UNIT 23 LINKING 1.

Adding

(BOTH)... AND ALSO AS WELL TOO AS WELL AS

ALIKE BESIDES APART FROM IN ADDITION
(TO) WHAT IS MORE MOREOVER FURTHERMORE NOT
ONLY ... BUT ALSO ... EITHER...OR NEITHER...NOR ON
(THE) ONE HAND ... ON THE OTHER HAND

1. Both ... and, alike, also, as well (as) and too

a) To join two clauses we can use and, also and as well as. Since these co-ordinators connect
clauses, they do not normally start a sentence. As well and too come at the end of clauses.
Plenty of bars, cafes and restaurants line the streets.
Like many children, David was fond of sugary foods and liked ice-cream.
I laughed, and then he laughed too/as well.
In both India and Nepal, Ganges susu are hunted and killed for their oil.
The magazine contains the latest gossip and news of parties, as well as interviews.
As well as A-level history and English, she is studying French and performing arts.
The change costs jobs, as well as being more expensive in the long run.

b) Alike can be used immediately after two nouns.

Radicals and conservatives alike have become politically mobilized.
(NOT Radicals and conservatives have become politically mobilized alike.)
Pound is often a very funny writer, in verse and prose alike.

2. Not only ... but

a) Not only … but can be used with direct word order or inversion. Inversion is more formal.
Friendships not only give us the security of being in a group, but also pleasure.
Friendships not only give us the security of being in a group, but pleasure too/as well.
Not only does yoga calm and vitalize both body and mind, but it can also increase
your brain power.

Note: When not only comes before a verb, there are two ways to use it:
She not only plays the piano but also the violin. OR
She does not only play the piano but also the violin.

b) If there are options to choose from, we can use either...or and or. When either and or are in
the same sentence, they must be followed by the same part of speech.
Each student may choose to concentrate on either Graphics or Photography.
I’m not sure now whether I want to work with adults or children.
I will either tell you what I have found out, or refuse to help.
(NOT I will either tell you what I have found out, or I will refuse to help.)

3. Either ... or and neither ... nor

If we want to list negative things, we can use neither ... nor, either ... or, neither, nor or either.
Either and either ... or are used with negation here. When (n)either and (n)or are in the same
sentence, they must be followed by the same part of speech.
Neither he nor I found this satisfactory.
He could neither confirm nor deny the rumour. OR
 He couldn’t either confirm or deny the rumour.
(NOT He could neither confirm nor could deny the rumour.)
He is not at home and he is not at work, either.
He is not at home and neither/nor is he at work.

4. On the one hand and on the other hand

e) On (the) one hand and on the other hand can also be used for listing. For a contrastive use,
see 24.5.
The new computer was a good buy. On (the) one hand, it is very fast and on the
other (hand), it is easy to operate. OR
The new computer was a good buy. It is very fast on (the) one hand, and it is easy to
operate on the other.

5. Apart from, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover and what is more

a) At the beginning of a sentence we can use also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover,
what is more with a comma (furthermore and moreover are rather formal).
He was really good-looking. Also,/Besides,/In addition, she liked his voice.
Young people today often find themselves unemployed. What is
more/Furthermore,/Moreover, they were not prepared for it at school and at home.

b) Apart from, as well as, besides and in addition to can be followed by a noun, the ing form
or a wh-word.
Apart from/As well as/In addition to/Besides teaching, he is involved in politics.

Note: Apart from can also mean except (for).

Apart from ice-skating and hockey, I was not keen on participating in sport.

Clauses of cause and result

BECAUSE AS SINCE FOR DUE TO OWING TO THANKS

TO AS A RESULT OF BECAUSE OF ON ACCOUNT OF ON
(THE) GROUNDS OF ON THE GROUNDS THAT THE REASON
FOR/THAT/WHY THE RATIONALE FOR/BEHIND

6. Because, as, since and for

a) The following conjunctions are used in clauses of cause: because, since, as, for. Commas
can be used before since, as and for.
The concert was cancelled because the lead singer was ill.
I decided to try to ignore him as/since I did not want anything to distract me.
She didn’t really notice him, for she was trying to concentrate on the music.

b) At the beginning of the sentence because, as and since can be used, but not for.
Because/As/Since the lead singer was ill, the concert was cancelled.
(NOT For the lead singer was ill, the concert was cancelled.)

7. As a result of, because of, due to, owing to, thanks to and on account of
After as a result of, because of, due to, owing to, thanks to and on account of, only nouns, the
ing form and wh-words can be used. After the verb be, due to is used, whereas we tend to use
owing to after other verbs.
As a result of/Because of their body size, small cats do not need to hunt very often.
 Thanks to your determination, we have achieved our goal.
Her weakness was due to a lack of sleep.
(NOT Her weakness was owing to a lack of sleep.)
The première had to be postponed owing to the sudden death of the king.
Due to/Owing to the fact that most of his time was spent working with pigeons, he
got to know them quite well.
Mountains were given names by the local people on account of the strangeness of
their formations.

8. On grounds of and on the grounds that

On (the) grounds of is used with nouns, the ing form and wh-words, while on the grounds that
is used with a clause. They both mean ‘valami alapján’ in Hungarian.
Our laws do not discriminate on (the) grounds of sex or race.
Modern medicine is sometimes rejected on the grounds that it is inefficient.

9. Present participle
The cause of something can also be expressed by using the present participle, where the
participle refers to the subject of the second clause. If the clauses have two different subjects,
both of them should be mentioned. See also 16.6.
Being curious, I asked him about it. OR
Because I was curious, I asked him about it.
(NOT Because being curious, I asked him about it.)
My father being a railwayman, we used to travel by train all the time.

10. Reason
To express that something happened because of something else, at the beginning of a sentence
we use the reason for followed by a noun, the ing form or a wh-word; and the reason that or
the reason why followed by that clause. Also, in more formal language the rationale
for/behind can be used, followed by a noun, the ing form or a wh-word.
The reason for their argument was the apple tree.
(NOT The reason of their argument was the apple tree.)
The reason that/why they argued was the apple tree.
The rationale for/behind their decision is not evident.

11. All the more and none the less

All the + comparative form of the adjective (‘annál inkább’ in Hungarian) and none the +
comparative form of the adjective (‘semmivel sem’ in Hungarian) can explain the result of
something.
This stream of obscene language was all the more strange coming from such an
innocent-looking person.
The disaster was all the more shocking because people had come to believe that such
things didn’t happen.
The party was not as successful as in previous years but it was none the less
enjoyable.

Consequence

SO THEREFORE THUS HENCE AS A RESULT

CONSEQUENTLY AS A CONSEQUENCE
12. Consequently, so, that is why, therefore and thus
To express consequence, we can use so, that is why, as a consequence, as a result,
consequently, therefore, thus and hence at the beginning of a clause. As a consequence, as a
result, therefore, thus and hence are more formal.
I don’t know what to do, so I came to you for advice.
I don’t know what to do. That is why/So I came to you for advice.
He was concentrating on his career. As a consequence,/As a result,/Consequently, he
didn’t have time for his family.
Ideas need to be put into action. Therefore/Thus/Hence we need to consider a new
model of decision making.

Clauses of comparison

13. As … as structures
a) As ... as can be used with adjectives and adverbs as well. (So ... as can only be used in
negative sentences.)
A child’s imagination is as big as it’s allowed to be.
(NOT A child’s imagination is so big as it’s allowed to be.)

Note: If the verbs in the clauses are the same, the main verb can be omitted in the second
clause.
The world’s food problem is as big as its medical one (is).
He spoke to her as kindly as he could (speak).

b) In negation so ... as can be used just like as ... as.

He is not as creative as his sister. OR He is not so creative as his sister.

c) When just, twice, ten times etc. come before the comparative structure, so is not to be used.
She was very hungry and ate twice as much as usual.
(NOT She was very hungry and ate twice so much as usual.)

d) When the adverb has a negative meaning (e.g. nearly, half), both so and as are correct.
His later books are not nearly as/so good as his earlier ones.

Note: So and such can be followed by to infinitive, too. See 17.9.e.

14. So and such

If we want to emphasise a noun and/or an adjective, we can use so and such followed by that
clause. So is generally used with adjectives, while such with (adjectives +) nouns.
a) After ‘so + adjective’ that can be omitted.
He became so drunk (that) his friend had to carry him out in his arms.
(NOT He became such drunk (that) his friend had to carry him out in his arms.)

b) We can use ‘such + a + (adjective) + singular countable noun’ or ‘so + adjective + a +

singular countable noun’. The latter is more formal and thus less frequent.
The appeal for donations had such a poor response (that) the project was abandoned.
OR
The appeal for donations had so poor a response (that) the project was abandoned.

c) Such is used with uncountable nouns, but not so.

 None of the us has seen such mild weather in winter.
(NOT None of the us has seen so mild weather in winter.)

d) Such is used with plural countable nouns, but no so.

The test included such difficult questions that we couldn’t give an answer.
(NOT The test included so difficult questions that we couldn’t give an answer.)

e) However, when the determiners much, many, little, or few come before the noun, so is to
be used instead of such. See also 6.11.
How could he learn so many languages?
(NOT How could he learn such many languages?)

15. That
That can be used (in the meaning ‘annyira’ in Hungarian) with an adjective, usually in
questions and negative sentences.
‘Was the film that good?’
‘No, it was not that good.’

16. More than

a) When comparing things, we can use either X times more + adjective/adverb + than or X
times as ... as. The exceptions are half and twice, where only the structure as ... as is
acceptable.
The test was ten times more difficult than I expected. OR
The test was ten times as difficult as I expected.
The test was twice as difficult as I expected.
(NOT The test was twice more difficult than I expected.)

b) If we want to emphasise the comparative adjective or adverb by repetition, we repeat it

using and.
The others seemed to be walking faster and faster.

c) However, if we would like to emphasise an adjective or an adverb whose comparative is

formed with more, we only repeat more.
She grew more and more tired and depressed as she walked back to the hotel.
They went more and more slowly.

Clauses of concession

BUT STILL YET HOWEVER NEVERTHELESS EVEN SO

NONETHELESS AT THE SAME TIME ALTHOUGH
THOUGH EVEN THOUGH EVEN IF DESPITE IN SPITE
OF FOR ALL + N WHILE WHEREAS

17. But, however, yet, still and even so

The conjunctions used in this kind of sentences are: but, even so, however, nevertheless,
nonetheless, still, yet.
a) But, however, still, yet can come in the middle of a sentence. We only put a comma before
but if the two clauses are long, but we usually put a comma before and after however. Also,
commas are used before yet and still except when they are preceded by and or but.
I tried to explain it to him but he was too young to understand.
 The economy remained stagnant, yet/still share prices rose 15 per cent last year.
I didn’t know what I was going to do and yet I had to do something.
There was a lot of us, but/and still we had to work long hours.
I accepted the job. Later, however, I regretted it.

b) Even so, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, still and yet are used to separate two sentences.
Nevertheless and nonetheless are formal. Here, there is a comma after each conjunction.
I was in no mood to write. However,/Yet,/Still,/Even so, when I had finished three
pages, they were all right!
(NOT Even though, when I finished three pages, they were all right!)
The viewpoint is somewhat narrow and sometimes the presentation is very one-sided.
Nevertheless,/Nonetheless, the book contains some useful and interesting material
and is certainly not a book to be ignored.

18. Although, though and even though

Although, even though, though are subordinators, so the sentence has to contain at least two
clauses. They stand at the beginning of a sub-clause, which can either precede or follow the
main clause.
Although/Even though/Though I felt sorry for him, I could do nothing. OR
I could do nothing although/even though/though I felt sorry for him.
(NOT But/However I felt sorry for him, I could do nothing.)

Note: If has the meaning although/even though/though, and it can be used in reduced clauses.
May … but can also be used in this meaning.
My room, if/though a bit small, is very cosy. OR
My room may be small, but it is very cosy. OR
Although/Even though/Though my room is a bit small, it is very cosy.

19. Despite, in spite of and for all

a) Despite and in spite of are followed by a noun, the ing form of a verb or a wh-word.
Despite the difficulties, everyone felt the event was going well.
In spite of the difficulties, everyone felt the event was going well.
(NOT Despite of the difficulties, everyone felt the event was going well.)
Despite being a western production, the film script was written by the east-west team.

b) ‘For all + noun’ means ‘valami ellenére’, too.

For all his communal effort, he was a strong family man. OR
In spite of/Despite his communal effort, he was a strong family man.

20. Even if
Even if has two meanings in Hungarian. If it follows an assertive clause, its meaning is ‘még
akkor is ha’; if it follows a negative one, it means ‘még akkor sem ha’.
Even if you hold an important position, you don’t have to be serious all the time.
I’m going to carry on and behave as I always do even if it doesn’t suit you.
I won’t forgive him even if he apologizes.

21. As, though, however and no matter

a) To express that it doesn’t matter what/how/where something is (‘bármennyire’, ‘bármi’ in
Hungarian) we use much as, whatever or no matter what.
Much as I had enjoyed my adventure, it was good to be back home.
 Whatever the future holds for him, he has already ensured that his name will for ever
be written in history books. OR
No matter what the future holds for him, he has already ensured that his name will
for ever be written in history books.
Note: After whatever, the verb be can be left out.
Whatever your taste in furnishings; classic, country or contemporary, you’ll find
exactly what you want.

b) With adjectives and adverbs we can use however + adjective/adverb, no matter how +
adjective/adverb, or adjective/adverb + as/though.
Tired as she was now, she didn’t give up. OR
Tired though she was now, she didn’t give up. OR
However tired she was now, she didn’t give up. OR
No matter how tired she was now, she didn’t give up.
Before you know it you’ve lost sight of him, fast as/though your reaction might be.
Loudly as/though he spoke, no one could hear him.

c) No matter can be used with other interrogative words, such as what, when, where etc.
No matter when you arrive, call us.
No matter whether a person is a Muslim, a Jew, a Hindu or an atheist, they can be
moral.
Flirting with racism is sick, no matter who does it.

d) Try can be used with may followed by a clause in present tense while might is either
followed by a clause in present or past tense, to mean ‘although … may/might try’.
Try as she may, she cannot comment on this.
Try as I might, I can attach no definite meaning to this sentence.
Try as he might, he could not get those two incidents out of his mind.

Exercises

1. Rewrite each of the following sentences beginning as shown so that the meaning stays the
same.

1. We remember what we know and also who we are.

We not ...
2. She had a headache. Still, she tried to concentrate.
Despite …
3. No matter what we do, we cannot win every case.
Try …
4. I’ve done everything as you ordered it. However, there is one small complication.
Even ...
5. The customer’s problem may not be so urgent, but you should find a solution immediately.
Even ...
6. She could not cook and she could not sew either.
She could neither ...
7. I did not want him to notice me so I came out quietly.
As ...
8. Last year we were able to assist nearly a hundred families because you were so generous.
Thanks ...
9. He had an interest in technology, but he was also keen on the arts, especially music and
painting.
Apart ...
10. Although now she is successful, she hasn’t really changed.
For all ...

2. Fill in the gaps with the suitable word(s) from the box. Be careful, there are some that you
do not need.

all the more alike and as well both but either for
for all however of or since so though yet

1. We are Europeans and ___ we are separated from Europe ___ physically ___
psychologically.
2. She used to write for money. Now, ___ , she’s writing for her soul.
3. I would just ask people to forgive me really and to forgive my wife ___ .
4. I’m now looking for a job, ___ part-time ___ full time.
5. The concert was ___ remarkable because there were a hundred singers.
6. ___ her efficiency and intelligence, she wasn’t the right person for the job.
7. ___ we needed someone to do the administration, we employed a young man.
8. I always did a lot of running and I think that was the reason ___ my injuries.
9. Alternative medicine is becoming increasingly popular. Even ___, finding your way around
the possibilities may be a problem.
10. Strange ___ it may seem, some people have more difficulty in expressing warm, loving
feelings than negative, angry ones.
11. Childhood illness can be upsetting for children and parents ___ .

3. Write A if only sentence A is correct, B if only B, C if both and D if neither of the sentences
are correct.

1. A) Women are prescribed tranquillizers about three times as often as men.

B) Women are prescribed tranquillizers about three times more often than men.

2. A) His collarbone hurt so much that he could neither lie nor could sit comfortably.
B) His collarbone hurt so much that he could neither lie nor sit comfortably.

3. A) They protested against the trial on the grounds that it was political.
B) They protested against the trial on account that it was political.

4. A) They called for the annulment of the elections on grounds of fraud.

B) They called for the annulment of the elections on the grounds of fraud.

5. A) His voice was none the less frightening for all its softness.
B) For his voice was soft, it was none the less frightening.

6. A) The factory’s problems were owing to lack of sales.

B) The factory’s problems were due to lack of sales.

7. A) Even though we specifically asked, we were never told of any side effects.
B) Even so we specifically asked, we were never told of any side effects.
8. A) However she was deeply fond of Liz’s twin girls, she was too busy to have any children
of her own.
B) Though she was deeply fond of Liz’s twin girls, she was too busy to have any children of
her own.

9. A) And then, on top of so bad news, came another message.

B) And then, on top of such a bad news, came another message.

10. A) He tasted the meal and it was not nearly so bad as he had first supposed.
B) He tasted the meal and it was not nearly as bad as he had first supposed.