their construction. Stu-
dents are able to direct their attention to acquiring the listed skills or behaviors. Remem-
ber, if as an instructor you can provide a list of the things you want your students to
know and be able to do, then do it. This is one of the most direct ways of showing your
students what they must know and be able to do during and after a lesson is covered.
MAKE SURE YOUR STUDENTS KNOW

THE PERFORMANCE EVENT WELL
Whatever activity is chosen as the performance event, how it is presented and evaluated
is critical. Sometimes well-intended educators get wrapped up in doing a performance
assessment without really deciding why it’s being done and what knowledge and skill sets
are being utilized in the process. When considering performance assessments, make sure
the following questions are addressed.
1. What skills are being examined and evaluated as part of this project?
2. Are there only academic targets connected with the performance event, or are there
other skill targets, such as time management, organization, and communication?
3. Are measures being used that accurately review and evaluate the quality and extent
of the work provided as part of the performance event?
4. Have the evaluation criteria of the performance assessment been shared with stu-
dents prior to the start of the performance assessment?
As indicated in question 4, a critical issue surrounding performance assessments is the
need to share with the students all essential information about the performance assess-
ment itself. That should include how the demonstration or product will be evaluated,
along with sample products that the students can examine and review. Formative reviews
can also be built into the process, where constructive feedback is provided and hopefully
incorporated into the work before it is officially evaluated and formally scored.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
In the Chapter Activity at the beginning of this chapter, you were asked to identify two
performance events that you had to complete during the normal course of the day. A
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162 CHAPTER 6
rating of the execution of those performance events was also requested. As you ref lect on
your selected acts and their completion, what, if anything, is needed for you to maintain
that performance, and what else must be done in order for you to improve your func-
tional level relative to those performance events?
During the course of the day in the “real world,” most of us rarely get individualized
feedback or specific ratings in regards to various performance activities that we complete.
What we do receive are natural consequences based on the decisions or actions that are
taken. For example, if we conduct an effective and accurate computer search, we find
the information we are seeking. If we don’t, we do not find what we are looking for,
and frustration is the only thing obtained in the search. In other words, we pay the price,
and sometimes a heavy one, for not meeting and successfully addressing the challenges of
various performance events in our lives.
School and classroom environments are unique in that they can (and should) provide
learning opportunities for students where useful feedback on skills and performances
can be provided without immediate real-world consequences. Having students complete
performance events, including procedures that evaluate how well those events are com-
pleted, simply makes good instructional sense. Whether students are giving a presenta-
tion in class, presenting a portfolio of work, or following the required steps in solving a
problem, these are natural and expected learning skills that students must practice and
perform well both in school and eventually in their chosen area of work. Consequently,
as educators we must be able to accurately assess the learning progress connected with
these kinds of learning events.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Performance assessments are centered on student-generated work and products. This
work is typically presented to others and is evaluated according to predetermined stan-
dards or performance criteria that are known to the students before the project or prod-
uct is even started. The products or performances that are reviewed often take different
forms, such as oral presentations (e.g., speeches, debates, panel discussions, and mock
trials), skill demonstrations (e.g., recitals, athletic events, concerts, or gallery showings),
or classroom-based work (e.g., science projects/demonstrations, experiments, or inde-
pendent research projects).
Moreover, the work products or performances that are generated are often complex;
they can involve an array of skills and require extensive practice, as well as a high invest-
ment of effort and time on the part of the participant. Performance assessments in the
classroom are important and extremely useful for teachers and their students, since the
performance events demand the integration of both knowledge and skill requirements as
part of an actual or authentic demonstration.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How can per-
formance assessment activities be effectively utilized within the classroom setting? For the
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teacher, the value and recognized need for assessing the level and quality of student work
as part of performance events must first be acknowledged. By design, performance events
often require sophisticated and integrated knowledge and skill sets (providing for the
assessment of higher-level skills and products), which typically involve considerable time,
effort, practice, and classroom resources. Therefore, “less is really more” when it comes
to performance assessment, so it is important for every teacher to carefully design the per-
formance assessments that will most effectively demonstrate the intended knowledge and
skill development and acquisition of their students. Also, given the potential educational
magnitude and impact of these authentic skill demonstrations, a performance assessment
can and perhaps should be considered an “assessment showcase” event, with additional
assessment activities supporting and/or supplementing this primary experience.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. How can performance events/assessments be integrated within the instructional
format of your lessons in the classroom? What function should these student learn-
ing progress assessments serve?
2. How will you balance the time, effort, and resources that will be necessary to
provide performance assessments?
3. Why is instruction-learning-assessment alignment just as critical for performance
assessments as it is for other forms of assessment? What measurement techniques
will you use with your performance assessments? Why?
RESOURCES
Performance Assessment Links in Science (PALS) at www.pals.sri.com is a resource bank
of science performance assessment tasks identified with grade-level standards as well as
tasks associated with grade level bands.
Lesson Plan Central at lessonplancentral.com provides a wide array of useful rubric
resources, as well as other performance-related assessments and materials. Type
“rubrics” in the “Search Lesson Plans” field.
An extensive resource on rubric development can be found at www.rubrician.com. Sub-
mitted rubrics from teachers across all subject areas can be examined and reviewed.
RubiStar, at rubistar.4teachers.org, is a rubric-generating site that allows teachers to con-
struct their own rubrics across all basic content and specialty areas.
General assessment information, along with a selection of useful checklists for project-
based learning projects, can be found at pblchecklist.4teachers.org.
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164 CHAPTER 6
An extremely useful Web site for generating a portfolio assessment in a foreign language
classroom is provided by the National Capital Language Resource Center (NCLRC)
at www.nclrc.org. Information on basic components (e.g., validity, reliability, portfolio
contents, rubrics) for creating a portfolio assessment is provided. This site is relevant for
any content area, not just foreign language.
The Buck Institute for Education at www.bie.org is a comprehensive site providing
project-based learning resources for educators. Resources include a Tools section that
includes videos, toolkits, teacher feedback, related links, and so on, as well as research
and professional development opportunities (e.g., workshops on PBL).
Project Based Learning at pbl-online.org provides several project-based learning resources,
including a video library, research, Web links, and templates and information on how
to develop standards-focused projects.
REFERENCES
Arter, J., & McTighe, J. (2001). Scoring rubrics in the classroom: Using performance criteria for
assessing and improving student performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
Arter, J., & Spandel, V. (1992). Using portfolios of student work in instruction and assess-
ment. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 11, 36–44.
Bhola, D. S., Impara, J. C., & Buckendahl, C. W. (2003). Aligning tests with states’ con-
tent standards: Methods and issues. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 22(3),
21–29.
Bond, L. A. (1995). Unintended consequences of performance assessment: Issues of bias
and fairness. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 14(4), 21–24.
Brennan, R. L., & Johnson, E. G. (1995). Generalizability of performance assessments.
Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 14(4), 9–12.
Cohen, L. G., & Spenciner, L. J. (2003). Assessment of children and youth with special needs
(2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Foulger, T. S., & Jimenez-Silva, M. (2007). Enhancing the writing development of Eng-
lish learners: Teacher perceptions of common technology in project-based learning.
Journal of Research on Childhood Education, 22(2), 109–124.
Green, B. F. (1995). Comparability of scores from performance assessments. Educational
Measurement: Issues and Practice, 14(4), 13–15.
Linn, R. L., Baker, E. L., & Dunbar, S. B. (1991). Complex, performance-based assess-
ment: Expectations and validation criteria. Educational Researcher, 20, 15–21.
Linn, R. L., & Miller, M. D. (2005). Measurement and evaluation in teaching (9th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
McMillan, J. H. (2007). Classroom assessment: Principles and practices for effective standards-
based instruction (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
wit78704_ch06_136-165.indd 164 3/10/11 4:26 PM

Mitchell, S., Foulger, T. S., Wetzel, K., & Rathkey, C. (2009). The negotiated project
approach: Project-based learning without leaving the standards behind. Early Childhood
Education Journal, 36(4), 339–346.
Moon, T. R., & Callahan, C. M. (2001). Classroom performance assessment: What should
it look like in a standards-based classroom? NASSP Bulletin, 85(622), 48–58.
Moss, P. A. (1992). Shifting conceptions of validity in educational measurement: Implica-
tions for performance assessment. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 229–258.
Nitko, A. J. (2001). Educational assessment of students (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merrill.
Polman, J. L. (2000). Designing project-based science: Connecting learners through guided inquiry.
New York: Teachers College Press.
Stiggins, R. J., Arter, J. A., Chappuis, J., & Chappuis, S. (2004). Classroom assessment for
student learning: Doing it right—using it well. Portland, OR: Assessment Training Insti-
tute, Inc.
Valencia, S. W., & Calfee, R. (1991). The development and use of literacy portfolios for
students, classes, and teachers. Applied Measurement in Education, 4, 333–345.
Wiggins, G. (1989). A true test: Toward more authentic and equitable assessment. Phi
Delta Kappan, 70, 703–713.
Wiggins, G. (1992). Creating tests worth taking. Educational Leadership, 49(8), 26–33.
Wiggins, G. (1993). Assessing student performances. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative assessment: Designing assessments to inform and improve student
performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
wit78704_ch06_136-165.indd 165 3/10/11 4:26 PM

CHAPTER 7
SELF-ASSESSMENT AND PROGRESS

MONITORING
KEY FOCUS
How can self-assessment practices be integrated into the daily instructional rou-
tine of the classroom?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Define self-assessment and how it can serve your prospective students.
♦ Describe the educational purpose and function of self-assessment practices in the
classroom.
♦ Summarize self-assessment and
progress monitoring techniques
that students can utilize in the
classroom.
♦ Embed self-assessment activi-
ties into an instructional plan
or lesson.
♦ Acknowledge the importance of
each student serving as his or
her own progress manager.
♦ Construct a personal self-
assessment program that is
followed and reviewed after the
delivery of any instructional
Comstock/PictureQuest
lesson.
166
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SELF-ASSESSMENT AND PROGRESS MONITORING 167
Introduction
Self-assessment represents a relatively new skill acquisition that has demonstrated aca-
demic effectiveness and continued promise for students as well as teachers (Ross & Bruce,
2007; Ross, Hogaboam-Gray, & Rolheiser, 2002; Ross, Rolheiser, & Hogaboam-Gray,
1999). Stiggins, Arter, Chappuis, and Chappuis (2004) state that “Self-assessment is a
necessary part of learning, not an add-on that we do if we have the time or the ‘right’
students” (p. 44). As a process, self-assessment functions as an internal review system that
can include selecting and prioritizing individual learning goals or outcomes, monitoring
one’s progress toward those learning outcomes, and determining what individual adjust-
ments, if any, are needed throughout an instructional experience. As Earl (2003) has
stated, “Over time, students move forward in their learning when they can use personal
knowledge to construct meaning, have skills of self-monitoring to realize that they don’t
understand something, and have ways of deciding what to do next” (p. 25). She believes,
and appropriately so, that each individual student is the critical factor in any learning
event.
Earl further contends that:
Students, as active, engaged, and critical assessors, can make sense of information,
relate it to prior knowledge, and master the skills involved. This is the regula-
tory process in metacognition. It occurs when students personally monitor what
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168 CHAPTER 7
they are learning and use the feedback from this monitoring to make adjustments,
adaptations, and even major changes in what they understand. Assessment as
learning is the ultimate goal, where students are their own best assessors (p. 25).
Unfortunately, minimal instructional time and curriculum attention is directed to
self-assessment in today’s classrooms (Black & Wiliam, 1998). Yet at the same time, it
is common to find mission statements for schools or educational programs that include
descriptions of their students as “self-sustaining learners” or “lifelong learners.” If the
field of education and the general public truly want students to be lifelong learners, then
our children need to be taught, develop, and learn internal review and monitoring mech-
anisms that can be implemented during any learning experience. In addition to the joy
and excitement of learning new things, the necessity of being able to self-regulate and
monitor the effectiveness of one’s learning and overall progress is essential both inside
and outside the classroom.
The generation of a personal assessment and monitoring system doesn’t happen auto-
matically. It is important to recognize that self-assessment is a learned skill and behav-
ior set that most learners don’t acquire by chance (Boud, 2000; McDonald & Boud,
2003). Like other presented content and material, this skill must be taught, practiced,
and refined over time, and the primary setting where this instruction can take place is
the classroom setting. Only with time, effort, and repeated practice opportunities can
this assessment format become an effective learning tool and lifelong process for your
students.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Self-assessment starts with self-awareness. Students need to recognize that they are active
learners in the classroom and are capable of directing their own efforts toward any educa-
tional accomplishments. Part of that process is making sure students are aware of themselves
and their potential role in their own learning. Having students involved in the process of
generating their own personal scripts is a great way of getting them directly involved. For
example, a potential script for Mrs. Warner’s second-grade classroom could include the fol-
lowing statements:
• I am a student in Mrs. Warner’s second-grade class.
• I am learning how to multiply one- and two-digit numbers.
• I am learning the rules of multiplying and carrying numbers.
• I must practice in order to improve my calculations.
• I am responsible for my learning.
Imagine you are meeting with your students in your classroom. How would you present
this idea to your students? What statements would you want to include for the script with
your students and how would you encourage them to generate some of their own state-
ments for the script?
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SELF-ASSESSMENT: CONNECTION
WITH THE TEACHING AND LEARNING
PROCESS
In Chapter 1, you were encouraged to ask three assessment questions when engaged in
providing an instructional activity or lesson:
1. Where are my students?
2. Where do my students need to be?
3. How do my students get there?
By virtue of addressing these questions, instructors are also forced to examine where
they are in that process. For example, starting with the first question, a teacher must
know where he or she is in regards to the preparation of the teaching event. Addressing
and answering these questions requires a teacher to enter into a process of self-assessment
as part of any instructional event. Consequently, self-assessment questions for the teacher
evolve into the following:
1. Where am I in preparation for the lesson?
2. Where do I want and/or need to direct my students?
3. How do I get my students there?
This ref lection is critical in the unveiling of the lesson that is provided, so that the learn-
ers acquire the outcomes that are expected to be obtained before the lesson is completed.
Moreover, as a teacher engages in self-assessment and progress review, it is important for
students to see that process demonstrated so that value can be identified with it (McDon-
ald & Boud, 2003). This is essential if students are to engage in self-assessment practice. If
they see it being utilized by significant models in their life (you will be one, so get used
to it), they will be more likely to acquire and consistently engage in self-assessment prac-
tices themselves (McDonald & Boud, 2003).
No matter the nature of the instructional journey, every learner wants and needs to
be informed of his or her educational destination. In addition, in order for anyone to be
able to self-assess learning progress, they must know and be able to identify the standard
against which that progress is being measured. Precise, understandable goals and out-
comes must be provided so that clarity can be maintained between the desired behavior
and the current or emerging behavior. This creates a needed reference point by which
individuals can then judge their work and their progress toward the ultimate product or
performance standards. That is why providing examples of excellent student work serves
as an important and authentic way to demonstrate the desired performance standard.
Regardless of the content or skills that are being taught, learners need to know exactly
where they are going in the lesson, and they need to know what they are supposed to be
able to do by the time the lesson is finished.
On the other end of the instructional process, learners must be able to determine their
relative status, including the strength of their prerequisite skills, prior to the initiation
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170 CHAPTER 7
of a learning event. Students benefit tremendously from a preview of what they will be
taught in an upcoming lesson. If clarity is provided on the expected learning outcomes,
students can better evaluate their readiness when starting a new lesson or unit (McTighe
& O’Connor, 2005). Through ref lective action they can ask the important question, “Do
I have the necessary skills and prior learning experience in order to get the most from
this instructional experience?” They can ask themselves if they are ready for this, and if
the answer is “no,” then a quick review on the student’s part can take place and instructor
assistance can be sought.
Elements of the Self-Assessment Process

Along with clarity regarding the beginning and end points of an instructional event, a
self-regulation model that a learner can use to monitor ongoing progress needs to be in
place. It should serve as a monitoring system that the learner can independently use dur-
ing the instructional process. As a review system is developed, the self-assessment and
monitoring process should contain or ref lect at least the following components:
♦ clear and understandable learning goals and outcomes;

♦ specific performance standards that the student’s work and generated products will
be compared against; and
♦ a functional model and set of procedures (which can be externally or internally
generated) that a student can use to independently review and monitor learning
progress.
Beyond the recognition that self-assessment is a good thing for students, self-assessment
and progress monitoring is now a skill expectation for P–12 students. For example, as part
of the assessment standard for teachers in the state of Ohio, as well as many others, class-
room students are expected to be aware of and utilize appropriate self-assessment skills in
their own learning. In particular, Ohio teachers are required to meet seven educator stan-
dards that address the following domains (Ohio State Board of Education, 2007, p. 12):
1. Students—teachers understand student learning and development and respect the

diversity of the students they teach;
2. Content—teachers know and understand the content area for which they have
instructional responsibility;
3. Assessment—teachers understand and use varied assessments to inform instruction,
evaluate and ensure student learning;
4. Instruction—teachers plan and deliver effective instruction that advances the learn-
ing of each individual student;
5. Learning Environment—teachers create learning environments that promote high
levels of learning and achievement for all students;
6. Collaboration and Communication—teachers collaborate and communicate with
students, parents, other educators, administrators, and the community to support
student learning;
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7. Professional Responsibility and Growth—teachers assume responsibility for profes-

sional growth, performance, and involvement as individuals and as members of a
learning community.
Under Standard 3, the assessment standard, Element 3.5 states: “Teachers involve
learners in self-assessment and goal setting to address gaps between performance and
potential” (Ohio State Board of Education, 2007, p. 12). As evidenced in these profes-
sional teaching standards, assessment, and in particular self-assessment, is now recognized
as part of the classroom curriculum and instructional process just like the coverage of any
content or subject area.
SELF-ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES
The value of self-assessment extends far beyond the educational arena. In particular, self-
assessment is an essential practice in the business/corporate leadership world, as companies
strive for continuous improvement to remain competitive in today’s demanding market-
place. As part of the self-assessment process, major businesses and corporations engage in
designed self-review steps, which typically involve activities that incorporate the following:
♦ setting specific targets for financial and quality improvement;
♦ measuring a company’s progress toward meeting identified targets;
♦ using information and data to provide institutional feedback and review;
♦ gauging progress against competition within an industry; and
♦ continuous review based on the market and new economic opportunities.
These steps are necessary and desirable within a market economy. Within education,
the ultimate goal of teaching is to produce lifelong, independent learners, and a major
part of that goal is to produce learners who have the capacity to assess their own progress
and make necessary learning adjustments. Therefore, in order for students to become
effective self-assessors, they must be given opportunities to learn and practice this skill,
and that falls within the domain of the classroom.
Self-assessment usually takes two general forms. The more common approach involves
the use of teacher-directed activities where students are required to check and exam-
ine their learning progress (McDonald & Boud, 2003). These activities are designed to
require students to review their work and determine what they have learned and what
areas are still unclear or confusing. The actual forms and activities will vary depending
on the developmental level of the students, but even the youngest students can begin to
review their own work (Towler & Broadfoot, 1992). Simple but useful self-assessment
activities can be embedded within the normal classroom routine. For example, consider
these easy-to-implement self-assessment activities for the classroom.
♦ Allow your students to review some of their assignments. They can score their own
work or the work of their classmates. Providing a checklist of the expected items,
answers, or required steps can help them recognize what is needed in order to per-
form at the highest levels (see the box “Math Scoring Checklist”).
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172 CHAPTER 7
MATH SCORING CHECKLIST
Multiplication: Three Digits by Two Digits

Make sure to show all your work when solving each problem.
417 300 143
×12 ×23 ×62
834 900 286
4170 6000 8580
5004 6900 8866
♦ Provide scoring rubrics to the students as an easy way of having them understand
what criteria are expected as part of a project or product. Also, include them in the
selection of the criteria for the project to increase their understanding of the assign-
ment and their connection to it (see the box “Math Performance Task”).
MATH PERFORMANCE TASK
Math Performance Task—Scoring Rubric
Data Analysis
Name:
Date:
Score Description
4 All attempted estimations accurate. Uses appropriate mathematical operations
with no mistakes. Draws logical conclusions supported by graphs. All explana-
tions are consistent with provided data.
3 Makes good estimations. Uses appropriate mathematical operations with few
mistakes. Draws logical conclusions supported by graphs. Most explanations
are consistent with provided data.
2 Attempts estimations, although many inaccurate. Uses inappropriate math-
ematical operations and evidences consistent mistakes in work. Draws no logi-
cal conclusions supported by graphs. Offers explanations but not related to
provided data.
1 All attempted estimations inaccurate. Uses inappropriate mathematical opera-
tions. Draws no conclusions related to graph. Offers no explanations of thinking.
0 No response/task not attempted.
SOURCE: Math Performance Scoring Rubric. Provided by Dr. Craig Mertler, University of West
Georgia. Reprinted with permission.
wit78704_ch07_166-190.indd 172 3/10/11 4:26 PM

♦ Provide examples of the products or performances the students are trying to com-
plete. Use past student work, preferably before the project is started, so that your
students can see how it met the expected criteria (Figure 7.1).
ART WORK PROJECT – PEN DOT ON PAPER
Performance Rubric
3 points: Strong collective use of line, shape, and space
must be evidenced in the construction. Work must
demonstrate the following qualities:
• Outline and contour of object(s) well defined
• Emotional response evoked in work
• Accurate shadow and texture demonstrated
• Obvious three-dimensional quality to the work
• Appropriate use and/or balance of positive and
negative space
• Creative/unique integration of design and form
2 points: Adequate use of line, shape, and space with
only four of the six qualities demonstrated in the work.
1 point: Marginal use of line, shape, and space with no
more than two of the six qualities demonstrated in the
work.
FIGURE 7.1 ART PERFORMANCE RUBRIC

♦ Embed self-review activities within the classroom assignments themselves. This
could involve a ref lection log, a weekly self-evaluation, or a simple reminder to
have the student check and acknowledge his or her progress at that point in the
instruction (see the box “Science Ref lection Log”). This is one of the most com-
mon ways that self-assessment is integrated into a lesson.
SCIENCE REFLECTION LOG

Name: aDte:
Experiment conducted:
(continued)
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174 CHAPTER 7
Primary purpose of the experiment:
Steps that were completed:
General results/findings:
Interesting facts/observations learned by completing this experiment:
Questions that need further investigation:
♦ Hold whole class or small group discussions, along with scheduled student–teacher
interviews where certain products (e.g., pieces of writing, articles read) can be dis-
cussed. It really depends on the teacher and how he or she wants to incorporate
self-assessment training into the instruction.
♦ Use classroom exit slips, administered at the end of a class period, where students
anonymously respond to specific teacher-generated questions (e.g., “What did you
learn today?” “What are you still confused about?”). This is done in order to make
the students consciously aware of their present learning status, take stock of current
progress, and determine what must be continued or changed, if anything, to reach
the expected instructional outcomes. Exit slips can be administered as frequently as
every day if so desired.
Learning or progress checklists, involving the required actions that need to be completed for
a project, can also serve as learning guides and confirmation of instructional targets. Listing
assignments that must be finished, writing terms that must be recognized and defined,
completing the prescribed sequence of steps that need to be followed in order to solve a
problem or equation, or even locating specific battlefields on a map can provide a “connect-
the-dots” self-assessment that helps a learner determine whether or not the presented
material is really understood. For example, the checklist in Figure 7.2 enables the learner
to document the completion of various assignments and the corresponding knowledge/
skill sets they are connected to, as well as record personal comments about those assign-
ments. Progress checklists become arrays of essential items that need to be confirmed as
acquired and mastered; they serve as necessary “mile markers” throughout the completion
of a project or exercise. Through their use, students can quickly determine if they are still
on the expected instructional road and are heading in the right direction.
wit78704_ch07_166-190.indd 174 3/10/11 4:26 PM

Child’s Name: Alyssa

Subject: Nutrition Module Date: 3/24/XX
Completion Skill assessed Comments

Identification of the six types of This was informative. I learned a lot about
nutrients each one.
The use of the food pyramid This was great. I was able to get an
(MyPyramid Plan) individualized calorie plan based on my age,
gender, and activity level.
Determination of obesity and the Haven’t been able to get to equipment yet.
measurement of body fat
Nutritional analysis (calories, fat, Will go to my favorite restaurant next week.
carbohydrates, fiber, and sugar) of
two foods at a local restaurant
Identification of current fad diets This was very interesting and I recognized
some of these diets.
Recognition of eating disorders Haven’t covered this information yet.
and their characteristics
Impact nutrition has on overall Nutrition plays a big part in my health and
health and wellness wellness. I need to pay a lot more attention
to what I eat now and in the future.
FIGURE 7.2 HEALTH PROGRESS CHECKLIST
Whenever progress checklists are used, a note of caution is needed. It is not uncommon
for students, especially when they are not closely monitored or are first learning to self-
review, to just check off items or steps without really assessing their work or progress. It is
important to guide your students to ensure that appropriate time and attention is given to
the self-review process. Just as students who are caught running in the halls are requested
to come back and walk, providing a procedural structure and format that monitors the
students, yet allows them to methodically review their level of work (what still needs to be
done, what can be improved, etc.), is essential as part of the instructional process.
Based on how items on a checklist are structured, a review of general or specific
knowledge or skill sets can be conducted. For instance, imagine that your students are
reading a story, and they need to check their comprehension at various points through-
out. A self-assessment checklist could be created that requires each reader to ref lect upon
his or her comprehension by reviewing and answering questions that examine whether
specific strategies are being used (e.g., reading the summary or conclusion of the story
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176 CHAPTER 7
before it starts, completing plot and character predictions, rereading sections, or high-
lighting and notating significant events). Providing written summaries after each reading
that report the accurate sequence of events, main characters and their actions, and what
will likely happen in the forthcoming chapters could also be a part of the checklist.
Along with a comprehension check, basic information on general interest, motivation,
and progress satisfaction, as well as short- and long-term goals, could also be collected.
The design of the self-assessment activity should be individualized to the needs of the
instructional experience and what the instructor wants the students to acquire as part
of the experience (see the box “Self-Assessment Review of a Writing Portfolio”). With
repeated exposure to these kinds of activities, students can begin to generate their own
self-assessment activities, complete with the questions they want and need to answer dur-
ing an instructional activity.
This kind of instructional approach provides a planned opportunity for students to
check their immediate progress, as well as to acquire and refine a review habit that is inter-
nalized into a personal review process and system. This kind of activity can help “prime
the pump” and get students into the habit of checking their progress as they complete an
instructional activity. It forces a learner to critically ref lect on his or her current perfor-
mance level and determine what learning adjustments need to be made. The information
and insight that is collected through the ratings is usually perceptual data unless actual skill
analysis or determination activities are included within the self-assessment activity. Nev-
ertheless, this information can help provide a useful check of where the learner believes
he or she is relative to the provided instructional material. Moreover, the confirmation of
that awareness is critical for the learner to acknowledge throughout the acquisition of any
new material.
SELF-ASSESSMENT REVIEW
OF A WRITING PORTFOLIO
Pathways Home
In recent years, portfolios of student performance and products have gained support from
educators, who view them as a way to collect evidence of a student’s learning. For many
educators, portfolios are an attractive alternative to more traditional assessment methods.
The following instructions enable students to transform their reading notebook into a
portfolio in an attempt to make literature more challenging, integrated, and meaningful for
students. It engages the student in the investigation of a real-world problem by gathering and
sharing information, communicating ideas and fi ndings, refi ning perceptions, and creating
artifacts.
Portfolio Power
Turn your notebook into a portfolio by:
1. Arranging all your works of writing from most to least effective, including all evi-
dence of the writing process behind each fi nal draft.
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2. Reflecting on your two best works, and on a separate sheet(s) of paper for each work,
answering the following questions.
• What makes this your best (second best) work?
• How did you go about writing it?
• What problems did you encounter?
• How did you solve them?
• What goals did you set for yourself?
• How did you go about accomplishing them?
Place this evaluation of your process and product in front of each fi nal draft when
completed.
3. Answer these two questions on a single sheet(s) of paper at the front of your portfolio.
• What makes your most effective work different from your least effective work?
• What are your goals for future writing?
4. Including an illustrated Cover or Title Page and a Table of Contents at the beginning
of your portfolio.
Your self-evaluation of your two best works will be as important to your grade as the teach-
er’s assessment of your fi nal two drafts and their writing process. The teacher will also con-
sider the number of works in your portfolio, the range of styles, and your progress as a writer.
When students understand the criteria for good work before they begin a literacy activ-
ity, they are more likely to meet those criteria. The key to this understanding is to make the
criteria clear. As students evaluate their work, you may want them to set up their own crite-
ria for good work. Help them with the clarity of their criteria as they assess their own work.
Students’ observations and reflections can also provide valuable feedback for refi ning
strategies they use, thinking about their responses to fi nd out what they are really learning,
and to see if they are learning what you are teaching them.
SOURCE: info@ncrel.org. Copyright © North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. All rights
reserved. Reprinted with permission.
For some classes (e.g., communications, math) or school teams (e.g., debate, sports), a
performance review is likely integrated within the self-assessment practice of a student’s
performance. For instance, when preparing for an upcoming debate or public speech,
students can use a skills checklist along with their last videotaped speech. The video-
tape is reviewed by a student and examined based on a list of skills that must be dem-
onstrated during any speech. A comparable approach is followed with athletes or band
members as they review game films or taped musical performances. Self-assessment
activities require students to look at their performances and determine their functional
status at that time, as well as what they need to continue to improve upon. For that rea-
son alone, this approach has become very popular and effective for a variety of learning
situations.
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178 CHAPTER 7
Steps in the Process

The first step in the self-assessment process is providing awareness, knowledge, and expe-
rience, along with self-assessment activities within the classroom as part of the instruc-
tional routine. The second step is helping students develop the internal strategies they
need in order to independently monitor their learning progress as they complete an
activity. This often takes the form of an internal script, where specific steps are reviewed and
outlines are designed to address specific review components (see the box “Examples of Internal
Scripts”). The key objective of this approach is to encourage the independent monitoring
and progress review of each student.
EXAMPLES OF INTERNAL SCRIPTS

Learning Status Script
• Identify the activity and where you are in that activity.
• Have you just started, are you halfway through, or are you almost finished?
• Does this activity make sense? If not, ask for help from the teacher.
• Are you sure you know what to do? If not, ask for directions.
Work Completion Script

• What am I supposed to be able to do in this activity?
• Do I have the knowledge and skills to complete this activity?
• If yes, then go ahead. If not, talk with your teacher.
Monitoring Progress Script

• Are the tasks in the activity understandable? If so, that’s a good sign.
• If the tasks aren’t making sense, then ask for help.
• Do you know what the work/project is supposed to look like when you are finished?
Does your work look like the final product?
The script can also consist of specific questions that you want your students to ask after
a lesson has been presented or a learning activity has been completed (see the box “Basic
Learning Ref lection Questions”). However, responding to ref lection questions does require
a certain amount of uninterrupted time so that the students can respond to these questions.
BASIC LEARNING REFLECTION QUESTIONS

• What did I learn today?
• How well do I know the material?
• What if anything is still unclear?
• What do I still need help with?
• What am I going to work on next?
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A Progress Review Script

Constructed scripts, which can later be memorized as verbal checklists, can be followed
as a student continues through a lesson. At predetermined stopping points (e.g., halfway
through a lesson, at the end of the period, or after a specified amount of content has been
covered), a skill performance check can be completed in order to confirm a student’s
retention and understanding of the presented material. For example, consider the follow-
ing self-assessment questions.
♦ Did I really learn the material and content from the lesson?
♦ Can I execute the skills demonstrated within the lesson?
♦ Does my work match up with models or examples that were provided?
♦ What do I need to do to get better? Put in more effort? Practice? Get additional
instructional help?
♦ How often do I need to monitor my learning progress?
Any set of questions (usually two or more) can constitute a script, and questions within
a script can vary depending on the learning focus and situation. For instance, consider
these possible questions for your own script.
© GeoStock/Photodisc/Getty Images
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180 CHAPTER 7
♦ Could I teach what I learned today to someone else?

♦ Can I make connections between what I learned today and other lessons?
♦ How does what I learned today apply to the real world?
♦ How can I add this learning to what I already know?
♦ How can I use this information in a new and creative way?
♦ What do I need to work on and practice?
♦ Did I improve today?
♦ Can I demonstrate that now?
♦ What am I not understanding?
♦ Why do I not understand this?
Beyond the specific self-assessment measures that are directly connected to a lesson,
the development and use of a written or verbal review script, complete with progress
questions, is highly recommended. As valuable as a script can be for students, it is impor-
tant to realize that the most important goal is to provide planned time in order for them
to examine their progress and acquire the knowledge and skills that they are missing or
have incomplete mastery of (Chappuis & Chappuis, 2008).
THE STUDENT AS PROGRESS

MANAGER
When learning something new, just like when traveling, it’s important to know the start-
ing and ending points, as they serve as important coordinates for the instructional path
that is followed. Of course, the path that is taken between those points constitutes the
real educational experience, and it’s essential to know if progress toward an identified
destination is truly being made. Teachers, because they are dedicated professionals, do
their best to make sure their students are engaged in meaningful learning and are con-
tinuing to move toward the desired educational outcomes. As this learning migration
occurs, teachers need to monitor the progress of students through various assessment
measures. However, attainment of learning objectives is a shared responsibility between
teacher and student. Students are responsible for obtaining the educational outcomes, and
teachers are responsible for providing the instruction and opportunities to acquire those
outcomes. Both must work together if genuine learner achievement and progress is to be
demonstrated. Consequently, if students are provided the opportunity to recognize these
learning points within a lesson, they can help track, review, and monitor their own prog-
ress along that educational path.
So how can your students begin to monitor their learning progress? They can start by
asking this fundamental question: “Have I learned the material (knowledge and skills)
that was presented in today’s and/or yesterday’s lesson?” By addressing this question,
learners are required to conduct an internal progress audit—a critical review and analysis
of their work so that they can determine how successful they were in regards to this key
wit78704_ch07_166-190.indd 180 3/10/11 4:26 PM

question. This question functions much like a bulls-eye found on an archery or shooting
range, in that it helps identify whether or not the learning “target” was hit and how close
to center the attempt was. This question can be addressed via an entry or exit slip and
can then be followed up with a quick daily journal entry, an oral response in class, or a
skill-check exercise that provides more objective evidence that, indeed, the material has
been learned.
In order to facilitate the internal review process, in-class activities can be structured
so that self-assessment review is produced as part of classroom work or projects. This
could involve peer-review activities, homework activities, or simple progress reviews
(e.g., classroom exit slips) that are completed. For instance, with exit slips, which are
completed before the students leave class, responses to learning review questions can be
checked for general comprehension and perceived competency.
Within the self-assessment process, basic components must be recognized, including
personal awareness, instructional knowledge, and learner control. Students must be able
to recognize and accept the responsibility that they are in control of reviewing their own
work, marking their actual progress, and using appropriate learning strategies, as well as
estimating what still needs to be done to reach the identified goals. Each student needs
to know that he or she is involved in a self-directed experience that is requiring them to
review and monitor their own learning progress.
In addition to awareness is the need to possess knowledge of learning strategies. Stu-
dents need to understand a variety of learning strategies and be able to connect them
with the right learning tasks. For example, memorizing information may work when
confronted with the introductory lesson on parts of the human cell, but when complet-
ing math problems, knowing and following operational steps to solve computation-based
problems will be required. Students need to have as many learning tools as possible so that
they can apply them to the various learning needs experienced in the classroom setting.
SELF-ASSESSMENT AND STUDENT FEEDBACK

An assessment practice that some teachers employ as part of their instructional routine is
the use of exit slips (Figure 7.3). Exit slips are typically half-sheets of paper that list specific
teacher-generated questions that students are asked to answer anonymously (usually) before they leave
class. Since this is done at the end of class, a few key questions are listed so that they can be
completed before the class is dismissed.
The selection of the questions is completely up to the instructor. Usually they are
focused on getting feedback on how well the students are learning the presented material.
Questions can be constructed so the students rate their progress or comfort level in order to
provide a little more precision and specificity to the responses. This information is impor-
tant to teachers because they need to make sure that the students are learning and heading
toward the desired lesson targets, and if they’re not, the teacher needs to make necessary
adjustments, like re-teaching certain topics or reviewing earlier material, so that the learn-
ing progress of the students can be reestablished.
(continued)
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182 CHAPTER 7
More importantly, the questions require students to complete a quick self-check of their
own understanding of the presented material. Many teachers also include a statement that
has the students rate or respond to how effective the day’s activities or lessons were. This
important addition on the exit slip represents a small but meaningful attempt on the teach-
er’s part to self-assess the instructional impact of the lesson that was provided at that time.
If this information is collected on a regular basis, then a consistent source of student feed-
back on instruction over an extended period of time can be obtained. Getting this kind of
information and feedback is clearly important, since it is good to know how the instruction
is progressing in the estimation of those who matter the most. We must not forget the fact
that teachers are “educational performance artists,” and because of that, it is important to
perform well in order to reach that critical student audience.
EXIT SLIP
1. What is still confusing about the material that was covered in

class today? ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
2. What was the most useful information or skill that you got from
class today? ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3. On a scale from 1 to 5 (1=learned nothing to 5=learned a lot),

put down the number that shows how much you learned in
class today. _________________________________________
FIGURE 7.3 EXIT SLIP
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One of the most important aspects of self-assessment is the idea that students have
control over their learning process. Internally-driven statements such as “Do I under-
stand what I just read?” or “Does this information connect with what I learned earlier?”
serve as important verbal prompts in the learning review process. Personal control serves
an important “office manager” function for a learner, whereby the learning actions are
organized, reviewed, managed, and implemented.
Along with the process of self-assessment, students need to understand and demonstrate
basic skills in monitoring their progress so they can demonstrate their knowledge. For
example, one simple but effective way to show progress is by collecting relevant data (e.g.,
Spanish vocabulary words read) and then presenting that evidence (e.g., colored columns or
pie charts that represent the percentage of number of words correctly defined and/or enun-
ciated) so accuracy can be demonstrated during one or more learning checks. Videotaping
a demonstration of a skill or providing independent ratings on a specific piece of work over
time could also serve as useful progress evidence. With self-assessment comes the need to
monitor and record current as well as future performances. The collected information pro-
vides the basis for adjustments that may be necessary as part of the learning event.
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
SELF-ASSESSMENT IN A THIRD-GRADE CLASSROOM

In Mrs. Oliver’s third-grade classroom, self-assessment is conducted on a daily basis. As
part of her daily instructional plan, a class activity is completed every morning. This entails
a general topic (e.g., life cycle and food chain) that is provided to the entire class along with
individual or small-group work that is directly connected to the presented topic. The topic
and content varies, but a class activity is provided each day. When the activity is finished,
the following form is completed by every student.
Name: Date:
1. What did I learn during the class activity?
2. What did I make in the class activity?
3. What do I need to practice?
4. What do I need from my teacher?
The student responses are collected and reviewed by Mrs. Oliver during recess. These
questions are designed to provide feedback to the individual students and the teacher, as
well as to facilitate and further develop the students’ writing and self-expression skills. This
is a quick and useful procedure that is easily embedded within the instructional delivery of
the class activity. It also can become a memorized mental script, with classroom support,
that can guide a student as he or she completes other assignments.
After reviewing the responses, Mrs. Oliver uses the collected information to ask follow-
up questions before the next class activity, or to provide additional teaching on the subject
if the student responses suggest that is needed. She considers this assessment process essen-
tial to the class activity format.
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184 CHAPTER 7
Self-assessment can be found in a wide variety of human venues and endeavors. An

established musician completes a self-review process while practicing a piece of music.
A singer does as well. So do teachers, actors, parents, corporate executives, waitresses,
cooks, or any other professionals you can think of. We all need to be aware of ourselves
during an event, as well as our relative status and progress relative to that event. This is a
critical aspect of effective learning that moves individuals from the status of novice to a
more advanced or independent performance level.
Self-assessment is also evident on the domestic front. For example, balancing your
checkbook is self-assessment in action, and the target is that you must continuously, and
accurately, assess and evaluate your current financial status and resources. This involves
making purchases, recording deposits, and managing incoming bills and debts, while
constantly monitoring your balance so that your account doesn’t become overdrawn.
Managing money is a continuous performance event for most of us, because it requires
constant review, analysis, and progress monitoring of our finances, and self-review is
essential if this is to become an effective life skill.
The following activity will require you to engage in a brief review and self-assessment
of your own mental health. Sound interesting? Let me explain further. As a psychologist,
I meet with various groups (e.g., teachers, administrators, students) and provide training
or in-service activities on various subjects, and one of those subjects is mental health in
the schools.
As a new teacher, imagine that you are attending one of these mental health presenta-
tions. In that presentation I would inform you that:
The most important step is the first one. In regards to mental health, that’s the rec-
ognition of the importance of mental health and its impact on daily functioning and
quality of life. Along with this recognition of importance goes the determination of
finding out where each individual falls on the mental health continuum (Witte, 2006,
p. 155).
The message here is that everyone must be as mindful and aware of their mental health
as they are of their physical health, and that is especially important for teachers, because
a strong mental health foundation is necessary if you are to be effective in helping others.
In regards to that awareness, a mental status report card like the one provided in Table
7.1 is designed to serve as a quick snapshot of your current mental health. Please recog-
nize that this mental health “picture” is ever-changing; just like your physical health
can and does change, so too does your mental health. Mental health is not a permanent
acquisition, but a condition that is relative and dependent on current events and issues.
With that nonpermanent status understood, I find that people genuinely want to know
more about mental health and about the resources that they possess and can develop in
their continual quest for a solid mental health foundation.
So let’s use the report card and, based on the past six months, provide the grade you
think you should receive for each of the provided items. For example, if your emotional
status and well-being is (has been) very strong (e.g., you are in general happy, enjoying
life, and coping well with life’s challenges), then you are likely in the A or B categories
and need to decide which grade best ref lects your status. Of course, for this exercise to be
useful, you will need to be as truthful and forthright as possible.
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TABLE 7.1 MENTAL HEALTH CHECKLIST

GRADES:
A—Excellent (highest performance level)
B—Good (strong, better than expected performance level)
C—Acceptable (adequate performance level)
D—Unacceptable (below expected performance level)
Mental Status Report Card Grade

Emotional well-being (i.e., stable and happy across most
life situations and settings)
Physical ealth
h
Standard of living and contentment with lifestyle
Home life (i.e., stable, consistent)
Satisfaction with job or school
Healthy iet
d
Exercise outine
r
Sleep routine (8 hours or more a night)
Personal success (i.e., general contentment with life
path, accomplishments, challenges)
Personal image (i.e., how you see and value yourself
both internally and externally)
Personal satisfaction/intimacy (i.e., personal connection
with significant others or other living things [e.g., pets])
Personal outlook (i.e., belief system that guides/directs
your approach to life events)
After reviewing the items on the report card, what grades did you give yourself? Were
strong grades listed across the board or did it depend on the item? If several low grades
were generated, then what does that mean, if anything, for you? In particular, low grades
can serve as personal focus points where more attention and examination is required in
these important life domains.
As you have probably already determined, there is no official mental health report
card. Nevertheless, as reported in Witte (2006), “the important message here is that
some standard(s) of mental health review and status is needed”(p. 157). The focus of
self-assessment is for each individual learner to recognize and set learning goals and out-
comes, review his or her learning progress, and provide the necessary learning adjust-
ments that may be needed in order to obtain the desired outcomes.
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186 CHAPTER 7
SELF-ASSESSMENT BEGINS WITH THE

TEACHER
It is important to recognize that self-assessment is not an innate behavior or an ability that
suddenly manifests itself; it is a learned skill. It can take the form of an educational gift if a
teacher is willing to seize the opportunity. Since this process requires active instruction, and
given the powerful effects of modeling on learning new behaviors, teachers are in a tremen-
dous position to demonstrate to their students the utility and effectiveness of self-assessment.
This can be done through the personal use of self-assessment practices within the daily rou-
tine of the classroom. Self-assessment should function as a two-way street in the classroom.
It’s a process that can directly help students, but it’s also there to help teachers.
Consider the self-assessment questions that were generated as part of a written script.
Students can clearly benefit from asking these kinds of questions about their progress.
These questions can also apply to the teacher, with some minor modifications. Exam-
ine the questions in the following box. The first question in each set is the question the
learner could ask, followed by the corresponding question that the teacher could ask in
regards to his or her teaching performance.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS

Learner: What am I supposed to learn from the readings or lessons?
Teacher: Am I effectively teaching the content, and does it align with the
intended outcomes and goals identified with this lesson?
Learner: What must be learned and by when?
Teacher: Are my students demonstrating the expected outcomes within the
time expectations of the lessons?
Learner: Did I really learn the knowledge and content from the lessons?
Teacher: Am I confident that all my students understand the content from the
lessons?
Learner: Can I execute the skills demonstrated within the lessons?
Teacher: Am I confident that all my students can accurately demonstrate the
skills that have been presented within the lessons?
Learner: Does my work match up with models or examples that are provided?
Teacher: Am I providing clear and meaningful learning examples for my students?
Learner: What do I need to do to get better? Put in more effort? Practice? Get additional
instructional help?
Teacher: What can I do to make my instruction more meaningful for my stu-
dents? What content and/or skills still require more instructional time, practice,
additional experiences, etc.?
wit78704_ch07_166-190.indd 186 3/10/11 4:26 PM

Learner: How often do I need to review and monitor my progress?

Teacher: What checking system am I going to use to review my teaching effec-
tiveness, as well as confi rm that my students’ progress is genuine?
The questions in the preceding box serve as examples and are provided to help edu-
cators start to develop their own self-assessment process. The self-ref lective process is a
genuine attempt to objectively and systematically review what has transpired and then
identify what has worked, as well as recognize what still requires additional effort and
practice. This is an essential skill for anyone who desires to reach the highest levels of his
or her profession, and that includes teaching.
After reading this chapter you may still be asking yourself if this self-assessment
instruction is really necessary. Quite honestly, it’s one of the most important things you
can do for yourself and the students you teach. Involving yourself in professional self-
ref lection and review by addressing questions like these can only enhance your pedagogy
and effectiveness with your students. More importantly, in modeling this process and
providing orchestrated learning opportunities for your students to learn and practice self-
assessment strategies, they can then acquire self-review skills that can be used regardless
of the learning situation, content, or grade level.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
In the Chapter Activity, awareness of self-assessment was examined along with the devel-
opment of a basic student review script. Now consider the same activity for yourself. As a
teacher, what general or standard statements should be part of your own personal review
script? Consider the self-assessment questions that were just discussed as potential review
points for your script. Also, how would you go about monitoring and evaluating your
self-assessment practices? Provide a list of activities you would follow to ensure that you
are engaged in instructional review and that collected evidence is used in the continuous
improvement of your teaching.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Self-assessment is a learned skill, acquired and refined by way of instructional opportuni-
ties, that requires the learner to maintain a self-monitoring review of his or her learning
progress, as well as determine what individual adjustments, if any, are needed throughout
the instructional experience. Progress monitoring is necessary because learners need to
possess accurate performance checks of their progress relative to the learning outcomes
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188 CHAPTER 7
or targets that are connected to daily instruction. Self-assessment of learning progress is

a learned skill that students in the classroom need to possess, and educators are in a key
position to provide and model this essential instruction (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990).
There are clear short- and long-term benefits of this skill acquisition. The short-term
benefit is that students are reviewing their learning progress during the lesson. In addi-
tion, they are acquiring a mental habit that they can benefit from for the rest of their
lives. Both outcomes require that self-assessment skills be used and practiced in order to
become a permanent part of how they learn.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How can self-
assessment practices be integrated into the daily instructional routine of the classroom? In
order for self-assessment to exist in the classroom setting, it must be directly taught and
modeled to the students in the same way any academic content or specific process skills
would be taught as part of a lesson. It must be recognized as part of the standard class-
room curriculum and as such must have instructional time devoted to it. As the teacher,
you must decide when and how that instruction should take place.
Along with providing an opportunity for students to learn and practice effective self-
assessment techniques, the importance of the teacher serving as a role model in regards to
self-assessment practice cannot be understated. Teachers can acquire tremendous insight
from their own self-ref lection, and in addition, students benefit from the teacher’s per-
sonal experience and practice with the self-assessment process.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. Describe the role and function self-assessment will have in your classroom.
2. Explain how you would construct and insert self-assessment activities into your
daily or weekly lessons.
3. Explain how you would help your students develop and follow a self-assessment
script as they encounter new learning experiences in your classroom.
RESOURCES
An informative self-assessment reference is Dr. Lorna M. Earl’s book Assessment as Learn-
ing: Using Classroom Assessment to Maximize Student Learning (2003), published by Cor-
wit78704_ch07_166-190.indd 188 3/10/11 4:26 PM

win Press, Inc. This is a book that every teacher should own or have access to as part
of his or her professional library.
The Iowa Department of Education Web site at www.iowa.gov/educate provides useful
information on many forms of assessment, and it also provides direction on how stu-
dents can use assessment as part of the learning process. A number of specific programs
within the state that integrate student assessment practices within the curriculum are
listed and described. Click on “Student Assessment.”
Learning Point Associates at learningpt.org, which is associated with the North Central
Regional Educational Laboratory, provides a wealth of information for teachers on
various topics, including legislation, current practice issues, and testing and assess-
ment topics, as well as more specific resources for classroom assessment. Typing key
descriptors (e.g., “self-assessment,” “classroom assessment”) into the search box gener-
ates extensive lists of documents and potential classroom applications.
Edutopia (What Works in Education—The George Lucas Educational Foundation) at
www.edutopia.org provides a variety of assessment resources (e.g., articles, videos,
professional blogs). Typing “self-assessment” into the search box provides an extensive
list of useful articles, blog topics, and teacher modules on this subject.
REFERENCES
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Educa-
tion, 5(1), 7–74.
Boud, D. (2000). Sustainable assessment: Rethinking assessment for the learning society.
Studies in Continuing Education, 22(2), 151–167.
McDonald, B., & Boud, D. (2003). The impact of self-assessment on achievement: The
effects of self-assessment training on performance in external examinations. Assessment
in Education, 10(2), 209–220.
Ohio State Board of Education. (2007). Standards for Ohio educators. Retrieved from http://
www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/Templates/Pages/ODE/ODEDetail.aspx?page=3&TopicR
elationID=1269&ContentID=8561&Content=90022
Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning compo-
nents of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40.
Ross, J. A., & Bruce, C. D. (2007). Teacher self-assessment: A mechanism for facilitating
professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 146–159.
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190 CHAPTER 7
Ross, J. A., Hogaboam-Gray, A., & Rolheiser, C. (2002). Student self-evaluation in grade
5–6 mathematics: Effects on problem solving achievement. Educational Assessment, 8(1),
43–58.
Ross, J. A., Rolheiser, C., & Hogaboam-Gray, A. (1999). Effects of self-evaluation train-
ing on narrative writing. Assessing Writing, 6(1), 107–132.
Stiggins, R. J., Arter, J. A., Chappuis, J., & Chappuis, S. (2004). Classroom assessment for
student learning: Doing it right—using it well. Portland, OR: Assessment Training Insti-
tute, Inc.
Towler, L., & Broadfoot, P. (1992). Self-assessment in the primary school. Educational
Review, 44(2), 137–151.
Witte, R. (2006). Mental health management for educators and the children they teach.
In A. Wang (Ed.), Selected topics on educational psychology and school psychology (pp. 115–
190). Dalian, China: Liaoning Normal University Press.
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CHAPTER 8
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT:
CONFIRMING STUDENT
ACHIEVEMENT
KEY FOCUS
How can I generate the most effective summative assessments in my classroom?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Define summative assessment and its fundamental purpose for both students
and teachers.
♦ Acknowledge that how an assessment measure is used defines its purpose and
function in the classroom.
♦ Identify five guiding principles that need to be followed when constructing a
summative measure in the classroom.
♦ Distinguish appropriate test construction rules involved in test development,
implementation, and test completion review.
♦ Generate a summative test assessment incorporating different test item formats
designed to measure students' knowledge and cognitive processing skills.
♦ Apply effective assessment practices when constructing selected response and
constructed response items.
♦ Create and utilize a table of specifications to document content, knowledge, and
skill coverage when using a test as a summative assessment measure.
♦ Describe the use and benefit of student products as summative measures in
evaluating student learning and progress.
♦ Comprehend the value of reviewing summative assessment performances with
students.
191
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192 CHAPTER 8
Introduction
Summative assessment is the use of any measure whose primary role and purpose is to
confirm and formally recognize student learning accomplishments (Gronlund, 2006).
These assessments, whether they are performance checklists, classroom projects, or tests,
serve a critical role in the assessment of learning, where every student’s accumulated
progress is measured and documented. This is a necessary function that must be met.
Summative assessment should not overshadow the other assessment forms, but unfortu-
nately it often does. That typically happens due to an inf lated importance that is placed
on it by the user (e.g., educators, administrators, legislators, the general public). If done
well, the learning effects from all assessment avenues, including formative and self-
assessment, enable students to perform at the highest levels possible, which is hopefully
demonstrated on official summative measures. Due to several issues, including time limi-
tations, ease of administration and content coverage, and other related factors, tests and
comprehensive exams are often the preferred measure in the formal assessment of student
work in the classroom.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
There are few situations associated with as much anxiety, dread, and unpleasantness as
taking a test. We all have personal feelings and memories associated with taking tests in
school. If you asked a random group of students at any grade level what their least favorite
thing to do in school is, the most likely answer would be “taking a test.”
The reality is that it doesn’t have to be that way. We as educators often maintain this
educational perception. There is nothing inherent in the act of responding to and complet-
ing a test that makes it universally unpleasant. The attitudes and expectations of educators
and students toward testing have more to do with how we prepare (or more often don’t
prepare), present, and implement a testing experience.
For this activity, a quick check of your testing memories is needed in order to identify
common elements or characteristics that made one testing experience “good” and another
one “bad.” What specific actions, procedures, or experiences produced a positive experi-
ence, compared to a negative, intolerable memory? Although the majority of your testing
experiences might be negative, you probably have a few positive testing memories. Write
down your recollections and examine the qualities that contributed to making it a positive
or negative experience. If possible, compare your responses with those of your classmates.
Are there common themes and experiences? If so, what are they? Do the collective findings
make sense? Are there any surprises? Why or why not?
As you review your list, examine the items for both positive and negative experiences
and determine which were directly controlled by the teacher (e.g., test review and practice)
and which were under your control as the student (e.g., amount of time spent studying for
the exam, personal attitude and motivation). In retrospect and now through the lens of a
professional educator, do you believe your teachers did an effective job of preparing you
and your classmates for the tests that you encountered? Why or why not? Also, as a student,
did you do an effective job of preparing for tests in the classroom?
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SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: CONFIRMING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT 193
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
CONSTRUCTION
Every educator wants to be effective in his or her teaching, and that also applies to the
use of summative assessments. Unfortunately, there is not a quality meter that can be
scanned over a test or other summative measure to indicate whether it is good or average
or just plain bad. Following sound assessment practices, however, will increase the likeli-
hood that a measure will be able to do what it is intended to do, and that is to accurately
measure the learning progress and achievement of students based on the lesson outcomes
and instructional material that is covered.
As you begin to investigate the material in this chapter, it is important to recog-
nize and understand that technically any selected measure (e.g., rubric, project, portfolio,
experiment, test) can be used as a summative or formal evaluative measure of student
work. As mentioned previously, the nature and function of an assessment is determined
by its intended purpose. If a rubric is designed to review a final project and that project
serves as a formal evaluation of a student’s learning, then that rubric functions as a sum-
mative assessment.
On the other hand, if a test (which is usually viewed and used as a summative assess-
ment) is administered to provide formative feedback to students, then it is by design not
a summative measure, and the student responses are not evaluated or graded. An assess-
ment measure can serve a variety of purposes; it is dependent upon how the teacher iden-
tifies the purpose and function of the assessment. The rubric in Table 8.1 can certainly
function as a summative assessment; it just has to be used in that fashion by the teacher.
For example, after reading Animal Farm by George Orwell in class, each eighth-grade
student is required to produce several written reports, one of which is a three-page,
double-spaced report on the main characters in that book. The reports are judged on the
established rubric, and points are connected to each of the ratings (rating of 4 = 10 points,
rating of 3 = 8 points, rating of 2 = 6 points, and rating of 1 = 4 points). These points,
TABLE 8.1 CHARACTER ANALYSIS RUBRIC

4 Story characters are described in explicit detail. Insightful understanding and analysis
of physical characteristics as well as personality traits, motivations, and interactions is
shown. Includes numerous, relevant examples from text as supporting evidence.
3 Story characters are described in moderate detail. Adequate understanding of physical
characteristics as well as personality traits, motivations, and interactions is shown.
Includes some relevant examples from text as supporting evidence.
2 Story characters are described with few details. Minimal understanding of physical
characteristics as well as personality traits, motivations, and interactions is shown.
Examples may be either irrelevant or off-topic.
1 Incomplete understanding of main characters. Little or no understanding of personality
traits, motivations, or interactions is shown. Examples are missing and/or irrelevant.
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194 CHAPTER 8
along with points accumulated from the other required reports, are added together to
produce a grade that is used to describe the quality of each student-produced work.
With the understanding that any assessment measure can serve different assessment
purposes and functions, tests, to a considerable degree, are used as formal summative
measures in most classroom settings. But what exactly is a classroom test and what is its
function? In regards to a working definition, a classroom test consists of a collection of
items that are designed to measure and evaluate a learner’s skills, knowledge, general performance,
or other capabilities as they relate to the content and lesson objectives that are covered as part of the
instructional process. A classroom test typically serves as a formal assessment of your stu-
dents, and this work is usually graded and evaluated through some standard procedures
within the school district. The selection of the test items and the creation of the test itself
are typically completed by the teacher; however, preconstructed subject and skill tests
and exams are also commercially available and used in the classroom. These tests may
include chapter reading tests as part of a reading program or tests provided with specific
textbooks that cover material within specific chapters.
Commercial package programs that accompany textbooks or certain academic series
programs (e.g., reading and math) can be very appealing and useful, as content and chap-
ter tests are often provided as part of the programs from the publisher. However, it is
extremely important to make sure the test items align with the content that is actually
taught and the instructional objectives that are covered. If that alignment doesn’t exist,
clearly students would not be tested on the material and skills that were provided in their
lessons in the classroom. The teacher is ultimately responsible for ensuring that instruction-
learning-assessment alignment exists no matter what form an assessment might take or
whether measurement material is personally constructed or borrowed from a commercial
provider.
Generating effective summative assessments is essential, and teachers are responsible
for the construction of assessments that will be used to directly measure the learning gains
of their students. As you begin to develop your knowledge and experience constructing
summative assessments, it is important to identify the rules, guidelines, and operating
procedures that you will follow. As you begin this professional journey, consider some
basic rules that will help guide the construction of your summative assessment foundation.
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
THE UNPOPULAR TRUTH

If a poll was taken in a nearby school district and teachers were asked to identify the least
desired activities associated with teaching, it is likely test construction would be at the top
of the list. This is unfortunate, as testing should be on the most desired activities list, since
confirmation of student learning is one of the most gratifying experiences for a teacher.
There are several reasons that contribute to this “undesired” mindset.
When teachers envision the teaching process, they rarely consider the work involved in
the measurement of student progress as part of the package, or at least as part of the dynamic
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teaching–learning experience. Also, the measurement of student progress has been treated
as a secondary subject matter that teachers should probably know something about, but has
not been stressed as central to effective teaching. Some teachers even believe that assessment
of student progress actually interferes with the design and delivery of a lesson and its impact
on students. Others contend that assessment is not the responsibility of teachers. More rea-
sons could be provided, but the reality is that these perceptions are inaccurate and outdated
and hold no value for any teacher who is teaching in today’s classrooms.
The practical truth, supported by an ever-growing research base, is that assessment
maintains a critical role in the implementation of effective instruction and the documenta-
tion of student learning progress (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 1991; Black
& Wiliam, 1998a; Bloom, 1984; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986), particularly in the area of reading
(Fuchs, 1998; Fuchs, Deno, & Mirkin, 1984; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Ferguson, 1992;
Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Stecker, 1991; Fuchs, Hamlett, Stecker, & Ferguson, 1988).
Without a well-designed evidence-based assessment system in the classroom, you have only
a teacher performing in front of a group; there is no verification that students are really
learning what they need to learn. Consequently, assessment mechanisms and procedures
must be in place if a systematic and reliable approach in the monitoring of student progress
is to be established.
As teachers, we want to believe that we are good at what we do and that students benefit
from their learning activities. However, the condition of being a good teacher and positive
student learning outcomes are not necessarily related. As Airasian and Russell (2008) point
out, there is a critical difference between good teaching and effective teaching. A teacher
can demonstrate essential qualities and practices (e.g., participates in instructional prepara-
tion, evidences a caring demeanor toward students, maintains strong organization skills,
knowledgeable in content area) that are recognized as good teaching. Those qualities are
desired, but that shouldn’t be the ultimate goal. The goal is to be an effective teacher, which
is someone who can demonstrate and document that students are truly acquiring the skills
that they are expected to learn (as evidenced through the collection of student data). Since
the confirmation of student learning is most often demonstrated through the use of summa-
tive activities and performances, every teacher must be skilled in the selection or construc-
tion of summative assessment measures.
Assessment Construction Procedures

When putting together and selecting a summative measure (a traditional test will serve as
the example), it is essential to plan and organize the assessment procedures. And although
the construction focus is on a test, the following procedures would apply to any measurement that
is being used as a summative assessment. To start with, as you construct the test framework
and decide on the items or tasks that will make up the test, it is important to confirm that
basic assessment actions have occurred. In particular, review the following procedures
and see how they fit into your construction process. When you have completed your
review, see if there are any other procedures you would add to the list.
1. As the instructor, you need to be clear about what you want to accomplish with
your summative assessment, and make sure your students are also aware of what
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196 CHAPTER 8
© Getty Images
they are supposed to know and be able to demonstrate as part of their testing per-
formance. You need to make sure the items or tasks, whatever form they take
(e.g., essay, multiple choice, rubrics, checklist), match up with the intended objec-
tives of the lessons or chapters that are covered. Whether test items are generated
by you or through a commercial testing bank, you must ensure that the response
items, whether selected or constructed in design, clearly align with the instruc-
tional objectives of the material that has been covered.
2. The skill and performance levels (i.e., Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy) that will be
measured with the summative assessment need to be identified before the assess-
ment is administered. Both the knowledge levels and cognitive processes need to
be identified, and as the instructor you must ensure that the material has been
taught and practiced at these levels as part of the daily classroom instruction. For
example, if a test on some introductory material is constructed, it is likely that
the more basic skill levels (e.g., remembering, understanding, application) will be
emphasized in the test items, compared to higher-order cognitive processing skills,
and that may be desired and appropriate. However, higher-level skills can and
should be measured with some items, usually essay questions within a test format,
so that an appropriate skill performance balance is demanded from the students.
Also, students need to be familiar with and practice using the measurement forms
that appear in the summative measures (e.g., responding to essay questions prior to
a formal test).
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3. A variety of selected and constructed response items should be considered if a test

is selected as the summative assessment. This should be done for a number of rea-
sons. First, the lesson objectives and desired student outcomes will likely necessitate
several different response formats. For instance, if higher-level processing skills are
directly connected to lesson outcomes, then student-generated responses (e.g., essay
questions, performance items) connected with questions that require those skills
should be used. In addition, if recognition and comprehension learning targets are
identified, selected response items such as multiple-choice questions or matching
can be very useful in measuring those skills across a broad range of content. Also, a
variety of test items help to create an unbiased testing field in regards to assessment
practice. If a test is constructed with only multiple-choice items, the probability of
success is lessened for those students who have little confidence with this test item
type, or who don’t do well with reviewing and selecting from multiple responses.
When using a variety of items, the difficulty of responding to a certain item type,
whether real or imagined, is minimized by the opportunity to respond to the other
item formats in the test.
4. Also, it is essential that the test directions and each test question are clear to any
reader. Along with appropriate readability and clarity, there must be adequate time
to complete the test. If time limitations do exist, you need to make sure to include
only the number of items that can be reasonably finished within those time limits.
You want to create a test where you obtain the best and most complete performance
effort from a student and where time does not improperly limit that performance.
5. As the instructor, you must accept the reality that time and effort are always neces-
sary in developing any comprehensive summative assessment measure. Also, every
test or summative evaluation, no matter how well designed, can be improved. This
necessitates the practice of reviewing each and every test so that it can be strength-
ened and become even more effective in the future.
General Test Construction Rules

Good testing construction practices ref lect the use of sound measurement practices along
with good common sense. The creation of a test should involve the careful consideration
and selection of various items. Regardless of what items are used in a test (e.g., selected
and constructed responses), the following considerations at the various stages of the test
development process should be considered:
Test development:
♦ Ensure proper item coverage based on the covered goals and outcomes provided
during instruction.
♦ Utilize a table of specifications, discussed in Chapter 4 and mentioned again in this
chapter, to help identify the knowledge and cognitive processing levels and skills
that will be covered with the test, including a listing of the specific test items that
will cover the various knowledge and cognitive levels.
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198 CHAPTER 8
♦ Avoid unfamiliar item formats that the learners have not seen or answered before.
Learners should be familiar with every type of item used within the test they are
given. In order to help gain test item familiarity, use similar test items in practice
tests, formative quizzes, or other instructional activities prior to the administration
of a summative test.
♦ After the instruction is completed, but prior to the administration of the test, gen-
erate a test review that provides an accurate and complete review of the test mate-
rial to ensure your students are fully prepared for the examination. The value of
the test (i.e., how many points it is worth) and the point values of the various test
items should be provided (e.g., 1 point for true-false items; 2 points for multiple-
choice items).
Test construction:
♦ All test items should be clear and concise and excess words or phrases avoided.
Make sure each test item question ref lects one complete idea and one response
from the student. Each test item must be fully understandable and independent
from every other test item.
♦ A variety of test item types (e.g., multiple choice, essay, matching, true-false) should
be considered and incorporated within a test, if at all possible. This helps eliminate
any construction bias in favor of one type of test response item. For example, if
most of the test items are essay questions, that would favor those students who have
confidence with this type of question or possess strong writing skills versus those
who do not.
♦ Clear and understandable directions need to be provided at the beginning of the
test.
♦ Questions should be constructed so they ref lect a singular statement or topic and
should not be designed to mislead the reader. Test questions need to accurately
determine if someone knows specific information or can perform a certain skill
set. Test questions should not be constructed with confounding words or misdi-
rections. Intentionally misleading or “trick” questions only serve to increase the
anxiety and insecurities of the students and serve no valid measurement purpose.
♦ If selected response items are used (e.g., multiple choice), make sure to provide
appropriate responses or alternatives for each question. For example, if a ques-
tion requires the students to identify the largest planet in the solar system, provide
names of real planets and do not provide responses that are not related to the sub-
ject matter.
♦ Provide the number of questions that can be completed based on the amount of
time that is available to the student. If a majority of selected response questions are
being used, less time would be required, compared to a test that possesses a consid-
erable number of essay questions. Typically, test items require at least one to two
minutes for students to read, understand, and formulate an answer.
♦ If constructed response items such as short answer or essay questions have higher point
values relative to other test items, indicate that value next to each of the questions.
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VERBAL EXAMINATIONS AND CONFIRMATION OF LEARNING

When educators develop summative assessments, structured tests with specific questions
requiring written responses are often selected. Teachers point out, and rightly so, that cor-
roborating evidence of a student’s performance is obtained. However, this approach is not
always necessary, or perhaps even most effective, in the confirmation of a student’s learn-
ing. Let’s take a look at how verbal examination is effectively used in Mr. Meyer’s honors
anatomy class.
In the middle of the first semester, Mr. Meyer’s students are required to learn all the
bones, sulci, fissures, joints, and other prominent skeletal structures of the human body.
This basic “human geography” knowledge is essential, as the students must locate and
identify particular structures during animal dissections and other anatomical activities
throughout the remainder of the school year. To confirm whether or not these locations are
known and understood by his students, Mr. Meyer conducts verbal examinations with each
student and has them identify specific bones or structures located on bones within sections
of the body (e.g., arm region, hand, foot, backbone). He records each individual perfor-
mance on a prepared item checklist. He prefers a verbal summative examination approach
over a written test format since he contends that the students can’t guess the right answer,
and it is an effective way of accurately determining whether a student truly knows and can
identify these structures. He also reports that with this approach, the information is rarely
forgotten once it is learned. Although this approach involves more time, he believes it is
well worth it, and the students respond very positively to this teacher–learner performance
activity.
Verbal examinations are not as common today as the traditional written exam. However,
this approach clearly has a place and demonstrates effective utility for Mr. Meyer. Recog-
nizing that a wide range of measures are potentially useful in confirming student learning
is an important step for every teacher in the classroom. Moreover, each selected measure
needs to fit into the overall assessment process that is implemented in the classroom.
Test implementation:
♦ Administer the test within one period or session if at all possible, as this will help to
ensure fair and uniform examination conditions. If more time is required, it is best
if additional time is provided immediately after the class period and not on a differ-
ent day.
♦ As was already mentioned, provide adequate time to complete the test and be avail-
able to provide any clarification of an item that may be requested by a student.
♦ Maintain a quiet classroom environment that is free of distractions so all students
can focus their attention on the demands of the test.
Test completion review:

♦ Examine the collective performance of the group to see what areas or content was
easy, as well as what the students had difficulty understanding.
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200 CHAPTER 8
♦ Complete an item analysis of the test, where each test item is examined relative
to the number of students who passed the item and the scoring or rating frequen-
cies that were evidenced for essay questions, and record your impression of stu-
dent responses and their general performance. Obtaining student impressions and
comments relative to test demands can be extremely valuable in the continued
improvement of a test.
♦ Learn from and improve upon test construction after each administration. Identify
what worked well and, more importantly, what did not. This review is invaluable
in the test construction process and for future examinations.
♦ Remember that well-stated test questions connected with clear directions contrib-
ute greatly to the validity of the test results and decisions that are made based on
those results.
Along with the good test construction practices listed above, educators must follow
sound test item construction practices. This involves the details of how to put together
effective test questions that require students to generate the desired knowledge or skills that
they are expected to learn as part of their instruction. Unfortunately, if tests are made up of
poorly constructed and unclear test items, students do not have a reasonable chance to show
what they have learned. In addition, teachers cannot make good educational decisions rela-
tive to their students because of ineffective or invalid test data. This condition must be
avoided; otherwise summative assessment is meaningless for both you and your students.
SELECTED AND CONSTRUCTED

RESPONSE ITEMS
Student-generated work, as measured by tests, fits well within the time and produc-
tion demands of the classroom setting; that is why teachers often select tests for their
summative assessments. In particular, two kinds of test items—selected and constructed
response—are typically used when making up a test. With selected response items, stu-
dents are required to identify the correct answer from a set of provided options. The
most common types of selected response test items include multiple choice, true-false,
and matching. The use of one or more of these test item types is common in classroom
tests across all grade levels. In the constructed response area, the most common types of
test questions are fill-in-blank, listing, short answer, and essay. With these items, no
specific response items or options are provided, as the respondent must generate or con-
struct the answer material to a question.
The different test item types allow for a variety of information to be collected and skills
to be measured. For example, if a large amount of information needs to be covered in a test,
selected response items are typically an efficient and effective way to collect evidence on the
information acquisition and retention of students. When the assessment of more in-depth
understanding and analysis is required, constructed response items are often effective. If the
test is examining the students’ integration of several information sets and skills, constructed
response methods such as classroom projects or authentic performances may prove useful.
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A variety of these measures are typically used based on the skills being developed as well
as the teacher’s knowledge, experience, and comfort with classroom assessment measures.
Student-generated products are highly desirable and necessary to document student
learning progress, but it is important to select the items that most effectively demonstrate
that they have acquired the knowledge and skills of that lesson. In essence, the teacher
needs to select the best assessment and evidence collecting measures for the job. In order
for teachers to do this, they must first become familiar with the various methods that are
used to document student work. Let’s start with well-recognized selected response items
that are commonly used in documenting learning progress.
Selected Response: Multiple Choice

Multiple-choice questions are commonly found in tests and quizzes across most subject
areas. This item type has become so popular because a full range of content and responses
(e.g., low-level knowledge to higher-level application, analysis, and evaluation questions)
can be designed and evaluated within this format. As reported in Popham (2008), there
are basically two types or forms of multiple-choice questions: (1) the direct question form
that requires the respondent to select the best answer from the provided responses, and
(2) the incomplete statement form that is constructed so the learner needs to identify the
correct answer.
A multiple-choice item is made of a stem, which serves as the primary question or state-
ment, and is followed by a set of provided alternatives or responses, usually a set of four,
which the learner selects from, and one of which is the correct answer to the question.
The others are wrong answers called distracters. Although a response set of four alterna-
tives is typically provided, the number can vary. If more responses are listed, the chances
of correctly guessing the answer is diminished, but providing a reasonable number of
plausible distracters should be the main consideration. Examine the following multiple-
choice question:
1. The area of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for interpreting auditory-based
information is the _________ lobe:
a. frontal
b. parietal
c. occipital
d. temporal
The previous question format represents the incomplete statement variety, as an item
option must be selected to finish the statement. Following is an example of the direct
question type:
2. Which of the following vegetables contains the most vitamin C?
a. eggplant
b. celery
c. bell pepper
d. pumpkin
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202 CHAPTER 8
Both approaches can be used to help measure your students’ knowledge and skills.
However, there are specific issues associated with multiple-choice items that must be
reviewed. To start with, the aforementioned questions contain only one correct answer
in the response sets, and most multiple-choice questions are designed that way. A best-
answer approach can also be used, where theoretically all the alternatives can be correct
to some extent but one answer is the strongest response based on the test question. For
example, consider the following item:
3. Which of the following is the best predictor of future student achievement in
college?
a. ACT score
b. SAT score
c. parental education level
d. past academic performance
e. extracurricular involvement
All of the listed answers are recognized factors that are connected to predicting school
achievement; however, the strongest predictor of current and future academic perfor-
mance is past academic performance.
Multiple-choice items are popular and effective, and for good reason. They are rela-
tively fast and easy to score, and a moderate number of items can potentially cover a large
amount of information and content. One of the greatest advantages is that these items
can be constructed to evaluate a wide range of cognitive processes (e.g., retention and
knowledge-based responses to questions that involve application and analysis skills). On
the down side, since the answer is provided in the set of options, it is possible for stu-
dents to guess, without any actual knowledge or acquired skill, and correctly identify the
answer from the listed responses.
Multiple-Choice Test Items: Dos and Don' ts

Please keep the following practices in mind when constructing multiple-choice questions
for an assessment.
♦ When constructing test items, it is best to generate the constructed question or
statement in a positive form in order to enhance the comprehension and general
reading f low of the item.
♦ If a negative is used in a test item, it should be clearly identified (e.g., capitalized
and bolded) and placed at the end of the question if at all possible. For example,
consider how this item effectively uses the negative condition:
1. All of the following are recognized as diagnostic symptoms of Alzheimer’s
dementia EXCEPT for:
a. memory impairment
b. apraxia
c. seizure activity
d. problems in executive functioning
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♦ Make sure the answer responses make grammatical sense when paired with the
question stem so that all alternatives present logical responses.
♦ Avoid the use of the articles “a” or “an” at the end of the stem, as these can provide
unwarranted clues as to the correct answer based solely on grammatical accuracy.
♦ When constructing responses or alternatives, make sure all the responses are possi-
ble and are connected to the content. They need to be viewed as legitimate answers
to the question.
♦ Varying the word length of the responses is necessary, since in general longer
answers tend to be correct, and test-wise students often identify this trend. Pro-
viding correct answer responses that alternate between short, moderate, and long
word length can help minimize this tendency.
♦ General test construction wisdom dictates that certain alternative responses should
be carefully reviewed and in some cases avoided. For example, the response “all of
the above” is not an effective option, due to the fact that if more than one of the
presented responses can be determined to be true, the “all of the above” response
becomes the obvious answer. If present, this response option can artificially inf late
the passage rate of an item while having little to do with genuine knowledge on
the student’s part. On the other hand, the “none of the above” response can and
should be used when it is desirable in order to increase the difficulty level of the
item. This response requires the learner to examine and eliminate all remaining
item responses as being invalid, which may be necessary for the design of some
test items.
♦ Regarding the test item response pattern, it is important as the test constructor to
make sure that correct responses are randomly alternated in regards to the listed
position across the items that are used in a test. Each letter used in the response
should demonstrate approximately the same percentage of use across the entire test.
Also, never intentionally embed a specific pattern or try to spell out words with
the letters of the responses (e.g., 1. b, 2. a, 3. d). This provides potential clues to the
learner that should not exist.
♦ Make sure no item is dependent upon the answer of another item. Each item should
remain independent. The items can address a common topic or theme (e.g., the life
of Leonardo da Vinci), but the test items must remain distinct from each other.
Selected Response: True-False

Binary choice items are test items that have only two possible response options and are often
used in classroom tests. Different response sets (e.g., true-false, pass-fail, yes-no, correct-
incorrect, right-wrong) may exist, but they are essentially the same type of item. The
true-false response set is the most widely recognized of the different variations.
With a true-false item, the learner is faced with a straightforward challenge: deter-
mine whether the provided declarative statement is true or not. True-false items are most
often used and effective when only two possible response options exist. For example, a
common setup determines the accuracy of a fact (e.g., the American Civil War started
on April 12, 1861), whether a certain rule applies or not, whether a quality is present or
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204 CHAPTER 8
not, or some other condition that can be judged as either correct or incorrect. True-false
items are easy to score, and due to their concise nature, a large number of items covering
a considerable amount of material can be embedded within most tests.
However, there are clear limitations with this test type. As a rule, true-false items
measure lower-level processing skills and are rarely constructed to extend beyond the
knowledge and factual recognition level. Little extensive information is required of the
learner beyond the general recognition that a statement is either true or false. Also, the role
of guessing is a huge confounding issue for these types of items. A respondent has a 50/50
chance of getting the item right merely by guessing the correct response.
True-False Test Items: Dos and Don' ts

Please keep the following practices in mind when constructing true-false questions for
an assessment.
♦ Consistent with multiple-choice items, true-false items should be centered on a
singular main point within the item statement. The decision of whether the state-
ment is true or false should be contingent on that statement alone.
♦ Use only the words that are necessary and avoid needless detail within the
statement.
♦ The statement should be verifiable and the decision response (i.e., true or false)
should be clear and supportable to a knowledgeable respondent.
♦ Be selective with the use of negative statements, as respondents don’t always recog-
nize the “not” in a statement and are likely to misinterpret the statement because of
it. Also, double negatives should be avoided entirely due to the poor grammar and
inevitable confusion that is created when they are used in a test item (e.g., Switzer-
land didn’t do nothing in World War II).
♦ Generate an approximately equal number of true and false items within a test.
♦ Make sure the items are of comparable length regardless of whether or not they are
true. As a general pattern, true responses tend to be found more often with longer
statements, and false responses are often associated with shorter statements.
Selected Response: Matching

A matching item involves combining a word or statement from one column or list, called
the premises, with its correct and corresponding answer from a second column, called
the responses. A matching question format can be used to determine whether students
can align basic terms, vocabulary, or other item sets with their corresponding definitions,
functions, or connections based on some identified relationship. For example, a matching
item involving state capitals is provided in Table 8.2. This type of test item is very effec-
tive with focused topics that are knowledge- or fact-oriented, or subject areas that may
require condensing a considerable amount of information into a relatively small number
of items. However, it is important to recognize that the items that make up the lists must
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TABLE 8.2 MATCHING ITEM: STATE CAPITALS

Directions: Write the letter of the city from Column B that is the legislative capital of the
state listed in Column A. Each city can only be used once.
Column A Column B
1. Alaska a. Albany
2. California b. Charleston
3. Kentucky c. Columbus
4. Minnesota d. Frankfort
5. New York e. Juneau
6. Ohio f. Knoxville
7. South Dakota g. Pierre
h. Sacramento
i. Springfield
j. St. Paul
be internally consistent. In particular, the primary item statements need to share a similar
attribute (e.g., all states), and all the provided answers must also be alike in regards to
some specific quality (e.g., all capitals).
Since matching items are easily embedded within a standard test design, they are typi-
cally used in classroom tests. In general, matching items are usually constructed to assess
basic knowledge or comprehension and by nature of their item structure cannot easily
measure a student’s higher reasoning or processing skills. In addition to being able to
cover a broad range of content (e.g., terms, definitions, significant events, related parts
or functions of a procedure or process), matching items are desired by teachers because of
their quick and easy scoring capabilities.
Matching Test Items: Dos and Don' ts

Please keep the following practices in mind when constructing matching questions for an
assessment.
♦ Provide clear directions so that the respondent clearly understands what he or she
must do with the matching items.
♦ Homogeneous lists need to be used with all matching items. Make sure that both
columns contain items that are clearly related in regards to the attribute that is
being examined. For example, if the goal is to match chemical compounds with
their molecular formulas, make sure all listed items are indeed chemical com-
pounds and appropriate formulas. Do not provide a list of inconsistent items.
♦ Concise item lists are desirable and provide for greater student understanding of the
matching exercise.
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206 CHAPTER 8
♦ Provide a limit of no more than 10 premises for each matching test exercise.
Beyond that number, the visual connections and alignments become confusing and
increase extraneous errors.
♦ It is recommended to list more responses than premises in all matching items. In
this way, the respondent must be able to accurately identify each match as opposed
to the easier task of aligning an equal number of premises and responses.
♦ When listing items within a column, use some standard ordering method (e.g., list
items alphabetically) so that a consistent listing method is provided.
♦ Both columns must fit onto a single page of a test. Actually, for all test items it is
essential that no question be split so that part of the item is on one page and the
other section is listed on the next page of the test.
Constructed Response: Fill-in-Blank and Listing Questions

In standard classroom tests, the most commonly used constructed responses are fill-in-
blank, listing questions, short answer, and essay questions. Completion questions, such
as fill-in-blank (FIB) items, involve having the learner complete a test statement or item by
providing a correct missing word or words that are intentionally left out of the item. The test ques-
tion, usually listed as a statement, is provided in its entirety except for the missing blanks
that require the information that will make it complete. Consider the following two
examples:
1. The organ responsible for circulating both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
throughout the body is the .
Here, a student would be required to write the word “heart” in the blank space.
2. was the sixteenth president of the United States
and served his term during the American Civil War.
Here, the respondent would need to write “Abraham Lincoln” in the provided blanks.
This type of item provides background and a context relative to the requested answer.
It also requires the learner to generate specific information that must be provided in
order to accurately complete the statement. FIB items are used because of their scoring
ease and ability to examine a student’s specific knowledge and retention of factual-based
information.
Listing questions are completion questions similar in design to the FIB items, as con-
text is presented in the question in order to generate the desired response from the learner. However,
more developed and refined information is generally obtained with this kind of question
format. Listing questions can be designed to collect basic as well as more detailed infor-
mation and student work. For example, consider the following question:
As discussed in class and reviewed in your textbook, list and describe in proper
sequence the steps of the scientific method. Provide a description of each step and
how it connects to the next step in the process.
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Constructed Response: Short Answer

Since short answer items, student-generated responses involving a few words to a full sentence
or more, require a minimal written response, they are particularly helpful in evaluating
and measuring a student’s knowledge retention and general comprehension. The major
advantage with this item type is that the respondent is required to actually produce the
correct response, as opposed to “discovering” the correct answer from a set of provided
responses. For example, consider the following question:
Who were the commanding generals for England and the American colonies dur-
ing the Battle of Yorktown in the American Revolution?
The identification of two individuals (i.e., General Charles Cornwallis for the British
forces and General George Washington for the American forces) must be made by a stu-
dent. If asked “What lobe of the human brain responds to the visual image received from
the optic nerve?” a student is required to generate the term “occipital lobe.” This ques-
tion as written measures a student’s basic retention of factual knowledge about the brain,
and that is important.
On the other hand, short answer questions can be designed to extract higher-order
thinking skills and products that require more detailed responses. Staying with the neural
theme, suppose the following setup and question is presented:
A high school senior hits the windshield of his car with his forehead during an
accident. What cortical areas, systems, and functions will likely be affected due to
this injury?
This question clearly requires a response that goes beyond factual knowledge. In this
particular case, the student will need to integrate knowledge of structures and function
along with the analysis of the trauma and probable impact effects at all levels of corti-
cal functioning. This kind of question is an example of how detailed and complex short
answer questions can be used to measure in-depth understanding of concepts.
As evidenced from the aforementioned examples, short answer items are particularly
useful when determining if the respondent can recall factual information on demand.
Comprehension questions can also be easily designed with short responses. Constructing
short answer questions can be relatively straightforward. What can be somewhat chal-
lenging is identifying the “right” answer, and the essential elements that must be present
in order to receive credit. In addition, other factors such as spelling and readability need
to be addressed.
For example, if spelling counts as part of the correct response, then respondents need
to know that before the test is administered. Teachers are usually split on this issue.
Some will contend that correct spelling is essential for anything that is produced in the
classroom, so naturally it must be demonstrated in written responses on tests. Other
teachers focus on the response itself, and incorrect spelling is not considered in the scor-
ing. Regardless of the position that is taken, it is important to create a clear question or
test item statement that can be answered with a relatively short response (i.e., word or
phrase).
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208 CHAPTER 8
Short Answer and Completion Test Items: Dos and Don' ts

Please keep the following practices in mind when constructing fill-in-blank questions,
listing questions, and short answer questions for an assessment.
♦ As discussed, the teacher must generate concise questions or statements. That deter-
mination should be made based on the age and general reading proficiency of the
learners for whom the items have been written. With short answer items, writing
precision is important, since these items require very specific responses.
♦ Construct the test item so that a clear and obvious answer response exists. Avoid
constructing items that can have multiple correct responses.
♦ Make sure to identify the correct responses for all short answer items before the
test is administered. If additional responses are subsequently found to be technically
correct relative to the question or item statement, then the items should be rewrit-
ten so that only a single answer exists.
♦ Avoid generating completion items that possess more than one or two blanks in the
item statement, as this tends to create confusion on the part of the respondents.
♦ Regarding the placement of the fill-in blank, it is better to have it at the end of the
statement. This allows the respondent to better understand the item and determine
what answer is needed.
♦ The actual length of the blanks in all the items should be uniform. This is done to
eliminate providing an obvious clue that a short word is needed for a short blank
space and a long word or phrase is needed for a long blank space.
Constructed Response: Essay

The essay question, which typically necessitates an extensive and in-depth written response,
is the most common and robust constructed response item utilized within a test for the
examination of higher-level thinking. This item type serves as the essential high stan-
dard for student-generated work on written exams. This type of item can be designed
to require specific and detailed student responses that can be aligned with identified
instructional goals. Yet within this format there exists an extensive range of student
information that can be gathered.
For example, with an essay item, students can provide the teacher with a sample of their
understanding, analysis, or evaluation of the theories associated with a specific content or
knowledge base. In addition, this item also demonstrates a student’s thinking process based
on the way he or she structures a response (e.g., what information is included, how it is
organized, the main points that are emphasized). Teachers can examine how students orga-
nize and structure written responses, including the specific selection of words and ideas to
express and support their answer and/or position. In regards to a student product, evidence
of both content coverage and thought process can be obtained with essay questions.
When constructing essay questions, two basic forms are recognized: restricted and
extended response. Both are effective for their intended purposes. As implied, restricted
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response items are designed to set particular perimeters around a student’s response to a question,
particularly as it relates to the focus and potential length of response. Response restrictions can be
generated through the use of specific guiding words (e.g., list, describe, define) within
the question or statement, as well as limits set on the actual length of the written response
(e.g., a few sentences to several paragraphs). In addition, if an objective and uniform
scoring method is in place, these items can be scored with a high level of reliability and
consistency. On the other hand, since these items can be structured to examine certain
issues, areas, and learner outcomes, little if any response variation can be demonstrated,
and that is where extended response items can be utilized.
The extended response allows a respondent maximum flexibility in constructing a writ-
ten response to a question. Typically, few restrictions are included (e.g., page limit) and the
respondent can execute “free thinking” in the generation of his or her response. The
huge benefit of this question format is the opportunity to examine each student’s high-
est levels of thinking and organization. If constructed well, extended response items can
Frederick Bass/Getty Images
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210 CHAPTER 8
examine analysis, evaluation, and creation skills of the student that are rarely tapped with
other test item formats. However, due to the large time and effort required for this type
of item, only a limited number of these items are usually included in a test. Time limits
alone restrict their usage, so these questions must be carefully selected within a summa-
tive assessment.
Essay questions are popular with teachers and will remain that way. Important high-
level learning evidence can be gathered with these items. Yet they require more time to
complete than other test item types, and that must be recognized when completing a test.
Essay questions tend to ask for more in-depth responses on specific issues or situations
and do not survey a broad review of learning or material that is covered in the classroom.
Also, designing an objective and reliable scoring system for the written responses is
essential. For example, the expected answer to the question must be provided prior to the
administration of the test. In addition, the specific elements (e.g., essential steps or levels
and their descriptions) of the answer must be recognized, along with the credit that is
given to each of the components of the answer. This provides for a standardized review
and a consistent evaluation of each response.
Essay Test Items: Dos and Don' ts

Please keep the following practices in mind when constructing essay questions for an
assessment.
♦ Provide a clear and readable question or statement that includes the demands of the
question and what should be provided in response.
♦ Provide direction on specific requirements, if any, that may exist within the essay
question (e.g., length of response should not exceed three paragraphs, must provide
examples, required reference to particular researchers or theorists).
♦ Prior to any exam and as part of the scoring key, a model response needs to be
constructed, along with the essential components that the answer must contain in
order to receive scoring credit. (For example, the time, location, and major char-
acters must be provided in an answer in order to receive full point value. If only
two of these elements are present, less than full value may be given if the instructor
believes the response warrants some level of credit.) For scoring accuracy, if a ques-
tion is set up to be worth several points, the value for each of the desired elements
of the answer should be determined, as the completeness of the responses are likely
to vary.
♦ Essay questions require more testing time, and that must be factored into the
administration of the exam. The extensiveness of the question will determine the
time response requirements. However, a rule to follow is to allocate more time
than is considered necessary in order to make sure an adequate latency exists for all
respondents.
♦ Given the extensive responses that may be given for essay questions, it is important
to list the point value alongside each question so that the respondent identifies the
relative importance of the question being answered.
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♦ In order to ensure that your students are familiar with responding to essay questions
and the higher-level responses that can go with them, provide in-class opportuni-
ties where essay questions are practiced as part of the normal instructional process.
♦ When scoring essay questions, review all student responses to the same question
before moving on to other questions. Also, when scoring the answer do not attempt
to identify the respondent, as this will help to control for potential instructor bias
and enhance objectivity in the scoring process.
TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
AND YOUR TEST
As you may recall from Chapter 4, a table of specifications was provided for a seventh-
grade algebra quiz. A table of specifications for a fourth-grade art test is presented in
Table 8.3. A table of specifications allows a teacher to identify test items with the knowl-
edge and cognitive levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy and the skill outcomes of a lesson or
instructional activity. This “testing map” provides a teacher with complete coverage of
the content and provides a clear image of what is being covered at each respective skill
level. With this information, the coverage and focus of a test can be reviewed for its
appropriateness and utility in meeting your immediate summative assessment needs in
the classroom.
The generated table creates an important visual confirmation guide to the test items or
tasks that have been designed to evaluate specific knowledge and cognitive skills. These
test items become the direct links to the listed instructional outcomes, and ultimately to
the general learning standards for those students. For classroom assessment to work, there
must be a continuous connection among the assessment measure and/or tasks, the lesson
outcomes, and the eventual global learning standards.
This process starts with selecting and aligning questions or tasks with identified learn-
ing objectives. In Table 8.3, since the art teacher decided to use a test to serve as the
summative assessment, test items must be generated to measure distinct knowledge and
cognitive skills for each of the listed lesson outcomes.
For example, test item #4 was generated in order to obtain written evidence to con-
firm a student’s comprehension and differentiated understanding of two essential art con-
cepts: positive and negative space. On the other hand, test item #6 is only designed to
measure recall of basic line formations used in visual construction. Test item #11 requires
a student to understand the concept of depth and also recognize and employ techniques
that are needed to create it. A higher level of skill application is demonstrated in this item
as opposed to the previously listed test items. Most importantly, each one of these test
items provides an important confirmation of learning at a particular level of knowledge
and cognitive processing for each of the listed lesson outcomes.
So as you approach the development of a test in your classroom, be sure to complete
this table before the test is administered. In this way you can be assured of what areas and
skills are being covered. These coverage areas and skill acquisitions will likely change
from test to test. For example, if you are introducing a subject area for the first time,
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212 CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8.3 TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR FOURTH-GRADE ART TEST
TABLE OF
SPECIFICATIONS BLOOM' S TAXONOMY
Lesson outcomes Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Lesson Outcome 1— Q #1 Q #2 Q #3 Q #4 and 5
Identify and use (FK) (FK) (FK) (CK)
techniques and various
materials and mediums
when creating original
art products.
Lesson Outcome 2— Q #6 Q #7 Q #8 Q #7 and 8 Q #9
Defi ne and identify (FK) (FK) (CK) (CK) (PK)
primary elements found
in a landscape (e.g.,
horizon line, depth of
field, foreground).
Lesson Outcome 3— Q #10 Q #11 Q #12 Q #13 Q #14
Identify and utilize the (FK) (CK) (PK) (CK) (CK)
different techniques
for creating depth on a
two-dimensional surface
(e.g., relative size,
overlapping).
FK: Factual Knowledge

CK: Conceptual Knowledge
PK: Procedural Knowledge
higher-level processing skills such as evaluation and creation may not be developed or
expected, and the focus of establishing the basic skills of understanding, comprehen-
sion, and application may be more appropriate. Also, this table can serve as an excellent
assessment reference if questions ever arise as to the nature of your testing approach and
design.
Test Items for the Knowledge/Cognitive Levels for the Listed Outcomes in
the Fourth-Grade Art Test
Item #4. What is the difference between positive and negative space?
Item #6. An example of a type of line that we studied in class is called a(n):
a. outline
b. contour line
c. inline
d. applied line
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Item #11. The illusion of depth can be achieved in a two-dimensional piece of work
by using what?
a. perspective
b. line
c. shading
d. shape
CONSTRUCTED RESPONSES BEYOND

THE TRADITIONAL TEST
Within a test, constructed response items require students to generate their own answers
to pre-selected questions or other teacher-based requests. In the classroom or school set-
ting, however, student-generated work can involve productions that are not included
as part of a traditional test. These productions can center on written work (e.g., logs,
journals, portfolios), visual productions (e.g., diagrams, concept maps, illustrations, f low-
charts), and verbal performances (e.g., presentations, speeches, debates, panel discussions,
dramatic readings, singing engagements), as well as fine/gross motor-based events (e.g.,
painting, drawing, dance recitals, athletic performances). Given this variety of evidence
products, teachers can utilize a wide range of assessment options to formally measure and
document the learning progress of their students.
Written Construction Performances

Common sources of written evidence that can be used in the classroom include logs and
journals. A documentation log involves a written record of events or conditions over a speci-
fied amount of time. Entries can incorporate verification of behavior (e.g., dietary record
of what is consumed for each meal over a three-week span, training and practice routine,
compliance rates, or production counts) with brief descriptions or summaries, as well as
personal impressions of what was experienced and what was particularly important at
that moment of documentation. Logs are often kept during scientific studies or other
long-term projects that require longitudinal documentation and evidence collection.
Logs can also be used to examine and document behaviors of interest that are not
officially connected to a formal review. For example, teachers may ask students to keep
documentation logs to track how much time they spend doing homework, to record
the number of pages of independent reading they accomplish, or to examine the kinds
of television programs they’re watching. Individual student information is also written
and recorded in personal journals, a specific record or collection of information and/or experi-
ences that is collected over time, but the information collected is likely to be more general as
opposed to the more specific or restricted collection channels that may be specified with
logs. Personal, anecdotal information, complete with opinions, perceptions, feelings,
and other subjective elements, is more likely to be present in journal entries. Students
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214 CHAPTER 8
can also record their daily journal entries into a voice recorder, so journal information
does not have to be written. However, audio entries are usually translated into a written
record at some point in time.
A common assessment method that involves the collection of written evidence is the
portfolio. With a portfolio, student-generated work is systematically collected and reviewed over
a certain period of time (e.g., a single semester or the entire academic year); pieces of work are placed
in the portfolio as evidence of their accomplishments and progress. Individual subjects and skill
areas can be emphasized or can be integrated together; however, teachers often follow a
singular content area, as evidenced in a writing portfolio. There are different purposes
for collecting and reviewing portfolios. For example, in a developmental or growth
portfolio, the progress of the student and his or her skills (e.g., as reflected in a writing portfolio)
are emphasized. In a best pieces portfolio, the emphasis is on the best constructions of the vari-
ous assignments that are required over the instructional period. Professional portfolios found in
art, photography, music, and other professions typically represent best pieces portfolios.
Portfolios have traditionally followed the paper product route. However, the electronic
portfolio approach is becoming more popular with both teachers and students.
In general, high-quality student work is produced in the review process found in
portfolios. However, beyond its recognized effectiveness and general popularity, this
type of classroom assessment usually requires considerable resources to maintain.
Visual Construction Performances

Student productions can also be evidenced through the construction of visual symbols,
including illustrations, diagrams, graphs, matrices, concept maps, and f lowcharts. These
pictorial constructions can serve as important demonstrations of acquired learning. Many
of these constructed responses are used in combination with other written expression
measures (e.g., outlines, steps in a process, explanatory paragraphs). In the natural sci-
ences, activities including diagramming cells, illustrating tissue and organ structures, or
using concept maps to demonstrate the characteristics of mammals versus reptiles are
common and are used to enhance the learning process. In a social studies classroom, hav-
ing students generate and identify troop movements, major roadways and railway lines,
general topography, and overall battle plans of the Union and Confederate forces during
the Battle of Atlanta is an effective way to “display” the conf lict and its impact on Amer-
ica in 1864. It is also an effective way to have the students’ knowledge of the engagement
transposed onto a different learning medium; in this particular case, it could be a histori-
cally accurate map of the battle area and a description of the outcomes.
Concept maps can serve as visual connectors that can be used to compare and contrast vari-
ous constructs, models, or ideas, as well as provide visual links to related materials. They can
involve the use of geometric shapes and directional arrows to demonstrate the direc-
tion or sequence of an event (e.g., chemical reactions, physiological processes, historical
events, steps in solving a problem), as ref lected in Figure 8.1. In addition, f lowcharts can
be very effective in confirming acquisition of knowledge without the need for detailed
expository writing. Tables (data structures involving vertical columns and horizontal rows),
matrices (grids (e.g., spreadsheets) comprised of individual units or cells), and graphs (diagrams
or charts that provide a visual display of data) can present information in meaningful visual
wit78704_ch08_191-220.indd 214 3/10/11 4:26 PM

Pyruvic acid
NAD+
NADH CO2
Acetyl-CoA
Oxaloacetate Citric acid
NADH NAD
FADH2
NAD+ 2CO2 NADH
FAD
ATP
ADP Succinyl-CoA
FIGURE 8.1 CONCEPT MAP OF CITRIC ACID
CYCLE
Reprinted with permission of Kevin Hartzog.
ways, and that is why they are so often found in books and other learning materials.
Graphs are particularly helpful in representing and clarifying complex relationships or
organizing and packaging large amounts of information into visually meaningful units.
All of the aforementioned visual tools can serve as effective indices of student learning.
They integrate well with the traditional written production methods that are found in
the classroom setting.
Verbal Construction Performances

Verbal presentations can take various forms, such as oral responses to teacher-directed
questions in class, individual or group presentations, speeches, organized debates or panel
discussions, dramatic readings, or singing performances as part of choir or vocal ensem-
ble events. Although oratory, recognized as the effective use of speaking to inform and
inf luence others, is not a formally practiced skill in most schools today, the ability to
effectively communicate with others cannot be underestimated. Fortunately or unfortu-
nately, depending on your circumstance, individuals in today’s world are judged on how
well they speak and write (both inside and outside the classroom), so it is no surprise that
these two communication skills are important to develop.
Every teacher asks questions of his or her students in the classroom in order to
gain assurance that they are learning what is expected. However, beyond classroom
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216 CHAPTER 8
questions and answers, focused oral demonstrations (as evidenced in speeches or

debates) can provide specific information on what students truly comprehend. Ratings
used to measure these events can provide useful evidence regarding the effectiveness
of that understanding, as well as how effectively that knowledge is demonstrated in the
presence of others.
Fine/Gross Motor Construction Performances

Fine and/or gross motor performances that can serve as evidence events include activities
such as drawing or painting, dance performances and recitals, and athletic performances.
For students involved in the worlds of art, music, and athletics, motor performances and
products are considered essential to their progress review. Knowledge and skill (not to
mention competition) are demonstrated in performances given in front of an audience.
Motor performances are often highly creative and involve extensive hours of prep-
aration in order to produce the movements and behavioral chains that must be inte-
grated into complete performances. These kinds of products clearly meet the “show me”
accountability requirements that have been mentioned previously. They are direct and
concrete examples of the student’s effort and talent, transformed into unique artistic
expressions in the studio, in the auditorium, or on the playing field.
Reviewing Performances with Students

The findings obtained from summative assessments are typically used for formal documen-
tation of students’ progress and performance levels. This is an appropriate and necessary
Liquidlibrary/JupiterImages
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function, as credible evidence must exist that documents the completion of schoolwork
and the evaluation of that work in identified courses of study. Beyond the official function
of summative assessments, there is an equally important need to provide useful feedback to
students in regards to their performance.
Some teachers may be reluctant to share results or to take time out of class to
examine test results either for individuals or for the class as a group. However, while
recognizing that instructional time is always limited, reviewing assessment perfor-
mances—especially summative assessments—is not a valueless activity. In fact, sum-
mative assessment results need to be viewed as a potential instructional opportunity
(Biggs, 1998; Black & Wiliam, 1998b). The process of reviewing summative perfor-
mance results with students in order to improve and enhance their future learning,
referred to as formative summative assessment, has received empirical support (Drouin,
2010; Wininger, 2005). Moreover, this positive effect has also been demonstrated with
peer review (Drouin, 2010).
Going over a student’s test performance, and in particular recognizing mistakes and
clarifying misunderstandings, can help provide a meaningful base for the next instruc-
tional period and for future summative assessment activities. This approach of building
on and correcting earlier misunderstandings provides for a more successful summative
performance, especially in content areas that require mastery of cumulative information
or skills. The simple truth is that we learn from our mistakes, so time must be taken to
examine those mistakes to ensure that they are not repeated in the future. That is exactly
what happens when you review test results or other summative assessment performances
with your students.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
At the beginning of the chapter, you were asked about your memories of testing. In addi-
tion, you were asked to examine whether your teachers did an effective job of preparing
students for tests and other summative measures. Now that you will soon be teaching in
your own classroom, how will you prepare your students? Will the summative measures
you design be effective and accurate relative to their intended purpose?
At this time, or in the near future, locate a test or quiz that you have recently con-
structed. As objectively as possible, review and critique its structure, function, and
general effectiveness in measuring student learning. If you have not created a test or
quiz to date, review an actual test or quiz that you have recently taken in one of your
classes. Identify the strong and weak points of the test. Examine how the test items
are written. Are they clear, direct, and effective in measuring the intended knowl-
edge or skills areas? Can the items be directly connected to skill sets and a knowledge
base in the intended instructional goals for the students? As your test review skills
improve, that same critical review can be placed on the construction of your own tests,
which will only enhance the effectiveness of the summative assessment process in your
classroom.
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218 CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Creating and utilizing effective summative assessment measures is critical for teachers in
obtaining necessary information regarding the learning progress of their students. Sum-
mative assessment evidence is needed to show, as part of a formal review process, that
students have indeed acquired the intended learning outcomes of the lesson. The most
recognized summative assessment measure used by teachers is the classroom test. Com-
mon test item types (including multiple choice, true-false, matching, short answer, and
essay) used in summative tests were reviewed, along with key implementation guidelines.
However, other forms of student-constructed work and products can also serve as use-
ful summative assessments. Many of these measures were brief ly reviewed. Summative
assessment is a valuable source of student evidence, and teachers need to develop a solid
knowledge base regarding effective summative measures.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How can I gen-
erate the most effective summative assessments in my classroom? The simple and most
straightforward answer is through hard work: by working diligently at creating the best
and most accurate summative assessments. As has been emphasized in other chapters,
awareness of what needs to be done is the first important step in getting something
accomplished, and that includes developing and using summative assessment measures.
Throughout this chapter, information has been presented on various test items, formats,
work products, and procedures so that the desired mix of student-generated work can be
collected with the selected summative measures.
Summative assessment evidence provides the proof that learning progress has truly
been made. Summative measures must always be carefully reviewed and refined so that
the information that is collected, and the decisions that are made based on that informa-
tion, are accurate and truly relevant for their intended purpose.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. Describe the steps you would follow when constructing a summative measure
(like a test) in your classroom.
2. Identify construction practices that need to be followed when generating various test
items (e.g., multiple choice, true-false, matching, short answer, essay) for your tests.
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3. How should a table of specifications be used when aligning test items with the
knowledge and cognitive skill levels they are designed to measure?
4. How do you intend to use summative results to enhance the current and future
academic performances of your students?
RESOURCES
A useful reference for constructing effective classroom tests is W. James Popham’s 2003
book Test Better, Teach Better: The Instructional Role of Assessment, published by the Asso-
ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). It provides informa-
tion on the importance of linking testing and teaching, along with procedures to fol-
low to ensure that meaningful classroom tests are constructed.
An interactive learning module entitled “Planning, Preparing, and Administering Class-
room Tests” that was prepared as part of the Alabama Professional Development
Modules is highly recommended for review. This module can be found at web.utk
.edu/~mccay/apdm/plan/plan_b.htm.
Identified as a self-study or part of a continuing professional development unit, the Class-
room Assessment at fcit.usf.edu/assessment/index.html provides basic test construction
suggestions and ideas.
REFERENCES
Airasian, P. W., & Russell, M. K. (2008). Classroom assessment: Concepts and applications (6th
ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Bangert-Drowns, R. L., Kulik, C. C., Kulik, J. A., & Morgan, M. T. (1991). The instructional
effect of feedback on test-like events. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 213–238.
Biggs, J. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning: A role for summative assessment?
Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5, 103–110.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and classroom learning. Educational Assess-
ment: Principles, Policy and Practice, 5(1), 7–74.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the black box: Raising standards through class-
room assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80, 139–148.
Bloom, B. (1984). The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one
tutoring. Educational Leadership, 41(8), 4–17.
Drouin, M. A. (2010). Group-based formative summative assessment relates to improved
student performance and satisfaction. Teaching of Psychology, 37, 114–118.
Fuchs, L. S. (1998). Computer applications to address implementation difficulties associ-
ated with curriculum-based measurement. In M. R. Shinn (Ed.), Advanced applications
of curriculum-based measurement (pp. 89–112). New York: Guilford Press.
wit78704_ch08_191-220.indd 219 3/10/11 4:26 PM

220 CHAPTER 8
Fuchs, L. S., Deno, S. L., & Mirkin, P. (1984). The effects of frequent curriculum-based
measurement and evaluation on pedagogy, student achievement, and student awareness
of learning. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 449–460.
Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (1986). Effects of systematic formative evaluation: A meta-
analysis. Exceptional Children, 53(3), 199–208.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., & Ferguson, C. (1992). Effects of expert system
consultation within curriculum-based measurement using a reading maze task. Excep-
tional Children, 58(5), 436–450.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., & Stecker, P. M. (1991). Effects of curriculum-
based measurement and consultation on teaching planning and student achievement in
mathematics operations. American Educational Research Journal, 28, 617–641.
Fuchs, L. S., Hamlett, C. L., Stecker, P. M., & Ferguson, C. (1988). Conducting curriculum-
based measurement with computerized data collection: Effects of efficiency and teacher
satisfaction. Journal of Special Education Technology, 9(2), 73–86.
Gronlund, N. E. (2006). Assessment of student achievement (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson Educa-
tion, Inc.
Allyn and Bacon.
Wininger, S. R. (2005). Using your tests to teach: Formative summative assessment.
Teaching of Psychology, 32, 164–166.
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CHAPTER 9
GRADING AND STUDENT

EVALUATION
KEY FOCUS
What is the most effective and equitable grading system I can use when evaluating
student progress and accomplishment in my classroom?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Distinguish between the terms “grading” and “evaluation.”
♦ Identify the various purposes grades are used for in education today.
♦ Identify common grading methods, including letter, numerical, pass-fail,
standards-based, and narrative grading.
♦ Acknowledge the importance of achieve-
ment measures and other factors that
can constitute a student’s actual grade.
♦ Discriminate between the grading
criteria components of product, process,
and progress.
♦ Compare and contrast common grade
comparison models, including norm-
referenced, criterion-referenced, and
aptitude comparison or self-referenced
models.
♦ Distinguish among grading options for
students with special learning needs.
221
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222 CHAPTER 9
Introduction
As student products are reviewed, the need for evaluation and grading of one’s accom-
plishments is required for official school purposes. Grading remains a consistent and con-
troversial issue in the field of education. Grading and evaluating student work is one of
the most significant and important duties that a teacher must execute, as its impact can
have significant long-term implications for students. Always remember that grading is
personal, so let’s start the investigation of this topic by answering the following questions:
♦ What are your most vivid memories of the grades you received in school?
♦ In regards to grades, do you in general have more positive or negative recollections?
♦ What specific emotions would emerge for you when your report cards went home?
If you were like most students, receiving grades was a strange combination of dread,
excitement, panic, relief, and perhaps a few other feelings all wrapped together. From
an academic as well as a psychological standpoint, grades have an impact on the lives of
people, and for some a lifelong effect can be reported. For that reason alone, it is impera-
tive that educators be as informed about grading and evaluation as possible. Everyone
has been affected by grades in some way, and that’s why such strong emotions are often
attached to those memories. Your students will be no different.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Before the issues surrounding grading and evaluation are reviewed, review your own grad-
ing experiences. In this way, the potential impact of those memories on your current views
and biases regarding this topic may be more clearly understood. This brief cathartic exer-
cise is only designed to increase your sensitivity to this issue and to engage you in personal
ref lections about it; grading epiphanies are highly unlikely, at least at this point in the
chapter.
Based on your own personal school experiences (elementary, high school, college, or all
combined), construct your personal responses to the following questions.
1. As a student, did you like getting grades on your work (e.g., tests, projects)?
2. What kinds of grades did you get? How did they affect you?
3. Did you think the grades you received were fair and accurate?
4. What did your grades tell you about your performances?
5. Did you receive any additional information (e.g., written comments) from your teach-
ers beyond a recorded grade? If so, was the information valuable?
6. Do you believe that the grades you received truly ref lected your understanding and
skill level of the material that was being evaluated?
7. In your opinion, what functions, if any, do grades perform for a student?
If possible, share your responses with your classmates. Compare the similarities and
differences of the experiences and determine if any core themes emerge. What do those
themes tell you about the grading process and its impact on your educational experience?
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GRADING AND STUDENT EVALUATION 223
GRADING: A PROFESSIONAL
CHALLENGE
If you ask teachers to list their least favorable professional duties, grading always seems
to show up. This activity is viewed as one of the most unwanted aspects of the job, and
there are a lot of reasons for this viewpoint. To start with, the process of grading requires
constant attention and effort on the part of a teacher. Tests, quizzes, projects, and so on
have to be developed and scores must be recorded and tracked for each individual student
over the course of a semester or year. Just maintaining the accurate documentation of the
scores and entries within a grade book can be daunting. In addition, because the specific
value of a student’s work or performance is often determined, the stress and emotional
energy that is associated with this responsibility can take a heavy toll on any educator.
Also, the reality is that teachers are placed in the unenviable position of teaching
and supporting students in their learning while at the same time judging their work
and progress. Since grades constitute permanent performance records, those who are
affected, including students, their parents, and even teachers, can experience high anxi-
ety and stress. As is evident from these listed experiences alone, grading is a genuine and
ongoing professional challenge for educators. Also, given that academic standards and
instructional targets exist, the review and evaluation of student work and performance
relative to those expected levels is absolutely necessary. Consequently, the need for grad-
ing and evaluation will not diminish for teachers.
As part of this process, it is important to define and differentiate terms that are often
used when evaluating student work or performances. First of all, “grading” and “eval-
uation” of student work are sometimes used interchangeably in the classroom setting.
Grading is the formal evaluation of student work, which involves determining the value and qual-
ity of that work, based on some set of standards or performance criteria, and then providing some
formal recognition of that value to the learner, usually in the form of a grade, number, or mark
(Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Nitko & Brookhart, 2007). Evaluation is a necessary element of
any grading or review system. Evaluation involves the actual process of judging and determin-
ing the quality of work of a student (Popham, 2008). Determining whether some product or
performance is excellent or outstanding versus something that is satisfactory involves the
reviewer, in most cases the teacher, making that judgment. As already mentioned, this
judgment should not be arbitrary but based on some recognized set of criteria.
Within the classroom, grading typically ref lects teacher-directed procedures, where
the teacher completes a consistent and organized review of each student’s performance
and renders a critical analysis of a student’s achievement based on designated criteria. The
grading of student work is often connected to summative assessment measures that stu-
dents complete as part of their instruction. Consequently, these assessment products are
viewed as quite valuable in documenting student progress or competency.
Assessment and grading or evaluation are not synonymous and should not be viewed
as such. In particular, assessment, as emphasized in this text and defined in the first chap-
ter, involves the active and ongoing collection of student learning evidence that is used
to make effective instructional decisions. Assessment is the comprehensive and dynamic
process of reviewing and enhancing student learning, whereas grading and evaluation
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224 CHAPTER 9
serve a more circumscribed, but nonetheless important, role in judging and determining
the quality and worth of students’ products or performances in the classroom.
Grading: Purpose Is Everything

Grading exists because there is a need for a formal and official record of student per-
formance, and for that reason alone grading will remain a part of the formal educa-
tional experience. School systems demand that a formal record, generally recognized
in the form of report cards and official school transcripts, be maintained on all students
that receive formal instruction, whether public or private. School systems will vary, but
most start recording grades or other evaluation marks by the late elementary grade levels
through the twelfth grade. This process is continued through the postsecondary educa-
tion level to advanced graduate degree programs of study.
As a recognized record of student performance and achievement, grades serve many
purposes. For instance, grades are considered, and exclusively for some situations, in the
following educational decisions:
♦ promotion to the next grade
♦ honor roll selection
♦ academic awards
♦ graduation
♦ consideration for honors courses
♦ scholarship selection
♦ selection of future courses
♦ remedial help or tutoring
♦ vocational or career planning
♦ admission to college or graduate school
♦ obtaining high school credits
Although used for a variety of school purposes, a primary purpose of grading is to

provide a clear picture of a student’s academic accomplishment. If a grade does not do
that, regardless of what form it takes and how it is constructed, it ceases to be an accurate
evaluation of a student and his or her academic progress.
GRADING: A PART OF THE

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
Prior to the 20th century in America, no formal grading systems were recognized, as
teachers were viewed as having complete authority for judging the academic progress of
their students (Worthen, Borg, & White, 1993). As interest in the achievement compari-
sons of students grew, however, the development of systematic grading systems emerged,
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with percentage grading (a scale ranging from 0 to 100 that indicated the percentage of
material that the student had learned) considered a popular approach among educators in
the early part of the 20th century.
That system was later surpassed by the more popular categorical grade systems that
involved a three-point scale (excellent, average, and poor) and the contemporary five-
point letter grade system (excellent—A, good—B, average—C, poor—D, failing—F),
which most of the general public is familiar with today (Butler & McMunn, 2006). Con-
cerns over the inconsistency of grades created interest in a pass-fail system; however, that
was short-lived, as the standard letter grade system became strongly entrenched within
education in the later decades of the 20th century and has continued to the present day.
Consistent with the changes in grading systems over the years have been the con-
cerns and controversies surrounding the use of grades in the formal evaluation of student
learning (Guskey, 1994; Marzano, 2000). Interestingly, most of the concern has not been
centered on the importance of the formal evaluation of student work and progress. It
has centered more on the grading process; to be more precise, the inconsistency of grad-
ing practices and the resulting problems of ineffective student evaluation. Grading prob-
lems that center on the inconsistency in measurement processes and practices have been
known for decades, yet they remain unresolved even in today’s classrooms (Brookhart,
1991; Frary, Cross, & Weber, 1993; McMillan, Myran, & Workman, 2002). However, as
the accountability movement has spread throughout the educational field, there has been
renewed interest in addressing grading issues and the impact teacher evaluation has on
student learning and achievement. Given that grades are to remain a part of the formal
educational experience, it is essential that all educators become as knowledgeable as pos-
sible on this subject. That means that this chapter should only serve as an introduction to
a very complex and ever-evolving set of professional issues.
To formally start this introduction, the function of a grade is examined. By definition,
a grade constituted by a letter, symbol, or other performance marker is used to represent
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226 CHAPTER 9
GRADING IS MORE THAN THE NUMBERS

Recently I had the unique opportunity to participate in a rather interesting school experi-
ence. I was asked to sit on a local school district committee that had been given the respon-
sibility of reviewing the grading scale for that district. The committee was to provide a
recommendation to the school board as to whether the scale should remain the same or
be changed. This committee was formed and directed by the assistant superintendent to
address grading concerns that had been brought up by parents within the district.
The school district in question used an eight-point scale (93–100 is an A, 85–92 is a B,
77–84 is a C, 70–76 is a D, and 69 and below is an F) while surrounding school districts used
a 10-point scale (90–100 is an A, 80–89 is a B, 70–79 is a C, 60–69 is a D, and 59 and lower
is an F). Although the district was recognized for its high academic standards and accom-
plishments, concerns were rampant, ranging from less competitive academic and athletic
scholarship applications produced by discouraged high-achieving students, to unenthusiastic
lower-achieving students who struggled to pass classes with a 69 percent cutoff, to high car
insurance rate quotes based on students’ grade point averages. In particular, parents voiced
support for an expanded grading scale.
To the credit of the district, the committee sought input from students, teachers, par-
ents, and the general community through online surveys and focus groups. In addition, the
committee reviewed current research and documentation on the subject, examined school
district comparisons, and even invited a national expert on grading to give a presentation
to the district and meet with the committee. As the committee wrestled with this topic,
strong positions emerged from those in favor of the existing eight-point scale and those in
favor of changing to the 10-point scale, and an interesting awareness began to emerge.
The grading scale discussion and decision (the majority voted to send a recommendation
to the board of education to accept a 10-point scale), although important for the district, was
only the tip of the iceberg when it came to the real issue of effective and meaningful mea-
surement and evaluation of student learning. The real issue that emerged, like the majority
of an iceberg that lies underwater, was the recognition that grading and student evaluation
inconsistencies abounded within and across schools in the district. For example, a wide vari-
ety of elements were used in grading procedures (e.g., homework grades, effort, class atten-
dance, tests, quizzes, projects) in different combinations and were given different or varying
levels of importance by individual teachers across grade levels and buildings. The only con-
sistency was that there was no consistency in how a student was graded as he or she passed
from one grade to another or from one subject or class to another, and this was occurring in
a nationally recognized school district known for its academic rigor and excellence.
This grading inconsistency is not unusual, and this school district is not unique in
regards to this issue. In fact, this is common (Guskey, 2006; Guskey & Bailey, 2001). Yet if
we as educators are to provide valid and reliable evaluations of student work, the need for
accurate, consistent, and effective grading procedures is vital for a district, and educators
need to be as informed in the area of student evaluation as they are with their content areas.
the quality of a student’s work or performance. In addition, the term “mark” is generally
used to describe the collection or summation of a series of grades over a specified time
period, such as a quarter or semester. However, a grade or mark by its construction and
wit78704_ch09_221-253.indd 226 3/10/11 4:26 PM

design is a unitary or single representation that actually is made up of multiple elements

that ref lect a considerable amount of information regarding a student’s performance.
For the sake of being concise, a lot of detail about a student and his or her classroom
performances is not evident when a “B” or a “75 %” or a pass-fail mark is recorded on a
test or report card. It is important to recognize that in the distillation process of produc-
ing some form of grade or mark, important detail is usually ignored or lost. That is why
a grade shouldn’t stand alone when trying to describe student work and progress. If the
intent is to provide accurate communication regarding a student’s academic achievement
and progress, then multiple sources (e.g., written comments, narratives, teacher meet-
ings) should be utilized in order to provide the highest communication clarity.
GRADING: THREE CENTRAL ISSUES

FOR TEACHERS
As the topic of grading and evaluation is investigated in more detail in this chapter, at
least three central questions that every teacher must address are examined.
1. What grading system will be used to evaluate student work?
2. What will make up the actual construction of grades in the class?
3. What comparison or reference base will be used to assign grades to students?
These are critical areas that teachers must carefully examine if they are to be truly effec-
tive in evaluating the work and progress of their students.
Evaluating Student Work

Given that teachers, because of their position, are required to judge student performances
in the classroom, the selection and use of the grading system involved in these judgments
becomes very important, and there are several different approaches to consider. The most
commonly implemented system is categorical by design and requires performances to
be evaluated based on letters (e.g., A, B, C; “+” and “–” are sometimes added to the let-
ter grades). Other systems include percentages (e.g., passed 90 percent of the material in
the course), standards-based performance indicators (e.g., ratings such as “exceeding,”
“proficient”), or simple binary options like pass or fail. The narrative format typically
involves an individualized and detailed written review of each student’s performance at
the end of a grading period. Grading systems can even include checklists where indi-
vidual skills are reviewed and evaluated. Each system evidences particular strengths as
well as limitations, so careful consideration is warranted no matter what system is chosen.
Letter Grades
The use of letter grades is the most common and well-recognized grading method, with the set
of capital letters A, B, C, D, and F serving as the primary markers. These letters are ordered
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228 CHAPTER 9
by performance level, with an A representing the highest level of achievement or per-

formance level, followed by B as the next highest, and then C and D. The letter F is
recognized as the lowest ranking marker and is interpreted as representing failure. This
grading method is popular for many reasons, including the simplicity of the scale itself,
its ease of recording, the universal recognition and general meaning attached to each of
the letter grades, and high familiarity by the general public, as well as being perceived as
a concise and accurate estimation of a student’s overall performance.
Despite the high recognition value of letter grades, limitations with this method
are recognized. For instance, there exists genuine variation on what these grades mean
and how they are interpreted (Guskey & Bailey, 2001). Most people recognize that get-
ting an A is better than receiving a C, but beyond that point no specific information is
provided that is used to differentiate the grades. Descriptors are sometimes included to
describe each of the markers to help provide some qualitative difference. For example,
the descriptor “excellent” is often associated with the grade of A while C is described
as “satisfactory” or “acceptable.” These descriptions provide additional clarity and help
to create more of a qualitative separation of the performances between the grades. But
even with descriptions, no detailed information regarding the student’s performance is
provided with this method. Symbol-based methods, like letter grades, simply lack the
capacity to provide detail about a student’s work or performance.
The simplicity of utilizing a single grade or symbol is viewed by many as its greatest
limitation. When the collection of information from many different measures is com-
bined into one summative entity, a tremendous amount of information and detail is not
recognized, which further dilutes the accuracy and meaning of that single mark. Also,
the selection of letter grades can vary, since cutoffs between grade categories are arbitrary
and what becomes “A-level work” may not really differ from “B-level work.” When you
hear a teacher say, “I know what an A is in my classroom,” remember that every teacher
will likely have a different estimation of what that “A” really means.
Sometimes letter grading will include a “+” or “–” in an attempt to provide for more
grading precision. However, due to problems of validity associated with the increase of
rating levels within a grading system, this addition is likely to have the opposite effect
and can decrease the reliability of the grades (Guskey & Bailey, 2001). Finally, don’t for-
get that the administration of grades can have a powerful but negative effect on learners,
especially young students. That is one of the major reasons that letter grades are typically
avoided in the early elementary years.
Numerical Grades
Another common grade reporting method is numerical grades, which involve the use of
number ranges or bands (with 100 set as the ceiling of the range) that are typically paired with letter
grade equivalents. For example, the common 10-point grading scale is shown in Table 9.1.
In addition, the eight-point scale (93–100 is an A, 85–92 is a B, 77–84 is a C, 70–76 is
a D, and 69 and below is an F) and nine-point scale (92–100 is an A, 83–91 is a B, 74–82
is a C, 65–73 is a D, and 64 and below is an F) are also used by school districts across the
country. Consistent with the letter grade system, the numerical grade system is familiar
to the general public, as it has a long history of use in schools and its popularity is second
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TABLE 9.1 NUMERICAL 10-POINT GRADING SCALE
Grading scale Letter grade

90–100 A
80–89 B
70–79 C
60–69 D
Below 60 F
only to letter grades. In addition, an overall composite number can be generated, usually
through the process of averaging all collected scores to obtain a final summative score,
which provides a summary mark of a student’s work over an extended period of time.
This number scale allows for more precision and discrimination of a student’s perfor-
mance compared to letter grades.
However, consistent with the letter grade system, the numerical grade system still
requires collapsing a huge amount of student information into a single number or score.
As with letter grades, it is hard to determine what a score (e.g., 85 versus 79 in American
History) really means. The score is still only a summary of the student’s performance
based on what was collected as evidence for that student over a specified time period.
Also, percentage cutoffs at the various levels are arbitrary, which can blur the accuracy
and purpose of the system.
As was mentioned earlier in the “Assessment in Action” box, School District A uses
an eight-point scale, while School District B uses a 10-point scale. So an English paper
that received a score of 91 is considered a B in School District A, but in School District B,
it’s an A. Try to explain that to the student who goes to School District A. As you might
imagine, these cutoffs and ranges can be difficult to justify.
Pass-Fail Grades
Pass-fail is a simple binary system that only acknowledges two possible grading outcomes: (1)
the passing of a course or program or (2) the failure to pass a course or program. This type of sys-
tem is not used extensively in the P–12 arena, but it still can be found in postsecondary
instruction, where it originated as an alternative to grade-based classes. Within certain
academic majors, some classes can be taken on a pass-fail or credit-no credit basis, where
the student is required only to meet the essential requirements of the class in order to pass
the course. Although effective in some settings, the limited amount of information that is
provided on a student’s performance stands out as its major grading limitation. Unfortu-
nately, students are often motivated to only do the minimal level required to pass a class
when this system is in place.
Standards-Based Grading
Due to the impact of academic standards-based instruction on P–12 education, school dis-
tricts across the country have been working to design grading and reporting procedures
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230 CHAPTER 9
that track the progress of students’ achievement relative to required academic standards
and outcomes. As reported in Guskey and Bailey (2001), there are four primary steps
that are followed when developing a standards-based grading system (the evaluation of
student progress relative to academic content standards identified at each grade level). They include
the following:
1. Identify the major learning goals or standards that students will be expected to
achieve at each grade level or in each course of study.
2. Establish performance indicators for the learning goals or standards.
3. Determine graduated levels of quality (benchmarks) for assessing each goal or
standard.
4. Develop reporting tools that communicate teachers’ judgments of students’ learn-
ing progress and culminating achievement in relation to the learning goals or
standards.
As part of the academic standards-based movement within P–12 education, all states
but Iowa have recognized grade-level learning goals and standards within the primary
content areas of instruction (e.g., math, reading, language arts, social studies, science).
This allows teachers to focus on performance or “evidence” indicators for those standards
as benchmarks or “learning mile markers” are reached that document the learning prog-
ress of the students. Reporting methods and progress reports attempt to record student
progress relative to identified standards as well as the specific student learning skills and
outcomes that are embedded within those standards (Figure 9.1).
With standards-based reporting methods, performance-level descriptors are used
to describe student progress relative to grade-level standards. Student progress can be
described in several ways, which can involve numerical ratings (e.g., 1—at grade level;
3—exceeds grade level), achievement descriptors (e.g., “emergent,” “proficient”), or even
behavioral explanations (e.g., “rarely evidenced,” “consistently evidenced”). This allows
the teacher to provide more detailed feedback to the students regarding their progress,
as well as to their parents. This is important, as many listed skills within standards may
require the entire academic year before they are acquired and mastered.
Standards-based grading can generate considerable information regarding a student’s
learning progress. It can provide a meaningful picture of a student’s achievement, as
well as provide clarity to skill areas that require more attention. From an instructional
perspective, this reporting format is much more informative than the traditional letter or
numerical grade systems.
This system does require considerable time and effort on the teacher’s part to orches-
trate, document, and evaluate student performances. This grading method is more com-
plicated and may not be well understood or received by parents. It may provide too
much information, especially for parents who are trying to find out “What grade did
my kid get?” Also, standards-based grading “fits” better at the elementary level because
of the skill emphasis, whereas at the middle and high school levels, instruction is more
content-focused. Due to a greater range of courses and programs of study, a standards-
based reporting system is more difficult to use effectively at the high school level. Another
potential drawback is the use of grades after high school (e.g., transcripts to college,
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FIGURE 9.1 STANDARDS-BASED REPORT CARD, LISLE SCHOOL

DISTRICT, LISLE, ILLINOIS
Reprinted by permission of Dr. Patricia Wernet, Superintendent, Lisle School District.
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232 CHAPTER 9
information to employers). College admissions typically require grade point information,

and not providing this kind of information could adversely affect students as they attempt
to enroll at postsecondary institutions.
Narrative Grading
The narrative grading format typically involves an individualized written review of a student’s
performance that focuses on his or her particular learning accomplishments or skill acquisitions, as
well as continuing needs or learning issues that must be addressed. Few school districts utilize
a complete narrative approach to grading. However, more schools have started to use
brief narrative response options to accompany a more traditional grading and reporting
system.
The distinct advantage to the narrative approach is that rich, detailed information
on student performance is obtained, particularly when feedback is provided relative to
specific skills or goals, and can be used to direct further instruction. Unfortunately, pro-
viding this kind of feedback requires time that teachers may not have in their already
overloaded schedules. Standardized comment menus are available with computerized
grading programs that allow teachers to select and print specific comments on students’
report cards. However, be aware that these responses are sometimes perceived by parents
and students alike as impersonal, as the same comments can be reported by different
teachers for the same child.
The Composition of Grades

In addition to identifying the grading system that is to be used to evaluate a student’s
work and performance, each teacher is confronted with the dilemma of determining
what achievement factors and specific measures, as well as any other additional consid-
erations (such as class participation, attendance, behavior, etc.), will make up the actual
composition of a student’s grade. In fact, the elements that are selected and the evaluation
practices that are followed are just as significant as the scale that is used to describe the
evaluation mark or grade.
So what really makes up a grade? It actually depends on you, the teacher. The evalu-
ation measures (e.g., tests, quizzes, projects, homework) that you select and use within a
designated marking system (e.g., letter grades, percentages, rating) constitute the grade or
official performance record for students. The selection of the evaluation factors, and the
relative weighting or impact of those factors, should depend on the purpose and intended
use of the grades. With that in mind, examine the following and then decide what com-
ponents or elements you would use (and why) in the academic evaluation of your stu-
dents as part of your grading and evaluation system:
♦ tests
♦ quizzes
♦ homework
♦ effort
♦ class participation
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♦ class attendance
♦ projects
♦ work habits
♦ attitude
♦ extra credit
♦ portfolios
♦ improvement
♦ behavior
♦ other elements?
What elements did you select? Are there elements that were not included in this list?
More importantly, why did you select them? The reasons behind the selections will pro-
vide you with insight into what you, as a professional educator, value in the evaluation of
your students’ work. That is really the most critical issue, because the reasons behind the
selections must be evident to a teacher as well as any other interested audience, includ-
ing students, parents, colleagues, or other community members. Teachers must be clear
about their evaluation system before they can make it clear to anyone else. In addition,
consistency among evaluation elements must exist from teacher to teacher and grade to
grade. Only then will a standard measuring stick exist for students within a school build-
ing or district.
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234 CHAPTER 9
Product, Process, and Progress

Assessment and evaluation experts tend to support the belief that grades should be based
on a student’s achievement (Brookhart, 2004; Guskey & Bailey, 2001; O’Connor, 2002;
Reynolds, Livingston, & Willson, 2006; Stiggins, Arter, Chappuis, & Chappuis, 2004).
This is not to say that nonachievement factors aren’t important, because they are, and
these elements can be reviewed and rated along with a student’s achievement. The intent
is to create and maintain a clear measure of achievement so that the grade truly ref lects
the student’s accomplishments and is not inf luenced by other factors.
To help in the grading selection process, it is important to examine and clarify what
aspects of learning your grading system will address and document. Guskey and Bailey
(2001) contend that grading systems can be differentiated based on three broad learning
criteria categories: product, process, and progress.
A grading and reporting system that focuses on product evidence collects information
on the learning accomplishments of a student, typically at the end of an instructional period. Final
or summative products are most important within this kind of system. Not surprisingly,
grades would be derived from measures such as reports, performance events, tests, or
exams that demonstrate what the student has learned by the end of a certain time period
such as a quarter, semester, or academic year. Clearly, a grading system that focuses on
products measures different aspects of student performance and work products than a
system that is focused on the relative progress a student has made over the course of an
instructional period.
Process criteria or evidence usually represents nonachievement factors such as effort, par-
ticipation, attendance, and other related variables that would be included when evaluating students.
Homework could also be considered a nonachievement measure, since it typically func-
tions as an out-of-class practice activity and does not require an immediate demonstra-
tion of a skill, which is necessary when completing a test or in-class performance.
In regards to progress criteria, a teacher is most interested in the extent of the student’s
learning during a specified instructional period. Has a large amount of progress been made or
just a small amount relative to where the student started when the instruction started?
Questions like this could be answered as part of this grading domain. For example, iden-
tifying the reading level of a student at the end of instruction as compared to when he
or she started the program would serve as progress evidence. In addition, even though
students would likely show different progress points (i.e., evidence different levels of
achievement) at various grading periods, their relative progress and rate of learning could
be examined and compared as an entire class.
It has been found that teachers consistently use and combine several different grading
elements together when designing their grading systems, thereby creating a potentially
confusing picture of what is truly considered important when measuring and evaluat-
ing student achievement and progress in the classroom (Brookhart, 1993; Friedman &
Manley, 1992; Stiggins, Frisbie, & Griswold, 1989). To address this confusion, Guskey
and Bailey (2001) recommend that the three grading domains (i.e., product, process, and
progress) be recognized within a grading system but reported separately in order to pro-
vide a more comprehensive and detailed evaluation of student work.
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Given that a single grade is usually inadequate to provide all the information that
needs to be generated about a student’s performance, this multimeasure system can pro-
vide information along three criteria levels, including the product level, which serves
as the achievement measure and includes only evaluation elements (e.g., tests, quizzes,
papers, projects, presentations) that ref lect a student’s actual learning accomplishments.
Also, since the product measure serves as the achievement index, a student’s grade or
mark would be based on his or her performance on this dimension. The process level
can examine and report on important nonachievement factors such as effort, participa-
tion, homework completion, attitude, or attendance. Information and description on the
student’s actual progress during the instructional period can also be provided. With this
approach, a much more accurate and detailed evaluation of a student’s performance is
possible.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES
As an educator it is critical to have a clear idea of what grading system you will imple-
ment and how it will work in your classroom, and that starts with identifying the guid-
ing principles in the construction of your grading system. You can begin this journey by
asking yourself these basic questions.
1. What do you want and need your grading system to do for you as a teacher?
The fundamental purpose of the grading system must be identified so that it can be
designed and implemented to fulfill that purpose. If it is to serve several purposes, and
many grading systems do, then it will need to be more complex and may involve mul-
tiple levels. Whatever purposes must be met, they must be acknowledged by you as the
teacher.
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, a primary purpose of grading should be to pro-
vide a clear picture and measure of a student’s academic achievement and progress. That
sounds good, and it appears reasonable, since most (if not all) teachers would desire that
kind of outcome with their grading system. But that clear picture of academic achieve-
ment and progress must be specifically identified and articulated, complete with a listing
of what constitutes that picture and the clarity it should provide relative to the quality of
the student work that is demonstrated in the classroom.
“For you as a teacher” is an important add-on in this question. Grading must serve a
direct purpose for you. It should exist because it answers questions or helps to confirm
your observations or contentions about the progress of your students. Grading is certainly
a professional requirement, but more importantly, it should hold a personal purpose for
you and the students you evaluate.
Let’s assume in your review of this question that your grading system is to fulfill at
least three functions, which include the following: (1) serve as an official record of class-
room performance, (2) provide performance feedback to students, and (3) inform parents
of their child’s classroom performance and general status. At first glance, these functions
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236 CHAPTER 9
seem to be quite reasonable, but in order to fulfill these functions, focused work and
effort would be necessary on the teacher’s part to develop a grading system that meets
these identified needs.
2. How is the collected information from this system to be used?
This question addresses the purpose issue directly. The grades or marks that are gener-
ated from your system should be used for their identified purposes. Three potential func-
tions were identified in your grading system, and they represent three distinct purposes.
Because of this, the selection of student performance information, how that information
is presented, and what is communicated to targeted audiences becomes very important.
For example, grades typically serve as the official evaluation marks of students’ class-
room performances. Therefore, the district-approved grading scale (most school districts
have approved scales), complete with identified grading elements and a scoring system,
would need to be used in the review of all student academic performances. Grades would
then be generated at specified times (e.g., every grading period) as evidence of the quality
of the student’s academic achievement in the classroom and officially recorded as part of
the student’s academic record or grade transcript.
A grade record, now commonly provided in electronic programs such as Gradebook
or Edline, lists the grades received within a specific class during a particular semester or
year. Additional indices, such as grade point average (current, yearly, and cumulative),
credits received, attendance record, and class rank may also be provided as part of the
record. This report serves as a record of performance and can be used in administrative
and other school decisions (e.g., calculation of grade point average, honor roll selection,
academic awards, credits earned).
However, a traditional grade report provides no specific information regarding a stu-
dent’s actual performance, current skill levels, learning aspects that require continued
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work and attention, or any other individualized detail connected to his or her perfor-
mance in the classroom. Providing feedback to students on their classroom performance
is a very different purpose. It’s not really possible to get an individualized performance
profile from a standard grade or mark. If that kind of detail is desired, a qualitative
response such as a written narrative or a face-to-face discussion as part of grading meet-
ings is likely required.
Written comments describing a student’s general performance, including successes and
areas that still need to be worked on, can prove to be informative to a student regarding
his or her continued academic progress. As you might expect, most grade reports are not
designed for narrative responses, or at least for detailed responses due to time limitations.
Consequently, if that is a genuine purpose of your grading system, changes would be
necessary so that kind of information could be provided.
Informing parents of their child’s performance is an important purpose and one that
should not be downplayed. In general, most parents are truly interested in their children’s
school experiences, and that is especially the case when it comes to grades. Information
can be provided to parents through the qualitative student feedback examples that have
just been described. Receiving information at the end of a grading period, however, is
not preferable to receiving it throughout the entire grading cycle. That is why many
school districts encourage or require teachers to use electronic grade books, which pro-
vide current progress reviews to parents and students on a 24/7 basis.
3. Who is to benefit from this information?
Who are the identified beneficiaries of the information that is generated from your
grading system? Who needs this information and for what purpose will it be used? As
you think about this question, I encourage you to place yourself at the top of that list of
beneficiaries. Why? To start with, your own professional security is as stake here. Issu-
ing grades and evaluating students puts you directly in the line of fire, and because of
that, you will be placed in potentially volatile situations. As a teacher, it is important to
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
ELECTRONIC GRADE BOOKS

Electronic grade books have become very popular with educators, and they are quite effec-
tive in documenting student progress. Having access to information online, even with little
or no performance detail, is desirable, and since it can be reviewed anytime it is conve-
nient for students or parents. In addition, this kind of system also provides the opportunity
to e-mail the teacher when grading or performance concerns arise. Although scores on
various activities such as quizzes, homework, or other classroom activities are normally
provided for each class, extensive feedback on a student’s individual performance, skills,
or continuing needs is generally not provided. If parents seek a high level of detailed infor-
mation about their child’s performance, other tools such as teacher meetings would be
required. Finally, no matter what system or product is used, all require time and a consis-
tent effort on the teacher’s part to keep grading information current and informative.
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238 CHAPTER 9
operate from a grading system that is designed to give you the most accurate information
possible so that the best decisions can be made. Also, by determining the purposes of the
system, the audiences connected to those identified purposes become more evident. Just
make sure you, as the teacher, benefit from the information that is collected.
4. What measurement procedures will be used in determining the grades of my
students?
The composition of the eventual grade a student will receive and how it is calculated
is important for you as a teacher and for your students. The elements that make up the
grade serve as evidence of student learning and are selected by the instructor as the best
measures of that learning. For example, if it is determined that a grade will ref lect stu-
dent achievement, and nothing more than student achievement, identified measures that
ref lect only student achievement should constitute that grade.
In addition to the selection of the activities that make up a grade, the relative impor-
tance and impact of those activities toward the calculation of that grade must be deter-
mined. If all are equally important, then they share or maintain equal value and weight.
However, if some elements or activities are more important than others (as determined by
the instructor), stronger value or relative weight should likely be given to those identified
activities. For instance, if a final exam covers more content and requires more knowledge
integration and skill usage then a midterm test, there is justification for giving the final
exam more value and relative weight in the calculation of the semester grade.
Once the elements and their relative weights are determined, a decision must be made
on how a summative or cumulative mark will be reached. The common practice of
averaging all grades and scores acquired over a grading period into a final average score
proves to be an inaccurate measurement practice (Guskey, 1994; Wright, 1994). The
problem with this practice involves the assumption that test scores are interval data points
and that equal intervals exist between the scores that make up that grading scale. In
actuality, test scores ref lect ordinal data and only show relative position (e.g., high or low
relative to other scores) with no uniform intervals between those positions.
Unfortunately, absolute precision does not exist with grading scales. Imagine using a
ruler where the distances between various points (e.g., inch markings, half-inch mark-
ings) do not have any uniformity to them. This is closer to the reality of a grading scale
and because of that, other more appropriate selection options should be considered. For
example, since test scores are ordinal data, selecting a representative grade based on the
median (50 percent of the grades fall above this score and 50 percent fall below this score)
is a more accurate and defensible measurement practice than using a composite average.
In this way, test scores are ranked from lowest to highest, with the middle score used
as the representative performance score for the student. However, Guskey (1994, 2002)
contends that using a student’s most recent performance is the best and most defensible
option for selecting a grade, since it is the most accurate measure of what is currently
understood.
Also, the recording of zeros can have a tremendous impact on a student’s overall grade.
It is not an uncommon practice for teachers to record a zero for missing work or for work
that is not turned in on time. Moreover, if a zero is recorded for an activity that has com-
parable weight to other evaluation elements, this practice can literally destroy a student’s
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grade, especially if an average is used in the determination of that grade. Other practices,
such as deleting one score from a student’s grade, the use of extra credit, the impact of
homework, make-up work, etc., must be carefully reviewed before they are integrated
into an instructor’s grading practices. Remember that there should be clear and logical
reasons and operating procedures used in the selection of the grading components for the
student evaluation process, and everything that is selected must be defensible.
PROFESSIONAL CONSENSUS
As difficult as it is to select and construct your own grading system, try to imagine what
it would be like to have all the teachers in your building (or for the teacher candidate col-
leagues in your college classrooms) go through this process and fundamentally agree on
a grading system that they would all use when evaluating the progress of their students.
Sound difficult? Well, of course it is, but that is exactly what should happen.
Separate grading systems across teachers, grades, and schools only create ineffective
and inconsistent evaluation of students and their work (Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Marzano,
2006). Grading is a district-wide process that cannot afford to operate in isolation. Col-
legial collaboration and grading unification work must happen on a large scale if it is to
translate into a truly effective system of judging student work and academic progress.
If grading measures and systems differ consistently from teacher to teacher, significant
grading variation will exist within and across grade levels, school buildings, and even an
entire school district. This creates a situation where students are graded and judged based
on different criteria for every course they take, and thereby eliminates any chance of a
uniform student evaluation system. Little if any validity exists in this situation. It is very
possible that a student’s tenth-grade English teacher will evaluate progress and achieve-
ment based on factors that are fundamentally different from the same student’s tenth-
grade history or science teacher.
Grading variation is to be expected to some degree and can be supported given differ-
ences in content and skill requirements and the individuality of the teachers involved in
the process. However, a core set of evaluation elements must exist as part of the grading
process, along with a shared purpose. Inconsistent element selection in grading practices
within a district creates an evaluation accuracy problem where grades are not comparable
under any circumstances.
School districts will usually identify a particular grading scale and reporting method
that is to be followed in the district and used for official school business such as determin-
ing grade point average, academic awards, or class rankings. However, in many school
districts, the subject of grades and how they are constructed does not appear on the
“we-need-to-look-at-this-now” priority list. In general, most school administrators only
require that a teacher have some documentation of how grades are generated, and grad-
ing practices among faculty are seldom critically examined. This makes your work in
determining an effective grading and reporting system all the more important. Grading
synchronicity is essential and needs to exist within all classrooms, across all grade levels,
and in all school buildings within a school district. Obtaining grading consistency should
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240 CHAPTER 9
be initiated through conversations with your teaching colleagues at all levels (grade,
building, and district), and those conversations should not end until grading uniformity
exists.
COMPARISON TYPES
Along with identifying a grading scale and the composition elements of what a grade will
represent in your classroom, an overall framework is needed to give a grade perspective
and meaning. The most common grade comparison models include norm-referenced,
criterion-referenced, and aptitude comparison or self-referenced models.
Norm-Referenced Grading
Norm-referenced grading involves comparing a student’s performance to a specific group,
such as a classroom or a grade level, in order to see where that performance falls relative to
the performance of the entire group. With this approach, specific percentages of grades
are typically preset so that only a certain number or quota of A’s, B’s, C’s, D’s, and F’s
are given by the teacher. This is known more generally as “grading on a curve,” and this
approach is used in classes when instructors want to limit the number of high marks,
distribute student performances, and avoid grade inf lation. It also frees the teacher from
any grading dilemmas and subjective calls, since the number of grades is already prede-
termined as part of the system. This approach is also erroneously viewed by some teach-
ers as ref lecting a higher grading standard and rigor. A common norm-referenced grade
breakdown is shown in Table 9.2.
The selected percentages are based on the spread of scores, assuming that they are dis-
tributed along the boundaries of a normal distribution or bell-shaped curve. Fewer scores
are expected at the ends of the distribution (i.e., A’s and F’s) so the smallest percentages
are listed there, with the highest percentages listed for the middle grades. As a student
in this class your sole motivation is to score higher than your classmates, because if you
score high on a test, your chances of receiving a high mark are good, but if you obtain a
low score and your classmates score higher, you will certainly receive a low grade.
When considering this model, limitations must be acknowledged. To start with, the
norming group that is to be used as the comparison is very important, and of course
TABLE 9.2 NORM-REFERENCED GRADING SCALE

Grade Percentage of students receiving mark
A 10%
B 20%
C 40%
D 20%
F 10%
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reference groups can vary considerably. For example, if you are an average student and
you walk into a classroom with a group of academically strong students, you will face
a challenging grading competition experience. On the other hand, if you are fortunate
enough to enter a class made up of students at the bottom of the educational food chain,
this is your lucky day. Clearly each outcome is highly dependent upon the constituency
of the groups.
Most importantly, norm-referenced grades are based on a student’s positioning within
a group and are not linked to the acquisition of specific learning outcomes. As a student,
you could theoretically do well with a low comparison group and not actually know the
material very well, or conversely not do well relative to a high comparison group but
really know your stuff. Also consider this: If you have students who consistently score
in the middle to the bottom relative to their peers (and you will have students like this),
that is where they will stay, and their grades will ref lect that position. In essence, they
become “stuck” in that relative position within the class, and there is no real incentive
to move beyond it simply because they can’t. The teacher also suffers, as a portion of his
or her students are always going to do poorly or fail no matter how well the content is
taught.
Finally, the percentage of students who can receive a specific grade is arbitrary and
completely under the control of the teacher. For example, 10, 12, 15, or 20 percent of stu-
dents could be assigned A’s, and the same variability can be demonstrated with the other
grades. Those determinations are controlled exclusively by the instructor, so the percent-
age cutoffs of certain grades can vary, which makes grade comparisons very difficult.
Criterion-Referenced Grading
Criterion-referenced grading involves comparing a student’s performance to a specific, pre-
determined performance level or standard of work. If a student meets a certain performance
level according to set learning standards (e.g., acquires a certain number of points based
on work completed within the class), then the student receives the grade associated with
that level. No preset number of grades is established, as with the norm-referenced model.
Therefore, all students who reach a certain level receive that grade (e.g., an A) regardless
of whether the entire class reaches that level. Conversely, many or most students could
also receive poor grades depending upon the performance levels that are demonstrated.
Criterion-referenced grading is recognized as the most commonly utilized grading
model in schools. The criterion-referenced aspect to the grading usually falls within two
general categories: performance-based criteria or percentage-based criteria. Performance-
based criteria involve the listing and completion of specific learning competencies that
students must demonstrate in order to receive a particular grade. These competencies can
take the form of specific work products (e.g., classroom projects, portfolios, reports, pre-
sentations) in which rubrics or other assessment measures are used to score each item based
on the appropriate criteria. The specific criteria that the students are to demonstrate are
clearly stated and then reviewed with the students as part of the instructional process.
Percentage-based criteria are based on the percentage of items answered correctly on
assessment measures that are constructed and aligned with identified learning targets.
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242 CHAPTER 9
Cutoff percentages are set at particular performance levels and used to designate certain
levels of mastery of the material. For instance, 90 to 100 percent of items answered cor-
rectly could serve as the highest level, and a student would receive a traditional letter
grade of A. A 10-point range could be used for the remaining grades, as well. However,
these cutoffs are arbitrary and are based on teacher judgment. In addition to providing
straightforward guidelines for assigning grades, the potential exists for many students to
do well with this model, and that’s exciting for both the students and the instructor. This
provides a genuine incentive for the teacher to provide the best possible instruction.
Caution is still in order with criterion-referenced grading, however. The grading
system is connected to recognized standards of performance, and this reality must be
understood by the students who are expected to acquire these performance standards.
All too often clarity is not provided and students are left clueless to the purpose of their
instruction. Also, effective teaching relative to content mastery and accurate assessment
of that learning progress is essential with this approach, because if neither one is accom-
plished, the resulting inconsistency provides no grading comparison value at all. Because
the potential for all students to do well exists with this model, the general public and
even some educators may view this as a less rigorous and effective grading system. This is
an inaccurate perception, but it is one that still exists.
Aptitude Comparison or Self-Referenced Grading

An aptitude comparison or self-referenced grading model involves comparing each
student’s learning progress against his or her own estimated ability. Grades and evaluations of
progress are made based on how closely the student’s performance lines up with his or
her estimated abilities as judged by the teacher. If a student’s classroom performance
is comparable to or exceeds his or her estimated ability (high, average, or low), high
marks would be provided, but if progress is not seen as measuring up to one’s ability,
lower marks would be given. This system may work well for high-ability students such
as the gifted or talented, or for superior athletes and performance artists. However, when
a broader range of abilities is considered, the lower-ability students are more likely to
receive inf lated grades based merely on their lower expected ability levels.
The major issue with this model involves the accurate identification and quantifica-
tion of student ability and then judging progress based on those measures. What mea-
sures of ability should be used to assign students to groups, and what group levels should
be identified? Once that is done, which is not easy, how do we as educators deal with
the effects of the labels (e.g., high aptitude, average aptitude, and low aptitude) on the
students and the self-fulfilling prophecies they create? If I am identified as a low-aptitude
student within the system, I’m likely to start believing that I am only capable of low
achievement and will respond with minimal effort and belief in my skills. In general, the
identification of students based on perceived ability for the purpose of grading is not a
practical or desirable method.
The aptitude grading approach may prove useful in evaluating the learning progress
for a limited group of high-end students. However, in general this model does not serve
as an effective grading system for the majority of learners, regardless of their estimated
ability levels. We must not forget that everyone has the capacity to learn, and at high
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levels. It’s our job as professional educators to make sure we effectively teach, assess, and
evaluate that learning progress.
GRADING STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL

NEEDS
Grading as it applies to students with special needs is an important topic. This is an
issue that every teacher, including “regular education” teachers, must address regardless
of their training or content specialization. This topic is included as part of this chap-
ter for the simple reason that grading and evaluation of students with special needs is
not a separate or special issue but is as central to all teachers as topics that have already
been reviewed. Grading impacts all students, including those with special needs, and the
unique challenges that are faced with these students will now be investigated.
As a teacher, you will have students with special needs in your classroom and perhaps
for significant amounts of time. Due to federal legislation in the form of the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997 (IDEA-97), its reauthorization in
2004 (IDEA-04), and the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002, few instructional bound-
aries now exist between regular and special education students. With the passage of this
legislation, special education students are expected to be taught to the greatest extent
possible and to be integrated into the same educational curriculum and settings afforded
to their general education peers. In addition, students with special needs are expected to
participate in the same district and statewide assessments and achievement tests. Accom-
modations and alternative assessments are recognized for some identified students; how-
ever, in general all students are held accountable to the same academic and achievement
standards and are expected to learn at high levels.
Given that as a teacher you will have special education students in your class, how do
you go about addressing the formal grading and evaluation of student work? You start by
understanding the responsibility assigned with your position. When viewed through the
eyes of students, parents, administrators, and other interested community members, your
job is to make sure, to the best of your ability, that effective instruction and a supportive
learning environment is provided so that every learner has a genuine chance to learn the
intended outcomes of the provided lesson. Now as any practicing educator knows, pro-
viding that level of service is no easy task, since most classrooms demonstrate consider-
able student variability when it comes to even the basic academic skill areas. What may
be even more alarming is that this variability is evidenced by regular students, in addition
to those with identified learning needs.
For example, in any generic fifth-grade classroom, it is common to find “typically
developing” students exhibiting at least a two-grade-level difference in reading profi-
ciency. Consequently, in a typical fifth-grade class it is very possible you would find
students reading at a beginning third-grade level along with a few students who may be
at the seventh-grade reading level. Achievement gaps can be evidenced in other academic
skill areas as well. When other significant factors (e.g., limited home resources, health
and well being issues, family support) are considered, even greater student variability is
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244 CHAPTER 9
possible. In general, classrooms are more heterogeneous (i.e., made up of students at dif-
ferent levels of achievement, knowledge, and skill) than they are homogeneous (i.e., made
up of students who are comparable and uniform in their level of achievement, knowl-
edge, and skill), unless honors, remedial, or advanced placement classes are involved.
The Learning Race

Just for a moment imagine going to a racetrack on a warm, sunny afternoon to watch the
thoroughbred races. The horses are lined up in the starting gate and then suddenly the
gates open and they take off down the track. All of the horses start at the same time and
from the same place, and of course that is done to make the race fair (Figure 9.2).
Now consider that your students are running instead of the horses, with one major
difference—not everyone starts at the same place in this race. Although students start
a school year at the same time, they are at different places in their learning and conse-
quently a common “starting gate” doesn’t really exist for them. Some are ahead and some
are behind, while most of the students fall somewhere in the middle. Also, that configu-
ration may not change over the course of the school year, especially for those toward the
back of the pack, even if they are somehow able to keep pace with classmates who are
ahead of them. Don’t forget that in this race everyone is trying to run as fast and as long
as they can. All of the students, including those who require the most help, need to run
well in order to finish the educational race and acquire the desired learning outcomes.
The racing analogy was provided so that each reader could ref lect on the range of
students that will potentially exist in a classroom setting and the impact this will have
FIGURE 9.2 HORSES AT THE STARTING GATE

Reprinted with permission of AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS.
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on the instruction and evaluation of student achievement. Recognizing this reality is

important because despite the makeup of the classroom, a teacher must be committed to
making all students successful by addressing their learning needs.
More importantly, educators must not automatically assume that students with spe-
cial needs will widen the existing student variability within a classroom, as that clearly
depends on the students and their skills. However, the expectation exists that students
with special needs must be recognized, educated to the greatest extent possible, and con-
sidered a part of the school setting and experience just like any other student.
As an educator, you recognize the importance of an inclusive perspective and are
committed to serving all, but what about the practicalities of serving and evaluating the
work of students with special needs? Will you have to grade and evaluate their work?
The likely answer is yes. It’s very possible that responsibility could fall on a regular edu-
cation teacher. For example, if the special education teacher is not highly qualified (e.g.,
emergency certified), that teacher should not be the teacher of record. In most instances,
the special education teacher will be highly qualified and viewed as the teacher of record,
and as such possesses the primary responsibility of reviewing, scoring, and grading work
for the special education students.
On the other hand, districts vary and (certainly with collaborative and team-teaching
practices) the opportunity exists for shared evaluation. This is especially the case when
students with special needs spend a majority of their instructional time in academic con-
tent classes with typical students and work on mastering the same instructional outcomes.
Given the teacher’s expertise in a content area, he or she is in the best position to collect
evidence on any student’s progress relative to that area, and to evaluate his or her progress
in mastering that material. In addition, always remember to check the listed learning
goals in an identified student’s individualized education plan (IEP), as that represents
the legally binding educational and instructional contract between the student and the school district
(Brookhart, 2004; Munk & Bursuck, 2003).
What should be comforting is that the information that has been reviewed for grad-
ing applies to all students, including those that receive special education services. When
grading, an essential key point that must be addressed is determining what the students
will be evaluated against: the criteria that will be used as the performance standard in the
evaluation of the students’ work. As reported and discussed in Guskey and Bailey (2001),
there are four basic approaches that are considered regarding grading policies for students
with special needs that are served in regular education classes:
1. uniform grading standard for all students
2. grading based on effort
3. grading based on progress
4. making grading adaptations
Uniform Grading Standard for All Students

This approach holds that if the learning criteria are expected to be consistent for all
students, the same grading and review process should be followed regardless of the stu-
dent and his or her status. Even with accepted modifications to instruction or assessment
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246 CHAPTER 9
assignments, as stipulated in a student’s IEP, all student work would be evaluated and held
to the same standards; in essence, an absolute standard of performance must be met in
order to receive a specified mark or grade.
For identified students that possess a strong academic background and skill set, this
approach may be seen as appropriate, as these students truly experience the full-ranging
impact of inclusion. The reality of this approach is quite drastic for the majority of
students with special needs, however, as considerable evidence demonstrates that these
students as a collective group demonstrate disproportionately higher rates of low to
failing grades compared to their non-disabled peers (Donahoe & Zigmond, 1990; Val-
des, Williamson, & Wagner, 1990). When it comes to traditional and current grading
procedures, a level playing field does not exist for students with disabilities, and they
are more likely to experience academic failure and are at high risk for dropping out of
school (Zigmond & Thorton, 1985). In addition to meeting the same standard of per-
formance, students with disabilities are also placed in the situation of acquiring those
standards within the same amount of academic instructional time as their nonidentified
peers. According to Gettinger (1989), significantly more engaged time is required for
low-achieving students, and with some educational outcomes, six times as much time
may be needed.
Therefore, since instructional time is a critical factor for all students but especially for
academically weaker students, the expected standard of performance must be carefully
aligned with and supported by the amount of engaged time that is provided in the class-
room along with the directed instruction. According to Gettinger and Ball (2008):
Students gain the most from their learning when they experience a balance of high
and medium success, with more activities targeted at a high-success level (at about 80%
accuracy). Thus, accurately measuring and ensuring success is critical for increasing
students’ academic learning time. Evidence of success may include answering ques-
tions correctly, completing work accurately, or demonstrating understanding through
other performance indicators (p. 1046).
With some students, more instructional time and practice is necessary in order to acquire
and master a skill, and that may apply to a wide range of students, whether they qualify
for special services or not.
Grading Based on Effort

Grading a student with special needs on effort is an extremely imprecise approach that
involves a totally subjective judgment from a teacher. Even if effort as a concept is
defined and measured by certain behaviors (e.g., attendance, participation in class, work
completion), it does not ref lect a student’s actual accomplishments, and that is generally
recognized as the primary purpose of any grading system. Having students behave and
complete their work is admirable, but that is a far cry from measuring their learning
progress in the classroom. Therefore, using effort as the sole measure of a student’s grade,
even if the student has limited abilities, is not advised.
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Grading Based on Progress

Grading based on progress reviews the actual amount of growth in a student from a
specific starting point to a recognized end point. For this approach to be effective, learn-
ing goals and objectives must be identified and known to the learners, along with the
completion of learning checks provided over the instructional time period in order to
ensure progress. According to Guskey and Bailey (2001), progress is tracked for indi-
vidual students based on the student’s abilities and his or her starting points relative to the
identified learning outcomes.
One of the most desirable aspects of this approach is the recognition of individual
accomplishment and progress, which is highly motivating for any learner. Recogni-
tion of progress, whether documented in lessons successfully completed as part of an
online course, a reading rate increase over a three-week period, or independent usage
of a library for a research project, serves to maintain a student’s interest, confidence, and
persistence in completing the work and meeting the goals of a lesson. As an instructional
plan, an IEP is designed to generate and document individual student learning progress.
The IEP is a malleable document, where learning tasks and requirements can be appro-
priately reexamined and adjusted depending on the rate of progress experienced by the
student during the instructional period.
Students whose instruction is directed through the use of an IEP can be well served
with a progress-based grading system. As noted by Guskey and Bailey (2001), however,
there are conditions that must be recognized. First, individual standards of performance
are appropriately generated based on the unique needs of the student and his or her learn-
ing program. However, comparisons beyond the individual aren’t meaningful or appro-
priate. For instance, a progress-based grade for one student who meets a certain set of
outcomes will likely mean something else for another student who accomplishes a differ-
ent set of objectives. In addition, the performance standards that are selected could be too
demanding or not demanding enough, with obvious consequences associated with both.
As with all grading methods, careful consideration must be made, since there will always
be limitations and potential drawbacks.
Grading Adaptations
The grading adaptation approach involves teachers making grading adjustments or refine-
ments to their existing grading system for their students with disabilities. This is a common
approach among teachers (Bursuck, Polloway, Plante, Epstein, Jayanthi, & McConeghy,
1996; Polloway, Epstein, Bursuck, Roderique, McConeghy, & Jayanthi, 1994; Silva,
Munk, & Bursuck, 2005) and according to Guskey and Bailey (2001), the typical adapta-
tions teachers find useful include “grading on improvement, basing a grade on meeting
the objectives specified in an IEP, and assigning separate grades for product (achieve-
ment) and for process (effort and class behavior)” (p. 117). Adaptations fall into three
general areas: (1) changing grading criteria, (2) providing supplemental information, and
(3) using other grading options. Teachers will often use one or more of these options when
making grading adjustments for students with special needs. The lack of consistency and
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248 CHAPTER 9
organization surrounding this issue is not surprising, as most school districts lack uniform
policies regarding grading, and most teachers rely on themselves in regards to grading
considerations (Polloway, Epstein, Bursuck, Roderique, McConeghy, & Jayanthi, 1994).
When these approaches are collectively reviewed, Guskey and Bailey (2001) make the
case that the best and most equitable grading option is the same one that was described
earlier in the chapter. Since a single grade or mark is really not adequate to provide all
the information needed for the evaluation of a student’s performance, a multimeasure
grading system is optimal, where information on product (the achievement measure),
process (effort and behavior variables), and progress (improvement over the course of
instruction) can be recorded.
Determining what elements will make up these three grading domains and how they
will be configured become important considerations for the teacher and special educa-
tion team. In addition, given the unique learning issues for each student with special
needs, these grading domains would likely require adjustment and modification based
on the particulars of the IEP, since that should always direct the instructional process for
any identified student. Students with special needs represent genuine teaching and grad-
ing challenges, and the implementation of effective grading and reporting systems for all
students is possible for any school district willing to accept and address these challenges.
As educators, we are at a point where comprehensive grading and student evaluation has
become a necessity in the classroom of the 21st century.
GRADING PRACTICES AND REALITIES

In this chapter, several major issues and practices surrounding grading and evaluation
of student work have been reviewed. Hopefully, some topics have been useful and per-
haps even insightful. As stated earlier, this chapter should only serve as a beginning as
you enhance your professional skill set in student grading and evaluation. For educators,
grading requires the constant review and confirmation that what students are asked to
successfully demonstrate in the classroom represents the most accurate assessment of their
learning and progress. Grading, like teaching, requires constant adjustments based on
meaningful learning experiences found in the classroom. As a grading system becomes
further developed within your classroom, keep in mind these practices and realities:
♦ Most grading systems provide an official record of student performance in a course,
but a teacher’s grading system should exceed this requirement and provide mean-
ingful feedback to students and their parents.
♦ Whatever testing and reporting system is selected and developed, make sure the
evaluation process comes after, and not before, adequate teaching and skill prac-
tice has occurred with the students. When formally measuring student progress,
make sure the students have made that progress before attempts to measure it are
initiated.
♦ Make sure students are familiar with and have had practice completing the type
and level of items, questions, or assignments that are to be used in the activities that
make up their grade. There should be no surprises when it comes to the measures
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and activities that students are asked to complete and that are used in the grading
process.
♦ Strongly consider using a multilevel grading system, where the achievement grade
or mark is separate from other factors that inf luence the learning process or prog-
ress that students evidence during their instruction.
♦ Always make sure the grading practices involve activities that are aligned with the
identified learning outcomes of the provided lesson. Instruction and assessment
alignment must always exist.
♦ If possible, avoid the use of zeros in the grading process and instead provide the
administration of at least a minimum failing score.
♦ Always share grading policies with students and parents and include grading infor-
mation as part of the class syllabus at the beginning of the class. This can be pro-
vided as a hard copy or posted on the teacher’s Web site or as part of the school’s
electronic grade reporting system.
♦ As good as your grading system becomes, remember that there is no substitute for
face-to-face contact. Grades and records provide information, but the need for per-
sonal contact will never go away. Phone calls and e-mails are important and may
be sufficient in some situations, but sometimes students and parents just need to sit
down with the teacher.
♦ When you break down grading and evaluation into its most basic form, it’s really
all about communication: accurate, detailed, and personalized feedback about a
student that is clearly conveyed to all involved parties.
♦ Within most preparation programs, teachers receive very little specific instruction
on grading and the role evaluation plays in the classroom. All too often it becomes
a professional skill that is “picked up” on the job. Many teachers blindly accept the
methods they encounter when they complete their student teaching assignments or
first teaching position in a local school district. Please recognize that this acquired
“blindness” does not absolve a teacher of his or her professional responsibility to
provide accurate and effective assessment of students and their learning progress in
the classroom.
♦ Resources and school efforts (e.g., teacher in-service or faculty training) devoted
to faculty development on the effective measurement of student learning and the
documentation and evaluation of that learning are usually limited. But if teachers
indicate a desire to know more and to become more proficient in this skill area, it’s
likely school administrators will pay attention and do something about it.
♦ Despite professional controversy, disagreement, and the reality of grading incon-
sistency, the general public expects teachers to be knowledgeable of and compe-
tent in constructing their own grading and evaluation systems, complete with a
strong rationale for their construction and implementation. Make sure you meet
this expectation.
♦ Grading uniformity must exist in a school district, and there should be general
agreement on the following: what evaluation elements will constitute a grade;
whether multiple grading levels (e.g., product, process, and progress) are to be
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250 CHAPTER 9
provided; how a grade will be expressed (i.e., general scaling and interpretation);
and what purpose the grading system will serve. This continuity starts with every
teacher becoming part of a professional dialogue within a district as opposed to
remaining isolated, with everyone following their own unique grading process and
pathway.
Be comfortable and confident enough to discuss your grading practices with your col-
leagues, since as educators we can all benefit from meaningful discussions on this topic.
Whether these dialogues focus on new information or approaches or on something else,
it doesn’t matter; having the discussions is what really matters.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
At the beginning of the chapter you answered several grading questions in the Chapter
Activity based on your experiences as a student. Now address the following questions
based on your future position as a teacher:
1. What functions do grades perform for you as a teacher?
2. How do you want to evaluate the work of your students?
3. Is the evaluation process necessary? Why or why not?
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
The issues that existed in the early 20th century surrounding the use and reporting of
grades remain with us today. Clearly, grades as a form of student evaluation are a central
part of the educational experience and that will not likely change. Due to the univer-
sality of the evaluation and reporting of student work, teachers must be confident in
the manner in which grades are assigned in their classrooms. In addition, this system
must serve all students, even those who have identified disabilities. Grading confidence
can only manifest itself if teachers receive effective postsecondary instruction, continue
to participate in professional development opportunities, and work in an environment
where dialogue regarding this topic is supported.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: What is the
most effective and equitable grading system I can use when evaluating student progress and
accomplishment in my classroom? It really depends on how you want to set up the evalu-
ation system in your classroom. Different models and approaches have been examined in
this chapter, and distinct advantages and disadvantages exist with each one. Recogniz-
ing that a wide range of students will likely exist in your future classrooms in regards
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to needs, experiences, and backgrounds, the integration of the three grading domains
(product, process, and progress) advocated by Guskey and Bailey (2001) into one’s grad-
ing system appears to be warranted.
As a system is selected and refined, remember to clearly identify what purposes it must
serve and who the beneficiaries will be. As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter,
grading is always personal. Therefore, develop a system that possesses high communica-
tion value for all of those who are connected to it.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. Identify and describe the guiding principles that will be associated with the grad-
ing system you would like to use with your future students. Also, identify and
describe what grading elements will make up a grade in your classroom. How will
this system operate on a daily basis?
2. How does your grading system account for the evaluation of students with special
needs?
RESOURCES
One of the most complete references on grading and student evaluation is Thomas Gus-
key and Jane Bailey’s book Developing Grading and Reporting Systems for Student Learning,
published in 2001 by Corwin Press. This is a book that every teacher should have as
part of their professional library.
At the National Education Association Web site (www.nea.org), type the word “grading”
in the search box and a listing of individual teacher responses and practices, relative to
grading issues in the classroom, is provided.
REFERENCES
Brookhart, S. M. (1991). Grading practices and validity. Educational Measurement: Issues and
Practice, 10, 35–36.
Brookhart, S. M. (1993). Teachers’ grading practices: Meaning and values. Journal of Edu-
cational Measurement, 30(2), 123–142.
Brookhart, S. M. (2004). Grading. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
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Bursuck, W. D., Polloway, E. A., Plante, L., Epstein, M. H., Jayanthi, M., & McConeghy,
J. (1996). Report card grading and adaptations: A national survey of classroom prac-
tices. Exceptional Children, 62(3), 301–318.
Donahoe, K., & Zigmond, N. (1990). Academic grades of ninth-grade urban learning-
disabled students and low-achieving peers. Exceptionality, 1(1), 17–27.
Frary, R. B., Cross, L. H., & Weber, L. J. (1993). Testing and grading practices and opin-
ions of secondary teachers of academic subjects: Implications for instruction in mea-
surement. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 12(3), 23–30.
Friedman, S. J., & Manley, M. (1992). Improving high school grading practices: Experts
vs. practitioners. NASSP Bulletin, 76(544), 100–104.
Gettinger, M. (1989). Effects of maximizing time spent and minimizing time needed for
learning on pupil achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 26, 73–91.
Gettinger, M., & Ball, C. (2008). Best practices in increasing academic engaged time.
In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 1043–1057).
Bethesda, MD: The National Association of School Psychologists.
Guskey, T. R. (1994). Making the grade: What benefits students. Educational Leadership,
52(2), 14–20.
Guskey, T. R. (2002). Computerized gradebooks and the myth of objectivity. Phi Delta
Kappan, 83(10), 775–780.
Guskey, T. R. (2006). Making high school grades meaningful. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(9),
670–675.
Guskey, T. R., & Bailey, J. M. (2001). Developing grading and reporting systems for student
learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997 (IDEA-97), 20 U.S.C.
1400 et seq. (1997).
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA-04), 20 U.S.C.
1400 et seq. (2004).
Marzano, R. J. (2000). Transforming classroom grading. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Marzano, R. J. (2006). Classroom assessment & grading that work. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
McMillan, J. H., Myran, S., & Workman, D. (2002). Elementary teachers’ classroom
assessment and grading practices. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(4), 203–213.
Munk, D. D., & Bursuck, W. D. (2003). Grading students with disabilities. Educational
Nitko, A. J., & Brookhart, S. M. (2007). Educational assessment of students (5th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill/Prentice Hall.
O’Connor, K. (2002). How to grade for learning: Linking grades to standards (2nd ed.). Arling-
ton Heights, IL: Skylight.
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Polloway, E. A., Epstein, M. H., Bursuck, W. D., Roderique, T. W., McConeghy, J. L.,
& Jayanthi, M. (1994). Classroom grading: A national survey of policies. Remedial and
Special Education, 15(2), 162–170.
Allyn and Bacon.
Silva, M., Munk, D. D., & Bursuck, W. D. (2005). Grading adaptations for students with
disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 87–98.
Stiggins, R. J., Arter, J. A., Chappuis, J., & Chappuis, S. (2004). Classroom assessment for stu-
dent learning: Doing it right—using it well. Portland, OR: Assessment Training Institute.
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tices: Building a research agenda. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 8(2), 5–14.
Valdes, K. A., Williamson, C. L., & Wagner, M. M. (1990). The national transition study of
special education students (Vol. 1). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
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CHAPTER 10
STATISTICS IN THE CLASSROOM
KEY FOCUS
How can I use applied statistics to better understand student performance in my
classroom?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Describe terms including distribution, range, normal curve, skewed distribu-
tions, variance, standard deviation, stanine, percentiles, mean, mode, median,
and standard scores.
♦ Compute the three basic measures of central tendency.
♦ Define variance and calculate a standard deviation from a set of test scores.
♦ Understand the importance of knowing the vari-
ance and central tendency within a distribution.
♦ Differentiate common standard scores (z-scores,
T scores, Deviation IQ scores, stanines) that are
used in educational and psychological tests and
measures.
♦ Describe how standard scores function within a
normal distribution.
♦ Explain the strength of a correlation coefficient
when a linear relationship is presumed.
♦ Calculate item difficulty and item discrimination
index levels for test items within a classroom test.
Ryan McVay/Getty Images
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STATISTICS IN THE CLASSROOM 255
Introduction
It is important to understand that the area of descriptive statistics involves the use of
numbers and procedures to more fully describe a larger data set that is collected for some reason. This
is done in order to gain a better understanding of the findings that are generated from
that large data source. For example, in your classroom, you likely collect test, project, and
homework scores for each of your students. If you have 25 or more students in your class,
you end up collecting a lot of information on each student over a short period of time.
In order to get a better handle on the academic performance of each student, an overall
grade point average is typically generated from those recorded scores.
This summarization of information into one score (i.e., grade point average) is a good
example of how descriptive statistics have become a direct part of a teacher’s professional
practice. Now we can debate whether the averaging of scores is the best way to indicate
a student’s learning of the material in your classroom, but the process of averaging those
scores and generating a composite number definitely involves the use of descriptive sta-
tistics. Whenever you look at averages, graphs, or distributions (e.g., collections of scores)
of information, you are using and hopefully benefiting from statistics. In addition, with
a more developed knowledge base you also become a better consumer and reviewer of
statistical information, and that can assist you both inside and outside the classroom.
WHY DO I NEED TO USE STATISTICS?

As the public and professional accountability mandates of providing documentable evi-
dence of learning progress have grown, the need to report student learning information
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Statistics are a part of our daily life. For example, knowing the expected temperature range
(low and high temperatures for the day) is important for any planned outside activity. If
you are shopping for a new car, knowing the average price of that car as well as the gas
mileage (e.g., average miles per gallon in the city and on the highway) is necessary. If you
have plans to go sailing, it is important to check the average wind speed as well as the esti-
mated peak wind speed for the day. In addition, if you are a baseball fan, you need to check
the sports page for your favorite players and their current batting averages. Obviously many
more examples could be provided, but it is clear from this short list that statistics are part of
our everyday existence.
Now it is time to take a look at the role statistics plays in your immediate world. For one
entire day, record in journal entries the number of occurrences where statistics or statistical
procedures are implemented that directly impact you and your personal or pre-professional
activities. Activities could range from reading a professional journal article that includes
statistical information, the score range and average test grade in your math class, or the
price of gas you just paid at the pump compared to the national or regional average. Once
the journal entries are collected, break into small groups with your classmates (if possible)
and discuss and compare your findings.
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256 CHAPTER 10
in direct and meaningful ways has also intensified. Through the use of descriptive sta-
tistics, collected evidence on your students can be effectively recorded, managed, and
summarized, as well as presented to a variety of audiences (e.g., students, parents, admin-
istrators, the general public) depending on the need at the time. In addition, due to the
reality that basic statistical packages are commonplace in word processing programs,
computation of simple statistical procedures can be easily completed, which is a great
time saver.
However, it is important to recognize that statistical procedures, whether or not they
are computer driven, are only designed to analyze collected data. The actual educational
decisions, which are based on statistical reviews, are always executed by the professionals
in charge. Sometimes you may hear the expression that “the data determines the deci-
sion,” but the truth is that we as professional educators make the decisions, and hope-
fully those decisions have strong data support. The responsibility of the decisions that are
made, regardless of the collected data, is ultimately held by us.
Descriptive statistics allow a teacher to summarize, examine, and present student
learning evidence, which is desirable since it is expected that information will be reported
in direct and meaningful ways. Also, whether it is true or not, teachers are often seen by
parents and the general public as being well informed when it comes to measurement
principles and statistical practices. Therefore, teachers need to have a functional knowl-
edge base and an understanding of basic measurement procedures and principles. In order
to make effective decisions, a teacher needs to collect meaningful student data. Often-
times that evidence and data needs to be analyzed, and that is where statistics can help.
START WITH DATA

As a teacher you collect a lot of data on your students. However, this information needs
to be organized so you know what this data is saying about your students and their per-
formance. Let’s examine the classroom test that was administered in Mrs. Smith’s tenth-
grade Spanish class at the end of the week. Following are scores from that test:
87 72 91 69 89 95 65 98 81
85 80 88 81 85 90 81 83 84
76 81 82 70 84 77 76 70 76
Just by looking at these scores, what, if anything, can you tell about how the class did?
On average, how did the students do? Did most of the students perform well on this test?
These are all reasonable questions to ask any time a test or other class performance
takes place. In this particular instance, as you scan these numbers, you can pick out some
high and low scores and may also notice several scores in the 70s and 80s, but beyond that
you cannot say anything very specific about these scores. The data needs to be organized
in some logical order—such as ascending or descending order, as this allows them to be
examined in a more uniform and efficient way.
Table 10.1 takes the test scores from above and orders them from the highest to low-
est scores, which is probably the most typical listing approach for test scores. The number
of times a specific score is obtained, known as its frequency, is also listed. A tally of how often
scores are demonstrated is referred to as a frequency distribution.
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TABLE 10.1 MRS. SMITH’S SPANISH TEST SCORE RESULTS
Scores Frequency
98 1
95 1
91 1
90 1
89 1
88 1
87 1
85 2
84 2
83 1
82 1
81 4
80 1
77 1
76 3
72 1
70 2
69 1
65 1
Distributions
With a simple frequency distribution, each separate score is listed in addition to how
many times each score was obtained. Just by looking at the Spanish test score list, the
highest (98) and lowest (65) scores can be identified, and when the lowest score is subtracted
from the highest score, this produces a variance measure (i.e., how much scores differ from each other),
which is referred to as the range. Most of the listed test scores were obtained only once,
except for five scores that were obtained at least twice or more. Also, it appears that most
of the scores fell in the middle to the lower part of the range.
As you can see, a simple frequency distribution can be useful in presenting data. How-
ever, as more data is collected and an expanded score range is encountered, the ability of
the simple frequency distribution to accurately display information is diminished. When
this occurs, the construction of a grouped frequency distribution is in order.
Grouped frequency distributions are based on the construction of predetermined bands
or intervals where individual scores reside (Figure 10.1). Since the range is obtained from sub-
tracting the lowest score from the highest score (98 – 65 = 33), this number can then be
divided into specific point intervals. For example, it has been arbitrarily decided that
seven intervals will be used to display Mrs. Smith’s test scores, which results in five-point
intervals. If the range is divided by the number of desired intervals, the actual size of each
interval is then generated. With seven intervals, the actual interval length of 4.7 needs
to be rounded up to 5. The number of intervals is up to the teacher and is based on how
the information is to be displayed. The selection of the number of intervals depends to a
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258 CHAPTER 10
Range
5 Interval length
Number of intervals
33
5 4.7 or 5
7
The Spanish test scores have now been placed in a grouped frequency distribu-
tion based on five-point intervals (see Table 10.2).
FIGURE 10.1 SCORE BANDS/INTERVALS FOR MRS. SMITH’S SPANISH

CLASS
great extent on the range of your scores. With too few intervals, you don’t get a real sense
of the data, and with too many you may lose the distribution of the data altogether.
As is evident in Table 10.2, this approach compresses the data closer together and
displays where most of the scores fall within the distribution. A majority of the students
had scores that fell within the 79–83 range (26 percent of the class), and if the range is
expanded from 74–88, 63 percent of the students are included. These results could be
encouraging to a teacher, as it appears that a majority of students did reasonably well on
the test. However, if the teacher follows a mastery approach and is expecting a 100 per-
cent success rate, these results would be informative but probably not desirable.
Regardless of the interpretation, presenting scores within a grouped frequency dis-
tribution allows for a condensed view of the spread of the data. However, when the data
is grouped like this, it is not possible to look at individual scores or data points. If that
information is needed, a teacher would have to go back to the original data set to find the
specific scores within a certain interval.
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
BENEFITING FROM STUDENT EVIDENCE

Throughout this chapter, you will follow along step by step with Mrs. Smith as she obtains
detailed information about the results of her Spanish test. This ref lects an engaged, inquiry-
based review process that is necessary if information beyond the compulsory collection of
test scores is desired. This is the main issue that surrounds assessment. Some educators may
be content simply acquiring test scores to fulfill the required auditing of student perfor-
mance and progress. However, if the goal is to continuously improve the assessment process
and enhance student learning, that starting point is the careful and thorough analysis of
collected student data, similar to the data Mrs. Smith has collected.
Mrs. Smith completes a number of steps that allow her to understand her students’ data
in a more comprehensive way than was evident when she first reviewed the scores. As those
steps are completed, her confidence also increases, as a clear picture of each student perfor-
mance is obtained; that is extremely important if Mrs. Smith is going to help each of her
students progress in their mastery of the Spanish language.
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TABLE 10.2 GROUP FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF MRS.

SMITH’S SPANISH TEST SCORES
Interval Frequency
98–94 2
93–89 3
88–84 6
83–79 7
78–74 4
73–69 4
68–64 1
The grouped frequency distribution provides for an effective organization and review
of a data set. This procedure may be all that is necessary for Mrs. Smith to understand the
performance of her students on the test. If not, there are other ways to display this infor-
mation. In particular, along with ordering data within distributions, providing visual
presentations of that information can be useful for anyone who examines it. That is why
graphing is so popular.
Two of the most popular graphs are the bar graph (or histogram) and the frequency
polygon. Both of these types of graphs can help provide clear visual displays of collected
data. The bar graph or histogram provides rectangular columns, and the height of those
columns represents the frequency of the scores that falls within a score interval (Figure 10.2). The
frequency polygon is actually a line graph that connects the frequencies of the intervals (Figure
10.3). However, with the frequency polygon, a midpoint is selected for each interval and
those points are connected together. Keep in mind that whenever data is involved, pro-
viding pictures and graphs to display and highlight information, along with a clear expla-
nation, helps to increase the understanding of the information for its intended audience.
Mrs. Smith' s Test Scores

8
Number of students
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
98–94 93–89 88–84 83–79 78–74 73–69 68–64
Score
FIGURE 10.2 HISTOGRAM OF MRS. SMITH’S
TEST SCORES
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260 CHAPTER 10
Mrs. Smith' s Test Scores

8
Number of students
7
6
Frequency
5
4
3
2
1
0
96 91 86 81 76 71 66
Score
FIGURE 10.3 FREQUENCY POLYGON OF MRS.
SMITH’S TEST SCORES
Mrs. Smith definitely has more information on the performance of her class than
when she started, but she also wants to know the average test performance of her stu-
dents. Before that can be answered, however, the properties of distributions need to be
investigated further. Both graphs of the test scores provide a visual profile for the distri-
bution of the scores. If the collection of similar Spanish test scores was repeated a number
of times, a smooth, balanced, and uniform shape would likely emerge. This shape reflects a
symmetrical distribution and is commonly referred to as a normal curve (Figure 10.4).
Although technically a hypothetical distribution, normal curves are useful, since
many occurrences in the world, such as height, weight, age, or test performances, are
distributed in a similar way. With this distribution pattern, most occurrences are located
in the middle or center, with fewer events occurring at the ends (referred to as the tails
of a distribution). As common as this type of distribution is, it is important to understand
that not all distributions follow this pattern. In fact, some distributions are asymmetrical and
are slanted in one direction; these are referred to as skewed distributions (Figure 10.5).
FIGURE 10.4 NORMAL CURVE DISTRIBUTION
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Positive Skew Negative Skew

FIGURE 10.5 SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS
For example, if a distribution is positively skewed, that would indicate that most of the
data or scores are located on the left side of the distribution, with few on the right side. If test scores
evidenced this kind of distribution, the majority of the test scores would fall at the lower
end, with only a few scores at the higher end. Conversely, if a distribution is negatively
skewed, most of the scores are located on the right side of the distribution, with few scores on the left
side. With this distribution, most of the test scores would be at the higher end, with fewer
low scores. Other distributions can be f lat or look like a plateau. Distribution patterns
are dependent to a great extent on what is being measured and how often it is assessed, as
well as the unique qualities of the event being appraised.
Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode

With the understanding that different types of distributions exist, let’s return to Mrs.
Smith’s desire to obtain an average class score on the Spanish test. Mrs. Smith is inter-
ested in obtaining a measure of central tendency, or a score that can best describe the
“typical” performance in regards to this test. The best-known measure of central ten-
dency is the mean, which is the numerical average calculated from a group of scores. Means or
averages are calculated for a number of different situations (e.g., grade point average,
batting average in baseball, average rainfall, typical wind speed), and this is often the
measure of choice. An average is obtained by dividing the sum of all the scores by the
total number of scores, which is a stable measure since all the scores are used in its con-
struction. Certain symbols may be used in the calculation of a mean. For instance, X is
used to represent a mean.
aX
X 5
N
Sum of all scores
Average 5
Total number of scores
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262 CHAPTER 10
Mrs. Smith’s Spanish class test scores would therefore be:

2196
5 81.3 or 81
27
(rounded to the nearest whole number)
Mean = 81
However, the stability of the average comes at a cost, and the cost is that extreme
scores do affect its calculation. If extremely low or high scores relative to the other num-
bers exist within the distribution, those scores contribute to the “inf lation” or “def la-
tion” of the mean. To avoid this problem, another measure of central tendency, the
median, can be used when extreme scores or “outliers” exist within a data set.
The median, although not as popular as the mean, is certainly effective as a measure
of central tendency. The median is the score that separates a distribution into two equal halves,
where 50 percent of the scores will be above it and 50 percent of the scores will be below it (Mason
& Bramble, 1978). The median is obtained by arranging all the scores in ascending or
descending order and then selecting the middle score if an odd number of scores exists
within the distribution. With Mrs. Smith’s class, 27 student scores were collected, so
when the scores are arranged in descending order, the middle score is 81, which also hap-
pens to be the same score as the adjusted or rounded mean.
When the number of scores is even, a different procedure is followed. The scores
still need to be placed in ascending or descending order, but the two scores in the
middle of the listing (i.e., those with equal numbers of scores above and below each
of them) need to be identified, and the average of those two scores is used as the
median. For example, based on the following even number of scores, a median has to
be determined.
98
90
87
86
80
158 ÷ 2 = 79
78
76
74
42
0
The two scores in the middle are 80 and 78 (four scores fall above and below each
of these numbers), and if these two numbers are added together and divided by two,
the median score becomes 79. This provides a better estimate of central tendency, since
there are two extremely low scores in this score set. If a mean is calculated (X = 71), it is
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directly inf luenced by those scores, resulting in a lower and less accurate overall measure
of central tendency.
The last measure of central tendency is the mode, which is the score that occurs most fre-
quently in a distribution. In Mrs. Smith’s class, the mode also happens to be 81, and more
than one mode can exist within a distribution. Furthermore, in a small data set like the
10 scores just listed, there may not be a mode at all. The mode is most effective when cat-
egorical or nominal data is involved. For example, a teacher has 10 different take-home
storybooks in her class and could use the mode to signify the most selected and popular
of those books.
Measures of central tendency allow teachers to better understand the nature of the dis-
tributions they may experience within the classroom. More importantly, with different
distributions, measures of central tendency are affected in different ways. For instance,
with a symmetrical or normal distribution, all three measures of central tendency possess
the same value. However, in skewed distributions, that is not the case. For example, in
a positively skewed distribution, the mean is higher than the median and the mode; in a
negatively skewed distribution, the mean is lower than the median, which is lower than
the mode. Being aware of these differences can help you to identify and understand the
different kinds of distributions that may be present in your classroom or in other educa-
tional settings.
Variability or Dispersion from the Mean

In addition to knowing how scores center within a distribution, you also want to know
how much the scores spread out (or away) from a central measure such as the mean. The
spread or dispersion of scores from the center point of a distribution is referred to as variability or
variance. If scores cluster tightly together, it is said they have little variability from the
center of the distribution. However, if a large amount of variation is found among the
individual scores, more distance from the center exists. We have already examined one
form of variability with the frequency distribution, and that was the range. The range
provides information on the score boundaries of the distribution, which is useful. How-
ever, it provides no meaningful information on how the scores vary from the mean of the
distribution.
In order to obtain that kind of information, a different measure of variability is
needed, which is referred to as the standard deviation. The standard deviation is the
most commonly used estimate of variability. By using all scores within a distribution, the aver-
age deviation or distance of the scores from the mean is generated, which provides a uniform estimate
of score variability (Worthen, White, Fan, & Sudweeks, 1999).
When computing the standard deviation, the differences between each test score and the
mean are generated. Those differences are then squared so that the relative distance of each
score from the mean is accounted for. Then the squares are added together, divided by the
number of scores (the number of scores minus one [N – 1] is used when the data set is con-
sidered a sample of the larger population, so it is often used for calculation purposes), and
the square root of the remainder becomes the standard deviation. This process is referred
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264 CHAPTER 10
to as the deviation score method (Table 10.3). Based on the deviation score method, the
standard deviation for the following set of test scores (97, 96, 94, 92, 85, 83, 82, 75) is:
TABLE 10.3 STANDARD DEVIATION SCORE METHOD

X ± M = x x2
97 – 88 = 9 81
96 – 88 = 8 64
94 – 88 = 6 36
92 – 88 = 4 16
85 – 88 = –3 9
83 – 88 = –5 25
82 – 88 = –6 36
75 – 88 = –13 169
Sum = 704 Sum = 436
Mean = 88
436
SD 5 5 "54.5 5 7.38
Å 8
The standard deviation can also be generated from the raw scores or test scores that
are collected without the generation of the mean. In this process, the square of each test
score is generated and both the test scores and squared scores are then added up; this is the
sums of squared scores method. Both approaches generate the same standard deviation.
More importantly, the size of the standard deviation provides a gauge as to how much
spread exists among the scores relative to the mean.
For example, if the standard deviation is small, the scores are packed tightly around
the mean, and if the standard deviation is large, the scores are more spread out and more
variance exists within the scores of the distribution. This becomes very important,
because when you possess information on the central tendency and variability of a distri-
bution, you have much a greater understanding of your data set and ultimately the class-
room decisions that will be made based on that data set.
Normal Distribution
Let’s turn our attention to the most well-known and utilized distribution in the field
of education, which is the normal distribution. The normal distribution is a sym-
metrical distribution that possesses characteristics useful in describing the ways scores vary from
the mean. With this hypothetical distribution, all measures of central tendency are the
same and are located at the center of the distribution (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). In addi-
tion, with a normal distribution, 34.13 percent of all scores fall between the mean and
one standard deviation from the mean. When one standard deviation above and below
the mean are considered, that expands to 68.26 percent of all the scores of a normal
distribution. Finally, 95.44 percent of all cases or performances, within the normal
distribution, are found two standard deviations above and below the mean (Kubiszyn
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& Borich, 2003). These properties allow for the calculation of score percentages rela-
tive to the areas of the distribution. For example, with Mrs. Smith’s Spanish class, the
class mean is 81 and the standard deviation is 7.38 (rolled back to 7 for computation
purposes). Using this information and assuming these scores are normally distributed,
68 percent of the scores fall between 74 and 88, and 95 percent of the scores fall
between 67 and 95.
The properties of the normal curve allow for the calculation of the percentage of cases
that fall within specific sections of the distribution. Along with the determination of per-
centages, percentiles, or the percentage of individuals scoring at or below a given point, can also
be identified and set along a normal curve. For example, at the center of the distribution
is the 50th percentile, one standard deviation above the mean is the 84th percentile, and
two standard deviations above the mean is the 98th percentile. Going in the other direc-
tion, one standard deviation below the mean is the 16th percentile, and two standard
deviations below the mean is the 2nd percentile. This allows a teacher to place a student’s
performance within the distribution as well as compare performances within the group.
Comparisons to other test scores and performances are also possible with the normal
curve distribution (Figure 10.6).
STANDARD SCORES
Classroom test scores like those from Mrs. Smith’s class are referred to as obtained or
raw scores, and they usually represent the number of items that are correctly answered. These
terms are used because no statistical or “normalization” procedures have been utilized to
convert these scores into a more standard score set. When scores are converted they are
generally referred to as derived scores, which then allows them to be compared to scores
from other tests. We will now investigate the most typical standard scores and how they
are generated.
If we want to compare test performances within a normal distribution, a test’s raw
scores need to be converted to a common scale and into a set of standard scores. Stan-
dard scores are derived from an original set of raw or observed scores and are based on the standard
deviation of the distribution (Mason & Bramble, 1978). Two basic standard scores teachers
should be familiar with are z and T scores.
The z-score is one of the simplest and easiest standard scores to construct. A z-score is
generated by subtracting the mean from the raw score and then dividing that by the standard deviation
of the raw score distribution.
X 2 Mean
z 2 score 5
SD
The z-score has a center point of zero, and a score of 1 corresponds to one standard devi-
ation above the mean. A score of 2 corresponds to two standard deviations, and a score of
3 corresponds to three standard deviations. Conversely, a score of –1 corresponds to one
standard deviation below the mean, –2 corresponds to two standard deviations below the
mean, and –3 corresponds to three standard deviations below the mean.
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266 CHAPTER 10
Highest point One SD

Point of inflection
(curve changes from
downward to outward)
Percentage of cases
under portions of
.13% 2.14% 2.14% .13%
the normal curve 13.59% 34.13% 34.13% 13.59%
Standard Deviations −4σ −3σ −2σ −1σ 0 +1σ +2σ +3σ +4σ
(SD or σ)
Cumulative Percentages 0.1% 2.3% 15.9% 50.0% 84.1% 97.7% 99.9%
Rounded 2% 16% 50% 84% 98%
Percentile Equivalents
1 5 10 20 30 50 70 80 90 95 99
Q1 Md Q3
z-scores −4.0 −3.0 −2.0 −1.0 0 +1.0 +2.0 +3.0 +4.0

T-scores 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
CEEB scores 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
NCE scores 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
(Normal curve equivalent)
Stanines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Percent in stanine 4% 7% 12% 17% 20% 17% 12% 7% 4%
Deviation IQs
Wechsler σ = 15 55 70 85 100 115 130 145
Biñet σ = 16 52 68 84 100 116 132 148
Normal Curve Characteristics and Test Scores

1. The curve is bilaterally symmetrical with the highest point at the center.
2. The mean, median, and mode all fall at the center of the curve.
3. The standard deviation is the distance from the mean to the point of inflection (all SDs
are equal in distance along the baseline of the curve).
4. The percent for each area under the curve represents percentage of cases.
5. Each of the scores below the curve can be translated into any of the others (if we can
assume essentially normally distributed scores and comparable norms). For further
description, see Test Service Notebook 148, Methods of Expressing Test Scores, the
Psychological Corporation.
FIGURE 10.6 NORMAL CURVE CHARACTERISTICS AND TEST SCORES
SOURCE: Test Service Notebook of NCS Pearson. Reprinted with permission.
*Originally published as Test Service Bulletin No. 48, January 1955, and updated to include Normal Curve
Equivalents, September 1980.
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Going back to the earlier score set, these test scores would generate the following
z-scores:
Raw scores z-scores
97 1.21 1 97 2 88 4 7.38 5 1.21 2
96 1.08 1 96 2 88 4 7.38 5 1.08 2
94 .81 1 94 2 88 4 7.38 5 .81 2
92 .54 1 92 2 88 4 7.38 5 .54 2
85 –.41 1 85 2 88 4 7.38 5 2.41 2
83 –.68 1 83 2 88 4 7.38 5 2.68 2
82 –.81 1 82 2 88 4 7.38 5 2.81 2
75 –1.76 1 75 2 88 4 7.38 5 21.76 2
Mean = 88
SD = 7.38
The benefit of this approach is that a teacher can place these scores on the normal
curve. For example, the 96 test score falls slightly above the first standard deviation and
exceeds the 84th percentile. In addition, the 75 test score falls below the first standard
deviation below the mean and falls below the 10th percentile.
T scores, a standard score scale with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10, are trans-
formed scores, just like z-scores, except a different mean and standard deviation exist. T
scores can be converted from z-scores by multiplying the z-score by 10 and then add-
ing 50 (T score = 50 + 10(z)), as shown in Table 10.4. The T scores retain their exact
positioning relative to the z-scores within the distribution. They just ref lect a different
scaling, with numbers exceeding 50 above the mean and numbers less than 50 below the
mean.
Other standard score scales are associated with the normal curve and are used in the
fields of education and psychology (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). Normal curve equivalent
(NCE) is a standard score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 21.06, which allows
for a 1–99 range configuration just like the percentile equivalents in a normal distribution. In addi-
tion, NCEs and percentiles do match up at central points within the distribution (i.e.,
1, 50, 99); however, it is essential to recognize that NCEs are equal interval scores and
percentiles are not.
TABLE 10.4 CONVERSION FROM z TO T SCORES

z-scores T scores
1.21 62.1 50 1 10 1 1.21 2 5 62.1
1.08 60.8 50 1 10 1 1.08 2 5 60.8
.81 58.1 50 1 10 1 .81 2 5 58.1
.54 55.4 50 1 10 1 .54 2 5 55.4
–.41 45.9 50 1 10 1 2.41 2 5 45.9
–.68 43.2 50 1 10 1 2.68 2 5 43.2
–.81 41.9 50 1 10 1 2.81 2 5 41.9
–1.76 32.4 50 1 10 1 21.76 2 5 32.4
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268 CHAPTER 10
Wechsler or Deviation IQs reflect a standard score format with a mean of 100 and a stan-
dard deviation of 15. This scaling format is common with aptitude and achievement test
batteries. The College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) standard scores that
are reported with the SAT Reasoning Test or the Graduate Record Exam (GRE)
include a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100.
Although all of these standard scores possess different means and standard deviations,
they share a common scaling, which allows scores from different tests to be matched
to the same locations within the normal curve distribution. For instance, if a student
receives a standard score of 115 (which is one standard deviation above the mean) on one
test and another student gets a CEEB score of 600 (which is also one standard deviation
above the mean), both of these scores will be located one standard deviation above the
mean or at the 84th percentile on the normal curve. The normal distribution provides a
common distribution reference map for standard scores no matter what standard scale is
used in the construction of various tests or by different test publishers.
A special type of standard score is the stanine, which is a term derived from the
compilation of the words “standard” and “nine” (Worthen, White, Fan, & Sudweeks,
1999). With this standard score, the normal curve is divided into nine separate segments,
or stanines, and within each of these stanines—which are half a standard deviation wide
except for 1 and 9—a set percentage of cases are found (Gronlund, 1985).
Stanine Percentage of cases
1 4
2 7
3 12
4 17
5 20
6 17
7 12
8 7
9 4
The stanine serves as a quick and easy reference point for a test performance along the
normal curve, with stanines 1, 2, and 3 representing the below-average range; stanines
4, 5, and 6 constituting the average range; and stanines 7, 8, and 9 ref lecting the above-
average range. Overall, the stanine approach provides a general indicator of performance
relative to other obtained performances, based on an assumed normal distribution.
Examining Student Performance: Correlation Coefficients

Knowing the characteristics of the normal distribution is important for educators and the
instructional decisions they make in the classroom. In addition, understanding potential
relationships that exist among student performances is also essential. For instance, as a
teacher, you may need to know how a student’s performance on a particular measure or
test corresponds to their performance on a different test or measure. For example, do stu-
dents who score high on Test A also tend to score at a high level on a later Test B?
Consider Mrs. Smith’s Spanish class for a practical application of this issue. Her stu-
dents are completing their second year of Spanish and have finished their final. This is
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a comprehensive final that all second-year Spanish students must take. They also took a
diagnostic skill test at the beginning of the year. Mrs. Smith wants to examine the rela-
tionship of student performance between the diagnostic test and the comprehensive final.
Did students who performed well on the early skill test also perform well on the final?
Conversely, did students who performed poorly on the skill test also perform poorly on
the final? As you can imagine, these are important questions, and a correlation coefficient
can examine and describe the relationship between those two different performance sets.
As was mentioned brief ly in Chapter 4, the examination of the relationship that exists
between two scores or measures is called a correlation coefficient. A correlation coeffi-
cient, recognized as r, is used to represent both the direction and the strength of an assumed
linear relationship between two events or variables. In the field of education, the Pearson
Product-Moment Correlation is typically used to generate a correlation coefficient. The
following formula (Figure 10.7) is used in generating that correlation coefficient:
N g XY 2 1 g X 2 1 g Y 2
r5
"Ng X2 2 1 g X 2 2 "Ng Y2 2 1 g Y 2 2
FIGURE 10.7 COEFFICIENT FORMULA
The good news is that teachers are rarely placed in a position where they must gen-
erate a correlation coefficient, and even if that was the case, graphing calculators have
made that task relatively easy. The more likely need for teachers is to be able to accurately
understand and interpret correlation coefficients that exist in current research, profes-
sional journal articles, or test manual reports.
The correlation coefficient value can range from +1.0 to –1.0. A coefficient of +1.0
represents a perfect positive relationship between the measures (both measures either
increase or decrease in the same direction). A coefficient of 0 represents no linear rela-
tionship at all between the measures, and a coefficient of –1.0 represents a perfect inverse
relationship between the measures (one measure increases as the other decreases).
The interpretation of the strength of a correlation coefficient depends on the type of
information that is collected, and no specific interpretation guidelines or rules exist.
However, the following guidelines serve as a good overall indication of strength for
correlation coefficients: A correlation coefficient at the level of +.80 or higher indicates
a strong positive relationship and a coefficient of +.51 to +.79 represents a moderately
strong relationship, while a coefficient at the level of +.50 or lower indicates a weak
positive relationship. The same strength indicators apply to negative coefficients. Conse-
quently, a correlation coefficient of –.65 has the same strength as a correlation coefficient
of +.65. The only difference is in the direction of the relationship among the examined
variables or factors.
In order to get a visual image of an examined relationship, a scatterplot is often com-
pleted (Figure 10.8). According to Glass and Hopkins (1984), “The chief purpose of the
scatter diagram is for the study of the nature of the relationship between two variables”
(p. 81). A scatterplot involves the graphic presentation of data that can be used to determine
whether a potential relationship (including strength and direction) exists, and is constructed by plot-
ting the scores from the two different tests along an x- and y-axis. The score for each student is
plotted at the intersection of the two scores, and then the overall pattern is examined.
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270 CHAPTER 10
100
90
80
Test Points Received

70
60
50
40
30
20
Test Score
10 Trend Line
0
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
Hours Spent Studying
FIGURE 10.8 SCATTERPLOT EXAMPLE
The direction of the data pattern indicates what kind of relationship exists (e.g., positive,
negative, curvilinear, or no relationship).
For example, if a straight ascending line (scores or ratings increase or decrease in
the same direction on both axes) is generated, then a perfect positive correlation would
be demonstrated. If, however, a straight descending line is generated (scores or ratings
decrease on one axis while increasing on the other axis), then a perfect negative correla-
tion would be demonstrated. When reviewing the plotted points of a scatterplot, a line
is typically drawn through the points (referred to as a regression line, since the plotted
scores are examined as they regress or fall back toward this line) in order to help deter-
mine if the data points have a positive or negative direction.
When reading scientific studies or reviewing test manuals, correlation coefficients
are sometimes used to help support some finding or specific quality of a measure. It is
important to recognize, however, that correlation should never be interpreted as causa-
tion (that which produces a particular effect). Two factors or events may be related, perhaps
even strongly related, but that doesn’t mean one factor necessarily causes the other.
Also, correlation coefficients are based on the assumption that linear relationships
exist between the examined factors. Therefore, if a nonlinear relationship exists (e.g., a
curvilinear relationship), a correlation coefficient will not be an accurate measure of that
relationship. For that reason alone, it is important to recognize assumptions of expecting
a relationship to be linear when in reality it may not be. As a teacher you will rarely need
to calculate a correlation coefficient. However, you will certainly be expected to know
and interpret the strength and direction of correlation coefficients, especially as they are
used to support or explain various educational or psychological findings.
Standard Error of Measurement

When evaluating test scores it is important to examine standard error of measurement.
The standard error of measurement (SEM) reflects the consistency of an individual test
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performance as if the same test or performance was generated time and time again. In order to
have confidence in a test score that is generated, it is desirable to have a small standard
error of measurement that ref lects a minimum of measurement error within the test and
in the generation of the test scores. A standard error of measurement is generated based
on the standard deviation of the test scores and the reliability of the test itself (Mason
& Bramble, 1978). This estimate is often reported in test manuals in the form of a +
or – band that surrounds the obtained score because it is not an absolute finding. For
example, a score of 100 with a SEM of 5 really means that this student’s true score, or
the score that would be obtained if the test and measurement were perfectly reliable, falls
somewhere between 95 and 105. The mathematical formula used to determine the SEM
is the following:
SEM 5 SD "1 2 r
SEM = standard error of measurement
SD = standard deviation
r = reliability of the test
Since the distribution of error scores ref lects a normal distribution (Kubiszyn &
Borich, 2003), a score range that contains the hypothetical true score and the confidence
associated with the range of scores that surround the actual obtained score can be deter-
mined. With the example just provided, if we use +1 or –1 SEM from the obtained score
(obtained score = 100, 95–105 SEM score band), you can be assured that 68 percent of
the time the true score exists within that score band or confidence interval.
All too often we as educators interpret test scores as accurate scores, without any mea-
surement error or any imprecision of a student’s performance on some academic measure.
The reality is that at best we can be only reasonably confident of the performance range
of a student based on the SEM. This is important to recognize for teaching purposes as
well as for how the test scores are used for other educational decisions. In particular, with
high-stakes testing, students are often required to obtain certain scores in order to pass or
be seen as competent within certain academic content domains. Therefore, the determi-
nation of cutoff scores for those tests must be carefully selected, along with the recogni-
tion that a score band, which accounts for measurement error, is the most accurate way to
identify a student’s test performance.
LOOKING WITHIN A TESTING

PERFORMANCE
Up to this point, the procedures that have been examined and reviewed have dealt with
the understanding of how a student’s performance, generally measured by a test score,
compares to other student performances within a set or distribution of scores. Now it is
time to focus on some procedures that are helpful in examining the internal character-
istics of student performances, particularly as they relate to test performances. For that
reason, generated p value and item discrimination analysis issues are reviewed based on
Mrs. Smith’s Spanish test.
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272 CHAPTER 10
In regards to Mrs. Smith’s Spanish test scores, 27 students completed the test, and
all measures of central tendency were the same (81), with a standard deviation of 7.38
reported. Roughly 64 percent of all scores fell within the score range of 74–88 (one
standard deviation above and below the mean). A few very strong performances (90 and
above) were demonstrated, along with a couple of very low performances. At this point,
this is all Mrs. Smith knows about the Spanish test results.
However, Mrs. Smith wants to know how well her students did relative to the test
items and the demands of the test itself. Were some items easier than others? Were there
some items that most of the students missed, and if so, why? At this time, Mrs. Smith
does not have any information on how well the students did on each item of the test
itself. And that is important data to have, because the internal accuracy and consistency
of the items of the test determine the ultimate accuracy and utility of the test scores.
Before an internal review is conducted, it must be assumed that effective test construc-
tion practices have been followed with this test and with all tests that Mrs. Smith generates.
That would include ensuring that proper content coverage has occurred, that good test
item construction practices have been followed, and that instruction-learning-assessment
alignment exists, as well as additional factors like administration issues (e.g., adequate time
to take the test, conducive testing conditions) and avoidance of bias within the test itself.
All of this is important and must exist before a test is given to any group of students.
The internal review of a test is performed because it provides important information to
a teacher. As the teacher, you have a primary interest in knowing how well your students
did on the items of the test. This is necessary for the sake of understanding their progress as
well as whether they have acquired the knowledge and skills identified as essential for their
continued progress within an area of instruction. Consequently, in order to complete this
instructional audit, certain item-analysis procedures need to be used in the review process.
DETERMINING THE DIFFICULTY LEVEL

OF TEST ITEMS
One of the most common procedures used in the examination of a test item is its dif-
ficulty level, and the most common item-difficulty index is the p value. The p value is
determined by dividing the number of correct responses to an item by the total number of students
who respond to that item.
R
p 5
T
R = the number of correct responses to a test item
T = the total number of students who responded to the item
With this formula, the p value can range as low as zero (no students get the item cor-
rect) or as high as one (every student gets the item correct). Remember that test items
contain different probabilities of answering the item correctly by chance. For example,
if Item 20 is a true-false question, there is a 50 percent chance of choosing the correct
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answer by chance alone. For a multiple-choice item, that drops to a 25 percent chance
when a four-response answer set is used. With Item 20 (a multiple-choice item) on the
Spanish test, 24 out of the 27 students got that item correct. The difficulty level of that
item would be .88, and only 12 percent of the students got this item wrong.
So if an item has a high p value (.88), what does that mean? One could determine
that since 88 percent of the students got the item right, it was an easy item, so perhaps
it should not be included in the next test. Assuming that this is not a “good” item,
however, might be incorrect. In fact, it could be a very effective item that differentiates
students who know the information from those who do not. High student performance
on this item may ref lect the fact that the information it measures was taught well; conse-
quently, almost all of the students understood and learned the presented material.
Conversely, with Item 19 (a multiple-choice item) on the Spanish test, only 14 out of
the 27 students, or a little over half, got the correct answer. The difficulty level of that
item would be .52. Is this test question too hard, and should it be eliminated for that
reason? This is a reasonable question to ask, but before any decision is reached, this item
should be reviewed in order to determine whether it possesses any technical f laws or
ambiguity (e.g., confusing wording, missing words) in its structure.
When evaluating the quality and testing intent of test items, it is important to ask
whether you as the teacher would predict that over half your students would not know
the answer to this or any question you are reviewing. Is the item unclear or poorly
worded? Would it mislead or confuse the reader? Remember that if an item is intention-
ally designed to confuse students, the item is not measuring the knowledge or skills of
your students as much as evaluating how well they can recognize and deal with misdirec-
tion. Moreover, navigating confusing test items is not typically listed on a lesson or unit
plan as an educational objective for students to master. Along with writing a clear and
meaningful test item, it is important to make sure other effective test construction and
administration practices have not been violated.
If technical issues are not at fault, the problem may not reside with the test item and
may have more to do with instructional delivery issues. For example, it may be pos-
sible that the information this item covers was not taught in adequate detail or practiced
enough in order to answer the item correctly. If other test items that cover the same or
similar material also have low p values, this possibility becomes a more likely explanation
for the observed results. Instruction-learning-assessment alignment must manifest itself
through the identical match-up of what is taught to what is tested. If test items are con-
structed to measure something different from what was taught, a mismatch will exist that
can be evidenced through test performances of the students.
If the test items look good and the instruction was solid and effective, student factors
need to be considered. Student factors (e.g., motivation, health, test review and prepara-
tion) play an important role in any assessment and must be considered when any test is
reviewed. For instance, as much as we would like to believe that students prepare for
tests, sometimes they don’t, and that can result in less-than-desirable test scores. Some-
times test items are missed because the students simply didn’t know the correct answer,
which is an educational reality. As a teacher you just want to make sure, as much as pos-
sible, that student preparation is the primary deciding factor when evaluating student
achievement and performance in your classroom.
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274 CHAPTER 10
ITEM DISCRIMINATION
Another useful item analysis approach teachers can employ is the use of an item discrimi-
nation index. The item discrimination index involves a comparison of a student’s complete
performance on a test to his or her accuracy on particular items on that test. When an item is
reviewed, it can be identified as one of three types:
♦ A positive discrimination item is more likely answered correctly by students who per-
form better on the entire test (high group) as opposed to those who perform poorly on the test
(low group).
♦ A negative discrimination item is more likely answered correctly by students who
perform poorly on the entire test (low group) as opposed to those who perform better on the test
(high group).
♦ A nondiscriminating item is an item where there is no difference in accuracy between
the test performances of high- and low-ranking groups.
The procedure for determining an item’s discrimination value is straightforward, and
only a small amount of time is required to generate a value. Consistent with the practice
of placing data or scores in some logical order, the student performances based on the
total test score should be placed in order from the highest to lowest score. Two groups are
selected (high and low) based on their scores (highest scores go into the high group and
lowest scores into the low group). A p value is generated for each of the groups based on
the test item being examined. Then the p value from the low group is subtracted from
the p value of the high group. The resulting value is the item’s discrimination value or
index. The discrimination index range is just like the p value range of 0 to 1.
Returning to Mrs. Smith’s Spanish exam, after ordering the 27 scores, the highest 13
are placed in the high group and the lowest 13 are placed in the low group. Since an odd
number of scores exist, the middle score was removed and will not be used to determine
the index. On Item 18 of the test, 12 of the 13 students in the high group answered cor-
rectly. For the low group, only 5 out of the 13 students got this item correct. Subtracting
the p value of the low group from the high group (.92 – .38 = .54) generates an item
discrimination value or index of .54. Most of the students who did well overall on the
test also got this item correct, as compared to the students in the low group, so this item
would be considered a positive discrimination item.
According to Hopkins, Stanley, and Hopkins (1990) (as cited in Worthen, Borg, &
White (1993)), the item discrimination index bands provided in Table 10.5 serve as use-
ful guides in reviewing test items and their relative effectiveness in accurately measur-
ing an intended concept. As the discrimination index increases, so does the value of the
items and their collective ability to differentiate performance among high- and low-
performing students. In general, these values serve as useful markers when reviewing the
discrimination values associated with test items.
As a teacher, you expect to find positive discrimination items, like the example just
provided, within your test, which makes sense since students who study and prepare well
will perform well on the majority of test items. However, when negative discrimina-
tion or nondiscriminating items emerge, further analysis is definitely required. Since
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TABLE 10.5 DISCRIMINATION INDEX RATINGS
Discrimination index Item evaluation

.40 and higher Very good item
.30–.39 Good item
.20–.29 Reasonably good item
.10–.19 Marginal item (needs to be improved)
Below .10 Poor item (need to be rejected or revised)
it is unlikely that the least-prepared students would outperform the most prepared stu-
dents, something about the item is likely causing some kind of confusion. Because of this
unusual response pattern, these items are likely candidates to be dropped from the test.
With nondiscriminating items there is essentially a no-difference factor between the
students in the classroom. This is also an unusual occurrence, since some variation would
naturally be expected given the different preparation levels and efforts of students. Non-
discriminating items are sometimes seen as items that are too easy (most of the students
get them right) or too difficult (most of the students get them wrong). However, if a
mastery approach is taken (where all students are trained and expected to demonstrate a
high level of proficiency), nondiscriminating items ref lecting high accuracy (all students,
regardless of grouping, do well on the items) would not necessarily be seen as a limitation
of the test. Overall it becomes important to develop a professional habit of reviewing test
items, especially the negative discrimination and nondiscriminating items, to make sure
they are providing accurate and useful information about your students.
USING STATISTICS IN REVIEWING STUDENT PERFORMANCES

The use of statistics is most commonly found with the review and analysis of student work
in the classroom. These procedures can be used to answer questions such as: How did the
class perform in general on the test? Were there any low student performances? How did
the strongest test performance compare to the others? Based on the content that has been
covered so far in the text, complete the following task.
Imagine that a colleague has come to you for professional help. He has just given the
first of five tests as part of a six-week unit on government and economics. He wants to
review his test results in order to determine how his students performed, as well as set up
comparisons for their future performances with the remaining tests. Given the first set of
test scores (96, 63, 93, 65, 92, 66, 92, 70, 88, 72, 85, 74, 75, 84, 75, 82, 75, 80, 77, 79, 78),
help him determine the central tendency (mean, median, and mode) and variability of this
test score set. Also, convert these test scores into z-scores in order to better understand
where these performances fall within a normal distribution and to facilitate future test per-
formance comparisons (answers are provided at the end of the Resources section on page
278). What conditions would you remind him to be aware of as future comparisons and
reviews are conducted for individual students, as well as for the class as a whole?
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276 CHAPTER 10
Student Responses to Test Items

In addition to the information that can be gained from the technical analysis of the items
that make up a test, one of the best sources of feedback is student response. Because they
are directly involved in the test or assessment process, students can provide authentic
information about the event, as well as ideas of how to make it better for future admin-
istrations. Realizing that complete objectivity can never be obtained by individuals who
are directly involved in the process that is being reviewed, students can still provide
genuine insights that cannot be obtained any other way. By providing follow-up reviews,
students can comment on questions that were seen as confusing, directions that were
unclear, unexpected problems that had to be solved, and other related issues. Information
provided by students can improve any classroom test.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
In the Chapter Activity exercise, you examined how pervasive descriptive statistics are in
everyday life. Beyond the daily impact, as a future educator the role of statistics plays a sig-
nificant part in the professional literature and research that inf luence instructional delivery
and student learning. In addition, statistical data and review procedures are critical for class-
room teachers when examining, evaluating, and grading student work and performances.
As a teacher, you will be using statistical procedures and rendering decisions based on
data generated from those procedures. Since a skill is only developed through practice,
it becomes essential for every teacher to gain a comfort level with statistics, and that can
only happen if this tool is implemented on a routine basis in the classroom.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
The collection, review, and analysis of student performance evidence all require the
understanding and use of certain basic statistical and measurement procedures. Under-
standing the qualities of distributions, especially the normal distribution, central ten-
dency, correlation, and variability, allows teachers to be better informed when it comes
to looking at student test scores in the classroom and understanding test results from stan-
dardized achievement batteries, state-mandated tests, individual student evaluations, or
other test information sources. In addition, the use of item analysis procedures, including
item difficulty level (p value) and discrimination value, provides for the internal review
and examination of items that constitute tests and the scores that are generated from them.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How can I use
applied statistics to better understand student performance in my classroom? Through the
use of basic statistical procedures, important insights can be obtained from data that is
wit78704_ch10_254-279.indd 276 3/28/11 9:57 AM

How is this physician using data in making patient decisions?

Ryan McVay/Getty Images
collected on students in your classroom. Data is only useful if it is understood. Important

educational decisions will always be connected to the accurate analysis of collected stu-
dent data, including drawing accurate conclusions based on acquired information; put-
ting information in perspective relative to an individual, class, or grade performance; and
examining the implications of assessment results on the current and future status of an
individual student.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. Why is organizing data the first essential step in understanding it?
2. If a colleague asked you to explain and compute the measures of central tendency
and variability (e.g., range, standard deviation) of a classroom test, how would you
do it? Why is it important to know this information?
3. Identify and describe the characteristics of the normal distribution. How is this
distribution helpful to you as a teacher? For example, if a student’s score falls one
standard deviation above the mean in a normal distribution, what does that mean?
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278 CHAPTER 10
4. Identify common standard scores used in educational and psychological tests and
how they are constructed.
5. In a professional article you are reading, a scatterplot is given and a correlation
coefficient of .65 is reported. Describe that coefficient in regards to both direction
and strength.
6. Explain how difficulty and discrimination values are generated for items in your
tests. Why are these procedures useful in examining a classroom test?
RESOURCES
The American Statistical Association (ASA) at www.amstat.org provides useful informa-
tion for K–12 educators. Click on the “Education” button for information on work-
shops, links, and resources designed for teachers to increase their statistics knowledge
base. Ideas for potential lessons and activities that can be used to integrate statistics into
the classroom curriculum are also offered.
The National Center for Education Statistics at nces.ed.gov provides access to elementary
and secondary education data from across the country, as well as educator resources
designed to enhance the use of data in the educational experience for students at the
local, state, and national levels.
Answers to Assessment in Action Activity

X ± M = x x2 z-score
96 79 17 289 1.83 1 96 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 1.8
93 79 14 196 1.51 1 93 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 1.51
92 79 13 169 1.4 1 92 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 1.4
92 79 13 169 1.4 1 92 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 1.4
88 79 9 81 .97 1 88 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 .97
85 79 6 36 .65 1 85 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 .65
84 79 5 25 .54 1 84 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 .54
82 79 3 9 .32 1 82 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 .32
80 79 1 1 .11 1 80 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 .11
79 79 0 0 0 1 79 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 0
78 79 –1 1 –.11 1 78 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 2.11
77 79 –2 4 –.22 1 77 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 2.22
75 79 –4 16 –.43 1 75 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 2.43
75 79 –4 16 –.43 1 75 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 2.43
75 79 –4 16 –.43 1 75 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 2.43
74 79 –5 25 –.54 1 74 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 2.54
72 79 –7 49 –.75 1 72 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 2.75
wit78704_ch10_254-279.indd 278 3/28/11 9:57 AM

X ± M = x x2 z-score
70 79 –9 81 –.97 1 70 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 2.97
66 79 –13 169 –1.4 1 66 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 21.4
65 79 –14 196 –1.51 1 65 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 21.51
63 79 –16 256 –1.72 1 63 2 79 4 9.3 2 5 21.72
1,804
Measures of Central Tendency

Mean = 79.1
Median = 78
Mode = 75
Standard Deviation = 9.3
Range = 33
REFERENCES
Glass, G. V., & Hopkins, K. D. (1984). Statistical methods in education and psychology (2nd
ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Gronlund, N. E. (1985). Measurement and evaluation in teaching (5th ed.). New York: Mac-
millan Publishing Company.
Hopkins, K. D., Stanley, J. C., & Hopkins, B. R. (1990). Educational and psychological mea-
surement and evaluation (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kubiszyn, T., & Borich, G. (2003). Educational testing and measurement: Classroom application
and practice (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Mason, E. J., & Bramble, W. J. (1978). Understanding and conducting research: Applications in
education and the behavioral sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
schools. New York: Longman.
assessment in schools (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
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CHAPTER 11
STANDARDIZED TESTS
AND HIGH-STAKES TESTING
KEY FOCUS
How can results from standardized tests be used to understand and facilitate stu-
dent learning and progress?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Describe the assessment and accountability compo-
nents of No Child Left Behind (NCLB).
♦ Comprehend testing terms such as norm, standard-
ized, norm- and criterion-referenced, age and grade
equivalents, and value-added model.
♦ Interpret test score profiles from commercial
achievement reports.
♦ Distinguish the use of value-added growth models
in the evaluation of student progress.
♦ Understand the importance of test preparation and
test-taking strategies for students.
♦ Facilitate the impact of parent-teacher conferences
by conveying meaningful student performance
information to parents.
280
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STANDARDIZED TESTS AND HIGH-STAKES TESTING 281
Introduction
The use of standardized achievement tests to systematically evaluate student learning can
be traced as far back as the 1920s and 1930s. Interest in collecting student test scores across
grade and subject areas has only increased over the decades to the present day, where group
achievement tests with “high stakes” implications exist throughout the country. Over the
past 20 years, the standards reform movement has forced states to establish academic con-
tent or proficiency standards for students, along with connected assessments and tests based
on those standards. At no other time in the history of education has greater scrutiny of test
scores and their use existed in the schools. Consequently, your students are being educated
during the era of accountability, and high-stakes tests have taken center stage.
These tests are identified as high-stakes tests because serious consequences are attached
to them for students, schools, and even states. According to Braden and Tayrose (2008):
Federal laws and policies mandate statewide tests, and mandate consequences for
schools and local education agencies based on test results. Individual consequences
such as grade promotion, the attainment of a high school diploma, and tracking or
allowing students’ achievement grades to dictate the school, program, or class to
which they are assigned are not specified by federal laws or policies, but about half
of the states in the United States elect to attach such consequences to their testing
programs (p. 576).
Pre-service teachers are entering a profession that must deal directly with the focus
and impact of high-stakes testing. This has huge implications for how teachers approach
their instruction, teach, and prepare for required measures and standards of student
achievement. Obviously, it has even greater implications for the students who must pass
these tests and evidence competency across an ever-expanding array of subject fields and
skills.
THE NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT

As brief ly summarized in Chapter 1, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) stands as
one of the strongest pieces of mandated accountability within P–12 education, as this
legislation holds every school, district, and state responsible for meeting the achievement
outcomes of the students they teach and serve. This act, which is the reauthorization of
the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, has and will continue to have a significant
impact on the education of children in this country. As with all legislation, controversy
surrounds NCLB, especially in what it mandates as school districts struggle to maintain
and support faculty and provide required services to students and their families. Despite
the political and professional agitation that may exist, the reality is that the mandates of
NCLB are law, and as such school districts must meet, to the fullest extent possible, the
requirements and expectations for student progress that have been set.
As evidenced in its name, NCLB is focused on making sure every child demon-
strates academic progress, with a special emphasis on low-achieving and economically
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282 CHAPTER 11
CONFESSION OF A VETERAN TEACHER

Consider the following “confession” provided by a former English teacher, Ms. Jones, who
taught in both public and private schools for over 25 years. She was the teacher that every
student wanted to have and that every parent requested for their children. When inter-
viewed, Ms. Jones stated, “During the first year the state graduation test was given, I taught
a variety of English classes, including an Honors class. I was responsible for two areas of the
test: reading and writing. My Honors students were good readers and writers, so I assumed
that they would do well on both of these tests. Although I spent class time teaching my
other students about the tests, the expected skills, and spent time practicing sample ques-
tions [and] prompts, I did not do this with the Honors students. When the results came
back, I was dismayed to find that two of my Honors students had failed the writing portion
of the tests.
I made it my personal goal to determine why they had failed, and to find out what I
might have missed, if anything, in my instruction. As I further examined the prompts and
reviewed sample materials that the state had provided, I realized that these students were
not familiar and proficient with the particular skills that the test (and ultimately the aca-
demic standards) was asking them to demonstrate. Once I recognized this, I felt prepared
to help them with their second opportunity to pass the test. Happily they did just that. This
was an eye-opening experience for me as a teacher. As a result of this experience, I learned
that my students, regardless of their level, needed to be knowledgeable and proficient in
the skills that they are ultimately measured by, whether it’s a high-stakes test or a classroom
exam.”
This testimonial ref lects important issues that directly relate to the practice of class-
room assessment in today’s schools. The instructional challenges outside the classroom,
particularly in the form of standardized tests and other evaluation measures, directly affect
your students. Moreover, these recognized challenges must be connected to and addressed
inside the classroom, because that is the educational reality of the students you will teach.
We all recognize that learning isn’t just what happens in school from 7:30 to 3:00 every
day. It’s much more than that, and as educators we understand that learning never really
stops just because a class ends, school is dismissed, or a student graduates. Most impor-
tantly, when students are in
our care we have the pro-
fessional responsibility to
make sure that they are
skilled and well prepared
to meet the challenges that
await them both inside and
outside the classroom. And
that includes knowing what
students face in the form of
expected standards, formal
test measures, and legisla-
tion that directly impacts
their learning experience.
© Image 100 Ltd
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disadvantaged children who have not previously shown significant academic progress
relative to other groups, particularly on group achievement test measures or other exter-
nal indices of academic accomplishment. This legislation is broad in scope and involves
several interconnected areas (e.g., highly qualified teachers, evidence-based practice,
expanded parental options). However, the most important area, relative to the area of
assessment, is the accountability of student progress and achievement. This accountability
includes several key components including annual testing of students, the documentation
of adequate yearly progress (AYP) of students, and state academic content standards.
Specifically, NCLB requires:
♦ that yearly testing be completed by all students, including those with identified dis-
abilities or limited English proficiency
♦ the testing must be connected to the academic standards that are required in the
state in which the child is receiving his or her education
♦ at a minimum, all states must provide standardized testing in reading and math in
grades 3 through 8 and at least once in high school
♦ testing in the area of science must be conducted at least once in grades 3–5, 6–9,
and 10–11
♦ each state must provide a sample of fourth and eighth graders who have completed
the National Assessment of Educational Progress program in reading and math
every other year
♦ ultimate accountability is attached to mandated testing, in that every state is
required to set its own yearly proficiency goals with the ultimate milestone of all
students who take the test meeting the proficiency standard set by their respective
state by the 2013–2014 school year
Student progress is identified as adequate yearly progress (AYP), as defined by scor-
ing at the proficient or higher levels on state-required tests. This status level must be
demonstrated by all students. Schools must report this progress as a unit as well as for key
groups of students, such as ethnic minority students, students with identified disabilities,
English-limited students, and others. If any group of students does not make the expected
progress over a two-year span (or more), sanctions can be administered to the school and
the school district (Table 11.1). Intense pressure is placed on schools to demonstrate real
and sustained test score improvement for all students but especially for those who histori-
cally have had limited academic success as measured by group achievement tests.
Along with the NCLB expectations of all students learning and making appropriate
academic progress, the use of high-stakes testing as the major indicator of student accom-
plishment in educational decisions has become the norm. Federal legislation requires
annual testing, and the public expects students to do well on these group achievement
tests, since they are based on academic standards that students are expected to master as
part of their classroom instruction. As reported by Braden and Tayrose (2008), “Most
(44) states use tests custom designed to state standards” (p. 578). So teachers as well as
students are involved in a high-stakes learning environment with high-stakes implica-
tions. Make no mistake: the standards-based tests that students are mandated to take and
pass across each respective state directly inf luence the curriculum and instruction that
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284 CHAPTER 11
TABLE 11.1 POTENTIAL SANCTIONS FOR SCHOOLS THAT

FAIL AYP GOALS
Consecutive
years failing
AYP Schools Local education agencies
2 School choice (students may choose to Develop a plan for improvement
attend another school in the district;
district must provide transportation)
3 Supplemental educational services Implement plan and state may
(schools must provide free tutoring direct corrective action
services to students who elect to
remain)
4 Corrective action (adopt scientifically- Continue plan and state may
based methods of instruction, train staff direct corrective action
to use effective methods)
5 Develop plan for alternative governance Mandated corrective action (e.g.,
(plan for radical restructuring, external state takeover, dissolution of
contracting, reconstitution) local education agency)
6 Restructuring (essentially closes the
school; may reopen as Charter, magnet,
or other alternative)
Copyright 2008 by the National Association of School Psychologists, Bethesda, MD. Reprinted by permis-
sion of the publisher. www.nasponline.org
takes place in every classroom. That is one of the major reasons why teachers need to be
informed and possess a high level of assessment competency so that the most effective
instructional decisions are made for their students.
NORM-REFERENCED
STANDARDIZED TESTS
Teachers recognize the need to review and interpret student evidence that is collected
in their classrooms. However, that assessment competency must also extend to measures
and tests that are administered outside the classroom, and the primary tests that teachers
encounter and will have to interpret are standardized achievement tests. A standardized
test is any test that is administered and scored in a uniform and consistent way. This is done in
order to maintain reliability throughout the process as well as maintain high confidence
with the test results. The test results are also reviewed and presented within a standard
format so that findings are explained in a comparable fashion despite the variation of
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CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Given the high personal impact associated with standardized tests, as a future teacher it
is important to develop a framework and format that can be used when reviewing and
discussing student test results with various audiences (e.g., students, parents, administra-
tors). As you begin to think about what your format will look like, consider the following
components.
• Testing description—a brief explanation of the tests that are administered.
• Covered performance areas—what students are required and expected to do given the
provided test items and tasks.
• Accuracy and confidence—brief statements regarding the validity of the findings and
your level of confidence that these results are accurate estimates of the child’s true skill
and knowledge levels.
• Test profile review—a clear and meaningful explanation of the student’s performance,
with particular emphasis on relative strengths and areas or skills that require continued
effort and practice; in addition, the student’s success in meeting the expected academic
standards and learning goals that the test is designed to measure must be reported and
understood by all parties.
• Learning impact—test results are only helpful if they are used to make decisions that
improve student learning; therefore, how will test results be used to directly impact
student learning in the instruction that you provide?
• Other—what additional components (if any) do you feel are necessary for your test
results script?
As you continue this ref lective process, the framework components will likely evolve
over time. However, at this time, begin to identify and refine the elements that you believe
are necessary in order for your students, their parents, and other interested parties to fully
understand the testing information that will be provided.
individual student performances. The most common examples of standardized tests are
the commercially available achievement and aptitude tests, which are produced and sold
by private test publishers (see Figures 11.1 and 11.2 later in this chapter). In addition,
some state departments of education (e.g., Arizona, Hawaii, Iowa, Tennessee) implement
their own standardized achievement tests as part of their statewide assessment programs.
Most standardized tests are constructed to provide norm-referenced information,
which allows a comparison to a specific age or grade that are usually based on national norms. A
norm group is an identified reference group that serves as a comparison for students who complete
the same test. For example, the standard format for national norms is typically based on
several key variables including age, grade level, ethnic status, and gender. More special-
ized norms can be constructed to be used in student comparisons, and they are usually
identified as specialized norms in the results section of the test. In particular, additional
factors such as school size, suburban versus rural location, and socioeconomic status can
be used in the construction of norms. In addition, local norms that are specific to a
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286 CHAPTER 11
particular school district can also be generated. This allows for important comparisons
among students at individual schools within a district.
With a nationally norm-referenced standardized test, students who take the appro-
priate test for their age or grade level are compared to a corresponding national sample,
which allows them to examine their relative performance as well as identify particular
skill strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, it is important to make sure that the appropri-
ate norms are used with the selected achievement test. It is also essential to make sure the
most recent test norms are used, as this provides for the most accurate comparison of your
current students. The more years that separate the norm group from the students who are
taking the test, the weaker the comparability between the two groups.
When conducting student and score comparisons, it is important to recognize that the
norms that exist within a norm-referenced standardized achievement test serve only as an
academic reference point and do not ref lect the focused acquisition of particular learning
targets within designated academic standards. A performance profile may be provided,
including the number of items passed within a particular skill domain (e.g., word study
skills). However, no extensive or meaningful information within specific skill areas or
on the required performance levels is typically provided. Only a criterion-referenced
standardized test that is comprised of expected skills and performance levels directly connected to
specific content standards is designed to address that issue. Consequently, the emphasis of the
criterion-referenced test is on how well each student does relative to the content of the
test and not on student-to-student comparisons.
Skill Mastery in the Classroom

The need to use criterion-referenced measures in the classroom will always exist. If I need
to know whether my students can correctly add single-digit numbers, then appropriate
items (e.g., 3 + 5 = X or 2 + 4 = X) must be used in the test to demonstrate that the stu-
dents have indeed met that outcome. An expectation of a certain level of proficiency (e.g.,
90 or 95 percent accuracy) is also connected with this measure. This is done in order to
ensure functional and independent operation of the reviewed skills. This type of assess-
ment is directly focused on the accuracy and proficiency of each student relative to these
skills, and not on the comparison of one student to another, as would be done with a
norm-referenced position. A skill-oriented test requires and confirms the demonstration
of student learning and ref lects that all-important “show me” requirement in the process.
For student evidence purposes, criterion-referenced tests are invaluable. Whenever
the need exists to measure and determine the functional status of any identified skill,
criterion-referenced tests and performance events can document a student’s learning sta-
tus, as well as demonstrate a change of that status over time with repeated measure-
ments. The curriculum-based measurement information that is elaborated on in Chapter
13 speaks to the instructional effectiveness that can be demonstrated with skill-based
instruction and assessment.
With the emphasis on the desired skills, there is a natural de-emphasis on student-to-
student comparisons. Obviously students are compared, but the comparison is focused on
the desired skill or skill package, relative student progress, general learning rates, and so
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on, and not on student-to-student reviews. The natural focus is on learning the skills and
not on “looking at everyone else” during the learning process. A criterion approach also
forces careful instructional preparation on the teacher’s part, as the necessary elements
and skills must be selected and taught in the classroom before they are executed as part of
a formal assessment.
INTERPRETING TEST SCORES

A common reaction when first looking at a standardized test score summary is being
overwhelmed by the amount of information, both from the skill profile that is provided
and the text that often accompanies the profile. And that is a very reasonable reaction,
because test publishers provide a lot of information within a student score report. How-
ever, with just a little practice and review, a test score report can be easily read.
Let’s get oriented to what is typically provided in a test score report. Each commercial
test has a slightly different format and presentation style when it comes to the listing of
the testing information, although most provide a listing of the various tests and subtest
performances, along with some descriptive explanation of the test results. The amount
and types of information that are provided will vary depending on the number of tests
or subtests that are administered as part of the achievement test itself. Despite reporting
differences, there are some essential scores and indices that are found in most test profiles
(e.g., reporting of the test’s standard scores, percentiles, student and testing identifica-
tion information), and these will be reviewed momentarily. When examining any score
report, always keep these thoughts in mind.
♦ Make every attempt possible to review the test manual and any accompanying test
pamphlets that are provided with the standardized test. This is the most accurate
information you can obtain about the standardized test that is being used. In par-
ticular, this information can be helpful in explaining the various sections and scores
that are reported as well as the possible interpretation of the scores.
♦ Make a point to become familiar with the types of standardized tests and score
reports that are used in your school district. Being informed about these tests will
go a long way in developing an expertise and comfort level with these instruments.
♦ Recognize the value as well as the limitations that exist with formal test results.
A student’s performance on a standardized test should be viewed as an impor-
tant piece of evidence and as a helpful measure of student learning and progress.
However, many factors contribute to that performance, and as such it has to be
put into the larger learning context. This is one piece of evidence that should be
considered and integrated within the multiple sources of learning evidence that
are collected on students over the course of an academic year. Unfortunately,
sometimes the impact of standardized test scores, perhaps due to high-stakes pres-
sure, overshadows the collective evidence and findings on the learning progress
of students.
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288 CHAPTER 11
Basic Components in a Test Profile

Standardized achievement tests uniformly provide basic logistical information, including
the name of the student, school or school district, grade, age of the student, and testing
date, as well as the level or form of the test and the norms that were used. Academic test
scores and results are usually reported as percentile ranks and displayed graphically in
the form of performance bars or lines. National stanines are typically reported as well.
As mentioned in Chapter 10, a stanine is a standard score that is used to divide a normal
distribution into nine sections, which are reported as single-digit numbers ranging from
a low of 1 to a high of 9 (Worthen, White, Fan, & Sudweeks, 1999). Stanines 1–3 repre-
sent the low end (i.e., below average) of the distribution and account for approximately
23 percent of all scores within the distribution. Stanines 4–6 represent the middle (i.e.,
average range) of the distribution and account for 54 percent of the scores in the distribu-
tion. Finally, stanines 7–9 represent the high end (i.e., above average) of the distribution
and account for the remaining 23 percent of a normal distribution.
In addition to stanines, some standardized tests generate grade equivalents. A grade
equivalent (GE) is a score that describes a student’s performance based on a grade-level comparison.
For example, a GE of 2.5 indicates that a student’s performance is estimated to be compa-
rable to the average performance of a second-grade student during the fifth month of that
year. Grade equivalents are estimated scores and as such must be interpreted with caution,
as these scores are sometimes misused and can provide more confusion than clarity.
One of the most common interpretation problems is assuming that a child is actu-
ally performing at a specific grade level when in reality only his or her test perfor-
mance is consistent with other student performances at that level. For example, Sarah
is a third grader whose reading comprehension score generated a GE score of 4.6. At
first glance, you might want to move Sarah up to the fourth grade, since it appears that
she understands what she is reading at the mid-fourth-grade level. She is also doing
well in her reading comprehension (placed at the 71st percentile), but that GE of 4.6
should not be interpreted as proof that her abilities are comparable to all fourth grad-
ers. In fact, that score only indicates that Sarah’s reading comprehension performance
(which involved a selected number of test items) was comparable to the performance
that would be found on average for a student that is currently in the middle of their
fourth-grade year.
Age equivalents (AEs) are scores that base a test performance on age instead of a grade
level. These scores are also estimated and share the same limitations as grade equiva-
lents. Because of the confusion they create, some experts in the field have recom-
mended that both GE and AE scores be avoided if possible (Reynolds, Livingston, &
Willson, 2006).
As described in the previous chapter, percentiles indicate the percentage of individuals
who score at a particular point within a normal distribution. For example, if a student’s
raw score of 30 equals a percentile rank of 85, than 85 percent of the students who took
that test scored lower than 30. It is also correct to say that this student’s performance
exceeded 85 percent of that group. However, the percentile does not ref lect the accuracy
of the test performance. For instance, scoring at the 85th percentile does not mean that
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this student got 85 percent of the material correct; it only indicates the positioning of this
score relative to the other scores in the distribution.
In addition, based on the normal curve, the percentage of cases that fall within spe-
cific sections of the normal distribution can be determined (e.g., one standard deviation
above and below the mean = approximately 68 percent of all the cases), along with scor-
ings at particular points along the distribution. The center of the distribution is at the
50th percentile; one standard deviation above the mean is the 84th percentile; and the
98th percentile is two standard deviations above the mean. One standard deviation below
the mean is the 16th percentile, and the 2nd percentile is two standard deviations below
the mean. This approach allows for a student’s performance comparison within the dis-
tribution, in addition to a performance comparison relative to his or her peers.
Standard scores, derived from the student’s set of raw scores, serve as the key report-
ing scores for the test battery. Different standard score formats exist (e.g., T scores [mean
= 50, standard deviation = 10] or Deviation IQ [mean = 100, standard deviation = 15]),
but they share a common scaling that allows for test comparisons between different tests
within the normal curve distribution.
In order to help you become more familiar with various test profile formats, scores,
and interpretations, test profile copies belonging to the author’s daughter are provided
here. Examine the score profile in Figure 11.1 on page 291. At this time, Ashleigh was
an eight-year-old second grader who was given the Stanford Achievement Test Series.
At the top of the score report, information on the student and her scores, along with
her percentile performance bands, are provided. She completed several tests, including
three subtests (Word Study Skills, Reading Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension)
in the area of Reading, two subtests (Problem Solving and Procedures) in the area of
Math, and additional testing in Language, Spelling, Environment, and Listening. The
selection of these administered subtests was determined by the school that she attended.
As more subtests are included, the overall cost of the test, both in time and money, also
increases.
The number of items for each subtest are provided, along with the raw score (how
many she answered correctly out of the total number of items) and the percentile ranks
and stanines that correspond to each of the subtest performances. Below is a short list of
Ashleigh’s subtest performances.
Subtest Items Raw score Percentile Stanine
Spelling 30 26 88 7
Total math 74 61 86 7
Total reading 118 91 78 7
Language 44 28 58 5
Listening 40 15 8 2
Based on this information, what are Ashleigh’s relative academic skill strengths and
weaknesses? Strong performances were noted in the spelling, total math, and total read-
ing subtests. In particular, she exceeded most of her contemporaries (88 percent in spell-
ing, 86 percent in math, and 78 percent in reading), and each of these score placements is
located in the above-average stanine of 7. Her language performance fell in the average
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290 CHAPTER 11
range yet her listening performance was extremely low, as she only exceeded 8 percent of
her peers on this particular subtest.
Specific subskill performances listed within the content clusters indicate average to
above-average attainments for all subskill areas in spelling, math, and reading. Overall,
she was able to successfully complete the grade level subtests; however, she clearly dem-
onstrated difficulty with the listening subtest. Of the seven subskills that were evaluated,
six of the performances fell in the below-average range.
An Achievement/Ability Comparison is also provided, which compares her achieve-
ment performances against her estimated abilities to see if her academic achievement is
below, comparable to, or exceeds her estimated ability level. Along with the measure-
ment of achievement, some standardized tests include a general measure of ability or
learning capacity. This is provided so the student’s academic performance can be com-
pared to his or her estimated ability to learn. The ability scores are often reported as stan-
dard scores (mean = 100, standard deviation = 15), and age and grade level comparisons
may also be provided.
The provided results present the picture of a high-achieving second grader. In fact,
her performances across all measured areas fall in the high-average to above-average
range except for the listening area, which was extremely low relative to her other perfor-
mances. Based on her estimated abilities as measured by the Otis-Lennon School Ability
Test, both her verbal and nonverbal learning skills fall within the average range relative
to age and grade norms. Given this information, Ashleigh presents as an “overachieving
student,” where her actual academic achievement exceeds her estimated abilities based on
the items from this test. She evidences a consistent achievement profile, except for her
listening performance, where her accomplishments were consistently low in all listening
subtasks. The information provided in the bottom sections gives more detail on what
specific skills were examined and how she performed on each one of those skills. In addi-
tion to national percentile rankings, a qualitative scoring rating of below average, aver-
age, and above average is also provided for each of the separate skill areas.
If you were Ashleigh’s teacher, how would you react to the following score summary?
Would you have any concerns? What about the poor listening performance? Is that a
real issue to examine or just a strange artifact of the testing? As you can tell, this was
an exhaustive testing (i.e., the complete battery was given), and a poor performance on
one or more tests is always possible, especially for young students who are involved in a
formal testing routine over a number of school days. As mentioned earlier, however, it
is essential to consider all pieces of evidence when examining the learning progress of
students.
In this particular case, the low listening performance makes sense and is supported
when other information about Ashleigh is revealed. At the time of the testing, Ashleigh
was receiving speech and language therapy to improve her auditory processing skills.
As a young child, she had a history of significant ear infections that affected both her
hearing and language skills. Although she did not require hearing aids, she did have
interference problems with background noise and not being able to clearly differenti-
ate sounds or spoken words. Consequently, she started receiving language services in
first grade to improve her listening skills. This performance profile makes sense when
the testing results and other personal information are examined, and that’s where the
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FIGURE 11.1 ASHLEIGH’S SECOND GRADE TEST SCORES
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292 CHAPTER 11
real benefits are obtained: when all available information is used, it provides for greater
understanding, which allows for more accurate and meaningful decisions to be made in
the classroom.
Aptitude Information within an Achievement Test

Most commercial tests focus on a variety of specific academic skill and content areas (e.g.,
reading comprehension, math computation), as well as other related skill areas (e.g., read-
ing graphs, use of reference skills), as that is their primary design. They are intended to
provide the most accurate analysis of a student’s knowledge and skills relative to a specific
content area or skill domain. The test profiles in Figures 11.1 and 11.2 serve as typical
examples of the areas and skills that are commonly evaluated with standardized achieve-
ment tests. In addition, with both measures, information on a student’s general aptitude
or capacity to learn is provided. Information on current learning as well as a student’s
capacity to learn constitute the two basic elements that are demonstrated in commercial
tests.
Ability or aptitude measures are designed to provide an estimate of a student’s ability
to learn, generally delineated within the broad areas of verbal- and nonverbal-based skills
and attributes. This is done in order to determine whether a student is working up to and
performing at, beyond, or below his or her estimated abilities. The terms “overachiever”
and “underachiever” ref lect the ability–performance disconnect that is sometimes found
in test profiles. As already mentioned, Ashleigh demonstrates a classic “overachiever”
profile in Figure 11.1. She performed at a much higher level in all skill areas, except for
listening, than would be expected given her ability estimates, which only fell within the
average range.
Typically, aptitude scores are reported and interpreted as standard scores (mean = 100,
standard deviation = 15), and as such can be directly compared to other test perfor-
mances. The average range is associated with scores that fall within one standard devia-
tion above and below the mean (85–115), with 85 representing the low end of the average
range and 115 representing the high end. Consideration of “gifted for school purposes”
is generally given to students whose standard score reaches 130 or higher. Conversely, a
standard score of 70 (2nd percentile) or lower represents a significantly low-ability per-
formance. However, if a significantly low-ability measure is evidenced for a student,
more individual testing and work with that student would be needed in order to confirm
that finding.
It is important to recognize that the concept of aptitude, along with its estimation,
comes with inherent risks and limitations. To begin with, aptitude is viewed by some as
a permanent indicator, as a “fixed amount” that never changes and cannot be modified.
Therefore, students are limited to what they can become based on their ability. In other
words, your educational fate is set, and if you demonstrate low ability (as determined by
these measures) you will experience minimal success in life. Unfortunately, if someone
believes that they are capable of less because of their abilities, they are likely to perform
in that manner.
Ability measures and/or estimates run the risk of unduly and negatively inf luenc-
ing the perceptions of others. That includes students at all levels, from those with low
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FIGURE 11.2 ASHLEIGH’S SEVENTH GRADE TEST SCORES
estimated ability to “average” students and even those who can be classified as gifted. For
that reason alone, great care, restraint, and professional ref lection are needed before this
kind of information is discussed for educational purposes.
Now examine and review Ashleigh’s test scores that were obtained when she was in
the seventh grade (Figure 11.2). Are there any similarities between her second grade and
seventh grade test performances? How would you describe her overall performance? As
her teacher, do you have any instructional concerns, and if so, what are they? How would
you describe these results to other parties, such as parents or other professionals?
Ashleigh’s composite score performance fell in the average range, with most of her
academic skill performances falling in the average to low-average range. However, a
relative strength was noted in her science performance area. In regards to her estimated
abilities, her academic performances are in line with her overall ability estimate. Relative
processing strengths were noted in the quantitative and nonverbal reasoning areas. Her
weaker skills were demonstrated in the verbal ability area.
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294 CHAPTER 11
Given her earlier history of language/auditory processing difficulties, a verbal perfor-

mance depression and learning issues connected to her verbal-based learning skills are
not too surprising. Although her verbal skills were not a significant problem in the class-
room (she never enjoyed reading or was motivated to read, and she was never a “talker”
in class), the reported test scores do accurately ref lect this weak skill area for her at this
time in her educational career.
In addition, please take note of the sentence in the bottom right-hand section of the
report. For those who can’t decipher the small print, it says, “If you need assistance with
score interpretation, please contact your child’s teacher.” Clearly, as a teacher you are
expected by the general public to be a competent testing and assessment resource. In par-
ticular, every teacher is viewed as an assessment professional capable of interpreting score
reports and providing explanations on a level that is relevant to both parents and students.
VALUE-ADDED MODELS
Standardized achievement test scores provide a considerable amount of information on
a student and his or her performance in regards to the particular skills that are measured
as part of the testing. However, the information that is collected provides an educational
“snapshot” of a student’s accomplishments at one specific point in time. Even when test-
ing is completed every year and multiple “pictures” are collected over time, those images
are still separate events and measurements that are not necessarily connected to each
other or to the student in a continuous and uniform fashion. On the other hand, growth
or value-added models (VAMs) are designed to measure the growth of student learning over
multiple points in time in order to examine the learning progress of a student over that period. In
particular, the yearly value that contributes to a child’s learning is measured and can be
compared to other students or from classroom to classroom or from school to school.
The VAM measures a student’s improvement from one year to the next through the
examination of what are referred to as “gain scores” that are generated for each student.
Student gain scores (i.e., individual student progress or growth in achievement over a
specified period of time) can be collected and combined for a classroom or for a particu-
lar teacher, as well as for classrooms within a certain grade level in a school. By following
a value-added approach, it is possible to compare the combined or aggregate gains of stu-
dents across time so that comparisons between classrooms or schools can be made. The
value of a student having a certain teacher can be evaluated based on the growth gains of
the students in that teacher’s class, which is referred to as “teacher effect” (Ballou, Sand-
ers, & Wright, 2004).
VAMs have become popular because they can effectively address the NCLB require-
ments of collecting and confirming the learning progress of all students, especially low-
achieving students. School administrators and officials need to know which students are
making progress and which ones are not across each individual school in a school district.
In addition, at the district level, teachers who are highly effective, as illustrated by the
strong learning gains of their students, can be identified, as compared to those who are
less effective. This information can be used to help less-effective teachers become more
effective through professional development and other district supportive services.
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Value-added modeling is based on advanced statistical estimation models that allow

educators to follow an individual student’s academic progress over time (e.g., several
years) in order to examine critical advancement factors, including the impact the stu-
dent’s teachers have had during that time. Currently several states, including Tennessee,
Pennsylvania, Arkansas, Oregon, New Hampshire, Alaska, Arizona, Delaware, Flor-
ida, Hawaii, Iowa, Nevada, North Carolina, and Ohio, use value-added assessment to
measure the learning and growth gains of students as part of their statewide assessment
system, and more are considering this option. The most well-recognized model is the
Educational Value-Added Assessment System (EVAAS). This model has been in use the
longest and was designed by William Sanders in Tennessee.
According to Braun (2005), the EVAAS model generates a student score at the end of
the year that is based on three basic components:
1. district average for that particular grade and year
2. class or teacher effect
3. systematic and unsystematic variations
The difference between a student’s score and the average score for the district is associ-
ated with the class experience plus any potential measurement error. As a student moves
on to the next grade, one additional component is added, which is the inf luence of the
teacher effect from the student’s previous year. When the first-year score is subtracted
from the second-year score, the student’s gain score is generated. The gain experienced
by a student in a particular year is then compared to the average gain in the district for
that same year.
One of the most significant findings from William Sanders’ work is that the strongest
identified variable in the learning progress of students is the teacher (Sanders, 1998; Sand-
ers & Horn, 1998). According to his findings, the effectiveness of the teacher directly
inf luences the magnitude of the growth gains of students in the classroom when all other
factors are recognized and controlled. Of course there are additional contributions (e.g.,
resources, support personnel, community involvement) that can inf luence why some
teachers are particularly effective compared to those that aren’t.
Concerns regarding the complexity of the VAMs, the scaling of test scores, and
whether teacher effectiveness can be accurately measured have been voiced (Doran &
Fleischman, 2005). Of particular interest has been the accuracy of the VAMs in regards
to their ability to accurately estimate individual teacher effects. Based on a review of
the current literature, McCaffrey, Lockwood, Koretz, and Hamilton (2003) concluded
that at the present time there is insufficient support for the use of VAMs for high-stakes
educational decisions. The authors acknowledge the potential promise and utility of this
approach, but they indicate that more research and collaboration is needed before VAMs
are implemented on a large scale.
Similar concerns are voiced by Henry Braun (2005), as effectiveness (and in particular
teacher effectiveness) implies a causal interpretation. As he reports, “The fundamental
concern is that, if making causal attributions is the goal, then no statistical model, how-
ever complex, and no method of analysis, however sophisticated, can fully compensate
for the lack of randomization” (p. 8). And since students are not randomly assigned to
classes or schools, nor are teachers randomly selected to teach groups of students, it is very
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296 CHAPTER 11
difficult to sort out differences due to student and class selection issues and differences
that are actually due to the impact of a teacher’s instruction. Braun’s message regarding
the potential of VAMs is consistent with the reported reviews. However, his warning to
not rely on a VAM as the only evaluation method for teachers (and their instructional
effectiveness) is warranted and needs to be recognized by all school officials.
TEST PREPARATION IS ESSENTIAL

FOR STUDENTS
Given the reality that students will be involved in some form of formal group achieve-
ment testing during their primary and secondary school career, it is important for every
teacher to possess a solid knowledge of useful test preparation practices as well as useful
test-taking skills. Students clearly need to perform well on standardized tests, given the
high accountability that is often attached to these performances. Proper test prepara-
tion is often viewed as falling within the responsibility of the teacher, and this creates
an opportunity where you can help teach your students useful test-taking skills that can
serve them any time they are involved in a formal testing situation.
General test preparation involves a number of strategic actions that a teacher can take
to help facilitate the most effective and accurate student testing performances. When pre-
paring your students for a test, whether it involves a districtwide achievement assessment
or a classroom exam, make sure the following items are reviewed.
♦ One of the most important elements connected to the successful completion of
any testing situation is the atmosphere that surrounds a test. For example, as the
teacher, if you generate the belief that the impending test is easy, hard, impor-
tant, or unnecessary, those impressions will likely be absorbed by your students.
In essence, your perception often becomes their perception, so carefully con-
sider what testing images will be promoted. Pushing the notion to your students
that this test, or any test, is really a challenge for them to show what they know
and can do is perhaps the most honest and effective way of setting up a testing
situation.
♦ Provide information about the test (e.g., basic makeup and form, what knowledge
and skills will be measured, why it’s important for the students’ continued devel-
opment) so the students are fully informed. Being aware of a test and its purpose
goes a long way in its acceptance by those who will be taking it. Also, it helps to
set up the necessary review and preparation cycle that needs to occur before it is
administered.
♦ Part of test awareness should include students having practice with the different
item and question formats that they will see on the actual test. The more students
know and become familiar with how a test will operate, the less anxious they will
become. They will always be nervous, and that should be viewed as a normal sign.
However, if they are anxious and dreading the event, that is a significant problem
that must be dealt with before the test is given. One of the best ways to minimize
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or eliminate test anxiety is effective practice accompanied by performance success

so that the students’ confidence regarding an impending test is high.
♦ Regarding the testing setting, create an environment where students can perform
at their optimal levels. Consequently, make sure that basic requirements, such as
proper lighting and temperature, appropriate air f low, and adequate working space,
are met. In addition, a morning testing period is generally best, with no distrac-
tions (e.g., hall noise, maintenance work, grass cutting) and no delays (e.g., com-
pleting student identification information), as adequate time must be allocated for
the completion of the test material.
♦ Knowing how to answer a test question or selecting an answer to a question is
critical to a student’s success in taking and completing a test, and that is why stu-
dents need to have test-taking strategies. However, the best preparation for a test
is knowing the material or practicing the skills that will be on the test. Students
who rely solely on guessing strategies and finding the most likely answer have only
marginal success at best.
TEST-TAKING STRATEGIES
In regards to test-taking strategies, when answering selected response questions (e.g.,
multiple choice), have your students consider these basic selection suggestions.
♦ As they read the test questions, try to have them identify the answers in their heads
before they look at the responses that are provided. If this is done, then their answer
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
TESTING COMMON SENSE

Even well-prepared students will inevitably encounter test questions or tasks that will chal-
lenge their test-taking skills. So as they approach test questions, be sure to encourage and
instruct them on using good testing common sense, which requires not only using certain
strategies but an overall plan to address and answer test questions. Let’s look at these essen-
tial strategies.
1. Always impress upon your students to read the directions carefully. This may
seem obvious, but so many times students do not read the directions or read them
without interpreting their meaning and end up being confused and losing valuable
time or providing the wrong information. A careful reading of the directions helps
students avoid careless errors, and reading directions more than once may be necessary
for some students.
2. Students need to review the test once they receive it. They need to quickly scan
the test to examine its length, the type of questions, whether questions are on one side
or both sides of the page, etc., so that they gain a better idea of what to prioritize when
they start working.
(continued)
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298 CHAPTER 11
3. Complete easy questions first and then answer the difficult questions. As
students go through test items, they need to complete those that are easy and those
they are sure they can answer correctly first. This helps build their confidence and
focus their thoughts on related concepts that will likely be examined in other items.
If an item is difficult and the answer is unclear at that moment, skipping that item and
returning to it at a later time is the best option. Upon returning to the item, students
should eliminate any answers that are clearly wrong or don’t fit with the question itself
(for selected response items). They should try to reduce the number of options to two
responses, then go back to the question stem and determine the best answer from the
two options. When dealing with essay or extended response items, students need to
create an outline for their answer and follow a logical order with the points that are
made in the response.
4. Students need to monitor their progress and the testing time. In general,
teachers are good about indicating how much time is left when taking a test. However,
the student is the only one who knows what he or she has done and not done during
a test, so the available time to complete work is a huge factor. Students need to check
their progress relative to time so that they can be assured of completing the test within
the specified time limits (if there are time limits). Fractional time review (e.g., half of
the questions are completed with half of the hour remaining) can be done rather eas-
ily; it just requires a habit of checking progress at specified time intervals (e.g., first 15
minutes, first 30 minutes) on the student’s watch or the clock in the room. In general,
students need to be mindful of the time during the test and not rely on the teacher as
the only source of that information.
5. Students need to review their work. Although the natural inclination is to hand
in a test as soon as it is finished, your students need to learn to resist that urge and
to review their test answers. They need to check to make sure they have answered
all questions. Also, inaccurate markings can occur (e.g., selecting two answers for a
multiple-choice item), and other careless mistakes (e.g., forgetting a decimal point, not
writing out the entire number correctly, missing a punctuation mark) can be identified
and changed during the final test review. Confirming that the student’s name is on the
test is also essential and should be done before the test is handed in.
will hopefully match up with one of the provided answers, which will likely be the
correct answer.
♦ Have them review all the provided responses and eliminate the ones they know
aren’t correct. Once they have selected an answer, encourage them to stick with it,
as their first choice is generally the correct choice.
♦ Make your students sensitive to question options that do not grammatically fit the
question stem. Also, if an option is unknown to them and seems to be out of con-
text with the question, they should disregard that item. If two options are given
that are direct opposites of each other, there is a strong possibility that one of those
responses is correct.
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♦ The use of negatives in test items can be confusing, so encourage your students
to get in the habit of dropping the negative and then reading the statement and
deciding whether it is true or not, and then reexamine the statement in the reverse
position.
When providing constructed responses (e.g., written responses for short answer, essay,
or extended response questions), your students need to be aware of the following sugges-
tions and strategies.
♦ Make sure they pay close attention to the directions so that they are providing what
is asked for. For example, they need to know whether they are supposed to answer
all of the essay questions or just a certain number of them (e.g., answering three of
the four questions).
♦ They should always make sure they know what a question is asking them to do. If
they don’t understand any part of a question, they should be encouraged to ask the
teacher for further clarification.
♦ Make sure they directly answer the question. Don’t have them provide information
(e.g., personal ref lection or opinion, unrelated facts) that is not asked for or is not
needed to answer the stated question. They need to provide the requested informa-
tion in a simple and straightforward manner that is easy to understand and follow.
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300 CHAPTER 11
Also, if answers are handwritten, they should write or print carefully because messy
responses are harder to read and are consequently likely to receive lower grades.
♦ Have them state their main point in the first sentence of their response, followed
by supporting information and evidence of that statement. Make sure the specific
information that is provided (e.g., basic information, appropriate research) is useful
and connected to the question. Responses that are concise, clear, and well orga-
nized are well received by teachers.
♦ If time permits, have them review and proofread their work. Identifying gram-
matical errors and sentence structure issues always provides for a better product and
a more meaningful written response.
TEST RESULTS AND PARENT-TEACHER

CONFERENCES
No matter how test scores and responses are generated (e.g., standardized group achieve-
ment tests, VAMs, individual achievement or behavior scores, classroom tests), each
student’s test score performance and report is unique, and because of that fact, indi-
vidual review and analysis is always required. Because teachers will always be in situa-
tions where they have to answer parent questions about test scores, performances, and
many other things, it is important to practice and prepare for those situations. It is also
important to take advantage of opportunities to practice reviewing student performance
profiles and test score reports. With continued practice, every teacher can become highly
effective in his or her examination of test results obtained from standardized achievement
tests. And this is extremely important, as you will be asked to explain test scores (as well
as information from other classroom performances) to parents and even to students on a
fairly routine basis.
Beyond the mechanics of scheduling meetings and explaining test results, it is impor-
tant as a future teacher to understand the impact of parental interest and involvement, as
this is a significant factor in student success. As reported by Miller and Kraft (2008):
The research on the impact of parent involvement is consistent in one point: When
parents are involved, children do better in school. In Henderson and Mapp’s (2002)
synthesis of the research on parent involvement, which included 51 studies conducted
between 1993 and 2001, they found that students with involved parents were more
likely to earn higher grades and test scores, enroll in higher level programs, be pro-
moted, attend school regularly, have better social skills and adapt well to school, and
graduate and go on to postsecondary education. Another critical finding was that
families, regardless of cultural backgrounds, education, and income levels, encourage
their children, talk with them about school, help them plan for higher education, and
keep them focused on learning and homework. In short, families can, and do, have
positive effects on their children’s learning (p. 937).
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In recognition of this impact, teachers need to encourage and cultivate interest and
support for parents within their classrooms. Being connected is a critical component,
and the strength of that connection will be tested each time a parent-teacher confer-
ence takes place. Moreover, under both NCLB and Individuals with Disabilities Educa-
tion Improvement Act (2004) legislation, parent involvement is mandated; they must be
directly involved in numerous and meaningful activities that directly relate to the educa-
tion of their children (Miller & Kraft, 2008).
Even though electronic communication has become prevalent, when parents desire
genuine understanding and direct answers to their questions, they will often seek out
face-to-face contact with their child’s teacher. In fact, the most likely situation in which
teachers will be asked in-depth questions about test scores and other school performance
issues is a parent-teacher conference. Therefore, it becomes very important to use these
conferences as opportunities to strengthen the family–school connection and the parent–
teacher bond in particular.
A parent-teacher conference is recognized as a formal school meeting where a teacher com-
municates with parents about their child. Although the parents and teacher can meet for any
reason, the usual reason for meeting would be to discuss school progress and classroom
issues. Through these conferences, a professional foundation is established, and hopefully
a solid relationship starts to develop that helps to serve and support the academic success
of the child. When conducting a parent-teacher conference, there are some essential steps
you’ll want to take. In preparing for a conference where test scores and other sources of
learning evidence are discussed, consider the following suggestions and then determine
how they might be utilized in your future parent-teacher conferences.
♦ Always greet parents with genuine warmth and acceptance. The success of a con-
ference, or any meeting for that matter, will be determined to a great extent by
how well everyone works together. There will always be hidden agenda items,
but everyone at the meeting should have one primary goal in mind, and that is to
provide the best opportunity for “Johnny” or “Mary” to be successful in school.
In fact, it is strongly suggested that you open your meeting with that statement or
something similar to it, and that you keep this message as the central focus of the
meeting, particularly if divergent opinions and positions emerge.
♦ You will be talking about someone’s child, so be careful with your words and
descriptions. As a parent, it is sometimes very hard to hear things about your child,
especially if the information that is shared is not positive. The key is to be caring,
yet focused on the purpose of the meeting. Provide objective and useful informa-
tion so that all parties are fully informed and can work constructively together. Be
clear in your own mind about the purpose of the meeting and stay focused on that
purpose. Allow for discussion and the exchange of ideas, but don’t lose control and
discuss unrelated events. Time is a valuable commodity for everyone, so you will
need to keep the discussion on task and moving in a purposeful direction.
♦ Be sensitive to the real possibility that for some parents, parent-teacher conferences
are going to be uncomfortable, and that this may having nothing to do with you
personally. Oftentimes parents relive their own school experiences through their
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302 CHAPTER 11
children, and these kinds of meetings can spark old memories and hard feelings that
still may exist. Also, you will likely meet parents who have difficulty with the English
language and who will have difficulty following what you are saying. Make sure you
use understandable words when talking and especially when explaining test results
and what they mean. Having information available in a clear written form (e.g., out-
line, student performance summary, visual diagrams) can also be very helpful.
♦ As the teacher you are in the best position to provide accurate information about a
student, and that includes standardized test results. You can provide the best overall
picture of a student’s progress. You can indicate how current test results are consis-
tent, or in some cases inconsistent, with what is observed and demonstrated in the
classroom on a daily basis. What you say will matter, so make sure you are clear in
what you want to say and how you say it.
♦ Preparation for parent-teacher conferences is essential. Before you meet with par-
ents, make sure you understand all the information that will be shared during the
meeting. The level of preparation should be such that you can easily describe the
test results without having to refer to any particular section of the test or any refer-
ence material to explain the findings. Also, be sure of where you want to go dur-
ing this meeting. Is this meeting just to review the obtained test results, or is there
some other purpose? Be clear in your mind what you want to be able to accomplish
during this time and follow a plan that will allow that to happen. As the teacher, it’s
important to listen to and answer any questions that parents have, but you will also
need to direct this meeting and make sure the goals are met.
♦ If test results are to be reviewed, it is important to have several copies of those
results available, along with any additional information (e.g., handouts, pamphlets,
textbooks) that could be used to provide further explanation for various scores or
testing terms. For instance, sometimes drawing a normal distribution and placing
scores accurately within that distribution provides a helpful visual guide for parents
in understanding where their child’s performance falls relative to other children
who have taken the test.
♦ Operate on the assumption that most parents will have little (if any) knowledge
about test scores and how to interpret them. This is usually a correct assumption.
One of the main tasks you will have in a meeting like this will be to provide a
mini-lesson on how to read and understand test scores, because the parents will
be relying on you to do just that. They may even say they know what the scores
mean and how they are obtained, but many actually don’t. So if the parents you are
meeting with are limited in their understanding of test scores, they will need your
help and expertise. And in order for you to do this well, you must first be comfort-
able with this material and what it means.
♦ When test results are discussed, it is important to provide information on both the
student’s strengths as well as areas that need improvement. It is natural to point out
the weaknesses, but remember to provide a balanced presentation, because every
student has strengths that need to be acknowledged and recognized by others.
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Also, it is also important to emphasize that test scores, although they may be well-
constructed measures, are only (at best) good estimates of what a child understands
and is currently able to do within the measured skill areas. Scores should not be
viewed as permanent, “carved-in-stone” findings, or as perfect ref lections of stu-
dent performances.
♦ When describing test scores, percentiles and standard scores are most useful. A
normal distribution can be used to help explain the location of various test per-
formances. In regards to percentiles, a quick note of caution: Many individuals
confuse the term “percentile” (the percentage of cases that fall at a particular point)
with “percent correct,” which are not the same thing, so be sure to provide a clear
explanation of a percentile.
♦ Since most standardized tests generate information on a student’s achievement and
learning ability, these areas will need to be clearly differentiated and explained.
Information on how the ability scale is determined should be available. Also, a brief
explanation of the expected relationship between a student’s estimated abilities and
academic performance (i.e., a student should be working up to his or her estimated
abilities) may prove helpful for parents.
♦ If the conversation moves from reviewing the test scores and results to a discussion
of what things need to be done to improve the child’s performance in the class-
room, it is important to make sure that any plans that are made go beyond words
and into direct actions. Identify the goal that is to be obtained and the required
actions that will be needed in order to reach this goal, as well as the people respon-
sible for helping to reach this goal. Always end on a positive note and thank the
parents for their participation.
♦ Should the child be included in a parent-teacher conference? That’s a good ques-
tion, and it depends on the age of the child and the nature of the meeting. In
general, it’s not a bad idea as long as everyone knows the child will be expected
to participate in the meeting and not just sit there. Also, the child doesn’t have to
be involved in all meetings, so a selective attendance policy could be followed.
Whether you choose to include or not include the child in the meeting, remember
that strong, positive parental involvement sends an important and powerful mes-
sage to a child.
♦ Always remember that teachers need to conduct themselves in a professional
manner throughout a meeting. That may sound easy, but there will be times
when discussions get “hot,” and blame might be thrown around. The best thing
that can be done in those circumstances is to remain calm and stay focused on the
primary goal of the meeting: What needs to be done to make Johnny or Mary
as successful as possible in the classroom? Part of a teacher’s professionalism starts
with demonstrating a genuine interest in the child and the family. Being orga-
nized and objective, yet caring, during the conference helps to ref lect the impor-
tance of the meeting and in most cases gains the appreciation and respect of the
parents.
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304 CHAPTER 11
Reading Mathematics Writing Science Social Studies

552 560 630 590 580
448 444 476 445 446 457 Advanced

439 Accelerated
429 425 430 441 Accelerated 425 429
Above 424 Proficient Above
417 Proficient
Proficient 400 400 400 400 400 Proficient
Below Below
Proficient 363 384 378 371 382 Proficient
258 251 265 216 225
In Spring 2008, Ashleigh passed the:

Reading OGT Mathematics OGT Writing OGT Science OGT Social Studies OGT
FIGURE 11.3 ASHLEIGH’S OHIO GRADUATION TEST RESULTS
Test Scores: A Part of the Educational Experience

In this chapter, you had the opportunity to examine some of Ashleigh’s test scores as she
progressed through her school career. There was the extensive battery of tests given when
she was in second grade, as well as the full battery administered during her seventh-grade
year. Some interesting findings (including consistencies and inconsistencies) from these
tests have emerged, which have hopefully increased your awareness and understanding of
group achievement test scores. Moreover, at the time Ashleigh was going through school,
the standardized achievement tests she was given were not directly connected to the
mandated academic content standards that have since been identified for students in their
respective states. Her test results certainly provided a general sense of performance and
progress, but specific information on learning standards and resulting performances on
those standards could not be provided. The administered tests were simply not designed
to supply that kind of information.
That situation has definitely changed. The students you will teach in your classroom
will have that connection, so standardized test results should provide useful and direct
information on student learning progress on the academic standards they must acquire
and master. Now the question of requiring the passage of one exam (e.g., exit exam or
graduation test) to demonstrate that learning competency is a huge one, and that position
is contrary to the notion of considering multiple measures of performance. And as more
states move to require the passage of a graduation test, the high-stakes nature of testing
only increases. The saving grace in all of this may be that the entire school curriculum,
from preschool through high school, must now be connected as never before. Individual
grade levels can no longer exist as independent school experiences but must ref lect a
complete and integrated learning experience focused on the attainment of identified aca-
demic standards for all students. In case you were wondering how Ashleigh did at the end
of her high school career, she passed her graduation test (Figure 11.3) and is now attend-
ing college.
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Getty Images/Digital Vision
CHAPTER REFLECTION
As part of the Chapter Activity exercise, you were encouraged to develop a testing results
script and framework that can be used when reviewing standardized test results with
students and parents. What test review elements do you plan on covering when you meet
with students or parents? Within any chosen framework, providing a clear and accurate
picture of a child’s performance is essential. However, communicating those results is a
very human enterprise, and how information is presented to students and parents is just
as important as the information itself. A genuine, caring approach is needed in order to
develop and maintain parental cooperation, especially when the results indicate progress
problems or difficulties. As teachers we must recognize that communicating is one of our
most important professional skills, and that is especially the case when providing mean-
ingful yet sensitive test performance findings.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Due to the high impact and political energy associated with test scores, teachers need
to be knowledgeable about standardized achievement tests and the testing profiles and
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306 CHAPTER 11
performance information that are generated from them. Since all students are involved in
mandated district testing, teachers must be competent to interpret the test results that are
generated. In addition, they must be able to answer testing questions from parents, and,
more importantly, to determine the impact of those test scores on their students as they
relate to intended academic learning goals and outcomes. With continued practice, test
score interpretation skills directly benefit every child and parent.
As VAMs are further integrated into the formal evaluation of student learning prog-
ress, teacher awareness, knowledge, and understanding of these models will need to
increase. In order to obtain the most accurate and optimal test results, the testing stage
needs to be carefully constructed, and test preparation should always be an important
part of any formal assessment process. Students need to be as fully informed as pos-
sible regarding a testing event, and test preparation practices allow for greater student
understanding and awareness. Finally, parent-teacher conferences ref lect an important
part of the service that teachers provide to the general community. This dynamic inter-
play serves as an important relationship conduit. For a teacher, developing and enhancing
a positive relationship with parents and the general community is time very well spent.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How can results
from standardized tests be used to understand and facilitate student learning and progress?
Consistent with the message from the previous chapter on statistics, school data is only
useful if it is clearly understood and actively used in making the best decisions for stu-
dents. Information on students comes in the form of standardized achievement tests that
are given and reviewed on a yearly basis. High-stakes testing has forced school districts to
carefully examine the measured academic progress, or lack of it, for each child.
Regardless of your views about mandated testing, data from standardized tests will
involve your students, so examining and understanding the results is essential for their
welfare. The information covered in this chapter has provided a general foundation upon
which you can build a greater knowledge and skill base. What is most important is your
commitment to learning as much as you can about the specific standardized tests that
your students take and the decisions that are made based on those results.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. How has NCLB inf luenced the current instructional practices of the classroom
teacher? As a teacher candidate, do you feel that you are being fully prepared for
the testing and accountability challenges that accompany this legislation? Why or
why not?
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2. If asked by a colleague or by a parent, how would you describe the basic test scores
that are typically reported with standardized achievement tests? How should
information from formal tests be integrated with other sources of student perfor-
mance evidence?
3. Why have value-added models become so popular in education? What do you
need to do in order to be fully informed about these models?
4. How do you make test preparation content meaningful to students in the
classroom?
5. Do you feel that you could conduct a parent-teacher conference if you had to?
Construct an outline of the plan that you would follow in that conference. What
steps would you follow and why?
RESOURCES
The National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing
(CRESST) at www.cse.ucla.edu is a valuable educational resource that includes infor-
mation on standardized testing and current high-stakes testing issues. In addition,
current educational issues and research are provided that would benefit every educator.
At the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) site at www.ccsso.org, consider-
able information is provided on value-added models that are being implemented in
various states, along with the current progress of those state models, general findings,
and future directions. To access this information, type “value-added growth models”
into the search box.
The TeacherVision site at www.teachervision.fen.com provides considerable information
for teachers, including useful parent-teacher conference materials. Type “parent con-
ference resources” in the search box for an extensive list of materials and articles to help
better prepare for parent-teacher conferences.
REFERENCES
Ballou, D., Sanders, W., & Wright, P. (2004). Controlling for student background in
value-added assessment of teachers. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 29(1),
37–65.
Braden, J. P., & Tayrose, M. P. (2008). Best practices in educational accountability: High-
stakes testing and educational reform. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices
in school psychology V (pp. 575–588). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School
Psychologists.
Braun, H. I. (2005). Using student progress to evaluate teachers: A primer on value-added models.
Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
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308 CHAPTER 11
Doran, H. C., & Fleischman, S. (2005). Research matters: Challenges of value-added

assessment. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 85–87.
Henderson, A. T., & Mapp, K. L. (2002). A new wave of evidence: The impact of school, par-
ent, and community connections on student achievement. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational
Development Laboratory.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. 1400 et seq.
(2004).
McCaffrey, D. F., Lockwood, J. R., Koretz, D. M., & Hamilton, L. S. (2003). Evaluating
value-added models for teacher accountability. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
Miller, D. D., & Kraft, N. P. (2008). Best practices in communicating with and involv-
ing parents. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V
(pp. 937–951). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Sanders, W. L. (1998). Value-added assessment. School Administrator, 11(3), 24–27.
Sanders, W. L., & Horn, S. P. (1998). Research findings from the Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment System (TVAAS) Database: Implications for educational evaluation and
research. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 12(3), 247–256.
assessment in schools (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
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CHAPTER 12
ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS WITH

IDENTIFIED LEARNING NEEDS
KEY FOCUS
How can I effectively assess the learning progress of students with identified learn-
ing needs in my classroom?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Identify the federal legislation that
has mandated the provision of special
education services to qualified students.
♦ Understand the role and purpose of an
individualized education plan (IEP) for
each identified student.
♦ Distinguish the major special education
disability categories.
♦ Identify the potential assessment chal-
lenges connected with students identi-
fied with special learning needs.
♦ Apply assessment modifications in the
areas of presentation, time, setting,
and response for students with special
learning needs.
309
Somos RF/Getty Images
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310 CHAPTER 12
Introduction
For a regular education teacher, this chapter and its content may seem out of place. Why
should regular education teachers who teach in the major content areas (e.g., science,
math, English, social studies) or specialty areas (e.g., art, music, health, physical educa-
tion) need to be concerned about assessment issues that involve special education stu-
dents? Don’t special education teachers work with students with identified learning needs
in their classrooms? The answer is yes; however, these students are also served by regular
education teachers in the general education classroom.
Special education teachers help serve the learning needs of students who evidence a
wide variety of disabilities and conditions. However, while some of these students are
served in special classrooms, for the majority of their instruction during the school day
many are served in the regular classroom by way of instructional collaboration between
special and regular classroom teachers. If you think about it, all students have unique
learning needs in the classroom; it’s just that these particular students meet legal qualifi-
cations to receive special instructional services and resources.
The seclusion model that characterized special education delivery in the past has been
replaced by an inclusion-focused model (mandated through the Individuals with Dis-
abilities Education Act [IDEA], which was first passed 1990, reauthorized in 1997, and
refined again as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act [IDEIA] in
2004), where instructional service delivery occurs in the regular classroom to the fullest
extent possible. Because of this instructional focus, if it is in the best interest of an iden-
tified child to be served in the regular classroom, that is where he or she must receive
instruction, with the support of both special and regular education teachers. Therefore,
all regular education teachers need to be as informed and skilled as possible in order to
deal with the wide range of student needs that will likely exist in their classrooms.
Moreover, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) works in conjunction with IDEIA, as stu-
dents with identified disabilities are required to meet general education standards and
requirements. Remember that special education is really about services that are provided
to students, and not about a specific place or class. More importantly, special needs stu-
dents have the same constitutional right to be educated in the regular education class-
room as their nondisabled peers do.
Regular education teachers contend that they do not receive enough information, train-
ing, or support in regards to special education students or at-risk children (Bennett, Deluca,
& Bruns, 1997; Brice & Perkins, 1997). This is a national phenomenon, and given the rise
of inclusionary practices, the instructional and assessment pressures on regular education
teachers have only increased. Consequently, it is essential that regular education teachers
continue to increase their knowledge and skill base in regards to the complexities of serv-
ing special education students within the regular classroom setting. In order to help address
this important need, this chapter provides basic information about IDEIA and other legisla-
tive mandates (e.g., the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 Section 504), individualized education
plan implementation issues, general characteristics and needs of special education students,
and modifications of the assessment process for these students.
In addition, with the nationwide increase in the number of students who are identi-
fied as bilingual and for whom English is not the dominant language (English as a second
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ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS WITH IDENTIFIED LEARNING NEEDS 311
language [ESL] students or English language learners [ELL]), teachers need to be prepared
to address the unique learning requirements for these students. Within the field of educa-
tion today, almost every general education classroom contains students who represent a
broad range of abilities, experiences, and acquired skills, so significant instructional chal-
lenges exist for every teacher. When it comes down to it, regular classroom teachers need
to be able to serve the instructional and assessment needs of all students, whether they
qualify for special services, school assistance programs, or any other educational resource.
SPECIAL EDUCATION LEGISLATION

The modern era of special education can be traced back to the passage of Public Law
94± 142 or The Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975. This initial
legislation was instrumental in setting up the basic structure, procedures, and overall pro-
cess for the identification and provision of special education services that is still followed
today. The hallmark of this legislation was the recognition of a free and appropriate edu-
cation for school-age students with special needs, within the least restrictive educational
setting. The focus on least restrictive setting was a clear attempt to have students with
special needs educated, as much as possible, with their nondisabled peers. This was to be
accomplished through the process of mainstreaming selected students into regular classes
while providing them with instructional support services, primarily through the special
education teacher.
The most recent version of this legislation (the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act or IDEIA in 2004), combined with an earlier pas-
sage of Public Law 99± 457 or the Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments,
extended coverage and services to identified preschoolers (ages three to five) and ensured that all
school-age students who are identified with special needs receive instruction with their nondisabled
peers in general education classrooms whenever possible and to the fullest extent possible. This
fundamental shift to the inclusion of special needs students in the regular classroom
setting has generated genuine benefits for these students. In particular, past research
indicated considerable academic gains for students with disabilities when taught in
mainstream classrooms, and recent reviews have continued to support these findings
(Katz & Mirenda, 2002).
INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PLAN

Due to past special education legislation, along with the recent improvements under
IDEIA, every regular education teacher can potentially be involved in the instruction and
learning assessment of special needs students. In fact, regular classroom teachers play a
dominant part in helping to identify, through collected classroom evidence, students who
may be eligible for special education services, as well as helping to design and monitor an
identified student’s learning progress through his or her individualized education plan.
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312 CHAPTER 12
An individualized education plan (IEP), the official school document and action plan
designed to facilitate the educational progress of a student identified with special learning needs, is
generated by a committee that typically includes the student’s parents, regular and spe-
cial education teachers, educational support staff (e.g., school psychologist, counselor,
speech/language therapist), administrators, and any other personnel that are important to
the child’s case. The IEP itself contains several components:
♦ the current functioning status of the student, complete with estimated knowledge
and skill levels and short-term learning objectives
♦ annual and long-term goals (e.g., post-secondary instruction, vocational or trade
school training)
♦ types of special services provided (when, for how long, and by whom)
♦ evaluation findings and progress monitoring results
♦ the student’s qualification and program delivery
Teachers contribute to the development of the IEP by helping to create a clear picture of
current skills and progress (complete with identified strengths and weaknesses), so that
immediate and future learning targets specific to the individual needs and learning pro-
file of the student are generated.
The IEP serves as a learning contract for the student and his or her teachers. All teach-
ers, including special and regular education, are held responsible for making sure that it
is followed and that progress is monitored as ref lected in the short-term learning goals.
Assessment of student progress is a major requirement, as progress toward the identified
goals must be made on a regular basis (e.g., formal student review must occur at least once
a year). The assessment of the learning progress of the identified student may involve the
use of standard measures that are provided to all the students in the classroom, as well
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
As a regular education teacher, you may have wondered what is special or unique about
the training that a special education teacher receives. In a special education program, both
general and specialized courses in special education are provided, and many programs are
structured along a fifth-year post-secondary or graduate instructional level. Within the
program, specific courses in educational psychology and child growth and development,
along with training in specific strategies for teaching students with disabilities, are typi-
cally offered. A half year or in some cases a full year is spent student teaching in a classroom
supervised by a certified teacher.
In order to better understand the background and training of your special education
colleagues, make an effort to talk with current special educators in the field. When an
opportunity to interview a special education teacher presents itself, find out what instruc-
tion or experiences they’ve had that help them address the needs of special education stu-
dents. Also, ask them what advice, if any, they would give as you begin to prepare for the
special needs challenges that will face you in the classroom.
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as modified instruments or procedures that are designed for the particular needs of that
student.
If warranted, testing accommodations may also be made as part of the IEP for stan-
dardized achievement tests that exist as part of state- or district-wide testing programs.
Because of IDEIA, a student’s IEP must document how he or she will participate in
the mandated testing. There are three options: (1) participate with no modifications,
(2) participate with modifications, or (3) participate in an alternative assessment (Braden
& Joyce, 2008).
As a pre-service regular education teacher, it is important to recognize that you will
be teaching in one or more classrooms that will include students who have been identi-
fied with special needs. No matter your content expertise or grade range (e.g., elemen-
tary, middle, or secondary), you will be teaching special needs students who may present
a variety of disabling conditions and learning issues. And even when a group of students
share a similar identification such as a learning disability, considerable variation will
exist among those students in regards to their particular learning problems and instruc-
tional needs. It is essential that you keep this in mind as the basic disability categories are
described in the next section.
SPECIAL EDUCATION DISABILITY

CATEGORIES
Within professional teacher training programs, content dealing with special needs stu-
dents and their potential instructional needs is typically covered, as it is indispensable
in addressing the instructional challenges that will likely exist in your future classroom.
The following material serves only as a review of the disability categories and should
not be considered an extensive examination and appraisal of this knowledge base. If the
material provided in the following pages is “nothing new,” an apology is in order, and if
it is redundant, I am pleased to provide that apology, since that implies that this material
is part of your professional background and understanding.
Unfortunately there are some pre-service teachers as well as seasoned practitioners
who, despite their training, still do not have a clear understanding of the disability cat-
egories or the issues and challenges connected with them, or (most importantly) the
knowledge of how to serve identified students within the regular classroom. For this
reason alone, this review is provided.
In addition, there is a risk that only labels and not students will be examined, which
of course is not the intention of this review. In the quest to know and understand more,
we can objectify conditions and also, unfortunately, people. So instead of seeing a “child
with autism,” we may regrettably see an “autistic child.” Clearly every student is more
than his or her disability and that is the intended message here.
Under IDEIA, several special education categories are recognized, and are as follows:
1. Autism
2. Deaf/Blindness
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314 CHAPTER 12
3. Developmental Delay
4. Emotional Disturbance
5. Hearing Impairment
6. Mental Retardation (Intellectual or Cognitive Disability)
7. Multiple Disabilities
8. Orthopedic Impairment
9. Other Health Impairment
10. Specific Learning Disability
11. Speech or Language Impairment
12. Traumatic Brain Injury
13. Visual Impairment
To qualify for special education services under these disability categories, it must be
demonstrated through a formal review process that the severity of the condition is to
such an extent that it adversely affects a student’s educational performance and cannot be
adequately addressed with the boundaries of the regular classroom setting.
It is important for teachers to be informed about these conditions, since they will likely
be instrumental in helping to identify children for potential services and be involved in
the review and evaluation process itself, as well as potentially be teaching and assessing
students with these special needs. The more knowledgeable and confident you are about
special education issues, the more effective you will be in your own classroom. A brief
look at each of these disability categories, as defined and described within the federal
qualification guidelines, follows.
Autism
Autism is a pervasive developmental disability that is typically evident by the age of three
and is typically characterized by significant difficulty in communicating with others and
understanding and responding to spoken language, as well as relating socially to others
or to common objects or events (Sattler, 2002). Additional behaviors associated with
autism include repetitive body movements or behavior patterns, unusual play with toys
and other objects, resistance to environmental changes or daily routines, extreme behav-
ior f luctuation, and atypical responses to sensory experiences or stimuli.
Early diagnosis and supportive educational instruction within the regular classroom
setting are very important for students with autism. Classroom learning, through mul-
timodal instruction (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic), most often centers on the main
goals of effective communication, social interaction, behavioral control, and daily func-
tioning. Providing a consistent and organized classroom and home routine are essential
for children with autism. Related service personnel (e.g., speech and language therapists)
often play a major role in the educational process of autistic students, and their services
are often provided within the daily routine and confines of the classroom. With effective
classroom instruction and community support services, adults with autism can transition
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effectively to living and working independently within the community setting. That is
especially the case for individuals who are diagnosed with Asperger' s syndrome, a
condition associated with the high-functioning end of the autism spectrum, as they do not evidence
the speech and cognitive issues that are typically associated with autism and generally
demonstrate greater success with the academic and social demands of school (Volkmar &
Klin, 2000).
Deaf/Blindness
Deaf/blindness includes students whose combination of hearing and visual impairments
are so severe and generate such problematic communication, developmental, or educa-
tional needs that they must be served in programs that address both sensory impairments.
Students who qualify under this category usually require intensive instruction, extra
resources, and highly-trained teachers and support personnel.
Integration into regular education classrooms is more challenging with students who
demonstrate these needs; however, it can be successfully done. Services that can be pro-
vided can range from speech and language therapy and auditory training to hearing aids
and the use of sign language and the reading of lips. Closed-caption films and videos,
as well as the use of aides to take notes for the student during instruction, can also be
part of the services that are provided for students with a hearing disability. In the area of
teaching, a combined or total communication approach that involves oral communica-
tion (e.g., speech and lip reading) and manual communication (e.g., signing and finger-
spelling) is followed in most classrooms.
Developmental Delay
The qualification of developmental delay is restricted to preschool children ages three
through five who have documented developmental delays, as measured by diagnostic
instruments and age-based measures, in one or more of the following areas: physical
development (fine and gross motor skills), cognitive development, communication devel-
opment (speech and language skills), social development, emotional development, or
adaptive development (self-care skills).
Since young children develop at varying rates, the occurrence of developmental delays
is not unusual. It is hoped that with early intervention services, a developmentally-delayed
child can catch up with and maintain the progress of his or her peers. By the time the
child reaches school age, a reevaluation must be completed, and if services are still war-
ranted the child must meet the qualifications of one of the other existing disability cate-
gories. Early assistance and intervention services are provided so that the majority of these
children will not need special education services when they enter elementary school.
Emotional Disturbance
Under the qualification of emotional disturbance, a student must demonstrate one or
more significant problems over a long period of time (generally over a period of several
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316 CHAPTER 12
months) to a severe degree, and it must directly affect his or her educational performance.
In addition, a student must demonstrate one or more of the following characteristics:
♦ learning problems that are not due to intellectual, sensory, or health-related conditions
♦ difficulty making or maintaining appropriate and necessary interpersonal relation-
ships with those around them, such as peers and teachers
♦ experiencing feelings or demonstrating behaviors that are considered inappropriate
for a particular setting or situation
♦ a consistent state of unhappiness or depression or a tendency to demonstrate physi-
cal symptoms and fears connected to a student’s personal or school-related problems
This can include a student who is identified as schizophrenic or someone who can-
not differentiate reality from nonreality on a daily basis. However, it does not apply to a
socially maladjusted student (i.e., someone who understands and is in control of his or her
decisions and voluntarily chooses to act against others), unless it is decided that the nature
of the student’s difficulty emanates from a true emotional disturbance and the social mal-
adjustment is a result of that condition.
Given the potential psychological severity of this condition, students with an emotional
disturbance usually require direct and intensive services to address their emotional and
behavioral needs while maintaining their academic progress within the classroom. Coun-
seling and training in developing effective social skills, including self-control strategies,
improved self-esteem, and behavior management, may be necessary. Since this child’s
behavior may impede his or her learning, and may impact the learning of others, behavior
control and management is a prime consideration both in the school setting and at home.
Hearing Impairment
A hearing impairment, whether caused by a birth defect or acquired as part of one’s life
experience, results in a decreased ability to hear and discriminate sounds. Some hear-
ing impairments can be traced to genetic defects, gene mutations, or infectious diseases
(e.g., rubella), or other teratogenic factors during pregnancy. In addition, head trauma
or childhood infections (e.g., chickenpox) can cause hearing impairments, along with
significant and recurring ear infections that result in damage to the eardrum and the
auditory system.
Hearing impairments occur in various ways and affect different components of the
auditory system. However, regarding the eligibility guidelines for special education ser-
vices, there are three major types of impairments that are recognized, including (1) con-
ductive, (2) sensorineural, and (3) mixed. Conductive hearing impairment or loss
involves the interference of sound transmission through the outer or middle ear to the inner ear.
This can be caused by blockages in the ear canal, infections in the middle ear (e.g., otitis
media), f luid in the Eustachian tube, bone vibration problems within the middle ear, or
other related issues. Some conductive hearing problems (such as ear infections) are tem-
porary, while others may be chronic and contribute to actual hearing loss. Since conduc-
tive hearing issues center around sound collection and amplification, the use of a hearing
aid is often recommended.
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Sensorineural hearing impairment or loss occurs as a result of impaired detection of

sound waves and vibrations by the hair cells of the cochlea of the inner ear. These hair cells are
responsible for detecting both high- and low-pitched sounds. The acoustic nerve that
relays information from the cochlea to the auditory relay centers in the brain can also
be affected. If the vibrations are not detected, the neural impulses are not generated or
received by the auditory nuclei in the brain. This type of impairment is often permanent,
but hearing aids can be used to improve the auditory response of the student.
Mixed hearing impairment or loss involves the combination of both conductive and sen-
sorineural hearing problems. Regardless of the nature and cause of the hearing impairment,
hearing impaired students need to experience success and develop confidence in com-
municating and interacting with their peers on a daily basis. The key to success in the
classroom for these students is identifying their hearing issues early, providing effective
intervention and support services, and linking the home and school settings in order to
provide the best integrated delivery model possible.
Mental Retardation (Intellectual or Cognitive Disability)

Although the current federal disability term is “mental retardation,” “intellectual or cognitive
disability” serves as the professionally-recognized category heading. Students who evidence
an intellectual or cognitive disability have significantly sub-average intellectual function-
ing (as defined by an intelligence test performance that is at least two standard deviations
below the mean—usually an IQ score of 70 or below). They typically demonstrate delays
in the development of essential cognitive skills (e.g., higher reasoning skills), in addition
to impaired adaptive behavior (personal independence, self-sufficiency, and social respon-
sibility) and possible communication problems. Given the nature and extent of the issues
that can contribute to the intellectual and adaptive impairment of a child, general impair-
ment can range from moderate conditions, where students can acquire basic and functional
academic skills and vocational training, to more profound cases, where complete care and
supervision is required on a constant basis. In regards to classroom instruction, due to pro-
cessing difficulties and delays and limitations in communication, social awareness, and self-
sufficiency, students with a cognitive disability learn and progress more slowly than their
peers, and assistance and guidance from their teacher is usually required.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychi-
atric Association, 2000), known as the DSM-IV-TR, the major predisposing factors for
individuals with limited intellectual processing include:
1. heredity issues, including gene abnormalities (e.g., Tay-Sachs disease) and aberra-
tions (e.g., Down syndrome or fragile X syndrome)
2. embryonic development problems involving chromosome mutation or prenatal
toxin damage (e.g., maternal alcohol consumption)
3. pregnancy and perinatal issues that may include malnutrition, hypoxia, infections,
or trauma
4. general medical problems of infancy/childhood, including exposure to lead, infec-
tious diseases, and other related conditions
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318 CHAPTER 12
5. environmental factors that might include lack of nurturance, neglect, and

malnutrition
Despite the permanency of their condition, students with an intellectual disability are
capable of learning many things in school. They are often quite successful in completing
school and making the transition to supervised work settings.
Multiple Disabilities
A child who qualifies under the category of multiple disabilities demonstrates a severe
learning condition due to simultaneous handicapping conditions (e.g., mental retarda-
tion and blindness, mental retardation and an orthopedic impairment), which require ser-
vices that exceed the resources of a special education program designed for only one of
the identified impairments. This category does not include the category of deaf/blindness.
Although a small percentage of students—approximately 2 percent of those receiving spe-
cial education services—are identified with this category, given their unique learning and
functional needs, considerable resources and classroom arrangements are often necessary.
Orthopedic Impairment
An orthopedic impairment involves a severe injury to the skeleton or limbs of a student
that adversely affects his or her educational performance. This can include genetic-based
diseases (e.g., muscular dystrophy), congenital abnormalities (e.g., spina bifida, clubfoot),
disease-related impairments (e.g., bone tuberculosis), or other problems such as cere-
bral palsy, spinal cord injuries, or other structural issues. Students with these conditions
often demonstrate physical motion problems, such as isolated or general paralysis, poor or
unsteady gait, weak muscle control, loss of limb movement, and other related problems.
Speech and language production can also be affected.
One of the more common conditions recognized under this category is cerebral palsy.
Cerebral palsy is used to refer to neurological-based disorders that emerge early in a person’s
life that affect body movement and coordination. Common symptoms include poor mus-
cle coordination (referred to as ataxia), extremely tight or stiff muscles and uncontrollable
motor movements (spasticity), and an atypical walking gait (e.g., toe or foot dragging, toe-
walking). There is no cure for cerebral palsy; however, with the use of various treatment
options, including physical and occupational therapy, medication, corrective surgery, and
assistive devices (such as braces or wheelchairs), the condition can be effectively managed.
Other Health Impairment

A student may be identified as “other health impaired” when he or she has limited
strength, vitality, or alertness (or a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli) that
results in impaired performance in the educational environment. According to the
IDEIA definition, conditions that would warrant this classification include (but are not
limited to) chronic or acute health problems, such as asthma, attention deficit disorder
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Richard Hutching
or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemo-

philia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, or sickle cell anemia. The
most well-recognized and prevalent condition identified under this category is attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). According to the DSM-IV-TR, “The essential
feature of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is a persistent pattern of inatten-
tion and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that is more frequent and severe than is typically
observed in individuals at a comparable level of development” (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000, p. 78). Students who are clinically diagnosed and identified as having
ADHD often tend to underachieve relative to their estimated abilities in the classroom.
DuPaul and Stoner (2003) indicate that 80 percent of students with ADHD evidence
learning or achievement problems of some kind. Moreover, Barkley (2006) reports that
due to the severity of their symptoms, almost half of ADHD children qualify for special
education services in the areas of learning or behavior problems.
Specific Learning Disability

According to the IDEIA guidelines, a specific learning disability is primarily a language-
based learning problem (understanding or using either spoken or written language) that
can encompass several different processing skill areas. The disability may be demon-
strated in difficulties with listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, or
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320 CHAPTER 12
completing mathematical calculations. In particular, a student will not achieve commen-

surate with his or her peers or meet expected grade-level academic standards, despite
being provided appropriate instruction, in one or more of these specific skill areas:
♦ oral expression
♦ listening comprehension
♦ written expression
♦ basic reading skills
♦ reading f luency skills
♦ reading comprehension
♦ mathematics calculation
♦ mathematics problem solving
This formal determination does not usually occur until students reach school age,
since these skills only begin to emerge at that time. Despite possessing average or above-
average intelligence, skill delays or unusual processing tendencies are typically noticed
first by teachers, as well as parents.
In the past, in order to qualify for services, a significant discrepancy between one’s
ability and actual achievement (i.e., aptitude-achievement discrepancy model) had
to be demonstrated. However, that approach is now being replaced by an alternative,
intervention-based model (referred to as response to intervention [RTI]) that evaluates
the effectiveness of research-based intervention on student achievement and progress.
RTI is now considered the selection model of choice in the schools. With this approach,
if a student does not respond to specific and leveled academic or behavioral intervention
within the regular classroom setting, special education services would be considered.
The disability determination is made at the school level, and regardless of the identi-
fied academic area (basic reading skills, reading comprehension, written expression, oral
expression, listening comprehension, mathematics calculation, or mathematics problem
solving), if the evaluation team decides that a student qualifies as having a learning dis-
ability, he or she is eligible for special education services. Specific learning disability
represents the largest special education category, as approximately half of all students in
special education are identified as having a learning disability (Lichtenstein, 2008).
Speech or Language Impairment

For a student to qualify for a speech impairment, he or she must evidence difficulties in
producing speech sounds or have problems with voice quality such as stuttering, dysf lu-
ency, impaired articulation, or a language or voice impairment. A language disorder
ref lects an impairment in the ability to use and understand language and can include
problems with the structure of language, such as morphology, syntax, semantics, and
pragmatics. This disability category has the second-highest qualification rate, with
approximately 20 percent of all special education students receiving this identification.
Speech and language therapists play a major role in the identification process as well as
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in providing intervention services and therapy. These services are often provided in the
classroom setting as part of the normal instructional day.
Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury or TBI is an acquired injury to the brain that is usually pre-
cipitated by an open (i.e., skull is pierced) or closed head injury. Brain injuries that are
congenital, degenerative, or related to birth trauma issues do not qualify within this cate-
gory. Given that this type of disability occurs suddenly, the life-changing impact is often
significant for the student who sustains the injury, his or her immediate family, and the
teacher and school that will serve this student after they are discharged from the hospital.
According to the Brain Injury Association of America, almost 1.5 million people per year
sustain a TBI. In addition, the three highest-risk groups are young children from birth
to four years of age, adolescents from 15 to 19 years of age, and adults 65 years of age or
older (Faul, Xu, Wald, & Coronado, 2010).
Depending on the age of the student and the nature and extent of the injury, a wide
variety of processing skills and abilities can be adversely affected, and in some cases on a
permanent basis. Basic academic skills, memory, general attention span, talking, sensory
acuity, thinking and reasoning skills, social awareness and integrity, and general behav-
ioral control, as well as lower brain functions (e.g., respiration, internal temperature
regulation), can all be affected due to a traumatic brain injury. Literally every skill and
activity that has a cortical basis can be affected, which has tremendous learning implica-
tions for students with a TBI. Given the complexity and unique characteristics associated
with each head injury case, school transition becomes a very important process, since
the construction and implementation of effective instruction requires an individualized
approach for every student (Witte, 1998).
Visual Impairment
A student can qualify for a visual impairment, ranging from partial sight to blindness,
if even after corrective measures (e.g., glasses) the condition adversely affects his or her
learning. Visual impairments can range from partially sighted, with some field of vision
limitation, to low vision, which is considered a severe visual impairment (e.g., unable to
read newsprint with the aid of glasses), to legally (i.e., less than 20/200 vision) or totally
blind. A visual impairment or vision loss must be diagnosed by an ophthalmologist or
optometrist.
Children with visual impairments are usually identified early, and classroom supports
such as special computers and programs, large-print materials, books on tape, and Braille
books are available that allow for a considerable amount of their instruction to take place
in the regular classroom. In addition, children with visual challenges can and should be
commensurate with their peers if resources and effective early intervention services are
provided (Sattler, 2002). Therefore, the collaboration between regular and special educa-
tion teachers is vital for the success of these students.
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322 CHAPTER 12
© Compstock/PunchStock
Gifted and Talented Students

Although not identified or funded under special education, gifted and talented students
can represent a unique challenge regarding instructional delivery and assessment in the
regular classroom. Students identified as gifted or talented can qualify for certain services
and a number of instructional options, including accelerated or advanced classes or being
promoted to a higher grade, if warranted. Special learning opportunities (e.g., participat-
ing in active research with professionals in the field, individual out-of-class projects) can
also be integrated into the identified student’s class schedule.
Gifted students are usually identified as those who possess significant abilities in one
or more traditional academic areas, such as math or science. Talented students, on the
other hand, are typically students who demonstrate more practical or performance-
oriented skills in the areas of music, art, or sports. Gifted and talented students do represent
a unique learning group and typically require instructional resources that may exceed the
regular classroom setting. For that reason alone, teachers need to recognize the challenges
that may exist when gifted or talented children are taught in the regular classroom setting.
Section 504
Another piece of federal legislation that can potentially serve any student is Section 504
of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Section 504 protects individuals with handicapping condi-
tions from being discriminated against, and that includes students and staff in school districts. Under
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HELPING BOB IN THE CLASSROOM

Bob was a typical second grader at Jefferson Elementary. That all changed the day he struck
a tree while riding his bicycle. He was not wearing a helmet. Although his skull was not
shattered or penetrated, there was considerable swelling and he experienced grand mal sei-
zure activity shortly after the accident. Internal bleeding was evident, and upon his arrival
to the hospital he slipped into a five-day coma. Following remarkable medical surgery and
postoperative care, Bob regained consciousness and returned home after spending 11 days
in the hospital.
Upon his return to the classroom, he demonstrated academic difficulties and delays in
major content areas (spelling, language arts, and math). Residual memory problems were
evident and he appeared to have lost, in some cases temporarily, some of his prior academic
knowledge and procedural skills. Particular processing issues and problems were evidenced
in general planning and self-control, along with work initiation and completion. To address
the academic concerns, Bob’s teacher, Mrs. Wood, recognized that his instructional needs
had changed, which required a different teaching focus. He needed much more direction
and structure in his learning activities, along with additional preview/review and practice
time in the classroom. All of these instructional modifications were implemented and fol-
lowed on a daily basis.
Adjustments were also necessary for the assessments used to monitor and confirm Bob’s
learning progress. Within the areas of formative and self-assessment, Mrs. Wood provided
the following adjustments.
• Formative practice quizzes were usually given and completed in class. However, Bob
was allowed to take the quizzes home and complete them there.
• For class exit slips, Bob was allowed to give verbal, instead of written, responses to his
teacher. This lessened his daily writing, but still gave Mrs. Wood valuable feedback on
his understanding of new material and his general progress.
• Procedural and progress checklists for in-class activities (e.g., a bean plant growth
experiment) were used by everyone in the class, but Mrs. Wood would meet with Bob
to make sure the steps were completed and that he understood the work that had been
completed.
In addition, Mrs. Wood had to make some essential changes when Bob completed any
summative assessment measures in class. The major adjustments included the following.
• Tests were broken up into smaller sections that were taken over two days, as opposed
to only one session. He was scheduled to take his exams on Wednesdays and Fridays,
and that pattern was maintained throughout the remainder of the academic year.
• If needed, Mrs. Wood provided additional verbal directions and clarifications so Bob
understood what he was being asked to complete during an examination.
• Material review sheets were sent home well in advance of the tests so Bob could pre-
pare and review.
• Bob’s parents provided needed tutorial support and practice at home in preparation for
his tests and quizzes.
(continued)
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324 CHAPTER 12
• Daily notes and feedback were sent back and forth between Mrs. Wood and Bob’s
mother.
The assessment adjustments, which were relatively minor and easy to implement, proved
to be essential for Bob as he began his important transition back into the classroom. As you
might expect, Bob’s problems didn’t disappear at the end of second grade. In fact, chal-
lenges continued to follow him through elementary and middle school. But the assessment
accommodations and modifications that were implemented by Mrs. Wood established an
important foundation for Bob and his future academic progress.
this federal law and within the educational arena, reasonable and appropriate accom-
modations must be provided so that students with identified disabilities can access and
benefit from the same educational opportunities as any other student.
It is also important to recognize that Section 504 defines “handicapped” as “a physical
or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more of such person’s major life
activities,” and major life activities are defined as “functions such as caring for one’s self,
performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning and
working” (Rehabilitation Act of 1973, § 706).
In regards to legal coverage, Section 504 covers all students with handicaps, and that
includes those who are identified through IDEIA as well as through the Section 504
review process. However, unlike special education qualification, a student’s educational
performance does not have to be adversely affected by the disability in order to be eli-
gible for accommodations within the classroom (Miller & Newbill, 1998). The student
only has to be recognized as meeting the definition of handicapped in order to receive
potential modifications. As part of the Section 504 review process, a school evaluation
must be conducted, and if it is determined that a student meets the requirements of hav-
ing a handicapping condition, an action plan to address his or her needs must be gener-
ated and implemented.
ASSESSMENT MODIFICATIONS
In today’s classroom, a teacher faces the challenge of teaching a wide variety of students
who present with unique learning needs. Therefore, a teacher’s competency in adjusting
instructional delivery while simultaneously assessing learner progress has never been more
important. For instance, the increase of ELL students has required schools and teachers to
incorporate a broader array of instructional options. Some school districts pursue immer-
sion programs at all program levels (e.g., elementary, middle, and secondary) where ELL
students may be involved in small guided reading groups during the school day or
have extended instructional time provided to them (e.g., extended kindergarten pro-
grams) during or after school hours. At higher grade levels, ELL students may par-
ticipate in one or more classes of intensive English learning, combined with online
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FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
SPECIAL NEEDS IN THE CLASSROOM

One of the most important things to gain from this chapter is the realization that as a
teacher you will be instructing students with unique learning needs and issues. That is an
obvious reality in public schools, and it is also becoming more commonplace in private
schools. As a future teacher, it is vitally important that you understand and accept that
responsibility and that you respond positively to the challenges you will face. Working
with special needs students can be one of the most invigorating and satisfying experiences
a teacher can have; likewise, it can be one of the most frustrating and demoralizing. The
likelihood of what you will experience will have a lot to do with the professional prepara-
tion you receive in your training program and your continued professional development.
Due to this instructional certainty, it is important to take advantage of all learning
opportunities connected with special needs students. That can include being involved in
formal activities embedded within courses, joining and participating in student groups
(e.g., Student Council for Exceptional Children [SCEC]), providing tutoring or home
assistance services to families with special needs learners, and other related opportunities.
It is imperative to get involved and become fully aware of the details, issues, and complexi-
ties surrounding students with special needs. That will go a long way in your education
and general effectiveness with the children and families you will serve. Sometimes, just
understanding the unique circumstances and daily challenges and resource issues that these
families must address will help you become a more informed and dedicated teacher.
There is also an opportunity that can be seized with this proactive approach. As a teacher,
you will quickly learn that about 10 percent of the “high need” children in a classroom will
require about 90 percent of your time and effort. So if a teacher possesses a broad array of
instructional techniques and activities that can be adapted to a wide-ranging student base,
a lower percentage of time and effort will need to be directed to the few and can be redi-
rected to the class as a whole.
and technology-based instruction and review. Summer instruction is an additional

option that many schools are considering as they attempt to make their students
English-proficient.
Along with providing effective instructional services, teachers must follow sound
assessment practice and procedures. Given the variety of students who are taught and
served in the regular classroom, the consideration of assessment adjustments becomes a
necessary teacher activity. However, in the process of collecting valid student learning
evidence, you must construct and implement assessment measures that are designed to
measure students’ progress and achievement relative to identified goals and outcomes. In
the construction of these measures, the items, questions, and tasks need to be selected and
the administration procedures created so that every student has an equal opportunity to
perform at his or her highest level.
In order to maintain the reliability of the assessment process, it is preferable to imple-
ment assessment measures as they were designed to be used. That would include fol-
lowing the provided content and intended learning skills, format, and directions that
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326 CHAPTER 12
have been created as part of the assessment activity. Following uniform or standardized
procedures during an assessment allows for the most accurate interpretation of a student’s
educational performance.
On the other hand, some standardized procedures may not be appropriate for all stu-
dents and may actually disadvantage certain students (e.g., a student with a disability,
ELL) in regards to the accurate measurement of their learning progress or skill levels. For
this reason, it is important to examine whether assessment accommodations are appropri-
ate and necessary. Accommodations should be viewed as deliberate attempts to provide
a level playing field for assessment so that a student with a disability is able to perform
the same task as someone without a disability. Also, since many students with identified
disabilities may have predetermined testing modifications stipulated in their IEP, as may
students with Section 504 action plans, teachers must be able to make those required
adjustments within the assessment measures and procedures in the classroom. Therefore,
whether the modifications are mandated through an IEP or become evident upon review
of the assessment process itself, when considering assessment accommodations, make sure
that these actions are completed:
♦ develop a justified reason to modify the assessment process
♦ measure expected knowledge and skills
♦ ensure the accommodation is appropriate and fair to the student
Justified Reason for Changing the Assessment Process

When considering assessment accommodations for a student, you must make sure there
is a justified concern (i.e., an invalid assessment condition exists) that warrants changing
the assessment process. For example, as part of a health class final, the students must be
timed in a mile-long run and complete it within a designated time period (e.g., not to
exceed 10 minutes). This is a requirement, and all students are expected to demonstrate
their conditioning progress by completing this race. However, one student was recently
injured in a car accident in which she bruised and cut her leg, and she required stitches.
An assessment accommodation of some kind is appropriate, since requiring her to run
the mile will not give an accurate measure of her conditioning. In fact, she would be
placed in a disadvantaged position if she were required to run at this time.
Holding this student accountable to the same performance standards as the other stu-
dents relative to the class objectives and outcomes is still appropriate and necessary. Just
because this student hurt her leg does not release her from meeting the learning or per-
formance requirements of the class; she needs to be held accountable for her progress
just like every other student. What she is entitled to are accommodations that allow her
to meet this requirement given her present set of circumstances. In this particular case,
the instructor could wait and have this student complete the race at a later date or find a
comparable activity that matches up with the desired performance standard. For instance,
during her recovery, this student could be placed on a stationary bike and be expected
to pedal the distance within a specified speed range and time interval. Either alternative
represents a reasonable accommodation for the student that allows her to complete this
performance event and her class requirements.
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The use of accommodations requires a justification that can be defended. Assessment

modifications are made because they are needed and are in the best interests of the stu-
dent. What is critical is making sure the modified assessment process allows the teacher
to collect the needed evidence in order to document that the student has acquired the
intended learning outcomes.
Outcome Measurement
When dealing with accommodations, the standard assessment process is changed to
address the particular needs of the student. These adjustments can take a variety of forms
(e.g., use of a computer instead of requiring handwritten responses, an oral quiz instead
of a written one). However, the modified procedures still must measure how effective
the student is in obtaining the same or comparable learning outcomes, just as the original
assessment process is designed to do. If they do not, two different sets of learning objec-
tives and outcomes will exist and will need to be documented and monitored within
your classroom.
Different learning or performance standards can exist if a student’s IEP stipulates
learning objectives that are different than the ones typically required within a specific
content area and grade level. That is why careful examination of every identified child’s
IEP is a necessity for every teacher. By law a teacher must ensure that a student’s learning
progress is measured against the listed educational objectives and outcomes in the IEP.
Nevertheless, because of the strong emphasis of NCLB and other school accountability
measures, the expectation is that all students, including those with special needs (ELL,
Section 504, etc.), will meet the same or comparable learning and academic content stan-
dards as other students. Only in extreme situations are exemptions from standardized
testing or other formal measures of student achievement approved, and even in those rare
cases, other forms of evidence must be provided to show that the exempted student is
making appropriate and measurable learning progress.
For the classroom teacher, the reality is that every student, whatever his or her unique
learning challenges may be, must demonstrate consistent and measurable growth in
regards to academic and performance standards stipulated within individualized learn-
ing plans (e.g., IEP or Section 504) or learning outcomes that have been approved by
each respective school district. Therefore, even when accommodations are permitted for
special needs students, it is important for teachers to require the same high level of excel-
lence and skill proficiency that is expected for the entire classroom.
Assessment modifications should eliminate or greatly minimize the effect of the
child’s disability but still require the attainment of the desired learning outcomes.
When attempting to measure those learning outcomes, teachers can change different
components of the assessment process. For example, how the assessment is presented
or set up can be changed. The administration time and testing setting, as well as the
actual student response, can be modified based on the needs of your students. These
modifications are consistent with the assessment practices and standards that profes-
sionals (e.g., psychologists) must follow, as ref lected in Standards for Educational and Psy-
chological Testing (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological
Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999).
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328 CHAPTER 12
Assessment Change in Presentation

Accommodations in how information is presented to students can take a number of
forms. As a teacher you have control over how a task is structured and what kind of
response is provided. For some students, the only accommodations that may be required
are in the directions of the assignment or test. For instance, individual clarification from
the teacher or using simple, basic words in the directions may be all that is needed. The
consistency and clarity of directions helps all students. Also, utilizing a common set of
directions and consistent assessment item formats (e.g., extended written response items
used in several assessments during the semester) provides for greater student recognition
and confidence when attempting to answer questions.
Modifications can also exist for the assessment tasks or items. Changes in how the
items are presented may be necessary. For visual-based material, providing fewer items
on a single page or creating larger spaces between the presented material may be nec-
essary. Also, for students with visual-based problems, larger print or verbally recorded
items or questions may be necessary. For hearing impaired students, the use of signing or
additional written information may be required for verbal responses. For students whose
primary language and primary mode of communication is not English, assessment in the
students’ native language will be necessary in order to determine if they have acquired
the desired outcomes or target skills that are being evaluated. As their English language
proficiency increases, formal assessments should shift over to English and more standard
administration procedures. As part of every assessment preparation, a teacher needs to
recognize what his or her students are being asked to do as part of the assessment activity
and then make sure that in the process no one is disadvantaged by the activity. If they are
being disadvantaged by the assessment process, the format and approach of the activity
needs to be modified so that an accurate and unbiased measurement of that student’s per-
formance can be obtained.
Assessment Changes in Time and Setting

Along with how an assignment is set up and presented to students, the conditions placed
on that assessment are very important. One of the most important aspects of the comple-
tion of any task is the time allotted to complete that task. An appropriate amount of time
should be provided to students when they complete any assessment task or assignment,
and that includes a test or exam. However, for students with special needs who demon-
strate slower processing and production (e.g., fine motor problems, slow reading rate),
providing additional time, either in class or after class, becomes a necessity. Along with
the addition of time, an exam can also be broken up into sections and administered over
the course of several days. This approach can be particularly effective for a student who
experiences difficulty maintaining his or her focused attention throughout an assess-
ment activity. Also keep in mind the age and developmental level of the students since
students, especially young ones (regardless of whether they have an identified disability
or not), may have difficulty sustaining their focused attention over long periods of time.
Due to the necessity of scheduling multiple events during the school day, tests are
typically constructed with a time limit or range in mind. In regards to time there are
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basically two types of tests: speed and power. A speed test is designed to see how many
items can be completed within a specified amount of time. The focus is on getting as
many items answered as possible with an emphasis on completion speed. A good example
of a speed test is the completion of mental math facts. Here students answer problems
involving all multiples of a number (e.g., 4 × 1, 4 × 2, 4 × 3) within a specific time
limit (e.g., 60 seconds).
On the other hand, a power test is not designed around a time factor as much as it is
centered on obtaining the optimum performance from a student. Consequently, time is
not the deciding factor when examining student performance. A power test utilizes an
extended time range where most if not all students would complete the test. Providing
additional time to complete a test (e.g., in class or after class) also ref lects a power per-
spective. With this approach, an emphasis is on the quality of the responses, especially
the student-generated responses, across all the items in the assessment. Clearly, when
students don’t feel the overwhelming pressure of time during an exam, they can concen-
trate on providing high-quality work, and that is true for all students, not just those who
receive special accommodations.
Identified students may also need to complete their assessments and work in a special
or modified setting. This could be as simple as placing a student in a corner or next to the
teacher to minimize distractions during a formal testing event. Another common option
is changing a group assessment experience to an individual assessment experience. Some-
times, students are best served outside the classroom. For instance, a highly distractible
student may require the supervision of an aide in an isolated or empty classroom in order
to complete a test. This approach can mutually benefit the student as well as the rest of
his or her classmates. However, proctoring a test when the setting is switched can be a
little tricky. For example, in most cases an aide is allowed to proctor a group test, but
a licensed teacher must proctor formal or state achievement tests for special education
students. As a teacher, creating a classroom environment that allows for and supports the
effective testing and evaluation of students is certainly an important goal. A classroom
free from environmental distractions and that has a positive testing atmosphere serves all
students well.
Assessment Change in Student Response

The area in which accommodations are usually implemented is in how the student is
asked to respond to a question. It is always best to go with a student’s preferred or stron-
gest mode of expression and communication, so modifications dealing with student
response are designed to circumvent or minimize a student’s disability during a perfor-
mance event. For example, if a student has a motor impairment, or manual strength or
fatigue issues, the test might need to be loaded on a computer in order for the student to
respond to the items, through the use of a keyboard. In this way, the student can com-
plete the exam without being penalized by his or her motor status. If the condition is
more severe and the keyboard approach is not appropriate, the exam could be completed
by the student through oral responses, or an aide could write down the answers that are
provided by the student. All of these approaches allow the student to meet the demands
of the test without being disadvantaged by it.
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330 CHAPTER 12
Response modifications should ref lect good common sense in the selection of alter-
native ways of having students respond to test items or questions. For example, teachers
may give oral instead of written exams, use a tape recorder to collect answers, or break
a test into two or three parts for students with attention-based issues. In essence these
students are ending up at the same educational destination as everyone else; they are just
taking a different route in getting there. With this approach, everyone in your classroom
will possess the opportunity to perform at their highest levels regardless of their indi-
vidual needs and experiences.
Sometimes teachers require identified students to only complete a portion of a test or
assignment, because fatigue or motor production issues make completing the entire test
difficult. However, this option should be carefully considered, because when sections of
a test are not completed, it alters what is truly being measured by the test. If the decision
is made to complete a smaller version of the test, it is vital to make sure all areas of the
test are still represented, only with fewer items for each section. Even with this approach,
it is still likely that the smaller test version will not adequately measure the knowledge
and skills that are utilized in the original test. Instead of considering a reduced test for-
mat, administering the original test in sections over two or more testing periods may be
the better option. This way the integrity of the test and what it is assessing is maintained,
while the student’s test completion difficulties are minimized or even eliminated.
Appropriate and Fair Accommodations

With assessment accommodations, it is important to make sure that the changes are fair
to both the student who receives the accommodation and also to the students who are
required to follow the standard assessment process. In particular, the accommodation
should be designed to match up with the identified student’s particular learning needs or
issues (in order to avoid assessment procedures that directly affect a student’s identified
disability), while at the same time accurately examining the student’s progress toward the
desired learning outcomes.
As a teacher, it is critical to make sure you are directly assessing what you really intend
to measure. For example, if you want to measure math computation, do not use a test
of word problems, as that approach will involve using and ultimately measuring both
reading and math computation. Consequently, it will not give you a pure measure of the
student’s math skills. In addition, what the identified student is being asked to do should
be consistent, if at all possible, with the academic performance standards that the other
students are held to. Also, for the student who does receive assessment accommodations,
it is important for him or her not to be given an inappropriate advantage over the stu-
dents who do not receive accommodations.
Assume that you are giving a math computation test in your class. One of your stu-
dents has cerebral palsy and receives special education services. Given that motor pro-
duction is a significant issue for this student, it would be appropriate for him to record
his answers on a tape recorder rather than write them down like his classmates. The
accommodation allows him to complete the task as it was constructed, while the learn-
ing outcome remains consistent for all of the students taking the test. The students who
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are not receiving the accommodation are not disadvantaged by the recording modifica-
tion. In essence, with the administration of this test, all of the students have an equal
opportunity to perform at their highest level. It’s also important to recognize that just
because a student has an identified disability, that does not automatically mean that he
or she needs to receive assessment accommodations. It will depend on each individual
case, and if it is determined that assessment modifications are needed, then they need to
be modified for each respective case. Obviously one size doesn’t fit all, and that is par-
ticularly the case when considering accommodations for students identified with special
learning needs.
An Assessment Accommodation Approach

Braden and Joyce (2008) contend that the Universal Design for Instruction as refined
by Scott, Shaw, and McGuire (2003) can serve as a key framework within the area of
assessment accommodation and assessment practice in general. This is an approach that
has direct implications for teachers in the classroom. Based on Universal Design prin-
ciples (Principles 1, 2, 3), assessment f lexibility can be embedded throughout a teacher’s
instructional framework and delivery process. If these principles are followed, assessment
should be viewed and designed within the classroom as a process where the skills of all
students can be accurately measured. In addition to effective coverage and f lexibility,
instructions and procedures should be easy to understand and follow by the students as
part of the assessment process. When these principles or ones like them are recognized
and followed, more accurate findings of student progress are obtained that allow for
better educational decisions in the classroom. In fact, at the National Center on Educa-
tional Outcomes, seven elements of universally designed assessments have been identi-
fied, which include the following:
1. inclusive assessment population

2. precisely defined constructs
3. accessible, nonbiased items
4. amenable to accommodations
5. simple, clear, and intuitive instructions and procedures
6. maximum readability and comprehensibility
7. maximum legibility
The Universal Design for Instruction approach is just another example of how assess-
ment process and practices have continued to integrate with instructional delivery. When
you talk about teaching, you can’t help but talk about assessment. And that is particularly
the case when teaching students with special learning needs. Assessing and monitoring
student progress provides the essential evidence that is necessary in order to document
learning status and the effectiveness of the instruction that they receive. In this way,
students with special learning needs are provided a genuine opportunity to demonstrate
what they have learned and to be assessed in a fair and equitable manner.
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332 CHAPTER 12
CHAPTER REFLECTION
At the beginning of the chapter, a description of the background and training that special
educators complete was provided. In addition, you were encouraged to consult with your
special education colleagues, particularly in matters that deal with students who have
special needs.
Sometimes, consultation opportunities are rare in schools. Therefore, a chance to
receive professional advice is now provided. Examine the following suggestions from a
special education teacher, Ms. Coles, as you prepare to teach and serve students with spe-
cial learning needs in your classroom.
♦ Be willing and approachable in collaborating with special education teachers on
classroom assessments.
♦ Tests and other assessment activities may need to be adjusted in order to fit the
needs of the student, so accommodations will likely be necessary.
♦ Use discretion when providing accommodations to students with special needs;
they may feel awkward about the process, so any attempts to minimize public
awareness of it would be beneficial.
♦ Use the data from the classroom assessments that are conducted; make the assess-
ments relevant so that the information can be used to guide your instruction.
♦ Regarding student performance, continue to enrich those students who exceed the
target performance as well as support and remediate those that fall short of the tar-
get performance.
How would you incorporate the information and advice from Ms. Coles into your
instructional delivery model? How will this inf luence your assessment system and collec-
tion of student learning evidence?
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Regular education teachers must be prepared to teach children who present with special
learning needs. It is imperative that all teachers become as informed and knowledgeable as
possible so that the best possible services can be provided. Awareness of disability catego-
ries, student issues and needs, and the importance of the IEP, along with potential assess-
ment modifications, will be necessary in order for teachers to provide those services well.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How can I effec-
tively assess the learning progress of students with special learning needs in my classroom?
Becoming aware of the conditions and characteristics of students who qualify for spe-
cial education services is a big first step in being able to effectively assess their learning
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progress. Students with disabilities typically bring unique learning and assessment issues
to the classroom setting. Being as fully informed about each child, his or her unique
strengths and weaknesses, and the specific details of his or her IEP is vital in recording
the learning progress of each identified student.
Making appropriate changes in the presentation of information, increasing time allo-
cations for assessments, providing alternative assessment settings, and making student
response modifications are all viable considerations if a justified reason exists for modi-
fying the existing assessment procedures in the classroom. The key is ensuring that the
recommended change is fair to the student receiving the modification as well as to his or
her classmates who are still following the standard assessment procedures.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. How has special education legislation inf luenced the instructional practices of the
regular classroom teacher?
2. As a teacher candidate, do you feel that you are fully prepared to meet the instruc-
tional needs of students with special learning needs? Why or why not?
3. If asked by a colleague or by a parent, how would you describe the purpose and
function of an individualized education plan or IEP?
4. Brief ly describe the major disability categories and potential instruction-learning-
assessment challenges that may exist in serving students that fall under these
categories.
5. Describe how you could provide assessment modifications relative to presentation,
time, setting, and response for students with disabilities.
RESOURCES
General Disability Resources
The Council for Exceptional Children at www.cec.sped.org provides links to a variety of
resources for professionals as well as parents and children. Also, divisional sites associ-
ated with various disabilities are available through this Web site.
Autism Resources
Wrong Planet at www.wrongplanet.net is a Web community centered on issues sur-
rounding individuals with autism, Asperger’s syndrome, ADHD, and other pervasive
developmental disorders.
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334 CHAPTER 12
AutismLink at www.autismlink.com is an extensive guide to services and resources,

including personal contacts and events for individuals with autism.
Deaf/Blindness Resources
The National Federation for the Blind Web site at www.nf b.org is the largest membership
organization of blind people in the United States. This site provides information on
a wide range of topics including education, research, and technology applications for
people who are blind.
Developmental Delay Resources

The National Institute on Developmental Delays at www.nidd.org provides useful infor-
mation on a variety of topics (e.g., services, therapies, training programs) for children
with developmental delays.
Emotional Disturbance/Mental Health Resources

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Web site
at www.samhsa.gov is run by the Department of Health and Human Services, and it
provides an extensive listing and description of available programs, services, mental
health topics, resources, and other related topics.
The Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports at www.pbis.org provides
a wealth of information on how positive and reinforcing behavior-based interventions
can be used in the treatment of children with emotional and behavioral problems. In
addition, technical support on how to integrate behavioral systems with schools and
districts is also provided.
Hearing Impairment Resources

The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders at www.nidcd
.nih.gov provides a wide range of information, including health information, current
research, and an extensive professional index and reference guide.
The Web site of the National Association of the Deaf at www.nad.org is listed as the pri-
mary site for the deaf and hard of hearing. Extensive resources are provided, including
information and links to various topic areas, such as early intervention, technology,
education programs, sign language, state organizations, and more.
Intellectual or Cognitive Disability Resources

The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) site
at www.aaidd.org provides a wide variety of resources, including training opportu-
nities, publications, and national resources, which include links to a wide variety of
professional services, organizations, and other disability-related support agencies.
The National Association for Retarded Citizens (ARC) at www.thearc.org is the larg-
est community-based organization for people with intellectual and developmental
wit78704_ch12_309-338.indd 334 3/28/11 9:56 AM

disabilities. It provides services and support for families and individuals, including
over 140,000 members connected to more than 850 state and local chapters across the
nation. A family resource guide, policy and legislative issues, employment opportuni-
ties, insurance coverage, and more are available on this site.
The Parentpals.com Special Education Guide at www.parentpals.com is an extensive
interactive resource where parents and professionals share information and support on
various subjects surrounding mental retardation.
Multiple Disabilities Resources

Perkins Scout at www.perkins.org/resources/scout provides information for the blind and
also for students and families dealing with multiple disabilities. At this site, on the left-
hand side, click on “Education for Students with Multiple Disabilities” for information
and general resources, along with helpful Web sites. In addition, information on a
range of topics, including behavior issues, curriculum, assessment and planning, early
intervention, individualized education plans, and general instructional approaches, is
provided.
Orthopedic Impairment Resources

The Muscular Dystrophy Association at www.mdausa.org is a comprehensive Web site
complete with information and support for individuals with muscular dystrophy and
their families. In addition to updates on medical treatments, research, support group
contacts, publications, resource contacts, and advocacy, information on summer camp
opportunities is provided.
The National Multiple Sclerosis Society Web site at www.nationalmssociety.org serves as
the primary information site for multiple sclerosis. This is an extensive site providing a
wide variety of support resources, personal and professional links, and useful informa-
tion on how individuals and families can cope with this disease.
ADHD Resources
Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD) at www
.chadd.org is a comprehensive Web site that provides information and updates on areas
such as research and treatment on individuals with ADHD. Professional publications
for teachers and parents are also available from this site.
Specific Learning Disability Resources

The Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) site at www.ldanatl.org is a
comprehensive Web site designed to provide current information on best educational
practices, services, and resources for individuals with learning disabilities.
The National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) at www.ncld.org is focused on
providing teachers and other educators with current research, practices, and programs
for children and adults with learning disabilities.
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336 CHAPTER 12
Speech or Language Impairment Resources

Caroline Bowen’s personal site at speech-language-therapy.com provides an extensive
collection of user-friendly articles, resources, and links in the area of speech language
therapy.
Traumatic Brain Injury Resources

The Brain Injury Association of America (BIAA) at www.biausa.org is designed to pro-
vide essential information, support, and assistance to individuals with TBI and their
families.
The National Resource Center for Traumatic Brain Injury at www.neuro.pmr.vcu.edu
provides current information and research fi ndings about TBI to interested profession-
als and individuals with brain injuries and their families. Article reprints are available,
along with professional links. In addition, a question-and-answer area is accessible
where individual questions can be submitted and specific responses to those questions
are provided.
Visual Impairment Resources

The National Association for Parents of Children with Visual Impairments (NAPVI) site
at www.spedex.com/napvi provides an extensive list of useful links directed toward
organizations, diagnosis, parenting, and schools that serve the blind.
Gifted and Talented Resources

The National Society for the Gifted and Talented at www.nsgt.org provides valuable
information for students, parents, and educators on educational resources, scholar-
ships, and other learning opportunities that serve the needs of gifted and talented
students.
The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented (NRC/GT) at www.gifted
.uconn.edu/nrcgt.html is currently undertaking a five-year research project designed
to provide empirical evidence on “what works in gifted education.” This site provides
research-based and online resources, as well as links and updates on gifted and talented
services.
The Association for the Gifted (TAG) at www.cectag.org is a helpful site for teachers, as
it provides current information on practice and training standards and expectations for
professionals who work with gifted children.
English Language Learners Resources

The National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction
Educational Programs (NCELA) at www.ncela.gwu.edu provides an extensive collec-
tion of information and resources for language instruction programs and services for
English language learners (ELL).
wit78704_ch12_309-338.indd 336 3/28/11 9:56 AM

The TESL/TEFL/TESOL/ESL/EFL/ESOL site at iteslj.org/links is maintained by the

Internet TESL Journal and provides numerous links on a variety of subjects for both
students and teachers of English as a second language.
Dave’s ESL Café at www.eslcafe.com is a helpful resource for all students learning Eng-
lish, as well as for teachers who work directly with ELL students.
Universal Design Resources

The National Center on Educational Outcomes’ Universal Design Online Manual at
www.education.umn.edu/nceo/udmanual provides information on the seven elements
and principles of universally designed assessment.
REFERENCES
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, &
National Council on Measurement in Education. (1999). Standards for educational and
psychological testing (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disor-
ders—Text Revision. Washington, DC: Author.
Barkley, R. A. (2006). Attention-defi cit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treat-
ment (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Bennett, T., Deluca, D., & Bruns, D. (1997). Putting inclusion into practice: Perspectives
of teachers and parents. Exceptional Children, 64, 115–131.
Braden, J. P., & Joyce, L. B. (2008). Best practices in making assessment accommodations.
In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 589–603).
Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Brice, A., & Perkins, C. (1997). What is required for transition from the ESL classroom to
the general education classroom? A case study of two classrooms. Journal of Children’s
Communication Development, 19, 13–22.
DuPaul, G. J., & Stoner, G. (2003). ADHD in the schools: Assessment and intervention strate-
gies (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (Public Law 94–142), 20 U.S.C.
1400 et seq. (1975).
Faul, M., Xu, L., Wald, M. M., & Coronado, V. G. (2010). Traumatic brain injury in the
United States: Emergency department visits, hospitalizations and deaths 2002–2006. Atlanta,
GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Preven-
tion and Control.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-476, 104, Stat. 1142
(1990).
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997, 20 U.S.C. 1400 et seq.
(1997).
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338 CHAPTER 12
(2004).
Katz, J., & Mirenda, P. (2002). Including students with developmental disabilities in gen-
eral education classrooms: Educational benefits. International Journal of Special Education,
17(2), 14–24.
Lichtenstein, R. (2008). Best practices in identification of learning disabilities. In A.
Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 295–317). Bethesda,
MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Miller, L., & Newbill, C. (1998). Section 504 in the classroom: How to design and implement
accommodation plans. Austin, TX: PRO-ED, Inc.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (ESEA), Pub. L. No. 107–110 (2002).
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 29 U.S.C. 701 et seq. (1973).
Sattler, J. M. (2002). Assessment of children: Behavioral and clinical applications (4th ed.). San
Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc.
Scott, S., Shaw, S., & McGuire, J. (2003). Universal Design for Instruction: A new para-
digm for adult instruction in postsecondary education. Remedial and Special Education,
24, 369–379.
Volkmar, F. R., & Klin, A. (2000). Diagnostic issues in Asperger syndrome. In A. Klin,
F. Volkmar, & S. Sparrow (Eds.), Asperger syndrome (pp. 25–71). New York: Guilford
Press.
Witte, R. (1998). Meet Bob: A student with traumatic brain injury. Teaching Exceptional
Children, 30(3), 56–60.
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CHAPTER 13
CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT AND

RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION (RTI)
KEY FOCUS
How can response to intervention (RTI) be used by teachers to help increase stu-
dent success in the classroom?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should
be able to:
♦ Identify the intervention process of
RTI in addressing student learning and
behavioral issues in the classroom.
♦ Discuss the legislative requirements of
evidence-based practice in regards to
classroom instruction.
♦ Follow the problem-solving steps and
tiered levels of RTI implementation.
♦ Apply the RTI process when confronted
with academic or behavioral concerns in
the classroom.
♦ Describe the instructional necessity of
RTI and action research by educators in
documenting intervention effectiveness.
© Creatas/PunchStock 339
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340 CHAPTER 13
Introduction
Federal legislation has now mandated the use of evidence-based practices in meeting the
instructional needs of children in the classroom. For example, No Child Left Behind
requires scientifically-based strategies for instruction and intervention when students
experience learning difficulty in the classroom. As Reschly (2008) has identified, there
are several critical impact features associated with NCLB, including:
(a) emphasis on improving low achievement in general, remedial, and special edu-
cation; (b) endorsement of scientifically based instruction (SBI) and scientifically
based reading research principles (SBRR); (c) focus on prevention of achievement
problems and antisocial behavior patterns; and (d) improving general outcomes for
all children and youth including SWD (students with disabilities) in areas such as high
school completion, passing high-stakes state tests, and entering post-high school
educational and career preparation (p. 9).
In addition, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) (IDEIA)
requires early and documented intervention services before any referral can take place.
Also, the evaluation of a student’s response to intervention services must occur as part of
that process.
In response to these issues, a systematic and verifiable approach to address learning
problems, complete with verifiable evidence, was considered necessary. Response to
intervention or RTI, a method of school intervention based on the review of student data in
making educational decisions (sometimes written as RtI), has emerged to assist with the
evidence-based mandates that have accompanied the recent NCLB and IDEIA legisla-
tion. As reported in Tilly (2008):
[A]n emerging evidence base suggests that implementation of a three-tiered system
is effective at remediating academic and behavioral problems for a significant num-
ber of students (e.g., Burns, Appleton, & Stehouwer, 2005; Colvin, Kame’enui, &
Sugai, 1993; Lau et al., 2006; Torgesen et al., 2001; Vellutino et al., 1996; Walker
et al., 1996). In addition, ongoing research is demonstrating that tiered models of
service delivery can produce important improvements for special populations such
as English language learners (e.g., Healy, Vanderwood, & Edelston, 2005; Linan-
Thompson, Vaughn, Prater, & Cirino, 2006) and minority populations (e.g., Hosp
& Reschly, 2004; Marston, Muyskens, Lau, & Canter, 2003; Shinn, Collins, &
Gallagher, 1998) (p. 33).
Beyond the legal mandates, the expectation of providing evidence of effectiveness is now
held within the education field as it relates to the provision of instruction and services to
children. Because of its preventive and proactive design, RTI provides direct evidence
on student performance and improvement toward identified learning outcomes, which is
helpful to all involved, including students, teachers, and parents.
Based on the major policy work Response to Intervention: Policy Considerations and Imple-
mentation (Batsche, Elliott, Graden, Grimes, Kovaleski, Prasse, et al., 2006) that was pub-
lished by the National Association of State Directors of Special Education, several core
principles recognized as essential to the RTI process are examined throughout this chap-
ter. These ideals ref lect the following beliefs and actions:
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CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT AND RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION (RTI) 341
♦ all children are capable of learning and we as educators can provide effective
instruction during a learning event
♦ intervention must occur early in the educational careers of students
♦ a leveled or tiered intervention model responsive to the learning needs of the stu-
dents can address problems early on in the learning process
♦ RTI is centered around a problem-solving process whereby concerns are clearly
identified and substantiated, interventions implemented, and progress monitored in
order to determine the value of the intervention services provided to students
♦ in regards to interventions, the use of supported research-based, scientifically vali-
dated treatments need to be followed to ensure the highest probability of success
♦ student progress must be monitored in order to confirm learning progress and
direct instruction in the classroom
♦ educational decisions must be based on the collection of relevant student progress
evidence or data
♦ assessment should focus on three purposes: (1) screening to identify students who
require support and assistance; (2) diagnostic review to determine specific student
skill performances; and (3) progress monitoring to evaluate the effect(s) of provided
interventions
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
RTI is a relatively new area of practice for teachers. It is an evidence- or data-based pro-
cess that is used to determine the effectiveness of instructional changes for students in the
classroom, and is connected to the NCLB legislation and requirements of providing early
support for school-age children who experience learning difficulties. During your next
school visit, check out how RTI is being implemented in that school or district. If it’s not
presently being implemented, find out where school officials are in this process. As a future
educator, become familiar with the activities and approaches that are being used to help
students at all levels of need. As you review the school’s procedures, try to answer the fol-
lowing questions.
• Are intervention phases or levels clearly identified and fully explained?
• What are the primary interventions being used within the system?
• Does a school-based team review and coordinate interventions for the students?
• Do written or Web-based materials exist that explain the RTI or other intervention
process at this school?
• How and when are parents informed and how do they become involved in the RTI or
other intervention process?
Also, try to determine how professional development is being implemented (e.g., fac-
ulty in-service) to help build awareness and support for RTI among teachers in that school.
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342 CHAPTER 13
HOW RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION

WORKS IN THE CLASSROOM
As a teacher, it is important to understand the intent of RTI and how this intervention-
leveled system fits within the educational experience of your classroom setting. As a
process, RTI incorporates a problem-solving cycle that provides confirmation of effec-
tive instruction or intervention to an identified concern (Figure 13.1). This cycle starts
with the identification of a problem or issue (academic or behavioral in nature) that is
confirmed by data.
For example, assume you are teaching in school building A, where fewer than 70 per-
cent of the students within that grade meet the expected academic performance standards
within a specific content area, such as reading or math. In defining the problem, it is
important for the problem to be viewed as the difference between the expected standard
of performance (e.g., the district holds the expectation that no fewer than 80 percent of
all its students meet all academic performance standards) and the current performance
level of the students in the school, as the intervention needs to focus on closing the learn-
ing performance gap between the students’ current performance and their expected stan-
dard of performance.
Once the concern has been identified (e.g., fewer than 70 percent of the students at
your grade level are reaching expected academic performance standards) and addressed
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Why does this

What is the
problem exist?
problem or
What is contributing
concern?
to its existence?
Was the
What
intervention
intervention
successful in fixing
needs to be
the problem? If
implemented in
not, consider a
order to address and
new or modified
fix this problem?
plan of action.
FIGURE 13.1 PROBLEM-SOLVING/CLASSROOM
INTERVENTION CYCLE
with a school-wide intervention focus, the problem needs to be analyzed to determine

what specific factors are contributing to this condition, and school resources such as stu-
dent data must be used to pinpoint particular needs. In addition, hypotheses as to why
these conditions exist are typically provided at this time. The use of existing data (e.g.,
district test data, building information, grade level findings, teacher focus group feed-
back) can be helpful in identifying the factors that are connected to the current condi-
tions directly inf luencing student performance in school building A.
As these steps are completed, the need to set and measure specific goals emerges.
As was mentioned in the first step of problem identification, the ultimate goal is hav-
ing the students meet the expected standard of performance, whatever that might be in
your respective grade, school building, or school district. However, when setting goals,
it is important to determine how much change is expected as the intervention is imple-
mented. Reaching the desired performance goal will certainly take time, so smaller
increments of measured growth (e.g., setting the standard at 70 percent, then at 75 per-
cent, and then perhaps finally at 80 percent) will be necessary and should be used as step-
ping stones to the final performance goal.
Planning and designing the intervention program is next, where the actual steps of
what needs to be done in order to reach the goals are identified and detailed. The steps
should include determining how long the intervention will be implemented before a
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344 CHAPTER 13
progress review meeting is convened; the establishment of a timetable for collecting stu-
dent data and the review of that data; and the identification of the persons responsible
for intervention implementation and progress monitoring. The identification of school
resources and materials is necessary, as they will be directly connected to the action plan.
Some of the most important elements of the intervention program are the performance
indicators that will be collected and used to measure task completion and effectiveness
of the intervention process. Employing valid and reliable measures that provide accurate
estimates of student accomplishment and progress are essential in determining the overall
effectiveness and utility of the current intervention approach.
With the data generated from these measures, the critical element of evaluating the
intervention can then take place, which is really what this process is all about. Was the
plan implemented as it was designed, and is it working? For school building A, are 70
percent or more of the students meeting their expected academic standards?
In this step, the implementation of the action steps is examined, along with the col-
lected data on the student performance outcomes. If the goal was met, the interven-
tion will likely continue, with student progress being monitored and reviewed. If the
goal was not met, decisions to continue or modify the plan (indicating new actions to
be taken) will need to be made. This review can involve any or all of the aforemen-
tioned steps. The key is constructing and implementing an intervention that generates
the desired effect where the number of students meeting the academic performance stan-
dards increases and is maintained.
As an intervention-based approach, Tilly (2008) describes RTI as a leveled support
system consisting of three tiers:
1. Tier 1: Core instruction for all students, which is preventive in nature and involves
effective grade-level instruction relative to the standards and benchmarks assigned
for those students (serves approximately 80 to 90 percent of all students)
2. Tier 2: Supplemental instruction/intervention involving identified at-risk students who
receive specific assistance with identified needs, typically through small group
instructional activities and support (serves approximately 10 to 15 percent of all
students)
3. Tier 3: Intensive instruction that is designed to provide high-intensity, individually-
designed learning supports for each student who reaches this level (serves approxi-
mately 1 to 5 percent of all students).
This system applies to both academic and behavior issues. With this approach, all stu-
dents are served, with only those students whose needs require more intensive services
moving to the higher tiers in this model (Figure 13.2).
Tier 1
As a future teacher, you are dedicated to providing the best possible instruction to all your
students. Even with the best of intentions and resources, however, one or more of your
students will likely experience learning problems or may demonstrate behavior problems
that interfere with their learning progress and that of their classmates. Unfortunately,
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ACADEMIC SYSTEMS BEHAVIORAL SYSTEMS

TIER 3 Intensive, Individual TIER 3 Intensive, Individual
Interventions CIRCA CIRCA Interventions
5% 5%
• Individual students • Individual students
• Assessment-based CIRCA CIRCA • Assessment-based
• High intensity 15% 15% • Intense, durable procedures
• Of longer duration
TIER 2 Targeted Group
TIER 2 Targeted Group Interventions
Interventions • Some students (at-risk)
• Some students (at-risk) • High efficiency
• High efficiency CIRCA CIRCA • Rapid response
• Rapid response 80% 80%
TIER 1 Core Instructional
TIER 1 Core Instructional Interventions
Interventions • All settings, all students
• All students • Preventive, proactive
• Preventive, proactive
Students
FIGURE 13.2 THREE-TIERED INTERVENTION MODEL
Reprinted with permission from the National Association of State Directors of Special Education (NASDSE).
students may present with low achievement or inconsistent learning progress due to
factors such as illness, frequent school changes, family issues, or other related factors.
Because of this reality, schools must be able to identify students who are not making the
expected academic or behavioral progress compared to their classmates. Consequently,
the data from screenings and other recognized measures (e.g., state assessment data,
curriculum-based information, or early reading intervention programs like the Dynamic
Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills [DIBELS]) are used to help make instructional
decisions about those students (estimated to be 15 percent or fewer of all students within
a district) who are not meeting expected grade level standards, despite the benefits of
effective grade-level instruction, and are in need of more focused intervention. For these
at-risk students, supplemental instruction and support is usually provided in order to
enhance their learning progress so that they catch up and maintain the progress level of
their classmates.
At the Tier 1 level, the emphasis is on providing school-wide instruction and sup-
port for all students. For instance, many states have implemented school-wide positive
behavior support systems in order to teach positive behavior to their students and to
prevent later serious behavior-related problems. This ref lects an instructional component
of desired behaviors that are expected from children and provides corrective feedback
during “teachable moments,” when incidents arise or problems are documented. On the
academic side, school-wide support and intervention can take various forms, but they are
directed at increasing the academic skill base of the students in order to ensure that the
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346 CHAPTER 13
expected academic standards are met, as evidenced by the data that is collected through
achievement performances.
These kinds of activities and an educative and preventive focus on the entire stu-
dent body are ref lected in Tier 1. Basic intentions at this level are to maximize the
learning of all students and to minimize the number of students who will require
intervention assistance. Individuals who are identified as needing supplemental sup-
port (i.e., Tier 2) are typically identified through the periodic academic screenings and
progress-monitoring collection points that are followed as part of the instructional pro-
cess, particularly as it relates to reading instruction. The focus is on the core curriculum
and daily instruction so that all students are learning and acquiring their intended learn-
ing outcomes, standards, and benchmarks. This can be achieved through quality general
education instruction that maximizes the learning opportunities for all students. Infor-
mation on student progress gathered in the classroom, as well as by school-wide sources,
can be used to confirm these learning achievement and behavioral accomplishments.
Tier 2
At this level, the core curriculum and instruction model is still maintained, but supple-
mental help is provided to a relatively small percentage of students (10 to 15 percent or
fewer). As Tilly (2008) has stated, “It is important to note at this level that both core
instruction and something supplemental are received by students. That supplemental
support can range from additional time in the core curriculum to additional opportu-
nities and/or more time to learn, all the way through additional, strategically planned
supplemental instruction” (p. 32). This is a combination general education/instruction
approach, where the children who receive it are viewed as requiring more instruction
before they become proficient with the material. Moreover, Tilly (2008) emphasizes that:
Supplemental instruction in all cases is put in place in addition to core instruction. It
does not replace it. It is usually delivered in groups of three to six students. Often,
30–45 minutes of supplemental instruction are provided to students. Usually 10 weeks
of supplemental instruction might be provided in a cycle with the option of an addi-
tional 10-week cycle being available if student performance warrants it (p. 32).
Students who are identified (usually through district screenings or some kind of
school-based indicator) for Tier 2 intervention are those who are viewed as at risk for not
reaching the academic or behavior standards that exist for their school-age peers. At this
intervention level, supplemental instruction and programs are followed that are identi-
fied as being culturally responsive and scientifically supported. Usually the programs and
lessons are very specific and are customized in the content that is provided, and they are
also directly linked to the core curriculum. As mentioned above, instruction is provided
within the format of f lexible small groups consisting of students who share the same or
similar academic or behavior needs. The instruction-intervention match is critical for
maximizing the potential progress of Tier 2 students. The instruction that is provided
is focused and explicit to the needs of the students, and their resulting progress is moni-
tored frequently and consistently (once or maybe twice a week in some classrooms). This
supplemental instruction is considered a general education intervention and is most often
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directed and provided by regular classroom teachers, or remedial or intervention special-

ists if those personnel are available.
Tier 3
Children who are identified for Tier 3 intervention services still receive the core instruc-
tion, but they also receive intensive, individual instruction to address their particular
needs and skills. Five percent or fewer of students should theoretically receive this level
of intervention. However, this level does not provide any special status or classification.
Tilly (2008) is quick to point out that:
[I]ntensive instruction does not connote special education. Special education is one
service that might be brought to bear to meet some students’ intensive instructional
needs. However, there will be students who have intensive needs that will not qual-
ify for nor would it be appropriate to provide them special education services. So,
for example, there may be talented and gifted students who need intensive instruc-
tional services who do not qualify for special education. In another example, a student
whose academic difficulties stem from the fact that he is learning English as a second
language may need intensive instructional support, though he may not qualify for
special education services. Tier 3 refers to the need for intensive instruction, not for a
particular program (p. 33).
At this intervention level, a student should possess a written plan that outlines his
or her individualized, research-based supports and instruction. These supports would
be specifically designed to provide explicit and systematic instruction by highly-trained
educational specialists. Each student’s progress is carefully monitored (e.g., weekly) and
reviewed in order to determine the effectiveness of the implemented interventions. In
regards to skill development, especially in the area of literacy, daily sessions involving
one-on-one or small group opportunities to practice emerging skills are usually expected
as part of an intensive intervention program.
RTI IN THE CLASSROOM

As school districts have worked on implementing RTI, teachers have embedded many
effective instructional modifications within their daily teaching routine. Take for example
Mrs. Flower, a nationally board-certified teacher who has taught second grade for over
20 years. As part of Tier 1 intervention, Mrs. Flower has her students complete a repeated
reading activity each day. The reading activity itself takes less than 10 minutes, but with
the setup, review, and graphing of the results, it takes up about 30 minutes of instructional
time. Obviously, oral reading is a high priority in Mrs. Flower’s district and in her class-
room in particular. Consequently, she has modified her instruction format and delivery in
order to integrate this important intervention activity.
(continued)
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348 CHAPTER 13
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills

Second Grade Class Progress Graph
District: Beginning Benchmark Goal: 90 at
School: Middle the end of Second Grade
Date: End
Class: Score Above Graph Bounds
Oral Reading Fluency

150
140
Correct Words Per Minute
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
FIGURE 13.3 MRS. FLOWER’S SECOND-GRADE

CLASSROOM’S ORAL READING FLUENCY
PERFORMANCE
Benchmarking goal: 90 correct words per minute when reading passage
The grade-level passages are theme-based (e.g., a day at the zoo) and require the stu-
dents to read a series of paragraphs and record the number of words read correctly to mea-
sure oral f luency. During the reading activity, she often has her students work in pairs, so as
one student is reading, the other student maintains an account of the words read correctly
as well as those that were missed. Mrs. Flower monitors the reading activity, provides cor-
rective feedback when needed (as do the reading partners), and also completes random
reading checks, especially for those students who may not be consistently accurate in their
recordings. The readings are repeated until mastery is demonstrated. Students then move
on to new stories. Each student is expected to graph his or her own daily progress on indi-
vidual reading graphs. According to the students and Mrs. Flower, this activity is effective
and enjoyed by the students. In particular, the students like to see and be able to demon-
strate their reading progress through their daily data graphs. The reading performances of
the students are conducted three times during the school year. This is a simple but effective
activity, and its instructional impact is demonstrated in Figure 13.3.
In Mrs. Flower’s school district, DIBELS is used, and her second-grade class results for
oral reading f luency indicated that 74 percent of the students met or exceeded the bench-
mark goal of 90 words correctly read within a minute. As shown in Figure 13.3, complete
data sets (all three screenings completed) were obtained for 15 of the 21 students in Mrs.
Flower’s class. Data on the third screening was only provided for six students, four of who
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exceeded the benchmark and two who did not. These students were likely absent for the
other screenings or moved into the district late in the academic year. What is most impres-
sive is that almost half of the students demonstrated low oral f luency rates (e.g., low 30s) at
the start of the school year. However, considerable progress from the beginning to the mid-
dle measurements was evidenced, while less progress was noted from the middle to the end
of the school year. Perhaps less focus and energy were directed toward this activity at the
end of the school year, or student motivation was not strong. In addition, a few students did
not reach the benchmark goal, so their progress would need to be carefully monitored at
the beginning of third grade. This becomes vital information that Mrs. Flower can review
for her own instructional purposes as well as for the third grade teachers.
Collecting actual student performance data is a very useful tool for a teacher. A class-
room progress “picture” helps to pinpoint and substantiate direct help for those in the most
need. It also becomes a powerful visual presentation of student progress over the course of
the academic year. Data-based activities like the one just described can truly make a tre-
mendous difference in the academic achievement of students and in the documentation of
that progress.
RESEARCH-SUPPORTED PRACTICES
The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS), a research-
supported early reading literacy program, monitors student progress (i.e., benchmark assess-
ments conducted at the beginning, middle, and end of each school year) within the basic
foundation literacy skills for reading. This program is designed to measure the growth of
foundational reading skills (initial sound f luency, phoneme segmentation f luency, non-
sense word f luency, oral reading f luency, word use f luency, and retell f luency) in order
to promote reading success and avoid student reading failure by identifying reading dif-
ficulties early on and then providing skill-specific interventions. Reading research has
identified the critical importance for young emerging readers in acquiring the founda-
tional reading skills for later reading proficiency. According to Kaminski, Cummings,
Powell-Smith, and Good (2008):
In the area of beginning reading, Basic Early Literacy Skills include (a) phonemic
awareness or the ability to hear and manipulate the individual sounds in words,
(b) alphabetic principle or the mapping of prints (letters) to speech (individual sounds)
and the blending of these letter sounds into words, (c) accuracy and f luency with
connected text, (d) vocabulary and oral language including the ability to understand
and use words orally and in writing, and (e) comprehension (Adams, 1990; National
Reading Panel, 2000; National Research Council, 1998; Simmons and Kame’enui,
1998) (p. 1182).
As part of early reading instruction and intervention programs, DIBELS has been
incorporated within the reading programs of many school districts across the country,
especially in kindergarten through the second or third grade. The DIBELS measures
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350 CHAPTER 13
serve as powerful indicators of reading progress and help teachers stay on track to pro-
duce effective and successful readers in their classrooms. As stated in Kaminski et al.
(2008):
[This] model is prevention oriented and is designed to preempt reading difficulties
and support all children to achieve adequate reading outcomes by the end of third
grade. The model incorporates conceptual foundations regarding crucial early literacy
skills for assessment and instruction and is focused on empirically validated outcomes
for each early literacy skill. The model builds on reliable and valid measures of essen-
tial early literacy skills (DIBELS) to be used to document growth toward outcomes,
as well as a set of steps for using the data generated by the measures at the both the
individual and systems levels. At the individual level, DIBELS may be used to evaluate
response to intervention within an RTI approach. At the systems level, DIBELS data
may be used to evaluate the overall effectiveness of the system of support that is being
implemented (p. 1199).
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Curriculum-Based Measurement
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) involves the use of quick, standardized curricu-
lum skill assessments to measure student learning progress in the basic skill areas of reading, math,
writing, and spelling. Although originally developed for special education teachers to help
construct IEP goals and document progress, Shinn (2008) reports:
[I]ts use beyond special education quickly expanded to give all educators simple, accurate
tools to scale achievement for both universal screening and progress monitoring within
a problem-solving model (Deno, 1995, 2002, 2003; Germann & Tindal, 1985; Tindal,
Wesson, Deno, Germann, & Mirkin, 1985). More than a quarter century of scientific
evidence has accumulated demonstrating that CBM provides reliable and valid mea-
sures of general achievement (e.g., general reading achievement) that is sensitive to student
improvement and that improves student achievement when used to monitor progress
(Deno, Fuchs, Marston, & Shin, 2001; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986, 1988, 1999, 2004) (p. 243).
CBM requires the use of probes, which are short skill tests that students complete in
order to examine their skill performances in particular content areas (reading, math, writ-
ing, or spelling). These learning probes, constructed from the instructional curriculum that
is to be learned, serve as learning evidence that students are acquiring the desired skills and
performance levels so that more advanced material and skills can be introduced. They are
generally administered weekly, and the results are visually graphed so that the performance
data can be compared to a set goal or performance level. The use of CBM is particularly
reliable at the elementary level, which is where it is most often used. These authentic mea-
surements of student progress fit within the curriculum of the classroom as they provide
accurate estimates of skill mastery involving both short- and long-term instructional goals.
As reported in Shinn (2008), the core CBM measures consist of six foundation mea-
sures. The Reading CBM serves as a word f luency measure, while the Maze CBM is a
cloze reading task (a reading task where a student must correctly identify the word that
is needed to complete blanks or gaps that are deliberately set within a story or passage).
The Spelling CBM is a straightforward spelling construction task of grade-level words.
The Written Expression CBM requires students to write a story, with credit given for
correctly written and spelled words. The final two measures are math probes. The Math-
ematics Computation CBM involves the completion of grade-level computational prob-
lems, while the Math Applications CBM requires students to provide the correct answers
to presented math problems.
CBM represents the measurement of a student’s performance relative to the instruc-
tional curriculum he or she is taught. It represents the direct assessment of a student’s
academic skills that must be learned and mastered. Educators have come to recognize the
importance of this approach and its utility in helping to monitor academic skill progress
in the classroom.
Positive Behavior Support

Positive behavior support (PBS) includes an array of systemic and individualized research-
supported strategies that are designed to promote appropriate social behavior within school environments.
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352 CHAPTER 13
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
CBM USAGE IN THE CLASSROOM

Mrs. Tyler is a second-grade teacher who works in an urban school with a large English
language learners (ELL) population. Since these students typically have limited proficiency
with the English language, Mrs. Tyler uses a CBM assessment approach in both reading
and math instruction, particularly in the areas of word f luency (recognition and enuncia-
tion of grade-level material) and computation (addition and subtraction of one- and two-
digit numbers with and without regrouping).
To start, an initial or foundation probe is administered to determine the functional skill
levels of the students in both word f luency and math computation. The items in the probes
are at the beginning second-grade level and match up with the curriculum expectations
and academic standards of the district. The reading probe consists of 50 high-usage words
taken from the class reading series, along with basic yet essential conversational words.
Each student reads from the list independently during the first week of school. As the child
attempts each word, Mrs. Tyler marks the errors and records the type of mistake made
(e.g., visual versus phonemic). Mrs. Tyler’s aide also works with the students in order to
obtain this information. The same process is repeated with the math probe, consisting of 50
single- and double-digit addition and subtraction problems.
Once the probes are completed, accuracy percentages are generated for each student.
Collectively, the students typically demonstrate composite accuracy level ranges from 30 to
50 percent. Error analysis patterns are reviewed in the process. As part of the instructional
process, students work on these skills through vocabulary strengthening exercises along
with mental math practice activities and drill/practice sheets (at school and at home). At
the end of each week, they complete reading and math probes. Their performances are
individually and collectively graphed in order to show the progress pathway of each student
as well as of the classroom as a group. The probes are in the form of weekly quizzes. The
reading probes (10 pre-selected words) are completed individually with the teacher or aide,
and the math probe (10 problems) is completed during independent seat time.
Mrs. Tyler has set the goal that each student will accurately understand 90 percent or
more of the material that is presented in the weekly probes. That is a high goal for the class.
She is a teacher who challenges her students, and the students respond well to this expecta-
tion. She knows that functional literacy in reading and math is essential for student success,
and that is especially the case for ELL students.
Consistent with the RTI approach, PBS is a data-based, problem-solving approach that
operates as a functional extension of applied behavior analysis. McKevitt and Braaksma
(2008) describe PBS as
a structured way to promote positive relationships in schools and to provide stu-
dents with social and behavioral skills to be successful learners and school citizens.
Researchers have demonstrated positive outcomes for staff in terms of regained time
for administrative duties and instruction as a result of not having to address behavior
problems (e.g., Scott & Barrett, 2004) and for students in terms of reductions in chal-
lenging behaviors at all grade levels (e.g., Bohanon et al., 2006; Duda, Dunlap, Fox,
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Lentini, & Clarke, 2004; Luiselli, Putnam, Handler, & Feinberg, 2005; McCurdy,
Mannella, & Eldridge, 2003) and in various school locations (e.g., Kartub, Taylor-
Greene, March, & Horner, 2000; Todd, Haugen, Anderson, & Spriggs, 2002) (p. 736).
Through the guiding direction of an identified school team, PBS attempts to change
the existing behavioral climate of the school building while at the same time educating
students according to a new and expected behavior curriculum. The school PBS team
takes a leadership role in implementing this change. For example, the PBS team may
be asked to complete tasks such as assessing the behavioral needs and expectations that
are to be followed in the school, conducting staff training, and monitoring and analyz-
ing behavioral data and information that needs to be reviewed on a consistent basis.
Although school programs vary in their practices and designs, as reported in McKevitt
and Braaksma (2008):
Researchers at the OSEP [Office of Special Education Programs] Center on Positive
Behavior Interventions and Supports (OSEP, 2004) have identified the core features of
a school-wide system as (a) establishing and defining clear and consistent school-wide
expectations, (b) teaching the school-wide expectations to students, (c) acknowledg-
ing students for demonstrating the expected behaviors, (d) developing a clear and con-
sistent consequence system to respond to behavioral violations, and (e) using data to
evaluate the impact of school-wide efforts (p. 740).
Consequently, schools need to identify a set of positively stated behavioral expecta-
tions (three to five behavioral statements) that are taught directly to students. These must
be specific and observable behaviors that are expected to be demonstrated at various
locations throughout the school grounds. Direct instruction of these school rules needs to
take place in the classroom and should be approached like a content lesson, with coverage
of the material, skill practice and demonstration (e.g., examples of desired and undesired
behaviors), corrective feedback, and so on in place to ensure that the students understand
what is expected of them in regards to their behavior. A positive reinforcement system is
recommended in order to encourage students when they demonstrate the desired behav-
iors in school. In addition, a recognized consequence system for violations must exist and
be well understood by the students. The collection of behavior-related data (e.g., disci-
pline referrals, attendance reports, incidence of tardies) can then be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the PBS program.
TEACHER AS ACTIVE PROBLEM

SOLVER AND RESEARCHER
RTI involves a systematic approach to addressing the needs of all students. This problem-
solving model and tier-leveled intervention follows the curriculum and the instructional
delivery format of the schools. The fact that collected data and student evidence is used
to evaluate and direct changes makes sense and is essential in confirming intervention
effectiveness. This approach “feels right” and fits within the classroom setting because
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354 CHAPTER 13
the teacher serves as an active researcher in identifying and addressing the instructional
needs of his or her students through this process.
Babkie and Provost (2004) contend that:
When a teacher considers evidence-based practices in making decisions or provides
content based on his or her knowledge of a particular strategy or methodology’s effec-
tiveness, that teacher is conducting research. When he or she groups students based on
performance, the teacher is using research. When he or she evaluates the effectiveness
of different interventions for changing a student’s behavior, it is a form of research
(p. 261).
They go on to say that teachers need to embrace this role as a classroom researcher in
order to address the legal mandates of NCLB for data-driven interventions and evidence-
based practice. However, beyond the required mandates, having a reliable accountability
system that can examine and document student learning progress provides teachers with
a career-long foundation skill. This skill needs to be used, refined, and embedded as part
of the daily classroom experience.
Babkie and Provost (2004) have identified a series of seven practical steps for teachers
to follow when conducting action research and addressing problems in their classroom
(see the box “Action Research Steps For a Teacher to Follow in the Classroom”). Consis-
tent with most problem-solving models, the first step involves identifying the concern, in
objective and measurable terms, that needs to be addressed. When searching to identify
the problem, Babkie and Provost (2004) report:
Probably the best way to identify the problem is to ask, ‘What isn’t working?’ or
‘What can I change?’ This may be based on thoughts about a particular lesson, con-
cern regarding students’ lack of responsiveness to instruction, worry about poor time
on task of one or more students, realization that a student is having difficulty in
ACTION RESEARCH STEPS FOR A TEACHER

TO FOLLOW IN THE CLASSROOM
1. Identify the Problem/Concern to be Researched

2. Collect and Evaluate Information from Various Sources
3. Analyze the Data
4. Develop a Plan for Intervention/Change
5. Implement the Intervention/Change and Collect Data
6. Analyze the Data/Evaluate the Results
7. Plan for the Future: Keep, Revise, or Alter Intervention
SOURCE: Babkie, A. M., & Provost, M. C. (2004). Teachers as researchers. Intervention in School and
Clinic, 39, 260–268. Reprinted with permission.
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learning a specific skill, or any other of a number of classroom concerns. The point is
that the question comes out of what is happening in the classroom and is an extension
of what you already do (p. 262).
When collecting and reviewing information, it is important to examine several
sources, including student work samples, error patterns, personal interviews, and direct
observations. Depending on the concern that is being examined, however, some data
collection measures (e.g., observation techniques) may be more useful than others in
determining the nature, extent, and intensity of the identified problem. When exam-
ined, the collective findings should indicate a general trend or pattern in how the student
is responding (or not responding) to the instructional and behavioral demands in the
classroom. Once information is collected, it needs to be analyzed and reviewed. At this
point it is important to have a clear and specific problem identified, with collected evi-
dence that can verify the problem exists.
After the collected information and evidence have been reviewed, an intervention and
plan of action need to be implemented in order to change the current results. Once the
intervention is designed, data needs to be collected during the implementation phase to
determine if the desired effects are being obtained. In other words, is the new approach
working as desired, and does the collected data support its continued usage? If it is not
working as expected, the intervention needs to be adjusted or discarded in favor of other
approaches. The collection and use of authentic data to help make sound educational
decisions is the cornerstone of all evidence-based practices being utilized within school
settings.
Action research methods can be used to critically examine and review daily instruc-
tional events within the classroom. For example, imagine that your fifth-grade class has
just taken a quiz on Newton’s fundamental laws of gravity. In the quiz, the students had
to identify the three basic laws, identify the principles associated with each, and apply
these laws to common events. Overall, the class performance on the quiz generated a
class average and median of 62, which is a much lower than expected academic perfor-
mance for the class.
Based on Babkie and Provost’s (2004) teacher as researcher model, the class perfor-
mance on the gravity quiz constitutes the problem and also serves as the functional base-
line regarding the current learning progress for this specific content area. Through an
item analysis of the quiz, it is discovered that almost all the students missed the items that
dealt with the application of the laws of gravity. In contrast, the test questions that dealt
with identifying and describing the laws were consistently passed. An exit slip completed
on the day of the quiz by your students indicated confusion and difficulty with the grav-
ity application questions. The next day, a class discussion of the quiz generated additional
student comments to support this finding.
After the review of the collected information is completed, you conclude that a lim-
ited amount of time was devoted to examining how Newton’s laws of gravity apply to
our general lives and events. Consequently, the students did not obtain a solid under-
standing of this information, which was ref lected in their weak quiz performance. As
part of your intervention plan, you decide to go back and review that information again,
with an emphasis on the application of those laws. After that is done, a comparable quiz
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356 CHAPTER 13
(covering the same content and skill domains as the first quiz) is administered. The class
performance on this quiz is higher (mean = 85), and item analysis indicates a much
higher pass rate on the previously missed application-type items. Based on the perfor-
mances of these two quizzes, which were designed to serve a formative function, you are
now convinced that the students understand the material and are ready to complete the
unit summative exam that covers this information. By following these steps, you have
made an important data-based intervention that was designed to promote student learn-
ing in your classroom.
In addition, this model can be followed when individual student issues need to be
addressed. Imagine that you have a fifth-grade student who has difficulty staying seated
in the classroom. First, a clear definition of his out-of-seat behavior must be generated
(e.g., no placement in and physical contact with his desk) along with verification by way
of direct evidence that, indeed, he is out of his seat and to a much greater degree than his
peers. Assume that a series of observations, both in the morning and the afternoon, have
been completed to document this occurrence, and he is out of his seat almost 60 percent
of the time during any instructional activity. This rate is much higher than his observed
peers (who are unseated approximately 10 to 20 percent of the time during any instruc-
tional activity).
Unfortunately, his out-of-seat behavior is interfering with his academic performance,
so as the teacher you need to design an intervention that will reduce his out-of-seat
behavior and improve his classroom academic performance. Since we know he is out of
his seat 60 percent of the time during any instructional activity, this level serves as his
baseline, or the level of the behavior before the intervention is implemented.
Now that the problem has been identified and verified within the classroom setting,
an effective intervention plan must now be devised to address this behavior. In particu-
lar, it has been determined that this student responds well to reinforcement, so positive
reinforcing contingencies to be given when he remains in his seat are identified (such as
student praise, behavior points that can be redeemed for tangible items such as candy,
classroom privileges, etc., or other desirable items like being named “student of the day”),
and are provided as part of his intervention plan. That plan and its effects are closely
monitored, and periodic behavioral observations are completed in order to measure the
percentage of time he remains in his seat during instructional activities throughout the
school day. Based on the success, or lack of it, this plan will be maintained or adjusted in
order to obtain the desired outcome, which for this student is to be to out of his seat for
no more than 20 percent of class time (the unofficial out-of-seat class average).
When Classroom Intervention Isn' t Enough

RTI, with its tiered intervention, is designed to help all students regardless of their par-
ticular accomplishments, skills, and learning needs. However, even with Tier 3 support
and intervention, some students’ performances will be extremely low (e.g., falling below
the 5th percentile on reading skill measures), and their needs will exceed the instruc-
tional resources and limits of the regular classroom. These are the students who will
likely need special education services.
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With the passage of IDEIA in 2004, local school districts are able to identify students
with learning disabilities through a response to a scientific, research-based intervention
model like the DIBELS model that was brief ly described. This approach is favored by
special education professionals because it involves the systematic assessment of a student’s
skill progress when provided with quality, research-based general education instruction.
In regards to special education, the identification of students with learning disabilities is
critical, since as reported in Lichtenstein (2008), “As of 2005, the most recent year for
which federal data were available, this amounted to approximately 2.8 million children
in the United States, 5.3% of the school-age population, and 45% of students with dis-
abilities (57% for ages 12–17)” (p. 295).
Regular classroom teachers typically play a major role in helping to identify, through
collected classroom evidence, students who may be eligible for special education ser-
vices. In addition to the data that is collected as part of regular classroom intervention,
additional information through observations, rating scales, and other measures may also
be collected as part of the identification and qualification process. Regular education
teachers also assist in the development and implementation of the IEPs of those identi-
fied students. In fact, they are specified by IDEIA (2004) as a legal part of an IEP team.
Therefore, input from regular education teachers is vital to the process. Since regular
education intervention services are tied directly to students who may eventually qualify
for special education services, it is essential for regular education teachers to acknowledge
their important role in serving all students in their classroom, regardless of any special
services they may eventually require.
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358 CHAPTER 13
CHAPTER REFLECTION
In the Chapter Activity, you were encouraged to discover how RTI was being imple-
mented in surrounding school districts. As school districts continue to move toward and
refine their intervention-oriented service delivery model, the question of who directly
benefits from this approach will inevitably surface. Some will contend that the needs of
certain students (in this case at-risk students) are taking precedence over other students
within the system. Although RTI can be connected to at-risk students or students with
special needs, its first and primary focus is to help all students reach their educational
goals and objectives through providing the best instructional services possible.
Special education eligibility decisions can be a product of the RTI process, but are not
the primary goal. As stated by Bill East, executive director of the National Association
of State Directors of Special Education, regarding myths surrounding RTI implementa-
tion, “The major issues in RTI involve the need to enhance the range and diversity of
academic and behavioral interventions in general education (Tier 1) and to increase the
impact of supplemental interventions in Tiers 2 and 3, not how to make eligibility deci-
sions that divorce special education from general education” (East, 2006). RTI serves all
students, and therefore all teachers need to know and understand the RTI process. RTI is
not just a “special education thing.” In reality it is truly a “general education thing” that
also happens to include addressing the needs of certain identified students.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
Due to legislative mandates and professional expectations, teachers need to be able to
provide academic and behavioral intervention for their students, and the use of the RTI
model provides for the needs of all students. A multitiered intervention approach allows
for the provision of support at the level that it is needed. All are served and consequently
all benefit, with no particular individuals singled out in the process. The hallmark of this
approach is that direct student evidence is used to decide which interventions are effec-
tive within the classroom setting.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How can response
to intervention (RTI) be used by teachers to help increase student success in the class-
room? The primary focus of RTI is the active intervention into students’ academic and
behavioral problems, and how teachers can help identify and serve them, consistent with
their level of need, within the delivery of the regular classroom curriculum. For regular
classroom teachers, RTI provides support in working with children who need additional
assistance. This service approach calls for documentation and verification of intervention
effectiveness, which certainly meets the accountability requirements that exist in today’s
schools.
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RTI serves as an intervention safety net that has really never existed for regular class-
room teachers. It provides a mechanism by which all students can be served, and teachers
supported and assisted, within the regular classroom setting. And when every student
gets what they need in the classroom, student success is inevitable.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. How has recent accountability legislation (e.g., No Child Left Behind) expanded
the intervention role and practices of the regular classroom teacher?
2. A new colleague arrives in the district and is not familiar with RTI and how it is
implemented. How would you describe the RTI process and the three-tier model?
3. Do you believe RTI will play a significant role in your classroom in regards to
academic or behavioral issues? Why or why not?
4. Of all the core RTI principles, which ones are most relevant and important to you
as a future classroom teacher? Why?
RESOURCES
Response to Intervention (RTI) Resources
The RTI Action Network at www.rtinetwork.org offers evidence-based information and
resources that allow professionals from general education, special education, and school
psychology to provide practical information and support for implementing RTI ser-
vices from preschool to high school. Specific directions are provided on how to create
your own RTI plans, while integrating specific elements (e.g., ELL, learning disabili-
ties identification, student assessment) into that plan.
The National Association of State Directors of Special Education at www.nasdse.org pro-
vides valuable resources on a number of topics, including an RTI blueprint series. Free
documents on how to set up RTI within a building or district are available, along with
additional RTI papers (for a fee). A superb listing of resource links is provided on this site.
The Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS)
at www.pbis.org is the Office of Special Education Programs site that provides profes-
sional information, research, and support about positive behavioral systems to educa-
tors and schools throughout the country.
The School-Wide Information System (SWIS) at www.swis.org is a Web-based informa-
tion system that can be used to collect and analyze problem behaviors, through office
referral data, within a school as part of a systemwide intervention program. SWIS can
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360 CHAPTER 13
provide useful information on the times and locations of problem behaviors, which can
then be used in generating either individual or group-based behavior interventions.
Intervention Central at www.interventioncentral.org is a private Web site that provides
information on academic and behavioral intervention strategies for the classroom. In
addition, this site contains an RTI wire link that provides information on how to
obtain free and high-quality RTI resources. For instance, click on the “CBM Ware-
house” button for a listing of CBM resources across all content areas (e.g., reading,
math, and written language), as well as useful forms and manuals.
The National Center on Response to Intervention at www.rti4success.org is a national
Web site supported by the U.S. Department of Education, and is devoted to the dis-
semination of RTI information and resources. Included on this site is an RTI library
and an interventions section that rates various programs and approaches according to
key assessment indicators (e.g., reliability, validity, efficiency) for both screening and
progress monitoring purposes. Continuing professional development activities, includ-
ing webinars and summer institutes, are highlighted on a master schedule.
The National Center on Student Progress Monitoring at www.studentprogress.org is a
national Web site connected to the Office of Special Education Programs. A vari-
ety of resources are available, including online training, family support, topic articles
(e.g., CBM, data-based decision making, family resources, math, reading, written lan-
guage), and professional development opportunities. Additional classroom curriculum
resources can be obtained by using the search box and typing in “CBM.”
Academic/Reading Resources
The DIBELS Web site at dibels.uoregon.edu provides information on how to use the data
system and obtain grade-level reading measures and benchmarks, as well as technical
resources. The DIBELS measures are designed to provide fluency checkpoints regard-
ing the development of pre-reading and early reading skills.
AIMSweb at www.aimsweb.com is a Web-based data management and reporting service
that collects and reviews student performance data as part of an evidence-based and
data-driven formative assessment system. Data collected through CBM or DIBELS can
be reviewed and evaluated through this program.
CBMnow at www.cbmnow.com provides K–12 teachers and other professional educators
with user-friendly information and support in using curriculum-based measurement,
including subject areas, standards, data usage and management, and other connected
topics.
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CHAPTER 14
AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT
KEY FOCUS
How do I assess affective and personal aspects of my students in the classroom?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Acknowledge the boundaries of data collected through affective assessments.
♦ Identify major affective assessment areas of investigation, including student
attitudes, interests, beliefs and values, and personal viewpoints.
♦ Follow and complete all required steps in constructing a self-report affective
assessment measure.
♦ Select effective items for
a self-report measure
designed to collect per-
sonal information from
students.
♦ Discuss the importance
of integrating affective
assessment and feedback
into the instructional pro-
cess in order to enhance
future teaching practices.
Andersen Ross/Getty Images
364
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AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT 365
Introduction
This chapter is devoted to the area of affective assessment, which involves the measure-
ment of personal qualities or aspects such as motivation, attitudes, perceptions, and belief
systems that contribute to and inf luence student work and performance in the classroom.
Affect is defined as emotion, so “affective” implies a connection with feelings that are
generally attached to an idea, issue, or action. Emotion is connected to the physiological
changes, subjective experiences, and expressive behaviors that are involved in feelings
such as love, grief, anger, and joy. These personal reactions impact how we conduct our
interaction with the world. Attitudes or perceptions do ref lect students’ emotions, but
they can also involve other dimensions such as cognition. It’s important to recognize and
understand that a student’s global perceptions, viewpoints, and attitudes (e.g., doing well
in school is important, I like my classes, I am a good problem solver) are inf luenced by
thinking factors as well as the emotional analysis and connections that go with them. In
fact most, if not all, educational experiences involve both cognitive and emotional pro-
cessing and connections.
It has been well documented that sensory information (except for smells) goes through
particular structures of the brain that are directly connected with emotion (in a matter
of milliseconds, by the way) before that information is reviewed and evaluated by higher
cortical regions in the cerebral cortex that are commonly recognized as the thinking part
of the human brain (Bloom, Lazerson, & Hofstadter, 1985; Sousa, 2001). Technically
you perceive and “feel” stimuli such as a loud bang or disruption at the back of the room
as you determine what they truly are and if they are important or not. Input is routed
through the sensory integration systems of the brain that are connected to other brain
structures responsible for emotional tone analysis and response. The interpretation of the
world isn’t only emotional or cognitive but an integration of both. This explanation is
provided since the term “affective” implies that only emotional involvement exists. It is
important to recognize that “affective” is a good but not totally inclusive descriptor for
the personal factors that will be examined. With that shortcoming acknowledged, the
limits and restrictions of this area of assessment also need to be reviewed.
KNOW THE LIMITS AND BOUNDARIES

OF AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT
From an educational perspective, knowledge and understanding of student perceptions,
views, and feelings over time and across a wide range of events is important student
evidence that a teacher can effectively use. Clearly, students are much more than the
academic work they produce. They are unique individuals who possess a variety of
viewpoints, perceptions, and feelings that are just as important, if not more important,
than the actual knowledge and skill sets that they develop in the classroom. Information
generated from affective assessments can help provide a way to better understand those
qualities within your students, which can then be used to enhance the potential learning
opportunities in your classroom. For that reason alone there is appropriate interest in this
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366 CHAPTER 14
CAUTIONS WITH AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT
• Affective assessment is not personality assessment.

• Affective assessment measures must have demonstrated validity and reliability.
• Affective assessment findings must be carefully examined.
• Any conclusions generated from affective assessment findings must be carefully
reviewed and validated.
• Affective assessment should be aligned with pre-selected interest areas.
assessment area. But there are limits and boundaries to affective assessment that need to
be acknowledged (see the box “Cautions with Affective Assessment”).
Affective assessment should never be associated with or considered as personality
assessment or any other in-depth analysis of a student’s personal attributes, qualities,
characteristics, or temperament. That type of analysis is reserved for psychologists and
other professionals who have a license to conduct psychological assessments and advanced
training to conduct such an evaluation. As a teacher you are not in the business of per-
sonality testing, and you don’t want to hold the expectation that affective assessment can
actually give you that kind and level of information about your students.
As with any assessment method, the reliability and validity of the measures that are
used must always be critically examined and substantiated, but more so here, given the
complexity and potential ambiguity of some of the constructs (e.g., general motivation,
attitudes toward school) and the ranging interpretations that will likely occur when
examining these kinds of domains, particularly in regards to their importance and impact
in the classroom. Also, since these measured concepts will likely change over time, the
need for multiple data sources and episodic measurements (e.g., once or twice a month or
semester) is critical in order to obtain and retain confidence with the results.
When dealing with personal and emotionally-focused information, it is important not
to overanalyze and overgeneralize the findings and the implications that are drawn from
those findings. As professionals, it is important to refrain from jumping to any conclu-
sions, and findings must always be kept in perspective. Conclusions should be based and
appropriately balanced on the amount and strength of the collected student evidence.
For instance, if a student rates himself or herself as being very nervous on some rat-
ing measure, the student may actually be nervous about his or her school performance
or may actually be just fine. It may be a genuine rating or it may not be, and it can be
inf luenced by a number of factors and issues (e.g., poor understanding of the questions,
selection of inaccurate ratings, inf luences or events outside of school, fatigue due to sleep
problems, caffeine consumption) so caution is warranted here. What is interesting is that
in the eyes of this student, he or she is nervous or anxious (regardless of whether or not
evidence supports this contention), and the recognition of that perception is important.
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Also, the areas that are to be assessed should be educationally relevant and clearly
defined. In fact, given the limited time and resources available to most teachers, a par-
ticular area should be carefully pre-selected based on the information that you want and
need. For example, as a teacher you embed a lot of collaborative projects and activities
in your classroom, and mutual cooperation is a necessary skill. You want to gauge how
receptive your students are to working together and sharing responsibilities, so you give
the students an inventory consisting of collaboration questions. This would be useful
information to have as their teacher. There are a wide variety of potential affective areas
to examine and many, if not most, are interesting. However, it is most important to make
sure the collected information is actually needed and worth the required collection and
review time.
SELECTION OF AFFECTIVE
ASSESSMENT AREAS
A wide range of potential areas can be investigated with affective assessment. However,
the primary focus of an affective assessment usually centers on how your students feel,
react to, or view a particular topic, event, or situation. Oftentimes, teachers will try
to gain a better understanding through a measure that is designed to determine how
learning experiences are being perceived, defined, and processed by the students in the
classroom.
Affective aspects are also connected to the continuation of current and possible future
behavior. For example, if you hold a favorable attitude toward something or someone,
you are more likely to engage in that particular behavior or enjoy the company of that
person. Consequently, enthusiasm, motivation, and genuine interest usually follow and
are associated with those events and conditions. Conversely, negative attitudes carry with
them qualities that limit the occurrence or frequency of a behavior to a point that it may
be totally nonexistent. Obviously, affective feelings inf luence our behavior, and that cer-
tainly applies to learning. Most educational topics that are examined within the affective
domain can be grouped into one of four basic categories:
♦ student attitudes
♦ student interests
♦ personal beliefs or values
♦ personal perceptions or viewpoints
Student Attitudes
An attitude involves one’s personal opinion or feelings on some subject. Tapping into
students’ attitudes can yield interesting and useful information, so surveys or question-
naires are sometimes completed in the quest of this kind of information (Figure 14.1).
Potential areas that might be investigated include the following:
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368 CHAPTER 14
CALIFORNIA HEALTHY KIDS SURVEY EXCERPT
50. Have other kids at school ever teased you about what your body looks like?
A) No
B) Yes
51. How many days each week do you exercise, dance, or play sports?
A) 0 days
B) 1 day
C) 2 days
D) 3 days
E) 4 days
F) 5 days
G) 6 or 7 days
52. When not exercising, do you ever have trouble breathing (for example, shortness-of-breath,
wheezing, or a sense of tightness in your chest)?
A) No
B) Yes
53. Has a parent or some other adult ever told you that you have asthma?
A) No
B) Yes
54. Yesterday, how much time did you spend watching TV or playing video games?
A) None, I didn’t watch TV yesterday
B) Less than 1 hour
C) About 1 hour
D) About 2 hours
E) 3 or more hours
The next two questions ask about your friends.
55. Do your best friends get into trouble?

A) No, never
B) Yes, some of the time
C) Yes, most of the time
D) Yes, all of the time
FIGURE 14.1 ITEMS FROM THE CALIFORNIA HEALTHY KIDS SURVEY
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© Brand X Pictures/PunchStock
♦ student attitudes about school and learning

♦ student attitudes about themselves and their abilities
♦ student attitudes about others, including their classmates and teachers
♦ student attitudes about current educational issues
Obviously there are many more possibilities, but the assessment focus remains con-
stant in wanting to get the students’ viewpoints on a specific area, measured by several
items or questions, in order to better understand and view the identified issue through
the eyes of the students. If positive ratings and responses are generated, confidence would
grow that existing procedures or conditions are successful in supporting the development
of the students and their views.
Conversely, if negative ratings and responses are generated, and if these results are
supported by other findings, a review of classroom procedures would likely be in order.
Student attitudes ref lect a collective mindset and the students’ perceptual reality. There-
fore, this kind of information can be extremely valuable in confirming what is working
or seen as valuable—and what is not—in the eyes of the students in the classroom.
Student Interests
An interest deals with the unique quality of a topic or issue that draws one’s attention
toward it. It’s what students are “into” and usually like and enjoy. Within the classroom
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370 CHAPTER 14
setting, this can range from subject or content interest, enjoyment of different learning
activities, using computers, or even riding the bus. In regards to instruction, it is impor-
tant for a teacher to know how receptive his or her students are regarding the content and
information that will be covered as part of daily lessons or more extended unit lessons.
For example, if you are a history teacher (or any other content-focused teacher for that
matter), you know that some of your students may not be very excited about studying
history, since relevance and personal connection may be limited, especially with young
students. Consequently, it may be important to survey your students to find out how
interested (or more likely how disinterested) they are in examining the past and how
these historical events have inf luenced their current lives.
If minimal interest exists (and even if it doesn’t) as ref lected in the assessment results,
you could address that problem by creating unique learning events (e.g., living history
demonstrations), meaningful interaction and collaboration opportunities (e.g., contact-
ing and interviewing historical figures or participants), and other stimulating activities
that require those students to become part of history and its exploration. Otherwise, the
potential for a numbing and relatively ineffective learning experience for the students and
the instructor is very likely. Clearly, when we want to know what students like or enjoy,
obtaining student interest information is the assessment ticket.
Personal Beliefs and Values

Another area for affective assessment is in the area of beliefs, which are directly con-
nected to one’s core values. Personal beliefs are often rolled into an operating or func-
tional system that includes the principles that one believes to be true or right, and upon
which individual actions and decisions are based. The values we hold are the aspects of
ourselves that we regard as having the greatest significance and importance. Commonly
recognized values can include honesty, responsibility, respect, fairness, and so on, but
value recognition and assessment is a controversial subject due to competing views of
what values should (and should not) be emphasized and whether that sort of “education”
should occur in the schools or within the confines of the family unit.
Nevertheless, in order for classrooms to operate and for instructional activities to take
place, basic operational values need to be examined. All systems within our society have
an implicit belief system—our schools, government, and families, as well as corporate
environments. For instance, responsibility is a core belief that must exist in every class-
room. Students are held responsible for their work and actions, just as the teacher is.
This fundamental value must exist if the educational process is to take place. Measuring
students’ recognition and support of such a belief or value may be vital, especially when
students are introduced to the required rules of the classroom and the expectations they
will be held to in the school’s code of conduct.
In addition, there may be a deliberate instructional plan to develop and enhance cer-
tain beliefs within the classroom setting. One item that gets considerable attention is
demonstrating mutual respect for all students. Once again this belief must be in opera-
tion in order for a classroom to function effectively, and of course the learning impact
of this belief has far-reaching implications. As with other domains, careful consideration
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must be exercised in the selection process, and it is always important to make sure the
selections are in the best interests of the students.
Personal Perceptions and Viewpoints

The last category involves the general area of perceptions. Perceptions ref lect insight or
understanding that is gained based on what is observed and directly experienced. Within
the classroom setting, this could involve examining a student’s reaction to being a student
at a certain school or to a teacher’s instructional practices, or the awareness and under-
standing of school policies. Information can also be collected to confirm a teacher’s per-
ceptions to see if they match those of his or her students.
For instance, a new high school teacher has started working in a district that has two
high schools. She begins to register an extremely high level of competition and even ani-
mosity from her students toward students from the rival high school. In order to verify
whether that hypothesis is accurate, she decides to administer a survey designed to mea-
sure her students’ views about the high schools. Confirming a school bias and potential
prejudice is the first step in addressing a problem like this. Or how about obtaining
information on the learning climate that exists in a particular classroom or school? What
about discovering the students’ perceptions of school security? These would all be rel-
evant and reasonable issues to explore. Along with obtaining information about general
perceptions, affective assessment allows for the collection of information on existing stu-
dent viewpoints (e.g., gun control), which can then be used to further develop or defend
those viewpoints as part of class learning activities.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
In regards to classroom instruction, one of the most important areas to have information on
is classroom climate. Classroom climate is recognized as the quality and responsiveness of a
learning environment that exists for students (Fraser, 1998; Freiberg, 1999). And a positive
and supportive classroom climate is associated with academic achievement (Griffith, 1995;
Freiberg, 1999; Madaus, Airasian, & Kellaghan, 1980). Teachers by design try to create
a positive learning setting where all students are supported and challenged to perform at
their highest levels. When a positive classroom climate exists, students feel safe, supported,
valued, and encouraged to learn. Risks can be taken without the fear of teacher retribution
or social embarrassment. On the other hand, when this kind of climate does not exist, stu-
dents can become disinterested, uncomfortable, and may even “downshift,” thereby gen-
erating minimal connection with the teacher, the instructional material, and the learning
expectations of the class.
At the present time, ref lect on the classroom climate of the assessment course that you
are currently completing, and answer the following questions.
1. As a student, how would you describe the learning climate of this class? Is it positive?
Negative? Or is it a combination of both? What makes it that way?
(continued)
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372 CHAPTER 14
2. Do you feel safe, supported, valued, and challenged in this classroom? What actions or
procedures generate your reactions?
3. What would your collective responses tell your instructor about the learning environ-
ment in this class? Is he or she doing the “right” things, or are changes needed, and if so,
what changes should be made?
Once you have completed your responses, if possible, share them with your classmates in
order to identify similar observations and trends.
Now the next and most interesting question centers on sharing this information with
your current instructor. Should this be done? Why or why not?
AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT IN THE CLASSROOM

Mrs. Erb, an eighth-grade health teacher, has her students construct a health portfolio over
the course of the year. At the end of each month, as part of this portfolio, she has her stu-
dents anonymously complete a pre-designed health survey involving eating, drinking, and
other health-related choices and decisions. The findings of the entire class are aggregated
and displayed in class for review. The monthly findings are tracked in order to show the
changes (or lack thereof ) in the health-based decisions of her students.
This has immediate and sustainable interest for the students because it’s about them and
their health habits. The collection of this information at designated intervals allows for the
collection and documentation of behavior change. Mrs. Erb has been able to use an affec-
tive assessment as a potentially enhancing learning experience for the students in her class-
room, as well as to provide confirming evidence of student learning and progress in the
area of personal health. This kind of periodic assessment and growth check is not unique to
health education. It can be made applicable to every content area, depending on the desired
need and purpose of the assessment, and can be made to fit into most, if not all, educational
settings and conditions.
Generating Affective Assessments

Unfortunately, teachers do not have a lot of classroom time that can be devoted to the
construction of affective assessment measures. For this reason, affective assessment mea-
sures must be relatively simple and easy to implement so that minimal instructional time
is lost. One of the most direct and effective ways to examine the personal responses of
students is with self-report inventories. A self-report inventory is an assessment mea-
sure in the form of a survey or questionnaire that consists of several questions, usually
reviewed and rated based on the Likert response format, which students are asked to
complete anonymously (Figure 14.2).
The Likert scale, named after Rensis Likert (1932), provides a list of descriptors that
are used to indicate a respondent’s level of agreement or disagreement to a specific state-
ment or item. For example, consider the following statement: “Classroom assessment is
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MATHEMATICS SURVEY
Dear Student,
Please help us find out about how students in your district feel about mathematics. To do that,
please think carefully about each sentence below and decide whether you agree or disagree with
the sentence. Then tell us how much you agree or disagree by circling the number that best
expresses how you feel about what the sentence says. We will take your answers and combine
them with all the rest of the students. Remember, DO NOT put your name on this form.
Thank you for your help.
4 means you strongly agree with what the sentence says.
3 means you agree but not really strongly.
2 means you disagree but not really strongly.
1 means you strongly disagree.
Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree
1. Mathematics is as important as any school subject. 4 3 2 1
2. I like math because I can figure things out. 4 3 2 1
3. There is more to math than just getting the

right wer. ans 4 3 2 1
4. I don’t enjoy doing word problems. 4 3 2 1
5. I can’t estimate answers very well. 4 3 2 1
6. Math is one of my favorite subjects. 4 3 2 1
7. I don’t like the challenge of a math problem. 4 3 2 1
8. I can explain my thinking in solving a math problem. 4 3 2 1
9. I like doing math problem solving. 4 3 2 1
10. Math is not easy for me. 4 3 2 1
11. I am afraid of math. 4 3 2 1
12. I always want to do well in math. 4 3 2 1
13. I don’t enjoy learning new things in math. 4 3 2 1
FIGURE 14.2 SAMPLE MATHEMATICS SURVEY
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374 CHAPTER 14
one of the most important skills that a teacher can possess.” From the following options
(Strongly Agree, Agree, Not Sure or Neutral, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree), select
the one that best describes your opinion of the classroom assessment statement. These
descriptive ratings provide fairly distinct indications of the strength and direction of an
individual’s response to each provided item.
The five-descriptor format is the most common and recognized scale. However,
findings have been reported that greater reliability and measurement precision is gener-
ated when a seven-descriptor format (Absolutely Disagree, Strongly Disagree, Disagree,
Indifferent, Agree, Strongly Agree, and Completely Agree) is used (Dawes, 2008; Mun-
shi, 1990). With the five-descriptor format, sometimes the middle descriptor is omitted
(as in the math survey in Figure 14.2) and a four-descriptor option set is used, which
forces a respondent to provide either a supportive or nonsupportive response. Also, for
younger respondents, three (Agree, Not Sure, Disagree) or even two indicators (Yes or
No) may be appropriate.
In regards to the assessment statement listed in the previous paragraph (“Classroom
assessment is one of the most important skills that a teacher can possess”), what response
option did you select when you read the item, and why did you give it that response?
CONSTRUCTING A LIKERT
SELF-REPORT MEASURE
Let’s examine the basic steps (and major considerations) that are important to follow
when constructing a Likert self-report measure (see the box “Construction Steps for a
Likert Self-Report Measure”).
CONSTRUCTION STEPS FOR A LIKERT

SELF-REPORT MEASURE
1. Select the affective assessment domain.

2. Construct statement items that are clear, well written, and focused on the domain to
be reviewed.
3. Complete an external review of the items and the inventory.
4. Conduct a pilot or field test.
5. Administer the inventory.
6. Analyze the results.
7. Consider fi ndings and educational implications.
8. Revise statement items if needed.
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Topic or Domain Selection

Carefully select an educationally useful area to investigate. Whether it relates to students’
interests about specific educational issues (e.g., enjoyment of reading) or wanting to know
student preferences on block versus regularly scheduled classes, make sure the concept by its
design is one-dimensional. In other words, you want to select a topic that can be measured
effectively along a continuum, such as a number line, which can indicate a greater or lesser
value that is associated with the concept. Height is considered one-dimensional, as it can
only go higher or lower. Weight also meets this condition. Other constructs can involve
more than one dimension (e.g., intelligence), and therefore involve much greater measure-
ment complexity. Finally, the selected topic should be clearly identified and be seen as edu-
cationally relevant, and as the teacher, you must make sure you and the school are going to
directly benefit from and use the data that will be generated from this (or any) assessment.
Construction of the Items

Next, the construction phase of the measure begins with the generation or selection
of the statement items. Since the assessment focus is on examining the student’s affect
or emotional side, some statements will need to be written in a decidedly positive or
approving manner (e.g., “I enjoy reading books”) while others will need to be just the
opposite and ref lect a negative or adverse position (e.g., “I don’t like reading at all”) in
order to provide a balanced statement pattern. Consequently, this forces each respondent
to carefully examine each statement before providing a response. Each constructed state-
ment should be written as a simple sentence (not a compound sentence) that provides one
clear message. Simple, understandable language should be used with every item, and in
the survey directions.
Now take a moment to examine the following items and try to determine which
items are clear and potentially useful and which items are not.
1. Social studies is boring.
2. I like doing experiments in science class.
3. I don’t like to write but sometimes it is fun.
Question 1
Question 1 deals with a possible perception or viewpoint. However, there is not a clear
personal reference to the respondent (e.g., “I”), so a connection is not firmly established
and can only be assumed. It could be that a student actually believes social studies is
boring (i.e., provides an “Agree” response) but may really like it, which would not be
assumed based on the existing statement. A better statement would be, “I think social
studies is boring,” as this statement is directly linked to the respondent.
Question 2
Question 2 deals directly with student interest. A personal connection can be assumed
with the statement and a distinct learning event has been reported in the item. One clear
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376 CHAPTER 14
thought and expression is evident. This would be a good statement to potentially use in
an inventory.
Question 3
Question 3 deals with an affective response, but two conf licting emotions are listed
within one single statement. The personal reference is there, yet due to the two oppos-
ing reactions it is a potentially confusing item for a student to answer. The student
could agree with the first part of the statement and disagree with the second part of the
same statement and not know what option rating to mark given this dilemma. A better
approach would be to break the original statement into two separate and independent
statements.
The number of constructed items can vary, but several items (seven or more depend-
ing on the topic and the audience) will likely be needed to ensure adequate coverage of
an area within the scale. As a rule, more and finer selection items can be used with older
students while fewer and more general items often work better with younger respon-
dents. Also, it’s better to have a larger number of items than to have too few, and rec-
ognize the time requirements that will be necessary in order to complete the inventory.
The reading level of the students must also be taken into consideration, as minimal read-
ing requirements should exist with all selected items. The creation or selection of the
items can be completed by yourself, if you have the interest and background, or by a
group of supportive colleagues. If done by committee, group interest and participation
may prove helpful in the later administration of the instrument.
External Review
Once the items are generated or selected, you may believe that the inventory is ready to
be administered. However, having the items reviewed by a colleague in order to check
for accuracy and continuity is important. This could be a fellow teacher or a member of
the support staff. In particular, seek out the assistance of the school psychologist, as he
or she possesses an assessment background and will have experience and perhaps even a
high level of expertise in constructing inventories and surveys. Ideally, a group of inde-
pendent judges would be used to determine the acceptability of each item relative to the
identified concept. Also, inter-correlations among the items, based on the independent
ratings of the judges, are typically completed in order to select the most effective items
for the scale. However, most classroom instruments do not have this level of construction
support. Therefore, obtaining colleague feedback is essential in identifying the items that
“hold together” and address the intended domain.
Field Testing
The measure should also be field tested, preferably with a comparable set of students.
For instance, if this inventory is going to be given to your third-grade classroom, hav-
ing another third-grade class in a different elementary school in the district complete
and provide feedback would be ideal. Procedural problems, unclear questions, or other
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kinds of difficulties could be caught and corrected. Also, student reactions and comments
should be sought out, as they are often extremely helpful in building a better instrument
and refining the administration of it.
Respondents must also be familiar and comfortable with how to process and respond
to these types of questions. Learning to listen and measure one’s feelings about a subject
is a personal and sometimes complicated journey. Trying to attach a measuring stick to
the provided descriptor options can also be tricky. The mere fact that students are asked
not to identify themselves when completing the survey, so that their responses cannot be
singled out, can be a strange requirement. As with most things, practice makes all the
difference. Having students complete Likert-based items as part of exit slips or other class
activities helps to establish a general comfort and acceptance level.
Administering the Inventory

Setting aside a designated time period to complete the inventory is important, as this
sends the message that this activity is vital and not a spare-time kind of exercise or event.
The administration and completion of the inventory should be monitored. For younger
students, it is imperative that the directions are fully understood and that each statement
is rated. A power test mentality, where adequate-to-ample time is provided for comple-
tion, should be followed with this kind of assessment.
Scoring and Analyzing Responses

Points are typically assigned to each of the item responses; the most common scale is 1 to
5 and is usually listed as follows: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither Agree
nor Disagree, 4 = Agree, and 5 = Strongly Agree. With reversal items (i.e., items that
are reversed in meaning from the primary focus of the scale), the response value for each
of the items would be switched (e.g., a response of 1 would be changed to 5, a 2 would
be changed to 4) before being summed up for the total. Descriptive statistics, including
means and standard deviations, can be generated for the ratings of each individual state-
ment or item as well as when the items are combined for a composite score. In particular,
lower composite ratings indicate strong disagreement relative to a statement or a collec-
tion of statements, mid-range composite ratings indicate neutral or uncommitted feel-
ings, and higher composite ratings indicate strong agreement relative to a statement or a
collection of statements. The use of statistical programs is typically done with relatively
large data collections, for example, when all the students in a school district are involved.
However, when completing an inventory within a single classroom, little, if any, sta-
tistical analysis is necessary given the small number of items and participants that will
probably be involved. A simple frequency count, relative to each Likert option, can be
generated, along with cumulative percentages to display the findings for individual items
as well as the entire scale. Knowing how students respond to specific items is important;
however, the response to the entire set of items, referred to as the scale, is essential. The
collective outcome is provided, which helps to generate a good picture from the members
of the classroom along with potential implications that are connected to those findings.
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378 CHAPTER 14
Using the Data and Educational Implications

Clearly the most important part of the entire process is what is done with the informa-
tion that is collected. By carefully selecting the areas of review, the obtained information
can help provide a teacher valuable insight and awareness about his or her students that
can then be directly translated into instructional practice, the provision of support ser-
vices in the educational setting, or some other academic application. Consistent with the
assessment practices that have been reviewed, it’s what is done with the data that really
matters. Greater awareness and knowledge on the teacher’s part can also be mirrored by
the students if the results are shared with them. For example, it is often important to let
students see how the classroom as a unit views a certain topic and how that potentially
impacts the learning process.
Future Modifications
After the data is collected, analyzed, and integrated into the educational process, it is
necessary to ref lect on the entire assessment process to determine what, if any, changes
are warranted. For example, it may be found that a statement turns out to be confusing
to the students, or perhaps a better ordering of the items is possible. Comments from
your students after the inventory is completed may confirm that a statement was confus-
ing and was consequently misinterpreted by the students. All of these occurrences are
possible, and so are many more. It’s just good practice to review your inventory and the
statements that compose it so that the measure is even better the next time it is used.
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FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT OF THE WHOLE CHILD

Educators, due to their professional training and experiences, are more likely to dem-
onstrate a high level of confidence when they assess and evaluate the learning of their
students. Unfortunately, greater reluctance may be experienced when the assessment of
affective characteristics is involved. The affective domain represents a new content area
for teachers, especially when the deliberate and organized assessment of student views and
perceptions is involved.
Despite this lack of familiarity, teachers can apply and utilize their assessment skills
within the affective domain just as they would within the academic or behavior domains.
It requires the same diligence, time, and work effort that would be needed in any other
assessment endeavor. It also involves the recognition that this domain is important and rel-
evant to the overall success of students, both inside and outside the classroom.
For quite some time now, many teachers, as well as teaching programs, have recognized
and even emphasized that teaching is just not about knowing certain content or subject
matter. It’s also about knowing and understanding your students as active learners. Assess-
ment can, and should, play a direct role in addressing that essential instructional element.
This can be started by ensuring that the teaching process, in addition to being technically
sound relative to academic and behavior-based assessment practices, connects with and
stimulates the core emotional base of learners, thereby generating instruction and learn-
ing activities that genuinely promote students to learn. Moreover, basic visceral feelings
and responses of pleasure, enjoyment, and personal satisfaction should be common “side-
effects” of any learning event or activity.
Over time, all of us have the potential to lose touch with the “joy of learning” and its
associated feelings. As a therapist would say, recognition of the problem or condition is
the first step in the recovery process. If, and when, that condition is ever recognized, an
“immersion” experience may be the needed course of action. That reconnection experi-
ence could be visiting a kindergarten class and observing those young children. Seeing the
delight and pure enjoyment of their natural desire to learn provides the best evidence for
the importance of the affective domain.
Learning creates cognitive and affective bonds. This connection was brief ly described
at the beginning of this chapter. As an educator, it is imperative to recognize this neural
connection and to nurture and promote, through awareness, challenge, and acceptance, the
affective side of a student as much as the academic side.
CONSTRUCTING AN AFFECTIVE
ASSESSMENT MEASURE
Imagine that you are helping a colleague, Ms. Welch, a third-grade teacher who has
some personal and professional concerns about how her students view reading and its
educational importance. Given the range of daily distractions such as the Internet and
gaming programs, she is worried that minimal interest in reading exists in her classroom
(as well as others). Consequently, she wants to find out her students’ attitudes and feelings
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380 CHAPTER 14
on this subject. She has asked for your help in developing an inventory that can help
address that concern.
Investigation Area
The first order of business is clearly determining the topic and assessment focus of the
inventory. Based on the teacher’s comments and description, it is reasonable to conclude
that “attitudes about reading” is the area of investigation. However, this should be con-
firmed and clearly stated before further steps are taken.
Selection of Statements
Once the area of investigation has been identified, the development of the statements that
will be used in the inventory needs to be completed. Consider and review the following
items that the teacher created or found for potential inclusion.
1. I believe reading books is fun.
2. I don’t like reading.
3. Reading in school is hard.
4. I like reading books by myself.
5. Reading is fundamental to a good education.
6. I like my teacher.
7. My teacher gives me good stories to read.
8. I really don’t like to write.
9. I have a lot of friends in my class.
10. I believe reading at home is important.
Would you use all of these? Would you use some of them? From the provided list, indi-
cate whether you would use each item and provide a reason for and against its selection.
Then compare your list with your classmates and to the examination of the statements
below.
Item 1: Is an acceptable item that addresses the investigation area.
Item 3: Currently is an unacceptable item (an opinion not directly connected to the
respondent). The statement “I believe reading in school is hard” would be a better
alternative.
Item 5: Is an unacceptable item. It is not an affective-directed question and it
includes wording (“fundamental”) that requires a strong vocabulary and makes the
interpretation of the statement confusing.
Item 6: Is an unacceptable item since it does not address the investigation area. It
may provide useful information, but not in regards to the present assessment.
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Items 8 and 9: Are unacceptable items since neither addresses the desired investiga-
tion area; see the comparable review comments listed for Item 6.
How does your review match up with this one? Do you believe the justification for each
item is appropriate and reasonable?
Through this analysis (and the item justifications), you help your colleague organize
the items for the inventory, along with the directions and general format of the inven-
tory, which are presented below.
Ms. Welch’s Reading Inventory

Directions: Read each of these statements and circle the rating that best describes your
views. Do not put your name anywhere on this piece of paper. If you have any questions
just raise your hand.
1. I believe reading books is fun.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure Agree Strongly Agree
2. I don’t like reading.
3. I believe reading in school is hard.
4. I like reading books by myself.
5. My teacher gives me good stories to read.
6. I believe reading at home is important.
External Review
Since you have been directly involved in the construction of the inventory, you are also
assisting in the external review of the items and the general inventory procedures. This
work could certainly be reviewed by someone outside of your current dyad, but that may
not be possible, especially if a quick implementation schedule is being followed. Direc-
tions and the general layout of the inventory should also be developed at this time.
Pilot/Field Test
A small group of third graders (five to six would do) who are in Ms. Adam’s class (the
other third-grade classroom) are available to read and respond to the statements, and this
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382 CHAPTER 14
pilot would identify any potential problems that could be eliminated before the inven-
tory is actually given in Ms. Welch’s class. Since the administration of this interest inven-
tory is directly connected to the instructional process, approval and permission is likely
not needed from the students’ parents. Most school districts follow policies that do not
require parental permission if students are participating in school or classroom activities
that are:
♦ instructionally relevant and appropriate
♦ principal- and/or building-approved
♦ not research-focused or directed
♦ relevant to school-wide or district-wide decision making
However, it is always wise to check your school policy to make sure that prior permission
is not required, even with a pilot testing.
The pilot is completed and the following changes were warranted based on student
feedback and observation of the assessment.
♦ State in the directions that only one rating is to be selected for each statement, as
some students were confused with that.
♦ Verbally remind everyone that they are not to put their name anywhere on the
form. Due to habit, some students automatically wrote their names on the forms.
♦ Make sure that only pencils with erasers are used, in case changes to answers need
to be made.
Administration and Analysis of Findings

The inventory was administered to Ms. Welch’s class in the late morning right after
math instruction. Fifteen minutes were provided for the activity and no student required
more than that amount of time. Every student completed all the items on the inventory.
Based on the responses of the 20 students in Ms. Welch’s class, the following results were
generated.
Question 1: I believe reading books is fun.

Strongly Disagree (15 percent, 3/20), Disagree (20 percent, 4/20), Neither Agree nor
Disagree (10 percent, 2/20), Agree (40 percent, 8/20), Strongly Agree (15 percent, 3/20);
35 percent or seven students disagree or strongly disagree with that statement, 10 percent
or two students are not sure about the statement, and 55 percent or 11 students agree or
strongly agree with that statement. Collectively, more than half of the students think
reading books is fun, but more than a third do not think reading books is fun.
Question 2: I don’t like reading.

60 percent or 12 students disagree or strongly disagree with that statement, 10 percent or
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2 students are not sure about the statement, and 30 percent or 6 students agree or strongly
agree with that statement. Collectively, a majority of students like reading but almost a
third of the class does not.
Question 3: I believe reading in school is hard.

65 percent or 13 students disagree or strongly disagree with that statement and 35 percent
or seven students agree or strongly agree with that statement. The majority of the stu-
dents do not believe reading at school is hard, except for a consistent third of the students.
Question 4: I like reading books by myself.

45 percent or nine students disagree or strongly disagree with that statement, 5 percent
or one student is not sure about the statement, and 50 percent or 10 students agree or
strongly agree with that statement. The class is definitely split on this issue, as almost half
do not like reading books independently while the other half does enjoy this activity.
Question 5: My teacher gives me good stories to read.

35 percent or five students disagree or strongly disagree with that statement, 5 percent
or one student is not sure about the statement, and 70 percent or 14 students agree or
strongly agree with that statement. Collectively, the majority of students believe that
their teacher provides them with good stories to read.
Question 6: I believe reading at home is important.

40 percent or eight students disagree or strongly disagree with that statement, 10 percent
or two students are not sure about that statement, and 50 percent or 10 students agree
or strongly agree with that statement. There is another split decision with this item, as
almost half did not think reading at home was important while the other half certainly
thought it was.
Given that only six items make up the reading interest scale, the overall cumulative
findings are restricted to this narrow item set. Nevertheless, the ratings across each of the
questions generated the following mean ratings: Question 1 (3.35); Question 2 (3.55—
reversal item); Question 3 (3.4—reversal item); Question 4 (3.1); Question 5 (3.75); and
Question 6 (3.25), with a grand mean (mean across all the means for Questions 1–6) of
3.4 and uniform variance for the ratings across the questions. Overall, the results indicate
relatively strong and comparable response strength with the individual questions, relative
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384 CHAPTER 14
to the composite mean; a particular strong and positive rating, in fact the highest, was
demonstrated for Question 5 (“My teacher gives me good stories to read”).
Upon further qualitative review, Ms. Welch merged questions into strands or
related combinations. For instance, Questions 5 and 6 can be combined into an “adult-
inf luenced” or external reading factor, which generates a strong positive reading rating.
Questions 2 and 4 fall into an “individual-inf luenced” or internal reading factor, and
a comparably strong reading rating was demonstrated. Finally, Questions 1 and 3 can
represent a “reading process” factor, and the strength of this factor is comparable to the
other two.
Educational Implications
As a teacher, what are the educational implications of this information, assuming the data
are valid and reliable? If you were Ms. Welch, would you be relieved or dismayed by the
findings? If possible, get into small groups and talk about the results and what kind of
data picture they create. What kind of message are you receiving from this inventory?
What insights could you share with Ms. Welch? Hopefully, several possible ideas have
emerged based on the collected information. In particular, based on the student ratings,
examine the following considerations and see how they coincide with your observations
and decisions.
♦ A majority of students, approximately half the class, like and enjoy reading. They
also believe that reading is not a difficult academic skill to execute and complete in
school.
♦ A smaller group of students, approximately a third of the class, do not like or enjoy
reading. Relative to the entire classroom, this is a large number of students who are
on the negative side of the reading issue. In regards to instructional and learning
dynamic issues, something needs to be done (and quickly) to help reach and change
the perceptions of these “detached” students. Moreover, they view reading as hard,
so their motivation to approach and complete reading activities will be adversely
affected. If something is not done to counteract this viewpoint, those perceptions
are likely going to become more solidified over time.
♦ Based on the student ratings, it would be prudent to carefully examine the use of
independent reading as an instructional practice since the class is split in regards to
the enjoyment connected with this activity. Similar results are demonstrated with
reading at home, so this also needs to be examined. Perhaps the reading require-
ments or the level of material being completed at home is discouraging the stu-
dents, particularly those who already hold negative views of reading.
♦ Ms. Welch clearly provides good and interesting stories to read, based on the stu-
dent responses. She should feel confident in her abilities to select stimulating stories
that her students find interesting and engaging.
These findings are interesting and should give Ms. Welch much to think about as she
examines and potentially rethinks her reading instruction. Just being aware that reading
is not a positive experience for several of her students and having evidence to support
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that claim is important, because without that awareness nothing would likely change and
these students would continue on the same course. Moreover, this attitude exists in spite
of the fact that Ms. Welch provides interesting content for the students to read.
With this information, Ms. Welch can modify the reading practices in her classroom.
For example, she may want to have the students participate in specific individual and
group reading activities where she can identify particular issues (e.g., weak vocabulary
base, poor comprehension of what is read, little to no connection to reader’s life and
experiences) that may exist for the students who are struggling with reading. If com-
mon skill deficiencies emerge, specific instruction can be provided as part of her class-
room instruction. Also, in order to increase confidence and interest in reading, students
could select their own free-reading topics and be provided materials that are at or slightly
below their reading level. This would help to ensure motivation and success with this
reading activity and may help change the negative perception of reading that the strug-
gling readers possess.
Particular issues and problems were noted with independent and home reading, and
specific modifications can be considered for those activities. However, with follow-
up questions about those and other reading activities, even more information can be
obtained and used to improve the reading experience in Ms. Welch’s class. From the
present information alone, it is clear that a more developed and organized connection
between the school and home in the area of reading needs to exist. It is also important
to remember that at least half of the class feels good about reading, and this enthusiasm
needs to be maintained for those students. As you no doubt have learned from your
program and experiences, at times some students may require the same help or feedback
while other students will require other kinds of assistance. However, every student at one
time or another will require his or her own individualized help in the classroom.
Findings from this survey, as well as others, could also be shared with parents during
school conferences or as part of e-mail newsletters or blogs. For example, sharing the
results from Question 6 (“I believe reading at home is important”) can provide opportu-
nities to discuss the role and importance of reading at home—everything from how to
do it to useful resources, supplemental books, book clubs, and so on. This could certainly
serve as a valuable resource during the school year for general public issues and parent
education opportunities.
Measure Revision
Upon review of the inventory and the statements that compose it, Ms. Welch wants to
examine the “f low” of the items and their presentation order. What, if any, suggestions
would you have for her regarding this issue? After some discussion and review, she is now
considering the following order of the statements: (1) I don’t like reading, (2) I believe
reading books is fun, (3) I like reading books by myself, (4) I believe reading in school is
hard, (5) My teacher gives good stories to read, (6) I believe reading at home is impor-
tant. The new statement order follows a general to specific approach and ref lects a logical
f low, moving from reading in general to reading in specific locations such as in school
and at home. Ms. Welch is also considering adding some more negative statements to
help provide a more equal balance of positive and negative statements.
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386 CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER REFLECTION
In the Chapter Activity, you were asked to evaluate the classroom climate of your cur-
rent assessment/measurement course. In fact, three questions had to be answered. How
did your results compare with your peers? Was there general agreement, and if so, in
what areas?
It is important to recognize that receiving student feedback on classroom climate
through affective assessment is essential to providing and maintaining an effective
instructional practice. That is why university classroom evaluations are completed and
usually mandated at the end of the semester or quarter. However, if collected only at the
end of instructional periods, needed modifications are only possible for the next class.
This kind of information and feedback is really needed throughout the delivery of a
course, and many instructors do just that; they administer course evaluations once or
maybe twice before the final one is completed.
Periodic instructional feedback is important, whether you are teaching at the uni-
versity or P–12 level. At both levels, however, most educators have limited time and
resources to complete extensive reviews, but there are still ways to obtain such informa-
tion. One relatively easy way of incorporating this kind of data collection is to have class-
room climate questions periodically added to exit slips that are routinely administered
at the end of class. In this way a teacher can gain student data and monitor the learning
climate, as perceived by his or her students, as part of the standard classroom assessment
system.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
In today’s classrooms, students must acquire and demonstrate proficiency across a number
of academic standards; consequently, day-to-day classroom instruction is focused on this
major goal, and that will not likely change. However, as mentioned earlier in the chap-
ter, students are much more than the academic work they produce. They are dynamic
learning beings that possess attitudes, feelings, and values that directly impact the educa-
tional accomplishments and skills that are expected with those mandated standards. For a
teacher, being able to measure these attributes can be just as valuable as the actual content
that is covered in a lesson.
Affective assessment has the potential of providing a teacher with useful information
about the internal workings and personal views of his or her students. There is the recog-
nized mission of educating the “whole” child, but a teacher has to know that child first,
and affective assessments can provide information to help educators see the entire learner,
not just the academic side. They allow for a more intimate awareness of the learning
audience, which can be used to improve the general learning climate of the classroom
as well as the quality of instruction that is provided. In addition, the opportunity for the
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learners themselves to see and examine their own personal views, beliefs, and attitudes
is possible, maybe for the very first time. Every student deserves the opportunity to be
involved in a self-discovery process that can provide invaluable insight into and under-
standing of the affective side of their learning experiences.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: How do I assess
affective and personal aspects of my students in the classroom? You proceed with great
care, since measures that address student feelings and internal aspects must be carefully
selected, constructed, and utilized. Moreover, it is essential not to overgeneralize and
jump to conclusions that are not substantiated by the collected evidence. However, rec-
ognizing that this is a central area to investigate with your students is an important and
necessary step. Some educators would contend that teaching and learning are only about
delivering content and making sure specific skill sets are acquired. It’s also important to
try to examine and understand the “why” of learning, as well as being aware of the gen-
eral perceptions, views, and attitudes of your students.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. How can affective assessment be used to help you, as the teacher, better under-
stand your students and their learning needs in the classroom?
2. How will you integrate this kind of assessment into your instructional process?
3. How comfortable are you with developing a Likert-based affective assessment
inventory? Do you see this kind of measure fitting into your overall classroom
assessment system?
RESOURCES
The Alliance for the Study of School Climate (ASSC) (www.calstatela.edu/centers/
schoolclimate/index.html) at California State University provides valuable informa-
tion, research, and resources, including classroom climate surveys that can be used to
improve learning conditions and environments for students. Click on the “assessment”
button for the classroom climate surveys.
SurveyBuilder at surveybuilder.edmin.com/main.cfm is a useful Web site where free
online surveys can be constructed.
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388 CHAPTER 14
REFERENCES
Bloom, F. E., Lazerson, A., & Hofstadter, L. (1985). Brain, mind, and behavior. New York:
W. H. Freeman and Company.
Dawes, J. (2008). Do data characteristics change according to the number of scale points
used?: An experiment using 5-point, 7-point and 10-point scales. International Journal of
Market Research, 50(1), 61–77.
Fraser, B. J. (1998). Classroom environment instruments: Development, validity, and
applications. Learning Environments Research, 1, 7–33.
Freiberg, H. J. (1999). School climate: Measuring, improving, and sustaining healthy learning
environments. London: Falmer Press.
Griffith, J. (1995). An empirical examination of a model of social climate in elementary
schools. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 97–117.
Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 140,
1–55.
Madaus, G. F., Airasian, P. W., & Kellaghan, T. (1980). School effectiveness: A reassessment of
the evidence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Munshi, J. (1990). A method for constructing Likert scales. Retrieved from http://chaam
jamal.com/papers/likert.html
Sousa, D. A. (2001). How the brain learns (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press,
Inc.
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CHAPTER 15
GETTING STARTED ON THE

ASSESSMENT PATH
KEY FOCUS
As a teacher, how do I start to make assessment an integral part of my teaching?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
♦ Distinguish the assessment realities
that must be addressed before a class-
room assessment system is constructed
and implemented.
♦ Describe the importance of a self-
designed classroom assessment system
in enhancing instructional effectiveness
and student learning in the classroom.
♦ Identify the steps and required actions
of the classroom assessment cycle.
♦ Design a classroom assessment system
complete with identified instructional
questions, potential assessment mea-
sures, and a rationale for data review
and decision procedures.
♦ Explain the assumptions that will
guide the assessment process in your
classroom.
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390 CHAPTER 15
Introduction
It is hoped that through the journey of reading and reviewing the chapters of this book
you have gained some useful ideas and procedures to consider as part of your class-
room assessment system. As you continue your assessment journey there are additional
resources, including Web sites, professional associations, and books, that you will want to
examine and consider as you put your ideas together into concrete actions and products.
Assessment is just like teaching in that it requires continued development and refinement
of your professional skills. As you begin your teaching career, start out with a firm assess-
ment foundation and framework, and your expertise in this area will only grow with
time.
When you begin your teaching career, it is highly unlikely that you will receive direct
and continuous assistance in designing and implementing your classroom assessment
system. Currently, many school districts do not devote significant time and resources
toward that goal (McMillan, Myran, & Workman, 2002). What you will get from your
building administrator is a crystal-clear clarification on what your students must know
and demonstrate, relative to state academic standards, by the spring of the school year,
along with the clear directive to “get it done.” What happens to the students during the
year is your call and responsibility. School supports and resources are hopefully available
to help in the process. However, the responsibility and operation of the assessment system
in facilitating the learning of your students falls directly onto you as the teacher in the
classroom.
Therefore, the importance of constructing a prototype of a working classroom system
cannot be overstated. Although the opportunities to field test your system will not exist
until student teaching at the earliest, creating the foundation, framework, and operating
procedures that will exist within the system is important now. The assessment “skeleton”
needs to be in place and well connected so that further refinements can be made when
it is field tested under actual classroom conditions. With that in mind, this chapter is
designed to help set up that assessment foundation and framework. Completing the pro-
vided exercises represents an early investment opportunity, where your time and effort
constructing the system can provide you with long-term educational dividends through-
out your entire professional career.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
It is assumed that you have started to develop a growing assessment knowledge and skill
base that can and will be used to provide the most effective instruction in your classroom.
As you ref lect back on your readings, discussions, experiences, and interactions, what ele-
ments stand out in your mind as the most significant assessment findings and important
issues for you as a future teacher? Take a moment and write them down. Once you have
created that list, consider this important question: How will these elements, issues, and
procedures be addressed and incorporated within your classroom assessment system?
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GETTING STARTED ON THE ASSESSMENT PATH 391
YOUR OWN CLASSROOM

ASSESSMENT SYSTEM
As you consider the construction of your own classroom assessment system (or the refine-
ment of your current system), review these important issues that have been identified and
should be considered in any classroom assessment discussion.
♦ Classroom assessment is an expected professional skill area for teachers.
As mentioned at the very beginning of this book, classroom assessment is an
expected skill for every classroom teacher and an essential tool for every educator’s
toolbox. A knowledge and skill base in classroom assessment is warranted, just as
knowledge and expertise in a respective academic content area is expected. That
is the reality for the classroom teacher of today. Hopefully there will be district
personnel (e.g., school psychologists or administrators) who are knowledgeable and
FOCUS ON ASSESSMENT
TAKE A LOOK AROUND YOU

Assessment courses that are required in teacher preparation programs often require field
assignments. One activity that is extremely helpful and often insightful for pre-service candi-
dates is to go out and observe and interview teachers who are conducting assessment activities
in their classrooms. In particular, students are typically expected to observe a teacher’s assess-
ment practices to find out how he or she determines how well the students are learning in
their classroom, as well as what kinds of assessments are being used and why (e.g., standard-
ized tests, observations, checklists, rubrics, portfolios). It is not uncommon to collect artifacts
that are connected to the assessment activities. If time allows, short mini-interviews are often
sought out with the classroom teacher. Here, information is collected regarding what for-
mal and informal assessments are given to students and what portfolios and self-assessment
activities are used in the classroom. Follow-up questions can also be asked, dealing with a
variety of issues such as record keeping, intervention-based assessment, personal experience
with assessment modifications for English language learners, and communicating with par-
ents regarding assessment results.
This opportunity to look at classroom assessment in the real world holds tremendous
educational value. Of course, what is observed in the field is not necessarily what should
be practiced. In fact, students probably observe as much ineffective assessment practice as
they do effective assessment practice, and that is the reality of the profession, at least at the
moment. The important issue here is that observing how assessment should and shouldn’t
be practiced is critical. Watching how other educators work and struggle with assessment
has a powerful modeling effect, and of course students can directly benefit from the mis-
takes as well as the brilliant choices of those that are observed. Having the book knowledge
and practiced skills are important, but seeing what does and does not work with real stu-
dents is just as relevant as the chapters in any textbook.
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392 CHAPTER 15
dynamicgraphics/JupiterImages
can provide support in regards to assessment procedures and issues. But as a teacher
you are held accountable for accurately measuring and monitoring the learning
progress and accomplishments of your students. That is why you need to have a
firm assessment knowledge base in order to design and implement an effective
classroom assessment system.
Beyond the accountability pressure, a classroom assessment system provides
evidence that can directly address whether your teaching is truly effective and
whether your students are benefiting from that instruction. Always remember that
assessment and teaching are f lip sides of the same instructional coin, and the effec-
tiveness of your teaching is directly connected to your capacity to accurately assess
the learning progress of your students.
♦ The purpose and function of classroom assessment must be clearly defined.
The purpose and function of classroom assessment must be evident and clear as
the “why” of assessment is addressed. As the teacher, assessment must provide you
with essential services and must meet specific needs. In particular, there must be
important instructional targets connected to and measured by the assessment pro-
cess. Otherwise, assessment activities become misdirected events that take up valu-
able time in the classroom. Recognizing that the purposes of assessment systems
will vary, a classroom assessment system must be able to provide the systematic
collection of student learning evidence. That evidence must then be analyzed and
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reviewed in order to provide the most effective educational decisions regarding

student learning. Identifying what kind of student evidence is collected and for
what purposes is important and needs to be recognized before the system becomes
operational.
♦ A classroom assessment system needs to provide useful evidence that can be used to
help answer questions regarding student learning.
A classroom assessment system is designed to generate, collect, and review stu-
dent learning evidence that is used to examine and answer learning questions. For
example, if the system you develop is focused on measuring and monitoring the
reading progress of your students during the academic year, the system must be
structured to address and answer specific reading questions, such as “Are my stu-
dents meeting grade-level skill expectations relative to their academic content stan-
dards in reading?” or “Can reading progress be substantiated and documented at
specific points throughout the course of the school year?” If these are questions
that must be answered, the assessment system must be able to collect information
and evidence targeted to those questions. Recognizing the questions (as well as the
student evidence needed to answer those questions) and integrating those needs
within the assessment system before it is implemented is essential. As a teacher
you are the primary architect in determining what instructional questions will be
addressed as part of any classroom assessment system that is constructed. Therefore,
make sure the questions you identify are the ones you want and need to answer.
♦ Learning outcomes for students must be identified, and confirmatory evidence of stu-
dent learning needs to be collected and shared.
As the teacher you play the direct role in helping to identify and teach to the learn-
ing outcomes that your students are supposed to accomplish, as directed by your
district and state standards. You have to know where your students need to be in
regards to their learning goals, and of course they need to know, as well. Once
that destination is determined and the instructional course is set, that wonderful
experience known as “teaching” takes off. In that process, direct learning evidence
needs to be collected from the students so that learning progress can be confirmed
and adjustments made, if necessary, in order to ensure that everyone is moving
toward those identified goals. It becomes the all-important “show me” account-
ability component that is now expected in teaching.
However, progress confirmation should be done, first and foremost, to help
you recognize and substantiate student learning for your own instructional pur-
poses. Moreover, progress data needs to be shared with the students, as they are
directly involved in the learning event. Providing real-time feedback allows each
individual student to examine his or her learning status and consider any additional
actions that need to be taken in order to maintain or enhance his or her learning
performance. More importantly, it directly involves students in their own learning
and helps to foster the recognition that they are responsible for their daily work and
continued progress in the classroom. In addition, since it helps to confirm achieve-
ment to others (e.g., administrators, parents, the general public), it can meet that
need and address that professional pressure.
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394 CHAPTER 15
♦ Instruction-learning-assessment alignment must exist in the classroom.

Regarding assessment, what is taught and directly assessed must match up in
the classroom, and this fundamental need will always exist. In fact, instruction-
learning-assessment alignment is the cornerstone upon which the validity of all
collected findings will be judged. If certain content is taught in the class (which
directly connects to required learning standards), selected assessment techniques
need to accurately measure how well students have acquired the knowledge and
skills of that content. In addition to possessing assessment measures that are accu-
rate and valid, they must also be reliable so that confidence in the obtained findings
for every assessment activity is high. Consequently, each teacher must use assess-
ment tools that collect the needed information so that the best decisions relative to
student learning can be made.
♦ In regards to data collection, only information that is needed and will be used should
be collected.
By design, classroom assessment should ref lect a direct and sequenced problem-
solving process. In particular, it is important to only collect evidence that is needed
and will be used. Since the primary purpose of a classroom assessment system is to
confirm and monitor the learning progress or behavioral accomplishments of students,
make sure that it at least meets that objective and that the collected evidence can con-
firm that outcome. Avoid situations where data is collected simply for the sake of
collecting data. Make sure it has a needed purpose and answers an essential question.
♦ Assessment is a comprehensive process and is much more than a test that may be
given at the end of a lesson.
The material covered in this text has hopefully convinced every reader of the real-
ity that assessment is much more than a test that is administered at the end of an
instructional unit. Summative assessment is clearly a necessary part of an overall
assessment system. However, it is one of many forms of assessment that must be
present in order for students to acquire the learning outcomes that are established
within lesson plans. Formative and self-assessment practices are essential elements
that must exist as part of a total assessment package in the classroom. They serve
the important function of ensuring that students learn and understand the content
and skills that are connected with the lessons that are provided as part of their
classroom instruction. All assessment components must work together to ensure
maximum instructional impact.
Recognizing these assessment realities is important. They represent important strands
that must be woven into the essential fabric of an assessment system. They must be
acknowledged and adhered to if a classroom assessment system is to be truly effective,
regardless of its individual components and design. With that said, it is time to select the
foundation stones of your own classroom assessment system. That process will be initi-
ated through a series of exercises designed to help examine specific components of an
assessment framework that can then be applied in your future classroom. The first frame-
work exercise addresses the important aspect of identifying “what” the assessment system
will be designed to do.
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FRAMEWORK EXERCISE PART 1
Determining What Your Assessment System Will Do
Before the actual components of your classroom assessment system can be selected, you
need to identify the questions that your system will address and answer. As you try to
determine what your questions will be, start with the big ones: What does your assess-
ment system need to be able to do? What needs will it address for you?
Make sure your answers to these questions are as detailed as possible and include spe-
cific outcomes. For the moment, imagine that you are a fourth-grade teacher and con-
sider this as the primary assessment question you need to be able to answer: Are my
students making demonstrable progress toward meeting their expected fourth-grade aca-
demic content and skill standards in reading, math, and written language?
This is a reasonable question for a fourth-grade teacher to ask, assuming grade-level
skill standards exist within the district and instruction is matched to those standards. In
fact, this is a reasonable question for any teacher, regardless of grade level, since all teach-
ers need to know the progress points of their students and a classroom assessment system
should be designed to collect that kind of information. However, if you also need to be
able to formally evaluate the quality of their work (e.g., grading), which is very likely,
then that is an additional question that your system must be able to address. Recognize
that as the number of questions increases, so does the complexity and the time and effort
required to operate and maintain the system.
By completing this activity, you come to recognize the important needs that you have
identified for your assessment system. At this time, record the questions and needs that
you believe your assessment system must address; this information is necessary as you
continue through the framework exercises.
The questions/needs of my assessment system are or will be . . .
As the operator of this assessment system, you will need to determine what questions
regarding student learning need to be answered in your classroom. For example, a com-
mon question that confronts teachers is “What is the progress of my students in regards
to their expected, and typically required, academic learning targets and outcomes?”
This corresponds directly to the educational destination question (i.e., “Where do my
students need to be?”) that was identified as part of the instruction-learning-assessment
model discussed in Chapter 1. Since this fundamental question needs to be addressed in
every classroom, it is important to embed within your instructional delivery model a set
of procedures whereby student evidence can be collected that will answer that question.
Classroom assessment models or cycles typically require key elements within the problem-
solving process (Figure 15.1). Those basic elements include at least the following:
1. clear and identified learning targets
2. instruction directed and focused on those learning targets and related student
outcomes
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396 CHAPTER 15
3. collection of evidence on student progress relative to those identified targets and

outcomes
4. review of student evidence as part of the decision-making process
Then and only then can student evidence be reviewed, analyzed, and evaluated so that
appropriate instructional decisions can be made by a teacher and reviewed by students
in that classroom. This approach ref lects an evidence-based practice whereby authentic
student evidence is used to direct the instructional and learning process in the classroom.
Review of evidence (by

Learning targets identified
teacher and students) and
and instruction focused on
decisions made based on
specific student outcomes
collected student evidence
Student learning evidence

gathered (by teacher and
students) on student progress
relative to these outcomes
FIGURE 15.1 BASIC CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT CYCLE
Determining What Assessment Measures Will Be Used in Your
Classroom
Given the critical importance that student learning evidence plays in the instructional
process, you need to determine what kinds of student learning evidence will be collected
(and when) within your instructional delivery model (e.g., the progression of instruc-
tional activities and general sequence of your daily lesson plans). At a minimum, the
learning status of your students at three key points within the instructional sequence
should be known:
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1. learning status of the students before the instructional unit is taught

2. learning status of the students no later than halfway through the instructional unit
3. learning status of the students at the termination of the instructional unit
Verifying the knowledge and skill levels of your students prior to a lesson or unit is
essential, and a variety of approaches can be considered for the pre-assessment process,
including pre-test results, previous lesson performance indicators, observation checklist
results, and so on. The key is making sure there is a structure in place that accurately
measures and records the students’ learning status before the lesson starts and that is
embedded within the lesson format.
Knowing where your students start and end up regarding their learning is essen-
tial in order to measure and document student progress. Moreover, what happens after
the teaching begins directly determines the learning impact that is measured through
the summative assessments. That is why measuring student learning progress during the
actual instructional process is so important to a teacher and to the students in his or her
classroom. Now identify a list of measures (e.g., checklists, progress surveys or checks,
quizzes) and procedures that you would consider using to measure the learning progress
of your students throughout the instructional process. Given the nature of the content
you will teach and the presumed abilities of your prospective students, what measures
will provide you with the kinds of learning evidence that you will need? Particular
attention needs to be placed on formative and self-assessment measures and how they
would be embedded within instructional schedules. Be sure to include a description of
why these measures are being used and their particular effectiveness in collecting the
information needed. Also, describe how much responsibility will be given to your stu-
dents in the collection and monitoring of their learning in the classroom.
Also, list the possible measures that you will consider using to confirm acquired stu-
dent learning at the end of an instructional unit. For the post-assessment, the tasks, items,
and questions need to correspond to and directly represent what has been taught and
learned. For example, if students are taught and expected to demonstrate a skill set as
part of a performance event (e.g., analyze and evaluate data collected as part of a weight
management program or results from a chemistry lab), the selected summative assessment
measure, whatever it is, should require that students execute those skills as part of the
formal assessment of their performance.
As your list of measures is generated, it is important to recognize the fact that this
should not be considered an “absolute” list. Selection is important and different choices
will need to exist, given the particulars of the lesson and content that is to be learned.
The key is recognizing the need for student data at these different instructional points
(i.e., pre-instruction assessment, midpoint assessment, and post-instruction assessment)
and having a good idea of what you want and what measures can be used in order to
accurately document and confirm student learning status.
Whatever measures or procedures are selected, remember these points.
♦ Pre-assessment data or evidence needs to confirm the knowledge and skill status of
the learners and also affirm the instructional relevancy of the material that is to be
delivered in the next lesson(s).
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398 CHAPTER 15
♦ Midstream formative assessment evidence should document and confirm the prog-
ress of your students at that point in their instruction in order to verify the contin-
ued trajectory of their learning.
♦ Post-assessment or summative assessment evidence serves the important function
of documenting acquired skills and knowledge; it should serve as the confirmation
that the desired goals have been learned and retained by your students.
Student learning evidence should be collected through multiple pathways. For example,
progress feedback certainly needs to be part of the daily instructional regime. In addi-
tion, opportunities to develop and practice self-assessments should be incorporated into
the format of lesson plans whenever possible. Established and well-defined summative
assessments must also be developed, as these measures are recognized as the formal evalu-
ation and measurement of student learning and achievement. The selection and use of
various data collection methods (e.g., rubrics, portfolios, observations, checklists, video
clips, journals, diagrams, tests, interviews, performances) depends on how the informa-
tion is to be used. All of the aforementioned techniques can serve a formative, summa-
tive, or self-assessment function. It depends on how you choose to use these measures as
part of your overall classroom assessment system.
A key element in any assessment system is collecting meaningful evidence in a con-
sistent manner. Once it is known where students are, relative to the content that is to
be taught and their prerequisite knowledge and skill base, predetermined checks and
periodic monitoring of progress need to be conducted at various points throughout
the instructional lesson. Only in this way can a teacher be sure of the actual learning
© Image 100 Ltd
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progress of the students. As the instructor, you determine the actual number of checks
that are needed. However, at a minimum, a pre-assessment of student knowledge and
skill is needed along with a midstream “progress check” before an instructional unit is
completed.
The essential reason for the minimal halfway check is to confirm learning accuracy
before the lesson is completed. If inaccurate learning or minimal progress are demonstrated,
appropriate adjustments and review of needed material can take place before moving on to
the rest of the material and completing the lesson(s). Obviously, no instructor wants to
arrive at the end of a lesson to find out that his or her students have not learned the mate-
rial that has been taught. A midstream assessment activity helps to eliminate that scenario.
The ultimate focus of the assessment cycle is to collect student evidence so that data-
informed decisions, designed to promote continued student learning and progress, can be
made. Possessing student learning evidence allows teachers to make more relevant deci-
sions regarding the learning needs of their students. If collected data supports the con-
tention that students are making appropriate progress, instructional plans would likely
be maintained with minimal changes. On the other hand, if students do not evidence
expected learning gains and progress, instructional modifications would be necessary in
order to address the current learning issues.
Aligning Your Classroom Assessments with Instructional
Learning Impact
Now it is time to examine and review the measures and procedures that have been
selected for your classroom assessment system. In the first chapter of this text, the essen-
tial assessment qualities of instruction as identified by the Assessment Reform Group
(1999) were examined. As you review your measures and procedures, make sure that
direct connections with the assessment practices of your classroom assessment system
exist, and can be identified, with each one of these practices.
1. Effective and meaningful learning feedback is provided to students during the
instructional process.
2. Efforts are made to ensure students are a part of their learning and are actively con-
nected to it.
3. Assessment information is used by the teacher to examine the learning progress of
students and to adjust the instructional process when and if necessary.
4. Assessment information is used to support and motivate students throughout the
instructional process.
5. Students self-assess their own learning progress and make the necessary adjustments
and modifications needed in order to reach the desired educational outcomes.
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400 CHAPTER 15
What specific opportunities exist so that these practices are active and f lourish in your
classroom?
By collecting student performance evidence over a period of time, the teacher is placed
in the prime position of being able to monitor and review both the cumulative progress
and the current learning status of his or her students. This information can be used to
improve student learning as well as evaluate general teaching effectiveness. Refinements,
reteaching, or other instructional changes can be completed in order to reach students
based on what they still need to learn relative to the content that is being taught.
Student data can also be shared with students to help them better understand their
learning progress and what they need to continue to work on in order to reach their
educational goals. Helping students to examine their learning progress through self-
monitoring is an invaluable life skill that can also reduce the workload of data collection
on the teacher’s part.
Collecting Confirming Evidence of Student Learning
After the pre-assessment(s) but before the summative assessment(s) have been admin-
istered, the monitoring and facilitation of student progress is necessary as each teacher
strives to ensure that everyone stays on the intended instructional path. The need to
review student learning evidence is as important as the delivery of the content material
itself. Therefore, formative assessments and student performance feedback must exist as
the instructional experience is actually taking place. But how should this be done and
what should it look like?
As the instructor, you need to decide what kind of data will be collected, how often
it will be collected (e.g., daily, every other day, weekly), and how collection will take
place within the daily classroom routine. Another important consideration is whether
you or your students will collect and monitor the information obtained from the selected
assessment measures. The more objective and documentable the evidence is, the better.
For instance, in order to monitor reading f luency, reading checks (e.g., passage read-
ings) could be completed weekly, and the words read correctly through part or all of the
passage would stand as the progress standard. Memorization of math families and facts
could be done in a similar fashion. However, if more perceptual data is desired from the
learners (e.g., “I really understand the meaning of the words that I read” or “The mate-
rial that was covered today made sense to me”), Likert-based items on exit slips may be
more appropriate.
How data collection is done depends on what evidence needs to be collected. For
example, if a knowledge and skill base is being developed, periodic checks will be neces-
sary and observation-based methods and checklists could be used to confirm progress.
As the instructor, you want to possess multiple measuring points that can be tracked
over time showing general progression. The same checklists or step-by-step listings can
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also be used by your students to help monitor their progress. Relying on more than one
data source is an excellent strategy when trying to measure progress, especially when
complex, highly sophisticated skill sets are being developed. Data collection can have a
number of different “looks” (e.g., written products, observational documentation, skill
demonstrations, video recordings), but there must be a consistent and reliable collection
mechanism in place so that the obtained information is reliable and (more importantly)
valid for its intended purpose.
As part of this exercise, provide a description of how you expect formative assessment
to work in your future classroom. Include in that description a listing of specific mea-
sures that you believe will provide you with the desired information and student learning
evidence. Also include a data collection timeline, general steps that will be followed, and
how your students may be included in this assessment process.
Consider these important formative assessment questions in this construction process.
1. What measures or procedures will be routinely used as part of the formative assess-
ment practices in your classroom?
2. What data collection/feedback timeline will you follow? Why?
3. How will your students be directly involved in the operation of your classroom
assessment system?
Generating an assessment system may present as a challenging exercise, especially when
you don’t have an actual classroom in which to implement your assessment procedures.
At this point it’s all still theoretical, with no real experiences, practical effects, or unique
daily phenomena connected to it.
However, as a pre-service teacher you are in the unique position of being able to
construct and critically review your system (i.e., a functional prototype) and the revi-
sions of your system before it is actually used in your classroom. In short, you can derive
the benefits of having it critiqued by faculty and peers and evaluated and field tested
during student teaching. With a functional prototype to rely on, you won’t have to con-
struct an assessment system on the spot or have to use someone else’s system because you
don’t have anything in place. Successful professionals, regardless of their area of specialty,
know that in order to meet an identified goal, a clear plan of action must exist. Educators
are no different when it comes to classroom assessment. Therefore, as a future teacher it is
important to have a model assessment plan for your classroom, one that meets your par-
ticular needs and can be explained to and understood by students and parents.
Making Informed and Effective Decisions
Regardless of the specific foundation elements and measures that are utilized, an assess-
ment system must provide the teacher and his or her students with useful information so
that effective educational decisions can be made.
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402 CHAPTER 15
As a teacher goes through the process of collecting, reviewing, and using data and evi-
dence to direct instruction and learning activities, he or she becomes a prominent model
to his or her students. Data is seen as something to be used and valued. As the teacher you
need to be fully informed of student progress, but so do the students themselves, as well
as their parents. In fact, if students are involved in the collection and monitoring of their
own data, then they can serve as direct informants to the system.
Classroom assessment shouldn’t be a restricted “teacher-only” process. Students need
to be connected to this process so that they (1) become a contributing part of it, (2) are
THE ASSESSMENT CHALLENGES OF MRS. GREEN

Mrs. Green is a sixth-grade teacher who has been teaching in the public school system for
the last eight years. During a recent school visit and as part of a professional consultation,
she shared her personal concerns about the assessment process in her classroom. She indi-
cated that when she covers the required instructional material in class, she often does not
know where her students are in their learning. She also said that she relies too much on
chapter tests and formal measures of student performance. She revealed that in her train-
ing program, the topic of classroom assessment was covered in only one course, with little
content overlap with any other courses. The course she took was a required Tests and
Measurements course that focused on basic measurement principles such as elementary sta-
tistics, validity and reliability, and group achievement and aptitude tests and batteries. As
she described it, this course seemed more like a math course, and most of the students just
tried to “get through it” as opposed to actually acquiring an assessment knowledge base
and directly applying that information to the classroom setting.
Mrs. Green is a well-respected teacher at her school. She knows her content area and
demonstrates a high level of energy in whatever topic she is covering. Yet she confided
that her confidence in the area of assessment is low. She feels that she was never adequately
trained to develop an assessment system for her classroom and how to effectively use it. In
addition, she reported that she feels constantly behind the times in this area given the tre-
mendous pressure (both from inside and outside forces) for academic accountability.
She recently had a meeting with her principal and was asked about the assessment prac-
tices that she utilizes in her classroom. She confided that the conversation did not go as
well as she would have liked. Mrs. Green knows that classroom assessment is and will
continue to be a professional challenge for her, but her willingness to discuss this issue and
seek out future learning opportunities speaks well for her and for the future success she will
likely experience in this skill area.
As was mentioned in the first chapter of this book, developing and implementing effec-
tive assessment procedures in the classroom is a professional expectation for every teacher.
It’s now part of the deal. Therefore, as a pre-service teacher, it is essential to develop a
foundational knowledge base along with a set of operational skills and procedures that can
be tried out and modified during the field-based experiences of your program, such as stu-
dent teaching. Take advantage of every opportunity to practice and refine your emerging
assessment skills and procedures, as classroom assessment needs to be a high confidence and
performance area for you when you start your teaching career.
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motivated by its effects and results, and (3) learn that they are directly responsible for the
learning outcomes that they achieve. With that in mind, examine all the components of
your proposed assessment system. As you complete the review, make sure you can answer
this question: Does your assessment system provide you (and your students) with the information
that you (and they) need in order to make the most effective educational decisions regarding learning
progress and student outcomes in the classroom?
Since the term “most effective” is open to interpretation, let’s agree to define it as
“in the direct and most beneficial interests of your students and their academic achieve-
ments.” Does the system you have constructed and integrated within your teaching
model answer that question? If you can honestly answer in the affirmative, then you
know you have something of real practical value that needs to be kept and refined during
field-based learning experiences such as student teaching. If you are not sure or if your
system falls short of answering this question, it is important to go back and reexamine
your exercise responses. Always remind yourself that you are only as good as the evi-
dence you collect and the decisions that are made based on that information.
SELF-ASSESSMENT OF YOUR
ASSESSMENT FOUNDATION
In Chapter 2, you were asked to complete the following exercise.
Based on the following assessment competencies (selected from the Ohio, Hawaii,
and Wisconsin educator assessment standards), rate your current assessment knowl-
edge and skills on a scale of 1 (extremely weak) to 5 (very strong) relative to these
statements:
a. Knowledge of various assessment types, their appropriate uses, and the data they
can generate. (1 2 3 4 5)
b. Ability to identify, develop, and utilize a variety of assessments (e.g., formative,
summative, self ). (1 2 3 4 5)
c. Ability to use data to review and monitor student progress and learning, and to
plan or differentiate instruction based on collected data. (1 2 3 4 5)
d. Ability to collaborate with and effectively communicate academic progress to stu-
dents, parents, and colleagues. (1 2 3 4 5)
e. Ability to involve students in self-assessment and goal setting in relation to their
learning goals. (1 2 3 4 5)
As mentioned previously, these assessment competencies represent a broad range of
expected skills that include the following:
♦ general knowledge of assessment and its purpose in the classroom
♦ ability to construct and implement assessments in the classroom
♦ ability to adjust instruction based on the data collected from assessments
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404 CHAPTER 15
♦ capacity to effectively work with and communicate assessment results to others

♦ ability to instruct students how to self-assess their progress and set academic goals
This short list of assessment competencies is now expected of teachers practicing

in today’s classrooms. Along with an array of skills comes the expectation that these
skills can and will be used to directly monitor and improve instruction for students. It
is important to recognize the fact that this expectation is held for you, regardless of your
content specialization and program training.
Looking back, what were your ratings on those skills at the time you completed the
exercise? Have they changed with the completion of this book? Hopefully continued
positive growth and confidence have occurred as part of your studies. Just like teach-
ing, assessment needs to be viewed as an area of professional development. This is a
career skill, so take advantage of every assessment opportunity and learning experience
to develop a classroom system that truly meets your needs and those of your students.
CHAPTER REFLECTION
In your list of significant assessment findings from the Chapter Activity, did you list
your growing knowledge and skill base? What is your plan to continue developing and
refining your assessment skills? Do you see this area as a high priority for your ongoing
professional development? Why or why not? Where do you see yourself relative to the
practice of classroom assessment now and where do you want to be five years from now?
All of these questions relate back to the essential questions in the instruction-learning-
assessment model that were discussed in the first chapter:
1. Where are you?
2. Where do you need to be?
3. How do you get there?
As the teacher, you will be in the best position to accurately determine your current
assessment practice level and compare it to your desired future level. Getting there is a
matter of seeking out resources, refining your current procedures, and continuing to
develop in this professional area. Just as exercise and training are necessary in order to
build and strengthen the human body, you need to continue to develop the “assessment
muscles” that must be used on a daily basis.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Conclusion
The need to accurately measure student learning and progress has moved the topic of
classroom assessment to center stage for educators across the country. Teachers are now
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expected to possess a classroom assessment plan, complete with various assessment tech-
niques and strategies for student evidence collection, self-assessment procedures, and data
review. Along with assessment skills, teachers must also possess the understanding to
conduct their assessment actions and decisions in the most professional and ethical man-
ner, which requires a strong ethical framework and structure.
Because assessment has emerged as a new professional expectation, you may not dem-
onstrate the same amount of confidence and comfort as you would in other aspects of
your training. Personal apprehension can be experienced, as assessment is a learned skill
that requires time and repeated practice. It’s not always about the tools and techniques;
sometimes it’s the personal issues and perceptions connected to the instructional chal-
lenges that matter most. However, as you travel down the assessment path, realize that
it will take time and practice to demonstrate effective assessment practices and that you
can’t or won’t know everything about assessment instantly. And that’s all right. Class-
room assessment is a professional journey that requires ongoing effort, time, and practice.

At the beginning of the chapter, this key focus question was presented: As a teacher,
how do I start to make assessment an integral part of my teaching? In order to address and
answer this question, you must make some decisions. You must decide that assessment is
just as important as the content you teach in a lesson. You must decide that assessment
needs to be a seamless part of your overall instructional delivery. You must decide that
assessment provides you with invaluable student data that must be collected and used
when making important learning decisions in the classroom. It’s all about making deci-
sions, and these are important ones for you and your students. If you make the choice to
embrace classroom assessment, and I hope you do, realize that assessment is a professional
journey. In this journey you will find out how dynamic and effective you can be as an
educator and how well your students learn what you teach them.
ASSESSMENT CHECK
1. What should a classroom assessment system provide for you and for your students?
2. A colleague approaches you and wants to know how your classroom assessment
system (i.e., identified instructional questions, assessment measures, data review
procedures) operates. What would you tell her and why?
3. Why should assessment be considered a continuing professional skill area for
teachers? Where does it rank (high or low priority) on your professional develop-
ment list? Why?
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406 CHAPTER 15
RESOURCES
The National Education Association (NEA) Web site at www.nea.org/index.html pro-
vides K–12 teachers, administrators, and parents with valuable resources and updates
on current educational practice issues, including assessment, legislation, and research
in the field of education.
The Alberta Assessment Consortium (AAC) at www.aac.ab.ca provides a variety of assess-
ment tools and resources for teachers, including continuing professional development
opportunities in a variety of assessment areas.
REFERENCES
Assessment Reform Group. (1999). Assessment for learning: Beyond the black box. Cambridge,
UK: University of Cambridge School of Education.
McMillan, J. H., Myran, S., & Workman, D. (2002). Elementary teachers’ classroom
assessment and grading practices. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(4), 203–213.
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APPENDIX 1-A
Teacher Standards in Student Assessment Developed
by the American Federation of Teachers, National
Council on Measurement in Education, and
the National Education Association, 1990
Standard 1: Teachers should be skilled in choosing assessment

methods appropriate for instructional decisions.
Skills in choosing appropriate, useful, administratively convenient, technically adequate,
and fair assessment methods are prerequisite to good use of information to support
instructional decisions. Teachers need to be well-acquainted with the kinds of informa-
tion provided by a broad range of assessment alternatives and their strengths and weak-
nesses. In particular, they should be familiar with criteria for evaluating and selecting
assessment methods in light of instructional plans.
Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills that
follow.
They will be able to use the concepts of assessment error and validity when developing
or selecting their approaches to classroom assessment of students. They will understand
how valid assessment data can support instructional activities such as providing appro-
priate feedback to students, diagnosing group and individual learning needs, planning
for individualized educational programs, motivating students, and evaluating instruc-
tional procedures. They will understand how invalid information can affect instruc-
tional decisions about students. They will also be able to use and evaluate assessment
options available to them, considering, among other things, the cultural, social, eco-
nomic, and language backgrounds of students. They will be aware that different assess-
ment approaches can be incompatible with certain instructional goals and may impact
quite differently on their teaching.
Teachers will know, for each assessment approach they use, its appropriateness for mak-
ing decisions about their pupils. Moreover, teachers will know of where to find informa-
tion about and/or reviews of various assessment methods. Assessment options are diverse
and include text- and curriculum-embedded questions and tests, standardized criterion-
referenced and norm-referenced tests, oral questioning, spontaneous and structured perfor-
mance assessments, portfolios, exhibitions, demonstrations, rating scales, writing samples,
paper-and-pencil tests, seatwork and homework, peer- and self-assessments, student
records, observations, questionnaires, interviews, projects, products, and others’ opinions.
407
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408 Appendix
Standard 2: Teachers should be skilled in developing assessment

methods appropriate for instructional decisions.
While teachers often use published or other external assessment tools, the bulk of the
assessment information they use for decision making comes from approaches they create
and implement. Indeed, the assessment demands of the classroom go well beyond readily
available instruments.
follow.
Teachers will be skilled in planning the collection of information that facilitates the
decisions they will make. They will know and follow appropriate principles for develop-
ing and using assessment methods in their teaching, avoiding common pitfalls in student
assessment. Such techniques may include several of the options listed at the end of the
first standard. The teacher will select the techniques which are appropriate to the intent
of the teacher’s instruction.
Teachers meeting this standard will also be skilled in using student data to analyze the
quality of each assessment technique they use. Since most teachers do not have access to
assessment specialists, they must be prepared to do these analyses themselves.
Standard 3: The teacher should be skilled in administering,

scoring, and interpreting the results of both externally-produced
and teacher-produced assessment methods.
It is not enough that teachers are able to select and develop good assessment methods;
they must also be able to apply them properly. Teachers should be skilled in administer-
ing, scoring, and interpreting results from diverse assessment methods.
follow.
They will be skilled in interpreting informal and formal teacher-produced assessment
results, including pupils’ performances in class and on homework assignments. Teachers
will be able to use guides for scoring essay questions and projects, stencils for scoring
response-choice questions, and scales for rating performance assessments. They will be
able to use these in ways that produce consistent results.
Teachers will be able to administer standardized achievement tests and be able to
interpret the commonly reported scores: percentile ranks, percentile band scores, stan-
dard scores, and grade equivalents. They will have a conceptual understanding of the
summary indexes commonly reported with assessment results: measures of central ten-
dency, dispersion, relationships, reliability, and errors of measurement.
Teachers will be able to apply these concepts of score and summary indices in ways
that enhance their use of the assessments that they develop. They will be able to analyze
assessment results to identify pupils’ strengths and errors. If they get inconsistent results,
they will seek other explanations for the discrepancy of other data to attempt to resolve
the uncertainty before arriving at a decision. They will be able to use assessment methods
in ways that encourage students’ educational development and that do not inappropri-
ately increase students’ anxiety levels.
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Appendix 409
Standard 4: Teachers should be skilled in using assessment results

when making decisions about individual students, planning
teaching, developing curriculum, and school improvement.
Assessment results are used to make educational decisions at several levels: in the class-
room about students, in the community about a school and a school district, and in soci-
ety, generally, about the purposes and outcomes of the educational enterprise. Teachers
play a vital role when participating in decision making at each of these levels and must be
able to use assessment results effectively.
follow.
They will be able to use accumulated assessment information to organize a sound
instructional plan for facilitating students’ educational development. When using assess-
ment results to plan and/or evaluate instruction and curriculum, teachers will interpret
the results correctly and avoid common misinterpretations, such as basing decisions on
scores that lack curriculum validity. They will be informed about the results of local,
regional, state, and national assessments and about their appropriate use for pupil, class-
room, school, district, state, and national educational improvement.
Standard 5: Teachers should be skilled in developing valid pupil

grading procedures which use pupil assessments.
Grading students is an important part of professional practice for teachers. Grading is
defined as indicating both a student’s level of performance and a teacher’s valuing of that
performance. The principles for using assessments to obtain valid grades are known and
teachers should employ them.
follow.
They will be able to devise, implement, and explain a procedure for developing grades
composed of marks from various assignments, projects, in-class activities, quizzes, tests,
and/or assessments that they may use. Teachers will understand and be able to articu-
late why the grades they assign are rational, justified, and fair, acknowledging that such
grades ref lect their preferences and judgments. Teachers will be able to recognize and to
avoid faulty grading procedures, such as using grades as punishment. They will be able to
evaluate and to modify their grading procedures in order to improve the validity of the
interpretations made from them about students’ attainments.
Standard 6: Teachers should be skilled in communicating

assessment results to students, parents, other lay audiences, and
other educators.
Teachers must routinely report assessment results to students and to parents or guardians.
In addition, they are frequently asked to report or to discuss assessment results with other
educators and with diverse lay audiences. If the results are not communicated effectively,
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410 Appendix
they may be misused or not used. To communicate effectively with others on matters of
student assessment, teachers must be able to use assessment terminology appropriately
and must be able to articulate the meaning, limitations, and implications of assessment
results. Furthermore, teachers will sometimes be in a position that will require them to
defend their own assessment procedures and their interpretations of them. At other times,
teachers may need to help the public to interpret assessment results appropriately.
follow.
Teachers will understand and be able to give appropriate explanations of how the
interpretation of student assessments must be moderated by the student’s socioeconomic,
cultural, language, and other background factors. Teachers will be able to explain that
assessment results do not imply that such background factors limit a student’s ultimate
educational development. They will be able to communicate to students and to their
parents or guardians how they may assess the student’s educational progress. Teachers
will understand and be able to explain the importance of taking measurement errors into
account when using assessments to make decisions about individual students. Teachers
will be able to explain the limitations of different informal and formal assessment meth-
ods. They will be able to explain printed reports of the results of pupil assessments at the
classroom, school district, state, and national levels.
Standard 7: Teachers should be skilled in recognizing unethical,

illegal, and otherwise inappropriate assessment methods and uses
of assessment information.
Fairness, the rights of all concerned, and professional ethical behavior must undergird all
student assessment activities, from the initial planning for and gathering of information to
the interpretation, use, and communication of the results. Teachers must be well-versed
in their own ethical and legal responsibilities in assessment. In addition, they should also
attempt to have the inappropriate assessment practices of others discontinued whenever
they are encountered. Teachers should also participate with the wider educational com-
munity in defining the limits of appropriate professional behavior in assessment.
follow.
They will know those laws and case decisions which affect their classroom, school
district, and state assessment practices. Teachers will be aware that various assessment
procedures can be misused or overused, resulting in harmful consequences such as
embarrassing students, violating students’ right to confidentiality, and inappropriately
using students’ standardized achievement test scores to measure teaching effectiveness.
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GLOSSARY
adequate yearly progress (AYP) A mandated aca- binary choice item A test item that has only two
demic requirement necessitating that all students score possible response options (e.g., true or false), com-
at prof icient or higher levels on state-generated monly used in classroom tests.
achievement tests.
causation The direct relationship of a cause to a spe-
age equivalent (AE) A generated score that is based cific effect.
on age rather than grade-level performance.
checklist The listing of essential components or ele-
alternate form reliability An aspect of reliability ments of a behavior or procedure.
designed to generate two parallel or equivalent forms
of a test. classroom test A collection of items that are
designed to measure and evaluate a learner’s skills,
analytical rubric A rubric that is designed to rate or
knowledge, general performance, or other capabilities
score each identified criterion of a required project.
as they relate to content that is covered as part of the
aptitude comparison grading A grading process instructional process.
that involves comparing each student’s learning prog-
College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB)
ress against his or her own estimated ability.
standard score A standard score with a mean of 500
Asperger' s syndrome A condition identified within and a standard deviation of 100.
the autism spectrum that ref lects social and interper-
sonal isolation but does not include the impaired speech concept map A diagram or other visual image that
and cognitive issues that are often associated with can be used to examine various concepts as well as pro-
autism. vide visual links to subordinate details and facts.
assessment bias A form of bias that is directly con- concurrent validity A measurement concept that
nected to the materials and/or procedures that an involves the completion of two measurement events
examiner may use with an assessment. simultaneously, such as a screening test and a criterion
evaluation (e.g., current academic or behavior perfor-
bar graph A visual representation of data in which
mance), where the strength of the relationship between
the height of the rectangular columns represents the
the test and the criterion measure is evaluated.
frequency of the scores that falls within a score inter-
val. Also known as a histogram. conductive hearing impairment The interference
benchmark A specific learning goal that is expected of sound waves through the outer ear to the inner ear
to be accomplished by a specified time, usually set at area.
specific grade levels. consensus gram A chart that contains a low-to-
best pieces portfolio A portfolio that emphasizes high scale that can be marked to indicate a learner’s
the best work and constructions of various assignments perceived understanding, skills, and performance level
of a student over a specified instructional period. relative to a specific statement or question.
bias An inaccurate view or opinion that interferes constructed response A type of test response
with and adversely impacts the collection and evalua- where the respondent must generate the answer mate-
tion of student learning. rial to a question.
G-1
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G-2 Glossary
construct-related evidence of validity A mea- distracter An intentionally-generated wrong

surement concept that involves the collection of con- answer option provided in a multiple-choice test ques-
firmatory evidence that demonstrates the existence of tion.
a recognized concept or construct that a test contends documentation log A written record of events or
to measure. conditions that occur over a specified amount of time.
content-related evidence of validity A measure-
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
ment concept that asserts that what is taught in the
Skills (DIBELS) A research-supported reading
classroom is directly measured by a test or other assess-
intervention program designed to document and
ment procedure.
monitor student progress on foundational skills in
correlation coeff icient A numerical value (rang- reading.
ing between +1.0 to –1.0) used to describe the strength
of the relationship that exists between two scores or educational goal A broad statement of what a
measures, with the sign of the correlation coefficient learner is expected to be able to do or acquire when
indicating the direction of the relationship. adequate instruction and practice is provided.
criterion-referenced A standardized test or per- educational objective An educational objective is

formance (made up of expected skills and levels) that a narrow statement of expected student performance
is directly connected to specific standards designed to that is to be achieved upon completion of an instruc-
address and measure specific content or skills. tional unit of study.
criterion-referenced grading A grading approach Education for All Handicapped Children
that compares a student’s performance to a specific, Act Also known as PL 94–142, the original legisla-
predetermined performance level or standard of work. tion responsible for the identification and provision of
special education services.
criterion-related evidence of validity A mea-
surement concept that involves the examination of the empirical evidence Data involving discrete
relationship between scores on a particular test with behaviors and products that are directly observable
some external criterion or performance measure. and measurable.
curriculum-based measurement (CBM) An essay question A constructed-response test ques-
assessment method that uses curriculum skill measures tion that typically requires a detailed written response.
or probes that are given on a systematic basis to docu-
ethics An individual’s chosen set of standards of
ment and monitor students’ academic skill develop-
behavior and conduct.
ment.
evaluation The process of judging and determining
curriculum guide A school district’s documented
the quality of the work or performance level of a stu-
plan of goals and learning outcomes that students are
dent.
expected to acquire as they move from grade to grade.
descriptive statistics The branch of statistics that event recording A type of observational recording
uses numbers to describe and summarize collected where specific behaviors are pre-selected for examina-
data. tion that are not dependent on time for documenta-
tion but on the behavior itself.
developmental portfolio A portfolio designed to
collect information on the development and contin- evidence Verif iable data that is relevant for its
ued progress of a particular skill or knowledge area intended purpose; information that serves as proof to
over a specific amount of time; also referred to as a confirm a finding.
growth portfolio. exit slip An instructional feedback activity that lists
Deviation IQ A standard score scale with a mean of specific teacher-generated questions that students are
100 and a standard deviation of 15. See Wechsler IQ. asked to answer (often anonymously) before they leave
direct questioning The collection of evidence class.
through the verbal responses of students to particular extended response A constructed-response format
questions. that provides the respondent with maximum f lexibil-
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Glossary G-3
ity in organizing and constructing a written response grouped frequency distribution A distribution
to a question. based on the construction of predetermined bands or
intervals where individual scores are placed.
fill-in-blank (FIB) question A form of test ques-
tion that requires the respondent to complete a state- group observation The collection of specif ic
ment or item by providing a missing word or words information on an entire set of individuals within a
that are intentionally left out of the item. particular setting or event.
f lowchart A geometric outline complete with growth portfolio Another term used to describe a
directional arrows to demonstrate the sequence of an developmental portfolio.
event or process. histogram A visual diagram of rectangular col-
formal observation The systematic collection and umns with the height of the columns representing the
recording of behavior. frequency of the scores that reside within a score
interval. Also known as a bar graph.
formative assessment A type of assessment that
provides constructive feedback to a learner regarding holistic rubric A scoring measure where a single
his or her performance in order to directly improve or score or rating, based on listed performance criteria, is
enhance that performance in the future. used to represent a student’s entire work.
individualized education plan (IEP) A required
frequency The number of times a specific score is
educational plan generated by a school committee that
obtained or a behavior is observed within a specified
serves as a learning contract for a student who quali-
period of time.
fies for special education services.
frequency distribution The listing and tally of
Indiv iduals w ith Disabilities Education
how often certain scores or behaviors are demon-
Improvement Act (IDEIA) Federal legislation
strated within a specific distribution of scores.
that reauthorized and refined the requirements of the
frequency polygon A line graph that connects the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 2004.
listed frequencies of intervals together to form a visual The reauthorization ensured that students who are
image and shape of a distribution. identified with special needs received instruction with
their nondisabled peers in general education class-
frequency recording The documentation of a
rooms whenever possible and to the fullest extent pos-
repeated occurrence of an event or behavior within a
sible.
specific time period.
informal observation The viewing of an individ-
grade equivalent A generated score that describes ual or group that may occur at random times without
a student’s performance based on a grade-level com- preset notions of specific behaviors to examine and
parison. record.
grading The formal evaluation of student work instructional delivery The use of particular peda-
based on a set performance level and evidenced in the gogical approaches or methods to guide instruction in
form of a grade, number, or other form of reporting the classroom.
mark.
instructional preview A classroom procedure
grading adaptation approach A grading approach where an instructional overview is provided to learn-
where grading adjustments are made to an existing ers prior to a lesson or instructional activity.
grading system for students with disabilities.
instruction-learning-assessment alignment The
Graduate Record Exam (GRE) A standardized critical linkage of the content that is taught in the
aptitude test required by some graduate programs. classroom with the accurate assessment of the student
Results from this test are reported as College Entrance learning and proficiency based on the presented mate-
Examination Board (CEEB) standard scores. rial.
graph A diagram consisting of lines that describe internal consistency reliability A type of reli-
data or the relationships between the data. ability that examines how consistently items within a
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G-4 Glossary
test correspond to each other and uniformly measure a mini-interview An abbreviated exchange with an
concept or attribute. individual where specific and in-depth information
can be obtained.
inter-rater reliability The consistency of an
obtained score or measure that is demonstrated mixed hearing impairment A specific hearing
between two or more raters that independently review impairment or loss that involves the combination of
a certain event (e.g., test, observation, performance). both conductive and sensorineural hearing problems.
interval recording The observational recording of mode The score that occurs most frequently in a
specific preidentified behaviors based on set time seg- distribution.
ments or intervals. monitor The checking of a student’s progress
regarding a learning task or event; this process can be
interview A form of student evidence that involves
conducted externally (by the teacher) or internally (by
the collection of information obtained from an inter-
the learner).
viewee by way of direct questions from an inter-
viewer. multiple-choice item A selected-response test
question format that provides several potential answers
item discrimination index A ratio that compares from which the respondent must select the correct
a student’s complete performance on a test to his or response.
her accuracy on particular items on that test.
narrative An observational recording method that
journal A form of data collection where informa- involves the chronological recording of an event as it
tion is collected and recorded over a period of time as is taking place.
part of a personal daily record. narrative grading A qualitative grading system
learning outcome An expected student effect as a that involves an individualized written review of a
result of a specific educational experience. student’s performance that focuses on specific learning
accomplishments as well as ongoing needs and learn-
learning target A statement of desired student per-
ing issues.
formance that describes what a student should know
and be able to do after a specific lesson or instructional narrative rating scale A scale that uses descriptive
activity is completed. adjectives to gauge or rate a student’s behavior.
negative discrimination item A type of item dis-
letter grade A mark in the form of a capital letter
crimination index that is more likely answered cor-
that is assigned to student work based on preset qual-
rectly by students who perform poorly overall on a
ity and performance expectations.
test.
listing question A form of test question where negatively skewed distribution A distribution
context is presented in the question to generate the where most of the scores are located on the right side
desired response from the learner. of the distribution (and the mean) with few scores on
matching item A selected-response test question the left side.
that requires combining a word or statement from one No Child Left Behind (NCLB) A federal law
column with its corresponding answer from a second signed in 2002 that mandates high accountability,
column. clear learning standards, and measurable learning
matrices Visual frameworks designed to organize outcomes for all students. In particular, the law stip-
information into data components or sections dis- ulates that teachers must be highly qualif ied, that
played across selected rows and columns. “scientifically-based research” be used and followed
in schools, that students have greater public school
mean The numeric average, calculated by summing choice when schools do not demonstrate appropriate
all scores and dividing by the total number of scores. academic progress or improvement, and that all stu-
median The score that separates a distribution into dents’ academic progress must be measured on a
two equal halves, where 50 percent of the scores are yearly basis.
above the median and 50 percent of the scores fall nondiscriminating item A type of item discrimi-
below it. nation index where there is no difference in accuracy
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Glossary G-5
between the test performances of high- and low-rank- according to predetermined standards or performance
ing groups. criteria.
normal curve A smooth, symmetrical curve or portfolio An assessment method that typically
shape that ref lects a balanced distribution of collected involves the collection of student work, such as writ-
data. ten evidence as ref lected in a writing portfolio.
normal curve equivalent (NCE) A standard positive behavior support The use of evidence-
score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of based research and programs designed to promote
21.06. socially appropriate behavior in the school setting.
normal distribution A symmetrical distribution of positive discrimination item A type of item dis-
data that possesses characteristics that are useful in crimination index that is generated when a test item is
describing the ways in which scores vary from the more likely answered correctly by students who per-
mean of the distribution. form better overall on the entire test.
norm group An identified reference group that positively skewed distribution A distribution
serves as a comparison for students who complete the where most of the collected data or scores are located
same test or performance measure. on the left side of the distribution (below the mean)
norm-referenced A test or performance compari- with few on the right side.
son of a student to a comparable group, usually at a
power test A test that is administered to provide
specific age or grade level, that can be based on local,
adequate time so that most, if not all, students are able
state, or national classifications.
to complete the test.
norm-referenced grading A grading approach
pre-assessment A pre-instructional activity that
that involves comparing a student’s performance to a
specific group, such as a specific classroom or an entire assesses the specific content knowledge and skills of
grade level. the prospective learners before a lesson or learning
activity is initiated.
numerical grade A grade that uses number ranges
or percentage bands that are typically paired with spe- predictive validity The extent to which a score
cific letter grades. from a particular measure (e.g., a test or scale) predicts
future performance. It is used to establish criterion-
numerical rating scale The use of number or related evidence of validity by examining the predic-
point values to rate a student’s performance. tive or prognostic power of one measure (e.g., a test)
obtained score The score generated and recorded with that of a future desired criterion (e.g., passing a
on a test. See raw score. course).
odd-even reliability An internal reliability indica- premise A word or statement that is presented as
tor often completed on standardized achievement tests part of a matching test question.
that compares the consistency of all the even-num-
process A component of grading where informa-
bered test items with all the odd-numbered test items.
tion representing nonachievement factors such as
parent-teacher conference A scheduled meeting effort, participation, attendance, or other related vari-
where a teacher meets with parents about their child ables is included in the formal review and evaluation
regarding his or her school performance or experi- of a student.
ence.
product A component of grading where informa-
pass-fail A binary grading system that acknowl- tion on the learning accomplishments of a student is
edges only two possible grading outcomes: the passage included in the formal review and evaluation of that
or failure of a particular task, event, or class. student.
percentile The percentage of individuals scoring at progress A component of grading where informa-
or below a given point within a distribution. tion on the extent of a student’s learning during a
performance event Student-generated work that specified time period is collected and included in the
is presented before others and is assessed and evaluated formal review and evaluation of that student.
wit78704_gLo_411-417.indd G-5 3/28/11 9:55 AM

G-6 Glossary
progress checklist A checklist that provides learn- response to intervention (RTI) The use of
ers with the ability to document the completion of an evidence-based intervention for students at all levels
assignment and/or a corresponding knowledge and of instructional need.
skill set.
restricted response The specific limitations on a
Public Law (PL) 94± 142 Federal legislation, also student’s response to a question, particularly as it
known as the Education for All Handicapped relates to the focus and potential length of response.
Children Act, that set up the basic structure, proce- rubric An assessment measure consisting of selected
dures, and overall process for the identification and criteria and a performance scale that allows for the
provision of special education services. review of specific student performances and products.
Public Law (PL) 99± 457 The federal law that SAT Reasoning Test A standardized test used for
extended Individuals with Disabilities Education Act college admission that reports results as College
coverage to preschoolers (ages three to f ive) and Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) standard scores.
ensured that students who are identified with special
needs receive instruction with their nondisabled peers scaffolding An instructional practice that directs
in general education classrooms whenever possible the instruction to the present learning level of students
and to the fullest extent possible. with the intent of moving them to the next or higher
levels of understanding and proficiency.
p value An item accuracy value that is generated by
dividing the number of correct responses to an item scatterplot The graphic construction and presenta-
by the total number of students that respond to that tion of data that is used to help determine whether a
item. potential relationship exists or not; involves the plot-
ting of scores from two different tests or measures
range A basic variance measure that is obtained along an x- and y-axis.
when the lowest score from a group of scores is sub-
tracted from the highest score. script An internal strategy, usually involving an
internal memorized listing of steps or procedures, that
rating The examination of identif ied behaviors a learner may use to independently examine and mon-
based on a predetermined scale, usually involving a itor his or her learning progress.
range of point values.
selected response A test response format where a
rating label A narrative description used with student is required to select the correct answer from a
assignments to differentiate the highest from the low- set of potential answers that are already provided.
est performance level. Descriptive labels help students
identify and understand what qualities their work self-assessment A type of assessment that involves
must possess in order to obtain a desired rating or a review system (either internal or external) that
focuses on selecting or prioritizing individual learning
level.
goals or outcomes and monitoring progress toward
raw score The score that represents the number of those learning outcomes, as well as determining what
items that are correctly answered on a test or other individual adjustments, if any, are needed throughout
measure. See obtained score. the instructional experience.
reliability A measurement requirement that must self-referenced grading A grading model that
exist for any assessment process that involves the involves comparing each student’s learning progress
obtainment of the same or similar results each time a against his or her own estimated ability and progress.
measurement takes place.
sensorineural hearing impairment A hearing
reliability coeff icient A number in the form of a impairment or loss that occurs due to the impaired
decimal (ranging from +1.00 to –1.00) that is used to detection of sound waves and vibrations by the hair
represent the strength and direction of a linear rela- cells of the cochlea of the inner ear.
tionship between two events.
short-answer question A test response format that
response The correct corresponding answer to a requires a minimal written response, ranging from a
stem in a matching test question. few words to a full sentence or more.
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Glossary G-7
skewed distribution A distribution that possesses student product A piece of student-generated

an asymmetrical shape, which is slanted in one direc- work that has recognizable beginning and end points.
tion and ref lects an unbalanced distribution. summative assessment A type of assessment that
speed test A test designed to be completed within a serves as a formal measure and evaluation of a stu-
set and absolute time limit. dent’s accumulated learning.
split-halves reliability A form of internal consis- table A compacted listing of information or data.
tency created by separating a test into two equal table of specifications A graphic framework used
halves, generating a correlation (i.e., a numerical indi- to identify the cognitive and knowledge skills
cator of the strength of a relationship between the two required to answer items on a test that are connected
halves), and examining the consistency of each half- to the listed objectives of an instructional lesson.
test to the other.
taxonomy table A two-dimensional table where
stability reliability See test-retest reliability. the specific skill performance required as part of an
standard A broad statement of anticipated goals or instructional objective can be plotted relative to both
competencies that students are expected to acquire as the knowledge and cognitive process dimensions.
part of a formal educational experience. test-retest reliability The form of reliability that
standard deviation A generated statistic for the examines the consistency or stability of a measure’s
uniform summarization of the variability or disper- results over repeated administrations.
sion of scores from the mean within a distribution. time sampling The observational recording of
standard error of measurement (SEM) An esti- specific preidentified behaviors based on set time seg-
mate of the consistency of an individual’s true score ments or intervals.
performance if the same test or performance was gen- true-false item A form of selected-response test
erated time and time again. The SEM is related to the question where the learner must determine whether
reliability of a test, and the lower the reliability of the the provided declarative statement is true or not.
test, the less precision exists with the measure and
T score A standard score that has a mean of 50 with
the scores obtained from it.
a standard deviation score of 10.
standardized test A test that is conducted and
validity A measurement requirement that must
scored in a consistent and uniform manner during
exist for any assessment process that involves the
every administration.
degree to which a test or procedure accurately mea-
standards-based grading A grading system that sures what it is designed to measure.
records the progress of student achievement and learn-
value-added model (VAM) A statistical model
ing relative to required academic standards and out-
designed to track and measure the academic achieve-
comes identified across grade levels within a school
ment of an individual student or group of students
district.
over time. The value-added model measures a stu-
standard score A score within a normal distribu- dent’s improvement from one year to the next through
tion that possesses certain qualities based on the vari- the examination of gain scores.
ance and central tendency characteristics of a
variability or variance The spread or dispersion of
normalized distribution.
scores within a distribution.
stanine A standard score that is used to divide a Wechsler IQ A standard score format with a mean
normal distribution into nine sections. These units are of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. See Deviation
reported as single-digit numbers ranging from a low IQ.
of 1 to a high of 9.
z-score A standard score format with a mean of 0
stem The primary statement in a multiple-choice and a standard deviation of 1.
test question.
student outcome An expected result for a student
as part of an organized learning activity. See learning
outcome.
wit78704_gLo_411-417.indd G-7 3/28/11 9:55 AM

INDEX
A personal perceptions
as, 365, 371, 375
Aptitude-achievement
discrepancy model, 320
Assessment techniques, 394
Assessment tools, 122, 394
Ability
grading and, 242 student attitudes as, Arter, J. A., 8, 145, 151, Asthma, 318
365, 367, 369 154, 165, 167, 234 Ataxia, 318
standardized tests and,
student interests as, Aschbacher, P. R., 119 Atmosphere, standardized
290, 292, 303
369–370, 375 Asperger’s syndrome, 315 tests and, 296
Accomodations, 326, 327,
values as, 370–371 Assessment. See also Tests Attention deficit disorder
328, 329, 330–331
viewpoints as, 371, 375 affective (See Affective (ADD), 318
Accountability
Affective assessment measure assessment) Attention deficit hyperactivity
assessment and, 4
administration/analysis of classroom (See Classroom disorder (ADHD), 319
NCLB and, 283
findings in, 382–384 assessment) Attitudes, affective assessment
P-12 testing and, 51 constructing, 379–385 classroom teaching and, 365, 367, 369
standardized tests and, 296 educational implications and, 27–41 Auditory skills, 80
Accuracy, of standardized in, 384–385 definition of, 223–224 Autism, 313, 314–315
tests, 288 external review in, 381 ethics in, 19 Averages, defi nition of, 261–262
Achievement investigation area in, 380 formal, 119, 194 Averaging, 238–239
classroom assessment measure revision in, 385 formative (See Formative Awareness
system and, 393, 398 pilot/field test in, 381–382 assessment) affective assessment
evidence and, 66 selection of statements introduction to, 85 and, 378, 385
formative assessment and, 35 in, 380–381 lesson plans and, 64 self-assessment and,
NCLB and, 283 Affective response, 376 midpoint, 397 178, 181, 184
reliability and, 98 Age equivalent (AE), 288 personality, 366 test, 296
standardized tests Ainsworth, L., 131 post-instruction, 397 (See AYP. See Adequate yearly
and, 290, 303 Alternate form, 96 also Post-assessment) progress (AYP)
Achievement descriptors, 230 Alternate form reliability, 99 pre-instruction, 397 (See
Achievement gaps, 244
Achievement test, aptitude
Alternate form/parallel
forms, 96–101
also Pre-assessment)
questions and, 57–58, 78, 109 B
information within, American Association of reliability and, 92–94, 94–105 Babkie, A. M., 354, 355
292–294 Colleges for Teacher student performance and, 53 Bailey, J. M., 223, 228, 230,
ACT. See American College Education, 18 summative (See Summative 234, 239, 245, 247, 248
Test (ACT) American College Test assessment) Baker, E. L., 137
Adams, M. J., 349 (ACT), 88 validity and, 85–94 Ball, C., 246
Adaptive development, 315 American Federation of Assessment accomodation Ballou, D., 294
ADD. See Attention deficit Teachers, 18 approach, 331 Bandura, A., 40
disorder (ADD) Analysis Assessment bias, 85, 105–109 Bar graph, 259
Adequate yearly progress in Bloom’s taxonomy, Assessment change in Barkley, R. A., 319
(AYP), 5, 283, 284 58, 59, 60 presentation, 328 Barrett, S. B., 352
ADHD. See Attention tests and, 123 Assessment change in student Basic Early Literacy Skills, 349
deficit hyperactivity Analytical rubric, 151, 152 response, 329–330 Batsche, G., 340
disorder (ADHD) Anderson, K., 353 Assessment changes in time/ Beck, M. D., 12
Adjectives, narrative rating Anderson, L. W., 29, 60 setting, 328–329 Behavioral explanations, 230
scales and, 75 Anderson-Harriss, S., 352 Assessment competence, 2 Behavioral needs, 316
AE. See Age equivalent (AE) Animal Farm (Orwell), 193 Assessment competencies, Behaviors, evidence and, 66
Affect, defi nition of, 365 Anxiety 403–404 Belief systems, 365
Affective assessment reliability and, 98 Assessment flexibility, 331 Beliefs, affective assessment
boundaries of, 365–367 test, 297 Assessment for Learning, 27 and, 370–371
definition of, 365 Appleton, J. J., 340 Assessment measures, Benchmarks, defi nition of, 51
generating, 372–374 Application 12, 396–399 Bennett, T., 310
introduction to, 365 in Bloom’s taxonomy, 58, 60 Assessment methods, 122–123 Best-pieces portfolio, 145, 214
Likert self-report measure tests and, 123 Assessment modifications, Bhola, D. S., 138, 154
and (See Likert self- Aptitude, 292 324–331 Bias
report measure) Aptitude comparison, 242–243 Assessment practices, 14–20 assessment, 85, 105–109
limits of, 365–367 Aptitude information, within Assessment process, 326–327 definition of, 105
Affective assessment area achievement test, 292–294 Assessment Reform Biggs, J., 217
personal beliefs as, 370–371 Aptitude scores, 292 Group, 6, 399 Binary choice items, 203
I-1
wit78704_idx_418-426.indd 418 4/20/11 9:24 AM

Index I-2
Binary options, grading by, 227 Clarke, S., 353 Communication Curriculum-based measurement
Black, P., 6, 7, 8, 27, 35, Classroom assessment deaf/blindness and, 315 (CBM), 351, 352
168, 217 assessment practices electronic, 301
Blindness. See Deaf/blindness
Bloom, B. S., 6, 35, 36,
for, 14–20
definition of, 7–8
grading and, 227
manual, 315
D
Data
58, 59, 60, 114 effective, 14 oral, 315 classroom assessment
Bloom, F. E., 365 importance of, 2–3 self-assessment and, 170 system and, 394, 397,
Bloom’s taxonomy, 29, 58–60 ineffective, 14 Communication 399, 400, 402
Bloom’s revised taxonomy, in instructional process, 3 development, 315 evidence and, 66
29, 60–62, 77, 196 instruction-learning- Competency, assessment in Likert self-report
Blueprint for Reform: The assessment alignment and, 2, 18, 20 measure, 378
Reauthorization of in, 12–14, 17 Comprehension RTI and, 342, 343,
Elementary and Secondary instruction-learning- in Bloom’s taxonomy, 344, 345, 353, 355
Education Act, A, 5 assessment model in, 8–12 58, 59, 60, 77 for statistics, 256–265
Bohanon, H., 352 introduction to, 2 tests and, 123 Data collection, 394,
Bond, L. A., 137 purpose of, 4–6, 8 validity and, 92 398, 400, 401
Borg, W. R., 90, 95, reality of, 4–6 Concept maps, defi nition Data collection methods, 398
100, 224, 274 RTI and (See Response to of, 214 De Graaff, S., 34
Borich, G., 100, 265, 271 intervention (RTI)) Conceptual knowledge, 60, 61 Deaf/blindness, 313,
Bosman, A., 34 in student lives, 6–7 Concurrent criterion-related 315, 318, 321
Boston, C., 6, 7, 11, 115 Classroom assessment validity, 87, 88 Deluca, D., 310
Boud, D., 168, 169, 171 framework exercise, Conductive hearing Deno, S. L., 6, 351
Braaksma, A. D., 352, 353 394–403 impairment, 316 Descriptive feedback, 38, 119
Braden, J. P., 281, 283, Classroom assessment Conferences, parent- Descriptive ratings, 374
313, 331 models/cycles, 395 teacher, 300–304 Descriptive statistics, 255,
Brain, affective assessment Classroom assessment system Confidentiality, 18 377. See also Statistics
and, 365 collecting evidence of Confi rming questions, 77 Descriptors, 228, 230
Brain injury, 314, 321 learning in, 400–401 Congenital abnormalities, 318 Developmental delay, 314, 315
Brain Injury Association determining classroom Consensus-gram, 31 Developmental portfolio,
of America, 321 assessment measures Constructed response, 80, 200, 145, 214
Bramble, W. J., 262, 271 for, 396–399 206–211, 213–217, 299 Deviation IQs, 268, 289
Braun, Henry, 295, 296 effective, 392 Construct-related evidence Deviation score method, 264
Breivik, P. S., 49 focus of, 399 of validity, 85, 90–91 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
Brennan, R. L., 137 function of, 395–396 Contemporary five-point of Mental Disorders—Fourth
Brice, A., 310 instructional learning letter grade system, 225 Edition (DSM-IV), 317, 319
Broadfoot, P., 171 impact in, 399–400 Content Diagrams
Brookhart, S. M., 10, 35, introduction to, 390 affective assessment and, 370 classroom assessment
223, 225, 234, 245 key element in, 398 classroom assessment system and, 398
Bruce, C. D., 167 making decisions in, 401–403 system and, 394, 398 visual construction
Bruns, D., 310 personal, 391–394 instructional, 34 performances and, 214
Buckendahl, C. W., 138, 154 purpose of, 392–393, 394 rubrics and, 155 Dianda, Marcella, 18
Burling, K. S., 115, 119 self-assessment of assessment self-assessment and, 170 DIBELS. See Dynamic
Burns, M., 340 foundation for, 403–404 Content-related evidence of Indicators of Basic Early
Bursuck, W. D., 245, 247, 248 Classroom portfolios, 145–148 validity, 85, 87–88, 92 Literacy Skills (DIBELS)
Butler, S. M., 66, 145, 225 Classroom teaching, Cooperation, group Differentiated instruction,
assessment and, 27–41 observation and, 71 34–35, 115
C Closed head injury, 321 Cooperative learning groups, 34 Direct questioning, 76–77, 78
Calfee, R., 145 Clubfoot, 318 Core instruction, 344, 345–347 Directions, assessment
Callahan, C. M., 138 Coe, R., 37 Coronado, V. G., 321 and, 109
Cambron-McCabe, N., 49 Cognition, affective Corrective feedback, 38, 119 Disability categories,
Canter, A., 340 assessment and, 365 Correlation coefficient, special education.
Carmines, E. G., 87 Cognitive development, 315 97, 268–270 See Special education
Carney, K. L., 352 Cognitive disability, Creation, in Bloom’s revised disability categories
Causation, defi nition of, 270 314, 317–318 taxonomy, 63, 77 Disability/disabilities. See
CBM. See Curriculum-based Cognitive skills, 317 Criteria, rubrics and, 156–159 also Learning needs
measurement (CBM) Cohen, L. G., 137 Criterion-referenced cognitive, 314, 317–318
Central tendency Cohen, S. A., 12 grading, 241–242 intellectual, 314, 317–318
definition of, 261–264 Collaboration Criterion-referenced learning, 357
Cerebral palsy, 318 group observation and, 71 standardized test, 286 multiple, 357
Chappuis, J., 6, 7, 8, 10, 114, self-assessment and, 170 Criterion-related evidence specific learning,
119, 165, 167, 180, 234 Collection phase, 147 of validity, 85, 87, 88 314, 319–320
Chappuis, S., 8, 10, 114, 119, College Entrance Examination Cronbach, L. J., 100 testing and, 246, 247
165, 167, 180, 234 Board (CEEB) Cross, L. H., 225 Disease-related
Checklists, 74–76, 398 standard scores, 268 Cummings, K. D., 349 impairments, 318
Cirino, P. T., 340 Collins, V. L., 340 Curriculum guide, 50, Distracters, defi nition
Clarity, self-assessment and, 170 Colvin, G., 340 51, 52–53, 54 of, 201
wit78704_idx_418-426.indd 419 4/20/11 9:24 AM

I-3 Index
Distribution performance assessment RTI and, 340, 353 instruction-learning-

center of, 265 and, 138 standardized tests and, 287 assessment model and, 41
central tendency Eight-point grading statistics and, 256 introduction to, 114
and, 261–263 scale, 228, 229 of student learning, 65–69, 71 maximizing effect
frequency, 256, 257 Eldridge, N., 353 student products and, 79, 80 of, 123–126
grouped frequency, Electronic communication, 301 of validity, 87–91 review and, 119–122
257, 258, 259 Electronic grade books, 237 Evidence-based approach, 34 skill targets for, 122–123
negatively skewed, 263 Elementary and Secondary Experience, self-assessment teacher and, 131–132
normal, 264–265, 268, Education Act, 281 and, 178 Foulger, T. S., 150
288, 289, 303 ELL. See English language Extended response, defi nition Fox, L., 352
normal curve, 260, 289 learner (ELL) of, 209–210 Frary, R. B., 225
positively skewed, 263 Elliott, J., 340 Frequency, defi nition of, 256
skewed, 260, 261 Emotion, affective
assessment and, 365 F Frequency distribution,
256, 257
stanines and, 288 Factual knowledge, 60, 61
variability and, 263–264 Emotional development, 315 Frequency polygon, 259, 260
Emotional disturbance, Fan, X., 96, 263, 268, 288
Distribution patterns, 261 Frequency recording, 74
314, 315–316 Faul, M., 321
Documentation log, 213 Frey, N., 35
Emotional needs, 316 Feedback
Domain selection, in Likert Friedman, S. J., 234
Empirical evidence, 66 classroom assessment system
self-report measure, 375 Frisbie, D. A., 234
Englehart, M. D., 58 and, 393, 398, 399, 400
Donahoe, K., 246 Fuchs, D., 6, 35, 351
English as a second language corrective, 38, 119
Doran, H. C., 295 Fuchs, L. S., 6, 35, 351
(ESL), 310–311 descriptive, 38, 119
Drouin, M. A., 217 Furst, G. J., 58
English language learner evaluative, 38, 119
Duda, M. A., 352 learning, 37–38
DuFour, R., 6, 7, 10, 35, 132
(ELL), 41, 311, 325, 327
Environment learning performance, 35 G
Dunbar, S. B., 137 learning, 170 narrative grading and, 232 Gain scores, 294, 295
Dunlap, G., 352 test, 297 on performance (See Grading) Gallagher, S., 340
DuPaul, G. J., 319 Epstein, M. H., 247, 248 performance assessment GE. See Grade equivalent (GE)
Dutton, J., 49 ESL. See English as a second and, 161 General rubrics, 151
Dynamic Indicators of Basic language (ESL) responses to test items as, 276 Genetic-based diseases, 318
Early Literacy Skills Essay, defi nition of, 200 rubrics as (See Rubrics) Germann, G., 351
(DIBELS), 345, 349 Essay question, defi nition Feinberg, A. B., 353 Gettinger, M., 246
Dysfluency, 320 of, 208 Fenning, P., 352 Gifted and talented
Ethical decisions, 15 FIB. See Fill-in-blank (FIB) students, 322
E Ethical standards, 15
Ethics
Field testing
in affective assessment
Glass, G. V., 264, 269
Goals
Earl, L. M., 27, 114, 167–168 measure, 381–382 academic, 51
Edelston, D., 340 in assessment, 19
in classroom, 15, 17–18, 20 in Likert self-report classroom assessment system
Edline, 236 measure, 376–377 and, 393, 398, 400
definition of, 15
Education, P-12, 6, 51 Fill-in-blank (FIB) educational, 56
Eva, K. W., 79
Education for All Handicapped as constructed response, IEP and, 312
EVAAS. See Educational
Children Act, The, 311 200, 206 learning, 50, 51, 54–58, 67
Value-Added Assessment
Education of the Handicapped definition of, 200 personal, 50
System (EVAAS)
Act Amendments, 311 Fine motor skills, 315 RTI and, 343, 351
Evaluation
Educational goal, in Bloom’s taxonomy, Fine/gross motor construction rubrics and, 156–157
defi nition of, 56 58, 59, 60, 63, 77 performances, 216 of teaching, 171
Educational implications definition of, 223 Fisher, D., 35 Good, R. H. III, 349
in affective assessment grading and, 222, 223–224, Five-descriptor format, 374 Grade equivalent (GE), 288
measure, 384–385 227, 234, 248 Fleischman, S., 295 Gradebook, 236, 237
in Likert self-report tests and, 123 Flowcharts, visual construction Graden, J. L., 340
measure, 378 Evaluative feedback, 38, 119 performances and, 214 Grades
Educational objectives, Event recording, 73–74 Focused questioning, 78, 123 composition of, 232–233
defi nition of, 57 Evidence Focused rubric, 151 definition of, 225–227
Educational Value-Added affective assessment and, 365 Formal assessment, 119, 194 numerical, 228–229
Assessment System checklists and, 74 Formal observation, 69 pass-fail, 229
(EVAAS), 295 classroom assessment Formative assessment Grading
Effectiveness system and, 392–403 assessment methods assessment and, 8, 93, 109
classroom assessment definition of, 66 for, 122–123 challenge of, 223–224
system and, 392, 397 empirical, 66 assessment tools for, 122 comparison types
RTI and, 340, 347 formal observation and, 69 in classroom, 117–119, of, 240–243
VAMs and, 295–296 formative assessment 126–127 criterion-referenced, 241–242
Effort and, 122–123, 128 classroom assessment system definition of, 223
assessment and, 94 gathering useful, 67 and, 394, 397, 400, 401 evaluation and, 222, 223–224
classroom assessment group observation and, 69, 71 in classroom lesson, 127–131 functions of, 235–236
system and, 390 informal observation definition of, 10, 35–36, guiding principles
grading based on, 246 and, 67–69 114–131 for, 235–239
PBL and, 150 narrative and, 72 feedback in, 119 introduction to, 222
wit78704_idx_418-426.indd 420 4/20/11 9:24 AM

Index I-4
issues involving, 227–235 Hearing impairment, 314, Informal observation, 67–69 Integrity
narrative, 232 315, 316–317 Inquiry-based approach, 114 procedural, 96
norm-referenced, 240–241 Heritage, M., 35, 36, 132 Inquiry-based instruction, 34 reliability and, 95
as part of educational Herman, J. L., 119 Instruction Intellectual disability,
system, 224–227 High-level thinking skills, 150 affective assessment and, 370 314, 317–318
percentage, 225, 227 High-stakes testing, 281, 283 classroom assessment Intelligence quotient
percentage-based criteria Hill, W. H., 58 system and, 399 (IQ), 317
for, 241–242 Hills, John R., 18 core, 344, 345–347 Intensive instruction, 344, 347
performance-based Histogram, 259 differentiated, 34–35, 115 Interests, affective assessment
criteria for, 241 Hofstadter, L., 365 individualized, 35 (See also and, 369–370, 375
problems with, 225 Hogaboam-Gray, A., 167 Differentiated instruction) Internal consistency, 96
professional consensus Holistic rubric, 151, 152 inquiry-based, 34 Internal consistency
for, 239–240 Hopkins, B. R., 274 intensive, 344, 347 reliability, 99–100
purpose and, 224 Hopkins, K. D., 264, 269, 274 multimodal, 314 Internal consistency/split halves
self-referenced, 242–243 Horn, S. P., 295 online, 34 or odd-even, 96–101
special needs students Horner, R. H., 353 self-assessment and, 170 Internal progress audit, 180
and, 243–248 Hosp, J. L., 340 supplemental, 344, 346–347 Internal review of a test, 272
standards-based, 229–232 Hyman, J. S., 12 Instruction delivery model, 396 Internal review process, 181
Grading adaptation Hypothetical constructs, Instructional alignment, Inter-rater reliability, 101–105
approach, 247–248 90–91 35–36 Interstate New Teacher
Grading based on effort, 246 Instructional approach Assessment and Support
I formative assessment Consortium (INTASC), 2
Grading based on progress,
242, 247 and, 114 Interval recording, 73–74
IDEA. See Individuals with teaching techniques Intervals, 257–258, 259
Grading consistency, 239 Disabilities Education and, 34–35 Intervention, 320, 344,
“Grading on a curve,” 240 Act (IDEA) Instructional content, 34 346–347. See also Response
Grading practices/ IDEA-97. See Individuals with Instructional learning to intervention (RTI)
realities, 248–250 Disabilities Education impact, 399–400 Intervention services, 315, 321
Grading standards, 245–246 Act Amendments of Instructional material, Interview/interviewing,
Grading synchronicity, 239 1997 (IDEA-97) preview of, 33–34 79, 398
Grading uniformity, 240 IDEIA. See Individuals with Instructional preview, 33–34 Inventory
Grading variation, 239 Disabilities Education Instructional process, in affective assessment
Graduate Record Exam Improvement Act (IDEIA) assessment in, 3 measure, 380–382,
(GRE), 268 IEP. See Individualized Instruction-learning- 384, 385
Grant, M., 35 education plan (IEP) assessment alignment, in Likert self-report
Graphs, 214–215, 259 Illustrations, 214 12–14, 17, 143, 154, 156, measure, 376, 377, 378
Green, B. F., 137 Impaired articulation, 320 157, 194, 272, 394 self-report, 372 (See also
Grimes, J., 340 Impara, J. C., 138, 154 Instruction-learning- Likert self-report measure)
Griswold, P. A., 234 Inclusion, 311. See also assessment model Investigation area, in affective
Gronlund, N. E., 95, Integration classroom assessment assessment measure, 380
96, 192, 268 Inclusion-focused model, 310 and, 8–12, 27–41 IQ. See Intelligence
Gross motor skills, 315 Individualized education classroom teaching quotient (IQ)
Group achievement tests, 53, plan (IEP) and, 27–41 Item discrimination,
281, 283, 296, 300 CBM and, 357 components of, 28 274–276
Group observation, 69, 71, 72 components of, 312 elements of, 25–41 Item discrimination
Grouped frequency definition of, 245, 312 formative assessment index, 274
distributions, 257, 258, 259 grading and, 245, and, 35–36, 41, 114
Growth
self-assessment and, 171
246, 247, 248
learning needs and,
instructional approach
and, 34–35
J
Jayanthi, M., 247, 248
standardized tests and, 295 311–313, 326, 327 instructional preview
Jensen, E., 32
Growth portfolio, 214. See also Individualized instruction, 35. and, 33–34
Jimenez-Silva, M., 150
Developmental portfolio See also Differentiated introduction to, 26
Johnson, C., 35
Guskey, T. R., 6, 10, 14, 35, 36, instruction learning feedback and, 37–38
Johnson, E. G., 137
223, 225, 228, 230, 234, Individualized learning learning targets and, 27–30
Journals
238, 239, 245, 247, 248 plans, 327 pre-assessment and, 30–32
classroom assessment
Individualized questions, 77 self-assessment and,
system and, 398
H Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act
38–40, 41
summative assessment
definition of, 213–214
Hamilton, L. S., 295 Joyce, L. B., 313, 331
Amendments of 1997 and, 40–41
Handler, M. W., 353 (IDEA-97), 243 teaching techniques
Harrison, C., 27, 35 Individuals with Disabilities and, 34–35 K
Harrow, A., 59 Education Act (IDEA), 310 INTASC. See Interstate New Kame’enui, E. J., 340, 349
Hasselman, F., 34 Individuals with Disabilities Teacher Assessment and Kaminski, R., 349, 350
Hastings, J. T., 6, 58 Education Improvement Support Consortium Kartub, D. T., 353
Hattie, J., 6, 37 Act (IDEIA), 301, 310, (INTASC) Katz, J., 311
Haugen, L., 353 311, 313, 318, 319, Integration, 315. See Kleiner, A., 49
Healy, K., 340 324, 340, 357 also Inclusion Klin, A., 315
wit78704_idx_418-426.indd 421 4/20/11 9:24 AM

I-5 Index
Knowledge Language/voice performance event and, 143 Marston, D., 340, 351
affective assessment and, 378 impairment, 320 RTI and, 340 Marzano, R. J., 10, 14,
in Bloom’s taxonomy, Lau, M., 340 tests and, 123 50, 225, 239
58, 59, 60, 77 Lawrence-Brown, D., 35 Learning performance Masia, B. B., 59
conceptual, 60, 61 Lazerson, A., 365 feedback, 35 Mason, E. J., 262, 271
factual, 60, 61 Learner control, self- Learning plans, 327 “Mastery learning”
learning and, 49–51, 53–54 assessment and, 181 Learning status, 396–397 approach, 35–36
meta-cognitive, 60 Learning Learning strategies, 181 Matching
of performance Bloom’s taxonomy Learning targets, 27–30, definition of, 200
assessment, 161 and, 58–64 54–58, 124–125 as selected response,
procedural, 60 classroom assessment system Learning tasks, 181 200, 204–206
self-assessment and, and, 393, 394, 397, Least restrictive setting, 311 Math Applications
178, 181, 183 398, 399, 400–401 Lee, C., 27, 35 CBM, 351
tests and, 123 demonstration of, 58–64 Lentini, R., 353 Math portfolio, 145
validity and, 92 emotional disturbance Lesson plans Mathematics Computation
Knowledge and skill and, 316 learning targets and, 28 CBM, 351
areas, 60, 64 evidence of, 65–69, 71 planning, 64–65 Matrices, defi nition of, 214
formative assessment Letter grades, 227–228, 229 Maze CBM, 351
Knowledge and skill base, 2, 58,
and, 398 Lichtenstein, R., 320, 357 McCaff rey, D. F., 295
78, 306, 310, 391, 398, 400
interviewing and, 79 Lifelong learners, 168 McConeghy, J. L., 247, 248
Knowledge and skill
introduction to, 49 Likert, Rensis, 372 McCurdy, B. L., 353
expectations, 51
knowledge and, 49–51, Likert self-report measure. See McDonald, B., 168, 169, 171
Knowledge and skill gains, 80
53–54 also Self-report inventory McGuire, J., 331
Knowledge and skill levels, mental retardation McKevitt, B. C., 352, 353
17, 312, 397 administering
and, 318 inventory in, 377 McMillan, J. H., 151, 225, 390
Knowledge and skill sets, NCLB and, 283 McMunn, N. D., 66, 145, 225
127, 145, 161, 365 analyzing responses in, 377
performance assessment constructing, 374–378 McTighe, J., 6, 7, 10, 14,
Knowledge and skill status, 397 and, 139, 145 33, 151, 154, 170
Knowledge and skills construction of items
performance-based, 149 in, 375–376 Mean
assessment and, 4, 9, 10, planning lessons for, 64–65 affective assessment and, 377
domain selection in, 375
11, 18 project-based, 148–151 aptitude scores and, 292
educational implications
classroom assessment system questioning and, 76–79 definition of, 261–262
in, 378
and, 394, 399, 403 standardized tests and, 287 Deviation IQs and, 268, 289
external review in, 376
formative assessment student products and, 79–80 dispersion from, 263–264
field testing in, 376–377
and, 123, 129 Learning connections/ SAT and, 268
modifications in, 378
grading and, 244 outcomes, 147–148 standard scores and, 290
scoring in, 377
instruction-learning- Learning disabilities, topic in, 375 standardized tests and, 289
assessment model and, 36 RTI and, 357 T scores and, 267, 289
using data in, 378
learning needs and, 326, 330 Learning environment, 170 Likert-based items, 400 z-score and, 265
performance assessment Learning experiences, 114 Linan-Thompson, S., 340 Measure revision, in affective
and, 138, 139, 143, 147 Learning feedback, 37–38 Linn, R. L., 137, 138 assessment measure, 385
self-assessment and, 180 Learning goals, 50, 51, Listing Median, defi nition of, 262
standards and, 54 54–58, 67 as constructed response, Mental retardation,
statistics and, 272 Learning groups, 200, 206 314, 317–318
summative assessment cooperative, 34 definition of, 200 Merwin, Jack C., 18
and, 201, 202, 216 Learning impact, instructional, Listing questions, Meta-cognitive knowledge, 60
testing and, 292, 296 399–400 defi nition of, 206 Meyers, J. L., 115, 119
validity and, 88 Learning modalities, 80, 144 Livingston, R. B., 86, Midpoint assessment, 397
Knowledge dimensions, 60 Learning needs. See also 98, 234, 288 Midstream assessment
Koretz, D. M., 295 Disability/disabilities Lockwood, J. R., 295 activity, 399
Kovaleski, J. F., 340 assessment modifications Long, B., 10, 35 Miller, D. D., 300, 301
Kraft, N. P., 300, 301 and, 324–331 Longworth, N., 49 Miller, L., 324
Krathwohl, D. R., 29, 58, 59, 60 IEP and, 311–313 Lucas, T., 49 Miller, M. D., 138
Kubiszyn, T., 100, 264, 271 introduction to, 310–311 Luiselli, J. K., 353 Mini-interview, 79
Kuder-Richardson special education disability Luria, A. R., 61 Minnis-Kim, M. J., 352
formulas, 100 categories and (See Mirenda, P., 311
Special education Mirkin, P. K., 6, 351
disability categories) M Mitchell, S., 150
L special education Madaus, G. F., 6, 58 Mixed hearing impairment, 317
Language disorder, 320 legislation and, 311 Mainstreaming, 311 Mode, defi nition of, 263
Language impairment. Learning objectives, 54–58 Manley, M., 234 Modeling, 186, 187
See Speech/language Learning outcome Mannella, M. C., 353 Modifications, 328,
impairment assessment modifications Manual communication, 315 378, 399
Language skills. See Speech/ and, 327 March, R. E., 353 Moon, T. R., 138
language skills classroom assessment Mark, defi nition of, Moroz, K. B., 352
Language-based learning system and, 393, 403 226–227 Moss, C., 10, 35
problem, 319 definition of, 56 Marshall, B., 27, 35 Moss, P. A., 137
wit78704_idx_418-426.indd 422 4/20/11 9:24 AM

Index I-6
Motivation 283–284, 294, 301, PBS. See Positive behavior definition of, 137
assessment and, 7, 94, 365 310, 327, 340, 354 support (PBS) evaluating, 139
reliability and, 98 Nondiscriminating Pearson Product-Moment features of, 138
Motor impairment, 329 item, 274, 275 Correlation, 269 focus of, 138
Motor performances, 144 Norm group, 285 Peer reviews, 150 knowledge of, 161
Motor skills, 80, 144 Normal curve, 260, 265, Percentage grading, 225, 227 student production
Multimodal instruction, 314 267, 268, 289 Percentage-based criteria, and, 142–143
Multiple choice Normal curve 241–242 Performance levels, 147,
definition of, 200 characteristics, 266 Percentiles 154, 155, 157–159
as selected response, Normal curve distribution, definition of, 265 Performance review, 177
200, 201–203 260, 289 standardized tests Performance-based
Multiple disabilities, 314, 318 Normal curve equivalent and, 288, 303 criteria, 241
Munk, D. D., 245, 247 (NCE), 267 Perceptions, affective assessment Performance-based
Normal distribution, 264–265, and, 365, 371, 375 learning, 149
Muscular dystrophy, 318
268, 288, 289, 303 Performance Perkins, C., 310
Muyskens, P., 340
Norman, G. R., 79 assessment modifications Personal beliefs, 370–371
Myran, S., 225, 390 and, 329 Personal perceptions,
Norm-referenced grading,
240–241 classroom assessment 365, 371, 375
N Norm-referenced standardized system and, 393, 398 Personality assessment, 366
Narrative, 72–73 tests, 284–287 correlation coefficients Personality testing, 366
Narrative format, Numerical grades, 228–229 and, 268–270 Physical development, 315
grading by, 227 Numerical ratings, 230 curriculum guides and, 54 Pilot, 381–382
Narrative grading, 232 data and, 256 Plante, L., 247
O
Narrative rating scales, 75 educational objectives and, 57 Polloway, E. A., 247, 248
Narrative responses, 237 evidence and, 66 Polman, J. L., 150
Oberg, C., 30 fine/gross motor Popham, W. J., 105, 201, 223
National Assessment of
Observations construction, 216 Portfolio
Education Progress
checklists as, 74–76 grading and (See Grading) advantages of, 146
program, 283
classroom assessment learning target and, 54 best-pieces, 145, 214
National Association of State
system and, 398 motor, 144 classroom, 145–148
Directors of Special
Education, 340 event recording as, 73–74 normal distribution and, 265 classroom assessment
formal, 69 reviewing, 216–217, 275 system and, 398
National Board for Professional
Teaching Standards group, 69, 71, 72 RTI and, 340, 342–343, definition of, 145, 214
(NBPTS), 2 informal, 67–69 344, 351 developmental, 145, 214
National Center on Educational interval recording as, 73–74 on standardized tests (See disadvantages of, 146
Outcomes, 331 narrative as, 72–73 Standardized tests/testing) growth, 214 (See also
National Council on ratings as, 74–76 test, 80, 260, 268, 271, 303 Developmental portfolio)
Measurement in student products and, 79 testing, 271–272 math, 145
Education, 18 types of, 71–76 verbal, 79–80, 144 process-oriented, 145
National Education Association Obtained scores, 265 verbal construction, 215–216 product, 145
Code of Ethics, 16–17 O’Connor, K., 6, 7, 10, visual, 144 skill-focused, 145
14, 33, 170, 234 visual construction, 214–215 strengths of, 146
National Education Association
Odd-even reliability, 100 written, 144 theme-focused, 145
(NEA), 15, 18
Ohio Department of written construction, weaknesses of, 146
National Research Council, 32
Education, 28 213–214 writing, 145
NBPTS. See National Board written expression, 80
Ohio Resource Center, 28 Portfolio construction
for Professional Teaching
One-on-one tutoring, 34 Performance assessment process, 147–148
Standards (NBPTS)
Online instruction, 34 checklists as, 159–161 Positive behavior support
NCE. See Normal curve classroom portfolios (PBS), 345, 351–353
equivalent (NCE) Open head injury, 321
Oral communication, 315 as, 145–148 Positive discrimination
NCLB. See No Child Left definition of, 137–139 item, 274
Behind (NCLB) Orthopedic impairment,
314, 318 focus of, 138, 139, 142–143 Positive skew, defi nition
NEA. See National Education knowledge of, 161 of, 261
Association (NEA) Other health impairment,
314, 318–319 motor performances for, 144 Positively skewed
Negative discrimination PBL as, 148–151 distribution, 263
item, 274 Outcome measurement, 327
rubrics as, 139, 140–141, Post-assessment, 397, 398
Negative skew, defi nition 151–159 Post-instruction assessment, 397.
of, 261 P verbal performances See also Post-assessment
Negatively skewed P value, 272, 273, 274 for, 144 Powell-Smith, K. A., 349
distribution, 263 P-12 education, 6, 51 visual performances Power tests, 100, 329
Negatives, 299 Parents, grading and, 237 for, 144 Prasse, D., 340
Newbill, C., 324 Parent-teacher conferences, written performances Prater, K., 340
Nichols, P. D., 115, 119 300–304 as, 144 Pre-assessment, 9–10,
Nine-point scale, 228 Pass-fail grades, 229 Performance comparison, 289 30–32, 399, 400
Nitko, A. J., 18, 151, 223 Pass-fail system, 225 Performance event Predictive validity, 88, 90
No Child Left Behind (NCLB), PBL. See Project-based assessment modifications Pre-instruction assessment, 397.
4–5, 34, 41, 243, 281, learning (PBL) and, 329 See also Pre-assessment
wit78704_idx_418-426.indd 423 4/20/11 9:24 AM

I-7 Index
Premises, 204
Preparation, for standardized
Q Research-supported
practices, 349–353
Roderique, T. W., 247, 248
Rolheiser, C., 167
Questioning
tests, 296–297 direct, 76–77, 78 Respect, affective Rosenfeld, J., 79
Presentation assessment and, 370 Ross, J. A., 167
focused, 78, 123
assessment change in, 328 Response modifications, 330 RTI. See Response to
learning and, 76–79
visual, 259 Response to Intervention: intervention (RTI)
Questionnaire, 367, 372.
Probes, 351 Policy Considerations and Rubrics, 139, 140–141
See also Survey
Probing questions, 77 Implementation, 340 analytical, 151, 152
Questions
Problem-solving/classroom Response to intervention (RTI) classroom assessment
assessment and, CBM and, 351
intervention cycle, 343 system and, 398
57–58, 78, 109
Procedural error, 95 in classroom, 342–349 effective, 153–155
classroom assessment definition of, 340
Procedural integrity, 96 focused, 151
system and, 395 introduction to, 340–341
Procedural knowledge, 60 general, 151
confirming, 77 learning needs and, 320
Process holistic, 151, 152
assessment, 326–327 essay, 208 PBS and, 351–353
individualized, 77 making, 155–159
definition of, 234–235 research-supported qualities of, 154
rubrics and, 155 lesson plans and, 64 practices and, 349–353
listing, 206 summative assessment
Process-oriented portfolio, 145 teachers as problem solver/ and, 193
Product mini-interview and, 79 researcher and, 353–357
probing, 77 task-specific, 151
definition of, 234–235 Responses
student, 79–80, 144 spontaneous, 77 affective, 376
Product portfolio, 145 standard, 77 constructed, 80, 200, 206– S
Production, student, 142–143 teacher-directed, 78 211, 213–217, 299–300 Sanders, James R., 18
Professional responsibility, 171 teacher-generated, 77 definition of, 204 Sanders, W. L., 294, 295
Progress extended, 209–210 SAT Reasoning Test, 88, 268
assessment modifications R in Likert self-report Sattler, J. M., 69, 73, 314, 321
and, 331 Range, defi nition of, 257 measure, 377 Scaffolding, defi nition of, 10
classroom assessment system Rathkey, C., 150 narrative, 237 Scatterplot, 269–270
and, 392, 393, 397, Rating labels, 158 restricted, 208–209 Schneider, Jeff rey, 18
398, 399, 400, 401 Ratings, 74–76 selected, 80, 200–206, 297 Score report, 287, 294
definition of, 234–235 Raw scores standardized tests and, Scores
developmental delay and, 315 definition of, 265 297–300 aptitude, 292
emotional disturbance standard deviation and, 264 student, 329–330 gain, 294, 295
and, 316 standardized tests and, 288 Responsibility obtained, 265
evidence and, 65–67, 69 z-scores and, 267 affective assessment and, 370 raw (See Raw scores)
formative assessment Readability, defi nition of, 109 classroom assessment standard (See Standard scores)
and, 114, 398 system and, 397 T, 267, 289
Reading CBM, 351
grading based on, 242, 247 professional, 171 test (See Test scores)
Reading literacy program, 349
IEP and, 312 Restricted response, 208–209
Reading research, 349 Scoring
NCLB and, 283 Re-teaching, 36
Reading skills, 349 in Likert self-report
performance assessment Reviews, 34, 117–119
Reflection, 147 measure, 377
and, 139, 147 in affective assessment
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 322 NCLB and, 283
RTI and, 345, 347, 351 measure, 381
Reiter, H. I., 79 summative assessment
self-assessment and, 180, 183 checklists as, 160
Reliability and, 200, 205, 206,
standardized tests and, 287 classroom assessment
alternate form, 99 207, 209, 210, 211
summative assessment system and, 403
assessment and, of disability categories, 313 Scott, S., 331
and, 41
Progress checklists, 174–175 92–94, 94–105 formative assessment Scott, T. M., 352
Progress manager, 180–185 definition of, 94–95 and, 119–122 Script, 178, 179–180, 186
Progress monitoring, 170 forms of, 96–101 in Likert self-report Seclusion model, 310
Progress review script, 179–180 internal consistency, 99–100 measure, 376, 378 Section 504, 322, 324, 326, 327
Project-based learning inter-rater, 101–105 peer, 150 Selected response, 80,
(PBL), 148–151 odd-even, 100 performance, 177 200–206, 297
Project-oriented learning split halves, 100 performance assessment Selection phase, 147
event, 150 stability, 95, 96, 97, 98 and, 147, 150, 151, Self-assessment, 38–40, 41,
Provost, M. C., 354, 355 test-retest, 97 154, 160, 161 118, 119, 147, 150
Public Law 94-142, 311 types of, 96, 97 responses to test items of assessment foundation,
Public Law 99-457, 311 Reliability coefficient, 97 for, 276 403–404
Purpose Reschly, D. J., 340 rubrics and, 151, 154 classroom assessment system
of assessment measure, 193 Research self-assessment and, 181 and, 394, 397, 398
of classroom assessment, on academic feedback, 37 standardized tests and, 300 elements of, 170–171
4–6, 8 on assessment, 6 test, 198 introduction to, 167–168
of classroom assessment on formative assessment, 35 test completion, 199–200 progress manager
system, 392–393, 394 reading, 349 Revision, in affective and, 180–185
of grading, 224, 235, Research portfolio project, 145 assessment measure, 385 teacher and, 186–187
236, 238, 239 Research-based Reynolds, C. R., 86, 98, teaching and, 169–171
Putnam, R. F., 353 intervention, 320 234, 288 Self-assessment process, 178
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Index I-8
Self-assessment techniques, test-taking, 296 Stability reliability, 95, 96, Standards-based tests, 283
171–180 visual, 80 97, 98 Stanine, 268, 288
Self-care skills, 315 Small groups, 347 Stability/test-retest, 96–101 Stanley, J. C., 274
Self-esteem, assessment and, 7 Smith, B., 49 Standard deviation Statistics
Self-monitoring, 400 Social development, 315 affective assessment and, 377 data for, 256–265
Self-referenced grading, Sousa, D. A., 31, 365 aptitude scores and, 292 descriptive, 255, 377
242–243 Spandel, J., 145 computing, 263–264 difficulty level of test
Self-reflective process, 187 Spearman-Brown formula, 100 definition of, 263 items and, 272–273
Self-regulation model, 170 Special education disability Deviation IQs and, 268, 289 introduction to, 255
Self-report inventory, 372. categories normal distribution and, item discrimination
See also Likert self- autism as, 313, 314–315 264–265 for, 274–276
report measure cognitive disability as, SAT and, 268 in reviewing student
Self-review, 184 314, 317–318 SEM and, 271 performances, 275
Self-review process, 175 deaf/blindness as, 313, standard scores and, 290 standard scores for, 265–271
Self-review skills, 187 315, 318, 321 standardized tests and, 289 testing performance
Self-review steps, 171 developmental delay as, T scores and, 267 for, 271–272
SEM. See Standard error of 314, 315 z-score and, 265 uses for, 255–256
measurement (SEM) emotional disturbance as, Standard error of measurement Stehouwer, J. D., 340
Senge, P., 49 314, 315–316 (SEM), 270–271 Stem, defi nition of, 201
Senn, J. A., 49 gifted and talented Standard questions, 77 Stiggins, R. J., 6, 7, 8, 10, 35,
Sensorineural hearing students as, 322 Standard scores 115, 132, 165, 167, 234
impairment, 317 hearing impairment as, aptitude scores and, 292 Stoner, G., 319
Sensory impairments, 315 314, 315, 316–317 CEEB, 268 Student attitudes, 365, 367, 369
Sensory information, 365 intellectual disability as, definition of, 265 Student interests, 369–370, 375
Setting, assessment change 314, 317–318 parent-teacher conferences Student outcomes,
in, 328–329 mental retardation as, and, 303 defi nition of, 27
Seven-descriptor format, 374 314, 317–318 for statistics, 265–271 Student production, 142–143
Shaw, S., 331 multiple disabilities as, test profile and, 289, 290 Student products, 79–80, 144
Shin, J., 351 314, 318 Standardized tests/testing Student response, assessment
Shinn, M. R., 340, 351 orthopedic impairment as, assessment modifications change in, 329–330
Short answer 314, 318 and, 327 Student teaching,
as constructed response, criterion-referenced, 286 assessment and, 27
other health impairment as,
200, 207–208 definition of, 284 Sudweeks, R. R., 96, 263,
314, 318–319
definition of, 200, 207 IEP and, 313 268, 288
specific learning disability
Silva, M., 247 interpreting test scores Sugai, G., 340
as, 314, 319–320
Simmons, D. C., 349 on, 287–294 Summative assessment,
speech/language impairment
Simpson, E. J., 59 introduction to, 281 40–41, 117, 119
as, 314, 320–321
Skewed distributions, 260, 261 NCLB and, 281, 283–284 classroom assessment system
TBI as, 314, 321
Skill areas, 60, 64 norm-referenced, 284–287 and, 394, 397, 398, 400
visual impairment as,
Skill base, 2, 58, 78, 306, parent-teacher conferences constructed response items
314, 321
310, 391, 398, 400 and, 300–304 in, 200, 206–211, 213–217
Skill expectations, 51 Special education
preparation for, 296–297 definition of, 10–11, 114, 192
Skill gains, 80 legislation, 311
results of, 300–304 introduction to, 192
Skill levels, 17, 312, 397 Special education services,
test-taking strategies selected response items
Skill mastery, 286–287 356, 357
for, 297–300 in, 200–206
Skill sets, 127, 145, 161, 365 Special education teachers, 310 VAMs and, 294–296
Special needs table of specifications
Skill status, 397 Standards and, 211–213
Skill targets, 122–123 in classroom, 325 classroom assessment
grading students Summative assessment
Skill-focused portfolio, 145 system and, 393, 394 construction, 193–200
Skills with, 243–248 definition of, 51
IEP and, 313 Supplemental instruction/
auditory, 80 ethical, 15
NCLB and, 327 intervention, 344,
Basic Early Literacy, 349 grading, 245–246 346–347
cognitive, 317 summative assessment and, 41 group achievement
Specific learning disability, Survey, 367, 370, 371, 372,
Dynamic Indicators of Basic tests and, 53
314, 319–320 374, 375, 376, 377, 385
Early Literacy, 345, 349 reliability and, 98
Speech/language impairment, Symbol-based methods, 228
fine motor, 315 science, 55
314, 320–321 Symbols, visual construction
gross motor, 315 teachers and, 54
Speech/language skills, 315 performances and, 214
high-level thinking, 150 Standards for Educational
Speed test, 100, 329 Synthesis, in Bloom’s
knowledge and (See and Psychological
Spelling, 207 taxonomy, 58, 59, 60
Knowledge and skills) Testing, 86, 327
language (See Speech/ Spelling CBM, 351 Standards for Teacher Competence
language skills) Spenciner, L. J., 137 in Educational Assessment T
motor, 80 Spina bifida, 318 of Students, 18 T scores, 267, 289
reading, 349 Spinal cord injuries, 318 Standards-based grading, Table of specifications,
self-care, 315 Split halves reliability, 100 229–232 defi nition of, 88
self-review, 187 Spontaneous questions, 77 Standards-based performance Tables, defi nition of, 214
speech/language, 315 Spriggs, M., 353 indicators, 227 Task-specific rubric, 151
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I-9 Index
Taxonomy table, 60, 63 Test-retest reliability, 97 Topic, in Likert self-report Viewpoints, affective
Taylor-Greene, S., 353 Test-taking skills, 296 measure, 375 assessment and, 371, 375
Tayrose, M. P., 281, 283 Test-taking strategies, 297–300 Torgesen, J. K., 340 Visscher, A. J., 37
TBI. See Traumatic brain Testing Towler, L., 171 Visual construction
injury (TBI) field (See Field testing) Traumatic brain injury performances, 214–215
Teacher-directed questions, 78 high-stakes, 281, 283 (TBI), 314, 321 Visual impairment, 314,
Teacher-generated questions, 77 P-12 education and, 51 “Triangulation” effect, 123 315, 321
Teachers personality, 366 Trice, Carolyn, 18 Visual performances, 144
competency standards reliability and, 98 True-false Visual presentations, 259
for, 18, 20 summative assessment definition of, 200 Visual skills, 80
formative assessment and, 40–41 as selected response, Voice impairment. See
and, 131–132 Tests. See also Assessment 200, 203–204 Language/voice
grading issues for, 227–235 achievement, 292–294 Tutoring, one-on-one, 34 impairment
knowledge and, 54 classroom assessment Volkmar, F. R., 315
as problem solver, 353–357 system and, 394, 398 U
questioning and, 78
reliability for, 92–94
constructed response and,
80, 200, 206–211
Uniform grading standard, W
245–246 Wagner, M. M., 246
as researcher, 353–357 determining difficulty Universal Design for Wald, M. M., 321
self-assessment and, 186–187 level of, 272–273 Instruction, 331 Walker, H. M., 340
as self-assessment model, 39 ethics and, 18 Walters, R. H., 40
special education, 310 formative assessment
validity for, 92 and, 122–123 V Weber, L. J., 225
Wechsler IQs, 268
Teaching group achievement, 53, Valdes, K. A., 246
Wesson, C., 351
classroom, 27–41 281, 283, 296, 300 Valencia, S. W., 145
Wetzel, K., 150
self-assessment and, 169–171 internal review of, 272 Validity
White, K. R., 90, 95, 96, 100,
student, 27 NCLB and, 5 assessment and, 85–94
224, 263, 268, 274, 288
Teaching techniques, power, 100, 329 categories of, 86
Wiggins, G., 114, 137
instructional approach selected response items classroom assessment
Wiliam, D., 6, 7, 8, 27, 35,
and, 34–35 for, 200–206 system and, 394
119, 168, 217
10-point grading scale, 228, 229 speed, 100, 329 concurrent criterion-
Williamson, C. L., 246
Test anxiety, 297 standardized (See related, 87, 88
Willson, V., 86, 98, 234, 288
Test awareness, 296 Standardized tests/testing) construct-related evidence
Wininger, S. R., 217
Test completion review, standards-based, 283 of, 85, 90–91
Winters, L., 119
199–200 Theme-focused portfolio, 145 content-related evidence
Witte, R., 185, 321
Test construction, 198, 199 Thornton, H., 246 of, 85, 87–88, 92
criterion-related evidence Workman, D., 225, 390
Test construction rules, 197–200 Three-point scale, 225 Worthen, B. R., 90, 95, 96, 100,
Test development, 197–198 Three-tiered intervention of, 85, 87, 88
definition of, 86, 87 224, 263, 268, 274, 288
Test environment, 297 model, 345 Wright, P., 294
Test implementation, 199 Tilly, W. D. III, 340, predictive, 88, 90
Value-added models (VAMS), Wright, R. G., 238
Test items, student 344, 346, 347 Writing portfolio, 145
responses to, 276 Time 294–296, 300
Written construction
Test preparation, 296–297 affective assessment and, 372 Values, affective assessment
performances, 213–214
Test profi le, 288–292 assessment change and, 370–371
Written Expression CBM, 351
Test results, 300–304 in, 328–329 Van Houten, R., 37
Vanderwood, M., 340 Written expression
Test review, 198 classroom assessment performances, 80
Test scores system and, 390, 400 Variability, defi nition of,
263–264 Written performances, 144
interpreting, 287–294 essay questions and, 210
normal curve characteristics PBL and, 150 Variance, defi nition of,
and, 266 performance assessment 263–264 X
normal distribution and, 265 and, 138 Vaughn, S., 340 Xu, L., 321
parent-teacher conferences standardized tests and, 300 Vellutino, F. R., 340
and, 303
as part of educational
test implementation and, 199
Time sampling, 73. See also
Verbal construction
performances, 215–216
Z
Zeller, R. A., 87
experience, 304 Interval recording Verbal performances, Zigmond, N., 246
SEM and, 271 Timperley, H., 6, 37 79–80, 144 z-scores, 265, 267
standard deviation and, Tindal, G., 351 Verbs, educational
263, 264 Todd, A., 353 objectives and, 57
standardized tests and, 295 Tomlinson, C. A., 34, 35 Verhoeven, L., 34
wit78704_idx_418-426.indd 426 4/20/11 9:24 AM

CLassroom Assesment For Teachers - Raymond H. White

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Classroom Assessment for Teachers provides students with essential

professional knowledge/skill sets along with contemporary issues surrounding

Classroom Assessment for Teachers

Chapter Activities: Learning activities in each chapter connect to the content

MD DALIM #1140067 4/18/11 CYAN MAG YELO BLK

Assessment in Action: Integrated throughout each chapter, this tool provides

Focus on Assessment: This key feature in each chapter provides a relevant

wit78704_fm_i-xxii.indd i 3/28/11 9:56 AM

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Vice President & Editor-in-Chief: Michael Ryan

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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Focus on Assessment: The Decision 116

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Norm-Referenced Standardized Tests 284

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Orthopedic Impairment 318

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Research-Supported Practices 349

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Using the Data and Educational Implications 378

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Assessment in Action: The Assessment Challenges of Mrs. Green 402

Appendix 1-A: Teacher Standards in Student Assessment Developed by the

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Assessment Check—These end-of-chapter questions allow students to self-assess

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THE INSTRUCTIONAL IMPORTANCE

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Assessment as Part of the Instructional Process

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INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

Sec. 1001 Statement of Purpose

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♦ the provision of effective feedback to pupils

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THE INSTRUCTION, LEARNING, AND

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Intended L earning Targets/

Where Are My Students?

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learning activity. Pre-assessing is an important instructional activity but it is often ignored,

Where Do My Students Need to Be?

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How Do My Students Get There?

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THE IMPACT OF INSTRUCTION-LEARNING-