9

Hydrogenation: Processing
Technologies
Walter E. Farr
Walter E. Farr & Associates
Olive Branch, Mississippi

1. INTRODUCTION

Hydrogenation is a means of converting liquid oils to semisolid plastic fats suitable

for margarine, shortening, heavy-duty frying fats, and other specialty products (1).
Liquid oils containing an undesirable component can be selectively hydrogenated
to modify the component, followed by a physical separation of the undesirable
component, as in the manufacture of lightly hydrogenated, winterized soybean
salad oil (2–4). Hydrogenation consists of direct addition of hydrogen at the double
bonds in the fatty acid chains of the triacylglycerol, or oils. For hydrogenation to
take place, gaseous hydrogen, liquid oil, and nickel catalyst are placed in a specially
designed reaction vessel under controlled temperature and pressure (5).
By definition, a catalyst is a substance or a compound that alters the speed of
a chemical reaction without becoming a part of the reaction. The catalyst is not
changed in composition or chemical structure. Nickel catalyst is the most common
catalyst currently used in the hydrogenation of fats and oils. Commercially avail-
able nickel catalyst contains 22–25% active catalyst supported by a totally saturated
or completely hydrogenated fat. Other catalyst supports include alumina,
kieselghur, silica, as well as proprietary supports (5). The oil, catalyst, and gaseous
hydrogen mixture is agitated to promote the introduction of hydrogen into the oil

Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Sixth Edition, Six Volume Set.
Edited by Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

385
386 HYDROGENATION: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

TABLE 1. Effect of Hydrogenation on Melting Point.

Ester Configuration Melting Point

Linolenic C18:3 Three double bonds 13 C (9 F)

Linoleic C18:2 Two double bonds 7 C (19 F)
Oleic C18:1 One double bond 16 C (61 F)
Stearic C18:0 No double bonds 70 C (158 F)

and to renew the oil continuously at the catalyst surface. The rate or speed at which
the reaction takes place and the type of product produced to give a particular solid
fat index (SFI) curve, iodine value, and melting point depends on the following
process variables: (1) starting temperature of the oil, (2) activity of the catalyst,
(3) concentration of the catalyst, (4) hydrogen uptake rate, (5) reaction temperature,
(6) oil quality, (7) hydrogen purity, and (8) degree of agitation. When the reaction
is complete and the end point is confirmed, the batch is cooled and filtered to
remove all the catalyst and other impurities. The oil may also be post bleached
with filter-aid and bleaching clay.
Although one may not need to be a chemist or chemical engineer to supervise
or operate the hydrogenation process, some knowledge of the chemistry of fats
and oils is helpful to explain the reaction process in the oxidation and hydrogena-
tion of oils.
The number of double bonds in a fatty ester radical significantly affects both
physical and chemical properties of the triacylglycerol. The highly unsaturated
(three double bonds) linolenic acid (18:3) is unstable to oxidation, and undesirable
odors and flavors can develop. The rate of oxidation 18:3 is 15-fold greater than that
of oleic acid (18:1).
If the linolenic ester is hydrogenated to linoleic (18:2), the relative oxidation rate
is ten-fold greater than that of 18:1. The oxidation rate of 18:1 is ten-fold greater
than that of stearic acid (18:0), and the oxidation potential is completely eliminated
if hydrogenation proceeds to 18:0 (totally saturated, or all double bonds removed).
The relative rates of 18:3 and 18:2 hydrogenation are, respectively, 40-fold and
20-fold greater than that of 18:1. As the degree of hydrogenation (or saturation)
increases, the melting point of the fat increases, as shown in Table 1.
A more stable soybean salad oil (more resistant to oxidation) is manufactured
by selectively hydrogenating the 18:3 ester content from 8% to less than 3%. To
maximize winterizing yields and winterizing performance, it is necessary to
minimize formation of 18:1 and 18:0 esters. Thus, preferential selectivity is needed
to ensure that most of the 18:3 is converted to 18:2, with little conversion of 18:2
to 18:1, and very little 18:1, converted to 18:0 (2).
Lightly hydrogenated, winterized soybean salad oil became popular in the
United States in the early 1960s (6), and all retail salad oil was of this type until
the mid-1980s, when a new Wesson Oil was introduced. This oil, processed by the
Wesson patented process, was stable and had a long shelf life without the need for
hydrogenation. All other manufacturers soon changed to RBD (refined, bleached,
deodorized) salad oil.
 INTRODUCTION 387

TABLE 2. Factors Influencing cis-trans-isomerization.

High trans Low trans

Temperature High Low

H2 pressure Low High
Catalyst dosage Low High
Agitation Slow Fast
Catalyst Ni-S Ni

The manufacture of lightly hydrogenated, winterized soybean oil led to the

new terms ‘‘selective hydrogenation’’ and ‘‘selectivity catalyst.’’ ‘‘Selective hydro-
genation’’ technically defines the preferential conversion of 18:3  18:2 relative to
18:1 > 18:0. In practical terms, this process reflects the selective removal of double
bonds via hydrogen addition such that saturated fatty acid (stearic) formation is
minimized (7).
‘‘Catalyst selectivity’’ is somewhat meaningless unless the term is defined. There
also are selective catalysts that do not meet the technical or practical definition of
hydrogen selectivity. Such catalysts are sulfur-poisoned catalyst. Sulfided nickel
catalyst produces high trans-isomers, has lower activity than conventional nickel,
exhibits longer reaction times, and is used for specialty applications (e.g., coating
fats and hard butters).
Most unsaturated bonds in vegetable oils naturally occur in the cis-form. During
partial hydrogenation, part of the cis-isomers is changed to trans-isomers. Trans-
isomers have a dramatically higher melting point (42 C) as compared with cis-
isomers (6 C). The creation of trans-isomers is desirable in margarine oil in that
a higher melting point can be achieved without developing a higher level of nutri-
tionally undesirable saturated compounds. Altering hydrogenation conditions to
produce higher (or lower) trans-isomers is termed ‘‘trans-isomer selectivity.’’
Factors influencing cis-trans-isomerization are shown in Table 2.
A typical hydrogenation converter is shown in Figure 1. The converter is the
heart of the complete hydrogenation system. Proper design and maintenance of the
hydrogen gas distributor, the agitator, and the heating cooling coils are mandatory
for optimum productivity and consistency of basestocks produced. Most conver-
ters are 30,000-pound, 40,000-pound, or 60,000-pound batch sizes with some
now as large as 90,000 pounds. The common agitator design provides approxi-
mately 100 rpm, and radial flow impellers are used. The lower impeller is posi-
tioned slightly above the hydrogen gas distributor; therefore, the diameter of the
gas distributor and the tip-to-tip dimension of the lower impeller are critical.
Originally, the middle and top impellers were of the radial flow type also. Some
converters have now been operating for many years with an axial flow impeller
at the top position. Although the lower and middle radial flow impellers are ideally
suited for gas dispersion, the top impeller pumps the oil downward, and if posi-
tioned properly, hydrogen gas in the headspace re-enters the oil. This design has
enhanced the success of dead-end hydrogenation, dramatically reducing the amount
388 HYDROGENATION: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

Turbine Agitator

Baffle

Heating &
Cooling Coil

Gas
Distributor

Hydrogenation Converter
Dead-End Design
Figure 1. Hydrogenation converter.

of purge or vent gas. These improvements are demonstrated in Figure 2. Other

special agitation and hydrogen distribution systems have been developed, such as
the Buss reactor, and the AGR (Advanced Gas Reactor), but these systems are
falling out of favor because the added maintenance offsets any advantages these
systems were supposed to provide.
Proper hydrogen gas distribution and agitator design is important. Stratification
of reacted and unreacted areas in the converter, as a result of improper agitation or
hydrogen distribution, will add to unpredictability in basestocks from batch to
batch. A complete semicontinuous hydrogenation plant is depicted in Figure 3.
The main features of this system are: (1) a preheating and measuring tank, (2) a
reactor or converter, (3) a drop tank, (4) a heat-recovery system, (5) steam genera-
tion via reactor cooling, and (6) single-step filtration.
 INTRODUCTION 389

Figure 2. Improved hydrogenation design.

By arranging all the vessels for gravity drop, very rapid turnover of batches in
the reactor results. In this manner, the reactor is used for reaction only; all heating,
cooling, and filtration is accomplished external to the reactor. For example, if the
average iodine value (IV) drop for all basestocks produced can be achieved in one
hour, then a single system can deliver 24 batches per day (a 24-hour period).
This system also demonstrates the latest technologies in heat recovery by
heat exchange of the hot oil in the drop tank with the incoming cold oil and by
steam generation for reactor cooling. The hydrogenation department becomes a
net exporter of steam, the ultimate form of energy conservation.
The system depicts improved reactor agitator design and improved automation.
The complete process is controlled by programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
giving precise in-point control that leads to extreme consistency from batch to
batch.
390 HYDROGENATION: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

Measuring
Catalyst
Vacuum unit
Steam tank
Steam steam
H2
Steam
PI PI Pc Pt Flash tank Reaction heat
FT recovery
Reactor water
Hydrogen dosing
FT R
Oil
TT
TT
Black
filter

Oil-oil
heat
exchanger

Drop tank Spend catalyst

Hydrogenated oil

to bleaching & refining

Figure 3. Semicontinuous hydrogenation processing plant.

2. IS THERE A FUTURE FOR HYDROGENATION?

There will always be a need for hydrogenated fats to provide functionality and
improved stability. Hydrogenation, as practiced today, is the only way to produce
commodity-priced, hardened oils. Any alternatives are going to have higher capital
and operating costs.
Although trans-fat in hydrogenated products is a consumer concern, the magni-
tude of consumer concern is unknown. If consumers believe that trans-fat is bad
for their health, then hydrogenation (increasing saturated fat) is bad also. Products
such as household shortening and heavy-duty frying fats are so high in saturated
fat that any concern about using these products will be based on concerns about
saturated fat as much as concerns about trans-fat.
In summary, there is a continued need for hydrogenation of many products, but
the volume of oils hydrogenated is certain to decrease, even with a population
increase. All consumers worldwide are going to develop more and more concern
for improving their health and longevity. Thus, the consumption of hydrogenated
oils, and oils naturally high in saturated fat, must decrease. The first step will be
the elimination of trans-fat in food products, because we now have the technology
to do that. Removal of trans-fat will allow us time to find ways to reduce saturated
fat, and remove hydrogenation from many products.

3. RESEARCH ON TRANS-REDUCTION BY HYDROGENATION

Over the past decade, trans-acid reduction via hydrogenation has been of interest
to catalyst producers (8) and research workers (9–11). An early study (13) clearly
 THE TRANS-FAT ISSUE 391

showed that, with other factors being equal, i.e., pressure, agitation, and catalyst
concentration, temperature has a marked effect on trans-acid formation in stirred
batch reactors. The lower the temperature, the lower the extent of trans-acid
formation. Although the reasons for this effect is not clearly understood, it would
appear that, once triacylglycerols are adsorbed onto the catalyst surface, lower tem-
perature favors saturation of double bonds rather than isomerization of cis-double
bonds to the trans-form. Bailey (13) stated that at higher temperatures, where
hydrogen lean conditions on the catalyst surface exist, more competition for the
more unsaturated triacylglycerol molecules occurs. However, at higher tempera-
tures, desorption with isomerization from cis- to trans-is more likely to occur
than at lower temperatures.
Trans-suppression in hydrogenated oils is the subject of a paper published
in 1995 in which conditions necessary for trans-acid reductions in soybean and
canola oils are reported (8). Trans-suppression in hydrogenated soybean oil was
observed at lower temperatures, higher pressures, and higher catalyst concentra-
tions compared with conditions where trans-acid formation was maximized. For
example, reactions carried out at a temperature of 204 C, a catalyst concentration
of 0.02% and 15 psi hydrogen pressure, normally used for selective hydrogena-
tion, produced a maximum trans-acid (44%) at an iodine value of about 70. By
comparison, reducing the temperature to 77 C and increasing the catalyst concen-
tration to 0.11% at a pressure of 250 psi resulted in a 50% reduction in trans-acids.
The author concluded that the rate of the reaction under conditions where trans-
acids are suppressed are sufficiently fast for large scale adaptation. However, our
results suggest that, at high pressures and at a temperature of 120 C with normal
catalysts concentrations, 0.02% nickel, the rate of hydrogenation is much slower
than normally observed (9).
Another approach to reducing trans-acids involves electrochemical hydrogena-
tion with a palladium catalyst in a solid-state electrolyte reactor (10) where about
50% reduction in trans-was observed compared with nickel at iodine values of
about 90.

4. THE TRANS-FAT ISSUE

Most unsaturated fatty acids in naturally occurring edible oils and fats contain
carbon chains with double bonds in the cis-configuration. The trans-geometric
isomers in unsaturated oils, and the fats produced from them, are a result of indus-
trial processing at elevated temperatures such as physical refining, deodorization,
and, particularly partial hydrogenation of the unsaturated oils. The amount of
trans-fatty acids (TFA) formed is influenced by the duration and the temperature
of processing and the initial degree of unsaturation. As a result of the presence
of double bonds, unsaturated oils are more chemically reactive than saturated
fats, and the reactivity increases with the number of double bonds. Thus, unsatu-
rated oils, and especially polyunsaturated oils, are extremely vulnerable to heat,
oxygen, and light. Consequently, they are not suitable for deep-frying and for the
preparation of foods that are stored, such as snack foods.
392 HYDROGENATION: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

Catalyst

Vacuum unit
Steam

Steam
Dryer-
Bleach
NaOH Reactor
filter
Bleach earth Polling stear

Oil Citric
acid

Bleacher Spent bleach earth Interesterified oil

Cooling

To refining

Figure 4. The chemical interesterification process.

When these oils are partially hydrogenated (i.e., when hydrogen atoms are
added to some of the unsaturated sites on the carbon chain in the presence of
heat and a metal catalyst), the number of double bonds is reduced. The melting
point and oxidative stability increase and the liquid oil is converted to a semisolid
or solid resistant to oxidation and rancidity. In addition, some of the double bonds
that are normally in the cis-configuration change into the trans-configuration.
The consumption of foods high in TFA has been shown to raise low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL or ‘‘bad’’ cholesterol), which increases the risk of
developing coronary heart disease (CHD). This prompted the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) to require mandatory labeling of the trans-fat content in
foods. Food manufacturers have to comply by January 1, 2006. The FDA’s chemical
definition of TFA or trans-fats (TF) is ‘‘unsaturated fatty acids that contain one or
more isolated (i.e., nonconjugated) double bonds in the trans-configuration.’’
The one food product that may be influenced the most by trans-fat concerns is
margarine. Obviously, margarine must be a solid product, and this product cannot
be replaced by liquid oils with improved stability. The most probable replacement
for hydrogenation for margarine oils is interesterification. A chemical interesteri-
fication system is depicted in Figure 4. Although the chemical interesterification
process is over 50 years old, it is coming back into popularity to process low
trans-solid products.
A new technology, an alternative to chemical interesterification, namely enzy-
matic interesterification is emerging. The process was introduced in the United
States in 2003. This process is patented by Novozymes. Figure 5 depicts this
process in a simplified form.
Again, an interesterification system will have higher capital and operating costs,
and a lower productivity than the hydrogenation process. Will food processors pay
 THE TRANS-FAT ISSUE 393

Feed Product
Tank Tank

Small Reactors
in series

Figure 5. The enzymatic interesterification process.

the higher price for interesterified margarine oils? It remains to be seen, and again,
it will be driven by consumer concerns.
Another good alternative for making margarine oils will be by the use of high-
stearate (high stearic-acid) soybean oil (14, 15). High-stearate soybean oil is geneti-
cally altered to have a higher (approximately 22%) stearic acid content. With a
small amount (approximately 3%) of near-zero-IV soybean oil (zero trans-) added,
a good tub margarine can be made. To make a stick margarine, the high-stearate
soybean oil can be fractionated, with a high percentage of the stearine portion going
into the stick margarine formulation.
The author is developing (mid-2004) zero trans-, no hydrogenation, no inter-
esterification, no modification of any kind, tub and stick margarines. The formula
will include specially processed soybean oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, or mid-oleic
sunflower seed oil, and double-fractionated palm oil, or double-fractionated cotton-
seed oil. The products are proprietary for now.
The leading manufacturer of prepared poultry products is changing (mid-2004)
to a blend of lightly hydrogenated soybean oil and corn or cottonseed oil. This
offers good fry-life while being zero trans-per serving size. The hydrogenated
soybean oil lowers the price of the blend as a result of the rising cost of the highly
stable liquid oils.
The genetically altered oils, 3% linolenic acid, and now 1% linolenic acid
soybean oil, may become popular as zero trans-frying fats, as the size of the crop
for these seeds advances. These oils would be zero trans- and no hydrogenation.
As touted by the ‘‘Better Bean Initiative,’’ the 3% linolenic variety could become
the mainstream variety, requiring no identity preservation. (Note: If 3% linolenic
acid soybean oil is lightly hydrogenated, less trans-would be produced because
of the lower initial linolenic acid content).
One must understand that the interesterification process, chemical or enzymatic,
is of no value in making heavy-duty frying fats. The high percentage of unsaturated
oil, even with interesterification and addition of near-zero IV fat to provide plasti-
city, is still unstable under heavy-stress frying conditions.
The most logical zero trans-frying fats are the naturally stable oils, such as
cottonseed oil, corn oil, peanut oil, and mid-oleic sunflower seed oil. The use of
these oils increased dramatically in 2003 and early 2004 for this purpose. Already
in limited supply, this heavy demand will dramatically increase the price of these oils.
394 HYDROGENATION: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

The leading manufacturer of household shortening (and frying fat) is intro-

ducing (mid-2004) a new formula made up of lightly hydrogenated soybean oil,
high palmitic refractioned cottonseed oil (45% palmitic), and a low percentage of
zero IV soybean or cottonseed oil (near-zero IV is zero trans-). This product
provides zero trans-per serving size of a food product, and no interesterification
is needed.
A new zero trans-, no hydrogenation, no modification of any kind, rich in
omega-3 fatty acids, RBD soybean oil frying fat has been developed (patented)
by Carolina Soy Products (Warsaw, North Carolina). Extensive fry tests prove
that this oil has a fry life equal to, and often better, than the heavy-duty hydro-
genated (high trans-) frying fats. The secret to this process is in the processing,
not modification. This soybean oil (regular variety) is extruded and expeller-
pressed, no solvents, no harsh chemicals, and is physically refined.

5. HYDROGEN SUPPLY FOR HYDROGENATION

For laboratory and pilot plant hydrogenation, high-pressure hydrogen gas cylinders
can be used. For large industrial hydrogenation systems, either liquid hydrogen is

Figure 6. Steam/Methane Reforming Plant HYDRO-CHEM Processing, Subsidiary of Linde

AG. (This figure is available in full color at http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/biofp.)
 REFERENCES 395

Export Steam
Product Fuel H2
Product

3
2
9

6
Feed
Demin
4 Water
1
5

Figure 7.

stored on site, or there is an on-site hydrogen gas-generating plant. Justification on

using liquid hydrogen is dependent on the proximity of the liquid hydrogen
manufacturing facility, and on the contract the hydrogen manufacturer is willing
to negotiate. Often, particularly for a new plant, installation of an on-site hydrogen-
generating plant can be justified. A typical high-capacity hydrogen-generating plant
is shown in Figure 6.
Needless to say, there will continue to be a need for hydrogenation for some
products, certainly for coating fats, cocoa butter substitutes, cake icing, and cookies
and crackers. These products, often blended with sweeteners, will probably become
indulgence foods, to be used sparingly. The main fats and oils in the diet must be
low trans-, lower saturated fat, and with a minimization of hydrogenation. Although
offering challenges to the fats and oils manufacturer and food processor/food
service, these challenges should be welcomed and embraced to improve the health
of mankind.

REFERENCES

1. D. R. Erickson and M. D. Erickson, in D. R. Erickson, E. H. Pryde, T. L. Mounts,

O. L. Brekke, and R. A. Falb, eds., American Soybean Association Monograph, Handbook
of Soy Oil Processing and Utilization, AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1980, pp. 218–
238.
396 HYDROGENATION: PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

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Processing and Utilization, AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1980, pp. 193–214.
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Champaign, Illinois, 1994.
6. J. C. Cowan, Soybean Digest, 26(12); 48–53 (1966).
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(2000).
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