Evolution of

Continental Drift
Hypothesis
 explain how the
1 continents drift;

At the end cite pieces of evidence

of the 2 that support continental
lesson, you drift; and
should be
explain plate tectonics
able to: 3 as a unifying theory.
The Continental Drift
Hypothesis
• Proposed by Alfred
Wegener.

• States that the movement

of plates caused and is still
causing the movement of
continents. Continental
movement
Alfred Lothar Wegener (1880-1930)

Source: https://www.famousscientists.org/alfred-wegener/
Evidence of Continental
Drift Hypothesis

Continental Fit - the

shapes of continents fit
each other.

The shape of South America and

Africa fit each other
Evidence of Continental
Drift Hypothesis

Fossil Evidence: Similar

fossils found across
continents.

Fossil patterns across continents

Evidence of Continental
Drift Hypothesis

Similarities in rocks
and mountains across
continents.

Mountain similarities
Evidence of Continental
Drift Hypothesis

Glacial evidence:
Similarities in possible
conditions.

Paleoclimactic evidence
Plate Tectonics Theory
according to plate tectonics
theory, the lithosphere
behaves as a strong, rigid
layer which is broken into
segments known as plates.

The continental plates

Evidence of Tectonic
Plate Theory

Hotspots - radioactive
dating of hotspots show
age differences based on
plate movements.

Hotspot in Hawaii
 Evidence of Tectonic
Plate Theory

Paleomagnetism: The
Earth’s magnetic pole has
an influence of patterns in
rocks.

The patterns of these

rocks coincide with Earth’s
magnetic pole.

Illustration of Earth functioning like a bar

magnet
Evidence of Tectonic
Plate Theory

Apparent Polar
Wandering: Traced
through the change in
magnetic poles.

Apparent polar wandering

 Layer Cake Whole Mantle
Where the mantle is Where denser oceanic
divided into two zones lithosphere sinks.
of convection.

Layer cake and whole mantle convection model

 Gravitational Factors

Ridge-push Slab-pull
This is a force This is the
that causes pulling of
hotter, less oceanic
dense material lithosphere
to force itself downward at
up through a subduction
ridge. zones.
 Continental drift hypothesis proposes that
1
Pangaea broke up into the modern continents.

Seafloor spreading hypothesis suggested that

2 seafloor is moving away from the ridge which is
driven by mantle convection.

Plate tectonics combines the idea of the

3 continental drift and seafloor spreading.
Match Column A to Column B.
1.It is the mineral found in lava which helps
in mapping magnetic orientation of the A.) South America
ocean seafloor. and Africa
2.This proposes that the mantle is composed B.) Pangea
of a thick and thin convection layer. C.) Plate tectonics
3.It is the theory which states that the D.) Mantle plume
lithosphere is broken into smaller
E.) Convection
fragments.
current
4.It is the upwelling of extremely hot molten
material from the mantle.
F.) layer cake
5.This pair continents fit together like in G.) magnetite
jigsaw puzzle. H.) Igneous rocks
1. Why is plate tectonics
theory considered a
unifying theory in
Geology?
2. Why is there a need to
study the movement of
tectonic plates?
3. How does the continental
drift theory affect the
study of plate tectonics?
How does it affect the
environment?
Plate Boundaries
and Geologic
Landforms
 explain how the
movement of plate leads
At the end to the formation of
of the 1 trenches, volcanoes, rift
lesson, you valleys, and mountain
should be ranges.
able to:
Divergent Boundaries
Divergent boundaries are
formed when two plates
move away from each
other resulting in the rising
of the molten material.

Divergent boundary
Divergent Boundaries
Divergent boundaries may
form continental rifts.

Birth of an ocean floor

This is a model of sea floor spreading at a divergent
boundary called a mid ocean ridge.
Convergent Boundaries
Convergent boundaries are
formed when two plates move
toward each other.

There are three types of these

boundaries An example of a convergent
boundary is seen in the Juan de
Fuca plate.
Convergent Boundaries

In oceanic-continental
convergence, the
continental crust remains
buoyant while the oceanic
crust starts to sink into the
mantle.

Oceanic-continental convergence
Convergent Boundaries

Oceanic-oceanic
convergence happens
when two oceanic crusts
converge and the denser
oceanic crust sinks
beneath the other oceanic
crust.

Oceanic-oceanic convergence
 Convergent Boundaries

Continental-continental
convergence happens
when a continental crust
moves toward another
landmass.

Continental-continental convergence
Transform Plate Boundaries

Transform plate
boundaries (also
transform fault
boundaries) happen when
two plates simply slide
horizontally past each
other.

Transform plate boundary

DID YOU KNOW?
The average rate of movement along
the San Andreas Fault is between
30mm and 50 mm per year over the
last 10 million years. If current rates of
movement are maintained Los Angeles
will be adjacent to San Francisco in
approximately 20 million years.
 Divergent boundary is formed when two plates
1 move apart.

Convergent boundary is formed when two plates

2 move toward each other.

Transform plate boundary happens when two

3 plates simply slide horizontally past each other.
Write true if the statement is true, and false
otherwise.

1. There are three types of divergent plate boundaries.

2. Oceanic-continental convergence involves oceanic crust
and a continental crust.
3. Subduction can form landforms.
4. Rift valleys only form under the sea.
5. Continental rifts can only form in the continental crust.
6. Destructive margins are similar to subduction
zones.
7. There are three types of subduction zones.
8. India’s collision formed the Himalayas.
9. Folding and uplifting has stopped.
10. San Andreas Fault is an example of a
conservative margin.
How do rift valleys
form?
Identify which plate movement leads to the formation of a certain geologic feature or
event. Use the choices given below.

1. It can cause the formation of the fault line

system.
2. It is also known as constructive margin.
3. It could be associated with the presence of the
Wadati-Benioff zone.
4. This plate movement creates new seafloor.
5. It can create trenches.
6. This plate movement created the Himalayas.
7. It is associated with strong and shallow
earthquake
8. This plate interaction creates a volcanic arc.
9. It results in the formation of the mountain
range.
10. This causes the formation of the rift valley.
The Formation of Faults
and Folds
 explain how the
At the end movement of plate
of the 1 leads to the formation
lesson, you of folds and faults.
should be
able to:
Types of Stress on Rocks

Confining stress - takes place when a

rock or sediment is buried and acts
uniformly in all directions.

Directed stress - only acts in one

direction and is most likely associated
with tectonic activities.

Rock formations are

influenced by stress
 Types of Directed Stress

Tension Compression Shear

squeezing pulling parallel but
1 stress 2 stress 3 opposite
directions
Types of Stress

Types of stress
Rock Deformation
• The different types of stress on rocks can cause them to
deform.

• The type of deformation that rocks can undergo also

depend on the composition of rock, or the type and
intensity of stress.
 Types of Deformations

Elastic Ductile Brittle

rock returns rock reshapes causes
1 to original 2 without 3 breakage
shape breaking
• are also planar structures
resulting from brittle
deformation but there is sliding
between the rocks.
• Active fault – a fault wherein
there is sliding in recent geologic
times.
Faults
• Some rocks fracture
because of stress.

• A fault is a discernible
displacement where
rocks grind or slide
past each other.

Types of faults
Classification of faults based in the movement of
the rocks with respect to each other.
In an inclined Fault, the block of rock on top of the fault is called
hanging wall, while the block below is called footwall.
• Normal fault –the hanging wall moves down with respect to the
footwall.
• Reverse fault – the hanging wall moves up.
• Thrust fault – a form of reverse fault with inclination below 35
degree. These are also classified as dip-slip fault.
• Oblique Slip fault – the movement of the blocks along the fault plane
is diagonal.
• Strike-slip fault – when the blocks slide past each other.
Folds
• The series of wave-like
ripples or bends formed
during mountain
building are called folds.

• Folds have different

parts.

Parts of a fold
Folds
•Hinge line or Fold Axis – part of the fold where
the curvature is greatest.
•Limbs – are the sides of the folds with least
curvature.
•Axial plane – contains fold axis of each folded
layer.
Orientation of Folds
• Anticline – the limbs of the fold are inclined away
from the hinge forming an arch-like shape.
• Syncline – The limbs are inclined towards the hinge,
forming a trough-like shape.
• Monocline – is a bend in generally flat-lying rock layer.
• Overturned – the axial plane is inclined and one limb
is steeper than the other.
 Stress is a force exerted on an object, in this case, a
1
rock.

Rock deformation involves changes shape and/or

2 size which can either be permanent or temporary.

Folds are series of wavelike ripples or bends, and a

3 fault is a fracture or a discernible displacement
where rocks grind or slide past each other.
What is the difference
of the three main types
of fault in terms of
movement and
associated stress?
Transform Faults
• These are abundant in
the sea floor.

• Sea floor is divided into

segments as a result.

Transform fault
Parts of the Ocean Floor
• If the structure rises
above sea level, it is
called a volcanic
island.

• A flat-topped
seamount is called
a guyot.
Ocean floor
Lesson 11.1
How Layers of Rocks Are
Formed
At the end describe how layers of
of the 1 rocks (stratified rocks)
lesson, you are formed.
should be
able to:
Fossils
Fossils are remains
of organisms that
lived prior to the last
glacial period about
10 000 years ago.

Candidates for fossil

formation.
The Formation of
Fossils
● Fossils are usually
seen in sedimentary
rocks because as
organisms die, their
remains will sink at the
bottom and will
eventually be covered
The process of fossil formation.
with sediments.
Stratification
● The formation of
sedimentary rock
layers is because of
stratification.
Stratigraphy is the
study of these rock
layers.
Sedimentary rock.
 There are several principles that have been
established in order to determine the relative
age of rock layers.
Law of Original Horizontality
● This states that sediments are generally deposited
horizontally.

The green layer is deposited in a horizontal manner.

Law of Lateral Continuity
● Layers of sediments spread out in all directions until
they thin out at the edge of the depositional basin or
grade into a different kind of sediment.

The green layer spread in both direction until it terminates on the

edges of the depositional basin.
 Law of Superposition
● This states that sediments are generally deposited
horizontally.

When the beds are undisturbed, the purple layer is the youngest
while the green layer is the oldest.
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationship
● This states that geologic features that cut across rocks
are younger than the rocks which they cut through.

The red body represents an intrusion. It cross-cuts the three layers

which are relatively older.
 Fossils are remains of organisms that lived prior to
1 the last glacial period about 10 000 years ago.

Stratigraphy refers to the study that focuses on

2
stratified or layered rocks in terms of time and space.

Stratification is the layering that occurs in most

3
sedimentary rocks.
Lesson 11.2

Relative and Absolute

Dating
 describe the different
methods (relative and
1 absolute dating) to
determine the age of
At the end stratified rocks;
of the
explain how relative
lesson, you
and absolute dating
should be
2 were used to determine
able to:
the subdivisions of
geologic time.
The two main methods that scientists use for
determining the age of rocks are relative
dating and absolute dating.
Relative Dating
● Relative dating uses a
sequence of rocks to
get a grasp on the
succession of events
that took place in the
past.

Rock layer age can be determined

through relative dating
Relative Dating
● Relative dating uses
the laws of
stratigraphy and
does not give a
numerical estimate
of age.
The relative age of rock layers can be
determined.
Absolute Dating
● Absolute dating or
numerical dating allows
the determination of
the exact numerical age
of rocks and fossils.

Absolute dating involves the use

of isotopes
 Concepts Involved in Absolute Dating
Isotopes Half-life
are elements that is the time it takes for
1 have a different
2 half of the isotope to
number of neutrons. decay.

Radiometric Methods
3 rely on radioactive
decay.
The Method of Absolute Dating
● If an isotope’s half life is 250,000 years, this means that
only half the isotope will remain after that amount of time.

Uranium half-life
 Relative vs Absolute Dating
Relative Dating Absolute Dating
A qualitative method of dating A quantitative method of dating
Uses a stratigraphic method to Uses radiometric techniques to
identify the order of formation of the identify the specific age of
remains. rocks/objects.
It gives a relative age of the remains It gives the exact age of the remains
Less specific More specific
Cheaper and time-efficient Expensive and time-consuming
 Relative dating is a method that gives a relative age
1 of rocks and fossils.

Absolute dating is a method that gives the exact age

2
of the remains.

Half-life is the time required for one-half of the nuclei

3
of the isotope to decay.
Use your knowledge of absolute dating to
complete the table below.
Parent Daughter Half-life Elapsed half- Age of the
Isotope Isotope Values life Sample
U-238 Pb-206 4.5 BYA 5 __________
U-235 Pb-207 713 MYA 3 __________
Th-232 Pb-208 14.1 BYA __________ 84.6 BYA
Rb-87 Sr-87 __________ 4 188 BYA
K-40 Ar-40 1.3 BYA 4 __________
What is the difference between relative and
absolute dating?