77–18 STATIC ELECTRICITY

7.3 Generation and Dissipation of Charge in Liquids. smaller than this range, depending on flow rate and process-
ing conditions.
7.3.1* Charge Generation. Charge separation occurs when
Conductive liquids, defined as having conductivities
liquids flow through pipes, hoses, and filters, when splashing
greater than 104 pS/m, do not pose a hazard due to static elec-
occurs during transfer operations, or when liquids are stirred
tric charge accumulation in typical hydrocarbon and chemical
or agitated. The greater the area of the interface between the
processing and handling operations. Liquids having conduc-
liquid and surfaces and the higher the flow velocity, the
tivities of 50 pS/m to 104 pS/m are considered semiconduc-
greater the rate of charging. The charges become mixed with
tive by this recommended practice.
the liquid and are carried to receiving vessels where they can
The charging characteristics of many industrial liquids,
accumulate. The charge is often characterized by its bulk
particularly non-polar hydrocarbons, are the result of trace
charge density and its flow as a streaming current to the vessel.
contaminants that are present in the liquid, sometimes in con-
(See Figure 7.3.1.)
centrations less than 1 part per million (ppm). Thus, indus-
trial liquids can become more or less conductive by orders of
FIGURE 7.3.1 Examples of charge generation in liquids. magnitude, depending on the concentration of contaminants
(Walmsley, 1992, p. 33.) that result from process, storage, and handling practices.
Pipe Current carried by Conductive liquids that at first could appear to be safe can
liquid emerging present a significant hazard if isolated from ground by an insu-
from pipe lating container or if suspended in air. When isolated, essen-
+ + + + + + + + tially all charge on the conductive liquid can be released as an
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – incendive spark. When suspended as a mist, significant static
– electric fields can lead to incendive brush discharge.
– – – – – – – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + –
– – 7.3.3.1 In the petroleum industry, for tank loading and distri-
Counter current of the –
– bution operations involving petroleum middle distillates, liq-
charges flowing in
earth connection uids in the semiconductive category are handled as conductive
liquids. Such procedures are possible because regulations pro-
(a) Flow (pipe charging) hibit use of nonconductive plastic hoses and tanks and mul-
tiphase mixtures and end-of-line polishing filters are not
involved.
7.3.3.2 In general chemical operations, semiconductive liq-
uids represent a distinct category in which the tendency to
+ +– ++ + – + + accumulate charge varies greatly with the operation and with
+
+– + + + liquid conductivity. These operations can involve multiphase
+
+ ++ – + + – + mixtures, nonconductive tank linings, and microfilters, all of
+ + ++ – +
+ – + – + –+ which promote charge accumulation in equipment.
+ + –+ + – + +
No stirring, no charge Stirring; charges on liquid 7.4 Flow in Pipe, Hose, and Tubing.
and opposite charges on
solids but not in equal 7.4.1* Metal Piping Systems. All parts of continuous all-
(b) Agitation/stirring
amounts metal piping systems should have a resistance to ground that
does not exceed 10 ohms. A significantly higher resistance
could indicate poor electrical contact, although this will
7.3.2* Charge Relaxation. Static electric charge on a liquid
depend on the overall system. For flanged couplings, neither
in a grounded conductive container will dissipate at a rate that
paint on the flange faces nor thin plastic coatings used on nuts
depends on the conductivity of the liquid. For liquids with
and bolts will normally prevent bonding across the coupling
conductivity of 1 picosiemens per meter (1 pS/m) or greater,
after proper torque has been applied. Jumper cables and star
charge relaxation proceeds by exponential, or ohmic, decay,
washers are not usually needed at flanges. Star washers could
as described for semiconductive materials in 4.2.4. For liquids
even interfere with proper torquing. Electrical continuity of
with conductivity less than 1 pS/m, relaxation occurs more
the ground path should be confirmed after assembly and peri-
rapidly than would be predicted by the exponential decay
odically thereafter.
model. (See 4.2.5.) According to the Bustin relationship (see
Bonding wires might be needed around flexible, swivel, or
A.7.3.2), when low viscosity liquids (less than 30 × 10-6 m2/sec)
sliding joints. Tests and experience have shown that resistance
are charged, relaxation proceeds by hyperbolic decay. How-
in these joints is normally below 10 ohms, which is low enough
ever, for these same liquids, the exponential decay constant
to prevent accumulation of static charges. However, it is rec-
gives a conservative estimate for the relaxation time.
ommended that the manufacturer’s specifications be checked
7.3.3* Factors Affecting Liquid Charging. In grounded sys- or that these joints be inspected, because a few are fabricated
tems, the conductivity of the liquid phase has the most effect with insulating surfaces. When painted, slip flanges (lap
on the accumulation of charge in the liquid or on materials joints) using nonconductive gaskets can cause loss of continu-
suspended in it. A liquid is considered nonconductive (charge ity in the grounding path. This loss of continuity can be reme-
accumulating) if its conductivity is below 50 pS/m, assuming a died by using a conductive gasket, such as a flexible, graphite-
dielectric constant of 2. (See A.7.3.3 for a detailed discussion of filled, spiral-wound gasket or by installing a jumper wire across
this subject.) Appendix B lists values of conductivity for typical the joint.
liquids. What is important is that charge should decay from It should be ensured that bonding and grounding do not
the liquid fast enough to avoid ignition hazards. The accept- compromise sections of pipe that are supposed to be isolated.
able conductivity in any particular application can be larger or For example, insulating flanges could have been installed to

2000 Edition