KADUNASTATEUNI

VERSI
TY

FACULTYOFARTS

DEPARTMENTOFENGLI
SHANDDRAMA

COURSECODE
ENG301

COI
RSETI
TLE
Cont
empor
aryEngl
i
shUsage

ASSI
GNMENT
"
Cri
ti
cal
l
ycompar
ewi
thr
elev
antexamplethest
ruct
ureofOl
dand
ModernEngl
ish.
"

COURSECO-
ORDI
NATORS
Dr
.(
Mrs)Hanat
uKwasaw

COMI
LEDBYGROUPTHREE

SUBMI
TTEDON
14THSEPTEMBER,
2021.
 GROUPTHREEMEMBERS

S/
N NAMES MATRI
CNO. SI
GN
1 MuhammadAmi
na KASU/
18/
ENG/
1001

2 MuhammadMar
yam KASU/
18/
ENG/
1007

3 HamzaGl
ory KASU/
18/
ENG/
1008

4 Lawal
Dor
casWashi
ri KASU/
18/
ENG/
1012

5 Bul
usSy
lvi
aSal
ome KASU/
18/
ENG/
1021

6 I
saHaf
sat KASU/
18/
ENG/
1043

7 Saf
iyatAbdul
l
ahi KASU/
18/
ENG/
1047

8 BakoI
gany
a KASU/
18/
ENG/
1052

9 I
brahi
m Mai
munat
uDal
hat KASU/
18/
ENG/
1061
 TABLEOFCONTENT

I
ntr
oduct
ion-
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Hi
stor
yofEngl
i
shLanguage-
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-Ol
dEngl
i
sh-
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-Mi
ddl
eEngl
i
sh-
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-

-
Modem Engl
i
sh-
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THESTRUCTUREOFOLDENGLI
SHANDMODERNENGLI
SH

-
Alphabet
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-
Nouns-
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-
Ver
bs-
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Gender

-
Adv
erbs-
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Sy
ntaxofol
dandnewEngl
i
sh-
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Pr
efi
xandsuf
fi
x--
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Concl
usi
on-
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ThehomeofEngl
i
sh(
map)-
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Ref
erences-
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I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Languagei
sseenasasubj
ectofst
udyt
hatpost
ulat
esi
tscl
i
nical
anal
ysi
sint
ermsof

l
ayer
swhi
chconst
it
utei
t.Thesel
ayer
sorcomponent
sar
efi
vei
nnumber
;phonet
ics,

phonol
ogy
,mor
phol
ogy
,sy
ytaxandsemant
ics;
soci
oli
ngui
sti
csi
stakenbysome

aut
hor
sast
hel
ayer
.

Languagei
sonapat
hofconst
antchange.
Thus,
languagei
snotst
ati
c.Howev
er,

changesonl
yoccuri
nagr
adual
scal
eorpr
ocess.
Thepr
onunci
ati
on,
grammarand

v
ocabul
aryofal
anguagear
eal
mostal
way
saf
fect
edasar
esul
toft
hischange.New

wor
dsar
ecr
eat
ed,
oldwor
dsar
efor
got
tenandst
il
lot
herwor
dschangei
nmeani
ng.

Whent
hesamewor
disspel
l
eddi
ff
erent
lyi
ndi
ff
erentt
imeper
iods,
iti
sani
ndi
cat
ionof

t
hef
actt
hatachangei
npr
onunci
ati
onei
therhast
akenpl
aceori
saboutt
odoso

Languagepr
ovi
desi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hei
dent
it
yofpeopl
e.Thus,
languagei
sa

r
efl
ect
ionoft
her
eal
i
tiesoft
hepeopl
ethatl
i
vedi
ndi
ver
sesoci
eti
esandt
heper
iodsof

humansoci
ety
.Mor
eov
er,
languagechanget
ell
sussomet
hingaboutourownr
eal
i
ty;
it

conv
eyswhati
sinf
ashi
onandwhati
saboutt
ofal
li
ntodi
suseasr
egar
dsl
anguage.

Awayt
oaccumul
ateunder
standi
ngofhowal
anguagehasdev
elopedt
hroughoutt
he

cour
seofhi
stor
yist
ocompar
epar
all
elt
ext
sthator
igi
nat
efr
om di
ff
erentt
imeper
iods..

I
nthi
sconnect
ion,
theext
entoft
ransf
ormat
iont
hatEngl
i
shhasunder
gonebecomes

ev
identwhent
hesamet
ext
sar
ejuxt
aposed.

Thepr
ogr
essi
vedecayofi
nfl
ect
ionsi
sonl
yoneoft
hedev
elopment
sthatmar
ktheev
olut
ionof

Engl
i
shi
nit
svar
iousst
ages.Weshal
ldi
scussi
nthei
rpr
operpl
acet
hechar
act
eri
sti
cst
ruct
ure

ofOl
dEngl
i
shandModer
nEngl
i
sh.
 HI
STORYOFENGLI
SHLANGUAGE

Thehi
stor
ical
backgr
oundofEngl
i
shl
anguager
eal
l
yst
art
edwi
tht
hear
ri
val
oft
het
hree

Ger
mani
ctr
ibeswhoi
nvadedBr
it
aindur
ingt
he5t
hcent
uryAD.Theset
ri
bes,
theAngl
es,

t
heSaxonsandt
heJut
es,
crossedt
heNor
thSeaf
rom whatt
odayi
sDenmar
kand

nor
ther
nGer
many
.Att
hatt
imet
hei
nhabi
tant
sofBr
it
ainspokeaCel
ti
clanguage.But

mostoft
heCel
ti
cspeaker
swer
epushedwestandnor
thbyt
hei
nvader
s,mai
nlyi
nto

whati
snowWal
es,
Scot
landandI
rel
and.TheAngl
escamef
rom Engl
alandandt
hei
r

l edEngl
anguagewascal
l isc,
from whi
cht dsEngl
hewor andandEngl
ishar
eder
ived.

Engl
i
shi
saWestGer
mani
clanguageor
igi
nat
ingi
nEngl
and,
andt
hef
ir
stl
anguagef
or

mostpeopl
einAust
ral
i
a,Canada,
theCommonweal
thCar
ibbean,
Irel
and,
NewZeal
and,

t
heUni
tedKi
ngdom andt
heUni
tedSt
atesofAmer
ica(
alsocommonl
yknownast
he

Angl
ospher
e).I
tisusedext
ensi
vel
yasasecondl
anguageandasanof
fi
cial
language

t
hroughoutt
hewor
ld,
especi
all
yinCommonweal
thcount
ri
essuchasSr
iLanka,
Indi
a,

Paki
stanandSout
hAf
ri
ca,
andi
nmanyi
nter
nat
ional
organi
sat
ions.Moder
nEngl
i
shi
s

somet
imesdescr
ibedast
hegl
obal
li
nguaf
ranca.Engl
i
shi
sthedomi
nanti
nter
nat
ional

l
anguagei
ncommuni
cat
ion,
sci
ence,
busi
ness,
avi
ati
on,
ent
ert
ainment
,radi
oand

di
plomacy
.Engl
i
shi
soneofsi
xof
fi
cial
languagesoft
heUni
tedNat
ions.

TheEngl
i
shv
ocabul
aryhaschangedconsi
der
abl
yov
ert
hecent
uri
es.Ger
mani
cwor
ds

(
gener
all
ywor
dsofGer
man,
ort
oal
esserext
ent
,Scandi
nav
ianor
igi
n)whi
chi
ncl
udeal
l

t
hebasi
cssuchaspr I
onouns(,my,
you,
it)andconj
unct
i and,
ons( or,
but)t
endt
obe

shor
tert
hant
heLat
inat
ewor
dsofEngl
i
sh,
andmor
ecommoni
nor
dinar
yspeech.The

l
ongerLat
inat
ewor
dsar
eof
tenr
egar
dedasmor
eel
egantoreducat
ed.Howev
er,
the
excessi
veorsuper
fl
uoususeofLat
inat
ewor
dsi
s,att
imes,
consi
der
edbysomet
obe

ei
therpr
etent
ious(
asi
nthest
ereot
ypi
cal
pol
i
ceman'
stal
kof"
appr
ehendi
ngt
he

suspect
")oranat
temptt
oobf
uscat
eani
ssue.Geor
geOr
wel
l
'sessay"
Pol
i
ticsandt
he

Engl
i
shLanguage"cr
it
ici
sest
hisst
yleofwr
it
ing,
amongot
herper
cei
vedmi
susagesof

t
hel
anguage.AnEngl
i
shspeakeri
sinmanycasesabl
etochoosebet
weenGer
mani
c

andLat
inat
esy
nony comeorar
ms: ri
ve;
sightorvi
sion;
freedom orl
i
ber
ty.I
nsome

casest
her
eisachoi
cebet
weenaGer
mani
cwor
d(over
see)
,aLat
inwor
d(super
vise)
,

andaFr
enchwor
dder
ivedf
rom t
hesameLat
inwor
d(sur
vey)
.Ther
ichnessoft
he

l
anguagear
isesf
rom t
hev
ari
etyofdi
ff
erentmeani
ngsandnuancessuchsy
nony
ms

har
bour
,enabl
i
ngt
hespeakert
oexpr
essf
inev
ari
ati
onsorshadesoft
hought
.

Fami
l
iar
it
ywi
tht
heet
ymol
ogyofgr
oupsofsy
nony
mscangi
veEngl
i
shspeaker
sgr
eat
er

cont
rol
overt
hei
rli
ngui
sti
cregi
ste.Anexcept
iont
othi
sandapecul
i
ari
typer
hapsuni
que

t
oEngl
i
shi
sthatt
henounsf
ormeat
sar
ecommonl
ydi
ff
erentf
rom,
andunr
elat
edt
o,

t
hosef
ort
heani
mal
sfr
om whi
cht
heyar
epr
oduced,
theani
mal
commonl
yhav
inga

Ger
mani
cnameandt
hemeathav
ingaFr
enchder
ivedone.Exampl
esi
ncl deerand
ude:

veni
son;
cowandbeef
;orswi
ne/
pigandpor
k.Thi
sisassumedt
obear
esul
toft
he

af
ter
mat
hoft
heNor
mani
nvasi
on,
wher
eaFr
ench-
speaki
ngel
i
tewer
etheconsumer
s

oft
hemeat
,pr
oducedbyEngl
i
sh-
speaki
ngl
owercl
asses.Engl
i
shi
snot
edf
ort
hev
ast

si
zeofi
tsact
ivev
ocabul
aryandi
tsf
lui
dit
y.Engl
i
sheasi
l
yaccept
stechni
cal
ter
msi
nto

commonusageandi
mpor
tsnewwor
dsandphr
asest
hatof
tencomei
ntocommon

usage.Exampl
esoft
hisphenomenoni
ncl cooki
ude: e,I
nter
netandURL(
techni
cal

t
erms)
,aswel
lasgenr
e,über
,li
nguaf
rancaandami
go(
impor
tedwor
ds/
phr
asesf
rom

Fr
ench,
Ger
man,
moder
nLat
in,
andSpani
sh,
respect
ivel
y).I
naddi
ti
on,
slangof
ten
pr
ovi
desnewmeani
ngsf
orol
dwor
dsandphr
ases.I
nfact
,thi
sfl
uidi
tyi
ssopr
onounced

t
hatadi
sti
nct
ionof
tenneedst
obemadebet
weenf
ormal
for
msofEngl
i
shand

cont
empor
aryusage.

HI
STORI
CALPERI
ODSI
NTHEDEVELOPMENTOFENGLI
SHLANGUAGE

Accor
dingt
ovanGel
der
en(
2006:
10)
.t
hemaj
orsubper
iodst
hatEngl
i
shi
susual
l
y

di
vi
dedi
ntoar
e;Ol
dEngl
i
sh(
450-
1150)
,Mi
ddl
eEngl
i
sh(
1150-
15)
,Ear
lyModer
nEngl
i
sh

(
1500-
1700)
,Moder
nEngl
i
sh{
(1700-

THEOLDENGLI
SHPERI
OD(450-
1150)

TheEngl
i
shl
anguagei
sthoughtt
ohav
eit
sst
art
ingpoi
ntwi
tht
hecommencementof

t
heAngl
o-Saxonsset
tl
ementi
nBr
it
ain.TheRomanscont
rol
l
edBr
it
ainunt
il410.Att
hat

t
imet
heCel
tswer
ethenat
ivei
nhabi
tant
soft
heBr
it
ishI
sles,
andt
hei
rlanguage,
Cel
ti
c,

whi
chbel
ongst
otheCel
ti
clanguagef
ami
l
y,hasgi
venuspr
esent
-dayWel
sh,
Iri
shand

Gael
i
c(Bar
beretal
.2009:
106)
.TheCel
tsal
sospokeLat
in,
whi
chwast
hel
anguageof

t
heRomans.Howev
er,
dur
ingt
heRomandomi
nat
ion,
manyCel
tswer
edr
ive8noutof

Engl
and:
somef
led,
whi
l
eot
her
sendedupi
nsl
aver
y(Mi
l
es2005:
35)
.Ther
ewer
ehar
dly

anyGer
mani
ctr
ibesi
nBr
it
ainatt
hatt
ime,
butt
heyar
ri
vedsoonaf
tert
hedepar
tur
eof

t
heRomans.TheOl
dEngl
i
shper
iodbeganwi
tht
heset
tl
ementoft
heGer
mani
ctr
ibesi
n

449andl
ast
edf
orsev
eral
cent
uri
esunt
il1150.Theset
ri
bes(
i.
e.t
heAngl
es,
Saxons,

Jut
eset
c.)or
igi
nat
edf
rom nor
th-
westGer
many(
theSaxons)andf
rom t
heDani
sh
mai
nlandandi
sl
ands(
theAngl
es)
.Schol
arsar
enoti
nconsensusaboutt
heexactor
igi
n

oft
heJut
es.St
il
l,
ther
ewer
eot
herGer
mani
cgr
oupsi
nBr
it
ain,
e.g.t
heFr
isi
ansf
rom t
he

Net
her
landsandt
heSv
ebi
(Bar
beretal
.2009:
108)
.Byt
heendoft
he8t
hcent
ury
,

Ger
mani
ctr
ibeshadbegunt
oset
tl
eandoccupyal
mostal
lofEngl
and.

Someoft
heAngl
o-Saxonset
tl
ers,
notal
l
,adj
ust
edt
otheCel
tsandt
otheCel
ti
cli
fest
yle,

andasar
esul
t,Ger
mani
clanguageoft
heAngl
o-Saxonswasaf
fect
edbyt
heCel
ti
c

l
anguagesandal
sobyLat
in.

MI
DDLEENGLI
SH (
1150-1500)

Bet
ween1000and1200ADi
mpor
tantchangest
ookpl
acei
nthest
ruct
ureofEngl
i
shso

t
hatOl
dEngl
i
shbecameMi
ddl
eEngl
i
sh.TheMi
ddl
eEngl
i
shper
iodbegi
nswi
tht
he

Nor
manconquestofEngl
andi
n1066.LedbyWi
l
li
am t
heConquer
or,
theconquest

br
oughtf
ar-
reachi
ngchangest
otheEngl
i
shsoci
etyandcul
tur
e.Thel
anguagepeopl
e

spokeal
sochangeddr
ast
ical
l
yev
ent
houghnotov
erni
ght
,ofcour
se.

Theef
fect
soft
heNor
manConquestar
emor
epr
onouncedi
nvocabul
ary
.Al
thoughaf
ter

aboutahundr
edy
ear
sFr
enchceasedt
obet
hel
anguageofmanypeopl
einEngl
and,
it

cont
inuedt
obeasecondl
anguage.Ti
l
ltoday
,iti
sasecondl
anguagei
nEngl
andand

r
egar
dedast
heepi
tomeofel
eganceandsophi
sti
cat
ion.I
twasasi
gnofgoodbr
eedi
ng

i
nEngl
andt
ospi
ceone’
sconv
ersat
ionwi
thFr
enchwor
dsandFr
enchi
deas.I
nfact
,it

wasconsi
der
edt
hatonewasaucour
ant
.Whi
chmeanst
hispr
act
icei
sst
il
lwi
thusas

oneof
tenhear
sexpr
essi keal
onsl
i amode,
bour
geoi
sandpr
olet
ari
at.Thus,
all
sor
tsof
Fr
enchwor
dscamei
ntoEngl
i
sh.Ther
ewer
ewor
dst
hathav
etodowi
thgov
ernment
:

par
li
ament
,maj
est
y,t
reat
y,t
ax,
all
i
ance;
wor
dsaboutt
hechur
ch:
par
son,
ser
mon,

bapt
ism,
incense,
cruci
fi
x,r
eli
gion,
wor
dsf
orf
ood:
beef
,mut
ton,
bacon,
jel
l
y,peach,

l
emon,
cream,
biscui
t.Ther
ewer
eal
socol
ourwor
ds:
blue,
scar
let
,ver
mil
i
on;
househol
d

wor
ds:
chai
r,cur
tai
n,l
amp,
towel
,bl
anket
,par
lour
,pl
aywor
ds:
dance,
chess,
musi
c,

l
eisur
e,conv
ersat
ion;l
i
ter
arywor
ds:
stor
y,r
omance,
poet
,li
ter
ary
;lear
nedwor
ds:
study
,

l
ogi
c,gr
ammar
,noun,
sur
geon,
anat
omy
,st
omach.Ther
ewer
eal
soor
dinar
ywor
dsofal
l

ki
ndl
i
ke;
nice,
second,
ver
y,age,
bucket
,gent
le,
final
,faul
t,f
lower
,cr
y,count
,sur
e,mov
e.

Al
ltheseandmanymor
ewor
dspenet
rat
edi
ntot
heEngl
i
shLanguagebet
ween1100

and1500.Thi
sdi
dnothowev
ert
urnEngl
i
shi
ntoFr
ench.Engl
i
shr
emai
nedEngl
i
shi
n

soundst
ruct
ureandgr
ammaral
thought
hegr
ammaral
sof
eltsomei
nfl
uenceoft
he

cont
act
.Al
so,
thev
eryhear
toft
hev
ocabul
aryr
emai
nedEngl
i
shasmostoft
hehi
gh

f
requencywor
ds:
pronouns,
preposi
ti
on,
conj
unct
ionsandt
heauxi
l
iar
iesaswel
las

manyor
dinar
ynouns,
ver
bsandadj
ect
iveswer
enotr
epl
acedbyt
hebor
rowi
ngs.Thus,

Mi
ddl
eEngl
i
shwasst
il
laGer
mani
clanguagebuti
tdi
ff
eredf
rom ol
dEngl
i
shi
nsome

way
s:t
hesoundsy
stem andt
hegr
ammarchanged;
speaker
srel
i
edl
essoni
nfl
ect
ional

dev
icesandmor
eonwor
dor
derandst
ruct
uret
oexpr
esst
hei
rmeani
ng.

I
twasaper
iodofheav
yFr
enchi
nfl
uence.Thenewnobi
l
itybr
oughtt
hei
rcust
omsand

wayofl
i
feandNor
manFr
enchbecamet
heof
fi
cial
language.Lat
inwasal
soi
mpor
tant

ast
hel
anguageoft
hechur
ch.Engl
i
shdi
dnotdi
sappear
,butr
atherunder
wenta

si
gni
fi
cantpr
ogr
ess

Fr
enchhadani
mmensei
nfl
uenceont
heEngl
i
shv
ocabul
ary
.Ov
er10,
000wor
dswer
e
adopt
edt
heywer
ewor
dsassoci
atedwi
thadmi
nist
rat
ion,
fashi
onandsoci
all
i
fe:
crown,

st
ate,
gov
ernment
,si
r,madam,
cri
me,
judge,
sol
dier
,cour
t,ar
my,
dress,
coat
,di
nner
,

col
our
,towerandt
housandsofot
her
s.I
tisof
tenment
ionedt
hatwor
dsexpr
essi
ng

v
ari
ouski
ndsofmeatar
eofFr
enchor
igi
nwhi
l
ethewor
dsexpr
essi
ngani
mal
sar
eof

Ger
mani
cor
igi
n, g.beef–coworpor
e. k–pi
g.However
,Engl
i
sh,
thoughi
tsur
viv
edasa

v
ernacul
arandt
henat
ional
language,
wasdeepl
yaf
fect
edandt
her
efor
echangedaf
ter

t
heNor
manconquest
.Becausei
twasal
anguageoft
hecommonpeopl
eitbecame

si
mpl
i
fied;
thecasesy
stem ofnounsandadj
ect
ivesbecamesi
mpl
i
fied.Peopl
ecamet
o

r
elymor
eonwor
dor
derandpr
eposi
ti
onst
hanoni
nfl
ect
ional
endi
ngs.Thechangewas

al
soai
dedbychangesi
nsound

Thei
nfl
uenceongr
ammarwasnotasr
adi
cal
asonv
ocabul
ary
.Pr
obabl
ytheonl
yissue

wor
thment
ioni
ngher
eist
hewayadj
ect
iveswer
ecompar
ed.TheRomanceway

appear
ed,
ascompar
ati
vesandsuper
lat
iveswer
ecr
eat
edusi
ngmor
eandmost
.Al
so,

dur
ingt
heper
iod,
butnotasadi
recti
mpactofFr
ench,
Engl
i
shl
ostmuchofi
ts

gr
ammat
ical
compl
exi
ty,
decl
ensi
onsandconj
ugat
ionsgr
adual
l
ydi
sappear
edor

becamemuchmor
esi
mpl
e.Addi
ngt
heendi st
ng- omar
kpl
ural
nounsbecamea

st
andar
d,gr
ammat
ical
genderdi
sappear
ed.Ev
ent
houghear
lyMi
ddl
eEngl
i
shwr
it
ings

mayr
esembl
etheOl
dEngl
i
shones,
let
ter
sty
pical
fort
heol
derv
ari
antf
ell
outoff
avour

dur
ingt
heper
iodby1500,
Ƿƿhadbeensubst
it
utedbyWw,
ÞþandĐðbyThandbyGg.

Newdi
graphsoccur
red,
namel
y'Ch'
and'
sh'
.'
Uu'
and'
Vv'
wer
eusedi
nter
changeabl
y.

Asf
orpr
onunci
ati
on,
iti
snotdi
ff
icul
ttor
eadMi
ddl
eEngl
i
sht
ext
s.Ev
ent
hought
her
e

wasal
ackofspel
l
ingst
andar
ds,
itcanbesai
dthatwr
it
tenchar
act
ersanddi
graphshad
mor
eorl
essonl
yoner
eal
i
sat
ion.Ggbegant
obepr
onounced|
ɡ|,
|ʤ|
or|
ʒ|undert
he

i
nfl
uenceofFr
ench.Vowel
swer
eusual
l
ypr
onounced“
aswr
it
ten”
.Theschwasound

/
ə/appear
edi
nendi
ngs

TodayEngl
i
shi
slessi
nfl
ect
edt
hanGer
man,
anot
hermemberoft
heGer
mani
cgr
oupof

I
ndo-
Eur
opeanl
anguages,
per
hapsbecauseGer
manydi
dnotexper
ienceaNor
man

Conquest
.

MODERNENGLI
SH(
1700-t
il
ldat
e)

I
nEngl
andt
hedi
alectoft
heEastMi
dlandbecameaccept
edast
hel
i
ter
aryst
andar
d.

Thi
sdoesnotmeant
hatt
her
ewer
enoot
herdi
alect
s.I
nthepl
aysandnov
elsoft
he

ei
ght
eent
handni
net
eent
hcent
uri
est
her
ear
eof
tencount
rygent
lement
hatspeakt
hei
r

l
ocal
dial
ect
s.Butt
heEngl
i
shoft
heuppercl
assandt
heuppermi
ddl
ecl
asst
endedt
o

adoptauni
for
m st
andar
dwhi
chwasnur
tur
edi
nthepubl
i
cschool
s.Thepubl
i
cschool

Engl
i
shhasbeeni
dent
if
iedasav
ari
antoft
heSout
hEast
ernEngl
i
shandi
tbecamet
he

l
anguageoft
heuppercl
asswhat
everpar
toft
hecount
ryt
heycamef
rom.Educat
ion

t
her
efor
ehadast
andar
dizi
ngef
fectandbecamet
heagencyf
ort
het
ransmi
ssi
onofa

non-
local
i
zedf
orm ofEngl
i
shast
hepr
est
igi
ousf
orm.

By1770mov
ementbet
weengr
oupsbecameaccel
erat
edwhatwi
tht
hei
nvent
ionoft
he

st
eamshi
p,t
her
ail
way
,themot
orcarandt
heaer
opl
ane.Manbecamemor
emobi
l
eand

t
hisext
endedhi
sli
ngui
sti
cexposur
e.Ot
herdev
elopment
sli
ket
het
elephone,
ther
adi
o,

t
hesoundf
il
m andt
het
elev
isi
onal
lhel
pedt
ost
andar
dizeandspr
eadModer
nEngl
i
sh.
Theef
fectofal
ltheabov
eli
steddev
elopment
sont
hev
ocabul
arywasunpr
ecedent
ed.

Newobj
ect
s,newway
sofseei
ngt
hewor
ld,
newt
hingst
odoandnewt
hought
sbr
ought

newwor
dsi
ntot
hel
anguagesot
hatnowaday
sther
ear
ewor
dsl
i
kepsy
chedel
i
c,

spacel
as,
floppydi
scs,
comput
erese,
esper
ant
oet
c.Manynat
ivef
ormscombi
ned

pr
efi
xesandsuf
fi
xeswhi
chhav
ecomei
ntot
hel
anguaget
ofor
m newf
orms.Techni
cal

t
ermsf
rom sci
ent
if
icdev
elopment
shav
eal
soent
eredt
hel
anguage.Loanwor
dshav
e

al
soent
eredt
hel
anguageandwi
tht
hespr
eadofEngl
i
sht
oot
herpar
tsoft
hewor
ld

Moder
nEngl
i
shi
sful
lofbor
rowi
ngsf
rom ot
herl
anguages.Aswast
hecasewi
thNor
se,

Fr
enchandLat
inbor
rowi
ngst
hepr
ocessofbor
rowi
ngandt
hewor
dsbor
rowedt
hrow

somel
i
ghtont
henat
ureoft
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenEngl
andandt
hesecount
ri
es.Al
so,

i
nthel
astt
wohundr
edy
ear
s,l
oanwor
dsdonotseem t
ohav
ethecul
tur
almeani
ngt
hey

had.Forexampl
ethef
oll
owi
ngwor
dsbor
rowedf
rom Fr
enchdonothav
eexact
lyt
he

samecul
tur
almeani
ngandusaget
heyhad:
gui
l
lot
ine,
regi
me,
andepaul
ett
e.

I
tisi
nter
est
ingt
onot
ethatEngl
i
shhasr
esi
stedCel
ti
cloanwor
dsdespi
tet
hef
actt
hat

t
heyl
i
vecl
oset
otheCel
ti
ccommuni
ti
esandhav
eint
ermar
ri
edt
hroughoutt
he

per
iodwhenEngl
i
shhasbeenspokeni
nBr
it
ain.Yett
hespr
eadofEngl
i
sht
oot
herpar
ts

oft
hewor
ldhaspr
oducedot
herv
ari
eti
esofEngl
i
shsomeofwhi
char
espokenas

mot
hert
ongues.
 THESTRUCTUREOFOLDENGLI
SHANMODERNENGLI
SH

I
tiscl
eart
hatEngl
i
shl
anguage,
li
keev
eryot
herl
anguagei
sdy
nami
casi
tresponds

r
egul
arl
ytochanges.Di
achr
oni
cal
l
y,i
thasof
tenr
espondedt
oimmedi
acyofi
tsneed

amongi
tsuser
sint
imeandpl
ace.Begi
nni
ngf
rom t
heOl
dEngl
i
shper
iodt
hrought
othe

moder
nEngl
i
shusage.Engl
i
shl
anguagehasof
tenexhi
bit
edt
hel
argeposi
ti
onof

absor
bingchangesandcompl
yi
ngwi
tht
hei
mmedi
acyofi
tsusage.I
tiscl
eart
o

under
standt
hatt
heOl
dandModer
nfor
msar
edi
ff
erenti
nst
ruct
ureandsy
ntaxascan

beseeni
nthel
anguageofOl
dEngl
i
shwr
it
ersascompar
edwi
tht
hoseofmoder
n

wr
it
ers.Ther
ear
emar
kedsy
ntact
icandl
exi
cal
div
ergencebet
weent
heOl
dandModer
n

Engl
i
shf
orms.

Ol
dEngl
i
sh,
theancest
orofModer
nEngl
i
sh,
ori
ginat
edf
rom t
hedi
alect
sthatwer
e

spokenbyt
heGer
mani
ctr
ibesf
rom nor
thwestGer
manyandJut
landt
hati
nvaded

Br
it
aini
nthe5t
hcent
ury
.ThenameEngl
ishev
olv
edf
rom t
henameofoneoft
hese

t
ri
bes,
theAngl
eswhosehomel
andwast
heangul
ar(
hencet
hei
rname)coast
alr
egi
on

ofwhati
snowt
heGer
manst
ateofSchl
eswi
g-Hol
stei
n.Anot
heroft
heset
ri
beswast
he

Saxons;
andAngl
oSaxonsi
sthecommonnameusedf
ort
heGer
mani
ctr
ibeswho

conquer
edEngl
and.Ev
ent
ual
l
yEngl
i
shr
epl
acedt
heCel
ti
clanguagest
hatwer
e

domi
nanti
nBr
it
ainbef
oret
hesei
nvasi
ons,
andt
heyonl
ysur
viv
edi
nthemosti
sol
ated

ar
eas.Ol
dEngl
i
shwasact
ual
l
yav
erydi
ff
erentl
anguagef
rom Moder
nEngl
i
sh;
itdi
ff
ers

muchmor
efr
om i
tsmoder
ndescendantt
han,
fori
nst
ance,
Anci
entGr
eekdi
ff
ersf
rom

Moder
nGr
eek.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
muchoft
hebasi
cvocabul
aryofOl
dEngl
i
shi
smor
eor

l
essr
ecogni
zabl
eformoder
nspeaker
soft
hel
anguage.Her
ear
eaf
ewexampl
esofOl
d
Engl
i
shwor
dst
hatar
esi
mil
art
othei
rmoder
ncount
erpar
ts(
alt
houghsomet
imest
hei
r

meani
ngshav
echanged)
:

OLDENGLI
SH MODERNENGLI
SH

Wi
cu Week

Cy
ning Ki
ng

Scor
t Shor
t

gær
s gr
ass

eor
þe ear
th

deor deer(
ori
g.wi
l
dbeast
)

cni
ht. kni
ght(
ori
g.y
out
h)

andscaca enemy

beadur
inc wor
ri
or

bear
n chi
l
d(son)

beor
n man

bi
l
l swor
d

br
im ocean

caser
ee emper
or
deof
ol dev
il

eal
dor l
i
fe(
elder
)

f
olde ear
th,
soi
l

i
des woman

l
ufu l
ove

man cr
ime

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
oreal
i
zet
hatt
hespel
l
ingofOl
dEngl
i
shdi
ff
ersconsi
der
abl
yfr
om t
he

spel
l
ingofModer
nEngl
i
sh.Fori
nst
ance,
i cyni
n‘ ng’
thel
ett c’
er‘ i
spr
onouncedas/
k/,

t
hecombi
nat
i sc’
on‘ i scor
n‘ t’(
alsospel
l
edsceor
t)i
spr
onouncedas‘
sh’
,andt
he‘
y’

soundsl
i
ket
he/
u/i
nFr
enchort
he/
ü/i
nGer
man(
avowel
notf
oundi
nModer
nEngl
i
sh)
.

Fur
ther
mor
e,t
heexampl
esabov
eshowt
hatOl
dEngl
i
shusest
hel
ett
ers‘
æ’and‘
þ’t
hat

ar
enotusedi
nModer
nEngl
i
shany
mor
e.Toget
herwi
that
hir
dlet
ter(
ð),
theyl
ater

di
sappear
edf
rom t
heEngl
i
shor
thogr
aphy
.Thel
ett
ers‘
þ’(
cal
l
edt
hor
n)and‘
ð’(
cal
l
ed

et
h)wer
ebor
rowedf
rom t
heGer
mani
cruni
cscr
iptt
orepr
esentt
het
woconsonant
s

t
hatar
espel
l
ed‘
th’
inModer
nEngl
i
sh.Wi
thr
egar
dtot
her
uni
cscr
ipt
,itshoul
dbenot
ed

t
hati
tco-
exi
stedwi
tht
heLat
inal
phabeti
nEngl
andf
ormanycent
uri
esaf
tert
heAngl
o-

Saxonsadopt
edt
heChr
ist
ianr
eli
gion.Onl
yaf
terEngl
andwasconquer
edbyt
he

Nor
mans,
whobr
oughtt
heFr
enchl
anguaget
othecount
ry,
didt
her
unesf
inal
l
ygi
veway

t
oLat
inl
ett
ers.
I
nthe11t
hcent
ury
,Engl
andwasi
nvadedagai
n,t
hist
imebyt
heNor
mans.TheNor
mans

wer
edescendant
sfr
om Scandi
nav
ians(
Nor Nor
man=" th-
man"
)whohadset
tl
edi
nthe

par
tofFr
ancet
hati
snowknownasNor
mandy
.Al
thought
hei
rancest
orsofcour
se

spokeNor
se,
theyhadal
readyadopt
edt
hel
anguageandcul
tur
eoft
hei
rnewhomel
and

att
hatt
ime.So,
theNor
mansspokeFr
enchandt
hei
rlanguagewoul
dbecomet
he

l
anguageoft
her
uli
ngcl
assi
nEngl
andf
orsev
eral
cent
uri
es.I
twi
l
lbeobv
ioust
hatt
his

Fr
enchf
rom 11t
hcent
uryNor
mandydi
ff
eredf
rom Fr
enchasi
tisspokent
oday
.Some

bor
rowi
ngsf
rom Ol
dFr
encht
hatst
il
lexi
sti
nEngl
i
shar
enotusedi
nModer
nFr
ench

any
mor
e, mor
suchas‘ tgage’
(Moder
nFr hypot
ench‘ hèque’
),andmanyot
her
shav
e

changedmor
edr
ast
ical
l
yinFr
encht
hani
nEngl
i
sh.Anexampl
eis,
fori
nst
ance,
theOl
d

Fr war
ench‘ der
obe’
whi war
chbecame‘ drobe’
inModer
nEngl
i gar
shbut‘ der
obe’
in

Moder
nFr
ench.

Af
tert
heconquestofEngl
and,
Frenchbecamet
hel
anguageoft
hear
ist
ocr
acyandt
he

hi
ghercl
ergywhi
l
ethecommonpeopl
econt
inuedt
ospeakAngl
o-Saxon.Butnat
ural
l
y

Angl
o-Saxonbecameheav
il
yinf
luencedbyFr
enchi
nthecent
uri
esaf
tert
hei
nvasi
on;

manyt
housandsofFr
enchwor
dswer
ebor
rowed,
andEngl
i
shl
ostev
enmor
eofi
ts

i
nfl
ect
ional
char
act
er.Ev
ent
ual
l
ythear
ist
ocr
acybecamecompl
etel
yangl
i
cizedand

Engl
i
shemer
gedagai
nast
hel
anguageofal
lthei
nhabi
tant
sofEngl
and.Butal
though

Moder
nEngl
i
shi
sbasi
cal
l
yst
il
laGer
mani
clanguaget
heFr
enchi
nfl
uence(
andt
oa

l
esserext
entt
heScandi
nav
iani
nfl
uence)hascausedi
ttohav
eav
ocabul
aryt
hatdi
ff
ers

i
nmanyr
espect
sfr
om t
hatofi
tscont
inent
alr
elat
ives.Andduet
othi
sinsul
arposi
ti
on,

manyGer
mani
cwor
dsi
nEngl
i
shhav
ebecomepr
onouncedv
erydi
ff
erent
lyf
rom t
hei
r

cognat
esi
ntheot
herWest
ernGer
mani
c.
Ar
atherunf
ort
unat
eher
it
ageoft
heNor
mani
nvasi
oni
sthechaot
icspel
l
ingofModer
n

Engl
i
sh,
whi
chi
spar
tl
yduet
othef
actt
hati
sact
ual
l
yami
xtur
eoft
wov
erydi
ff
erent

sy
stems,
Angl
o-SaxonandFr
ench.Andi
nsomecasesschol
arsmadet
hesi
tuat
ionev
en

wor
sebyi
ntr
oduci
ngspel
l
ingsl
i i
sl
ke‘ and’
wit s’
han‘ t
hathasnev
erbeenpr
onounced

(
thi
swor
dor
igi
nat
esf
rom Ol
dEngl
i i
egl
sh‘ and’
andnotf
rom Ol
dFr i
sl
ench‘ e’
,whi
ch

i
ndeedl
osti
ts‘
s’ î
l
andbecame‘e’
inModer
nFr
ench)
.Anot
herexampl
eist
hewor
d

‘
whor
e’t
owhi
cht
hel
ear
nedmenaddeda‘
w’,
alt
hought
hiswor
d(or
igi
nal
l
yScandi
nav
ian)

hasal
way
sst
art
edwi
than‘
h’i
npr
onunci
ati
on(
Icel
andi
c‘hór
a’andDut
ch‘
hoer
’)
.The

Engl
i
shspel
l
ingdoeshav
eoneadv
ant
age,
fori
nst
ance,
thewor
d‘nat
ional
’i
seasi
l
y

r
ecogni
zedasader
ivat
i nat
onof‘ ion’
,ev
ent
hought
hef
ir
stv
owel
in‘
nat
ional
’i
s

pr
onounceddi
ff
erent
lyf
rom t
heonei
n‘nat
ion’
.Thi
swoul
dbel
essobv
iousi
naspel
l
ing

t
hatbet
terr
efl
ect
sthepr
onunci
ati
on(
e. nat
g.‘ ional
’ nayt
and‘ ion’
)

TheAl
phabet

Ol
dEngl
i
shwasf
ir
stwr
it
teni
nRunes.Ver
yfewexampl
essur
viv
ed(onl
yabout2000

i
nscr
ipt
ions)andt
heyconsi
stmai
nlyofscr
atchedmar
ksonwood,
boneorst
one.
.

Ol
dEngl
i
shwaswr
it
tenusi
nganal
phabetwhi
chi
smost
lyr
ecogni
zabl
etot
oday
's

r
eader
.Howev
er,
somel
ett
ersoft
heal
phabet
shav
ebeenl
ost
.

1.
þ=//asi
nthi
nk

2.ð=/ð/asi
nthen

3.
æ=/
æ/asi
nhat
.
Thecombi
nat
ionoft
heLat
inal
phabetandt
her
uni
cal
phabetofFut
hor
cresul
tedi
nthe

moder
nEngl
i
shal
phabet
.Someoft
headdi
ti
onsf
rom t
her
uni
cal
phabet
swer
e‘t
hor
n’

t
hathada‘
th’ wynn’
soundand‘ thatmadea‘
w’sound.Remembert
hatt
her
ewasno

l
ett
er‘
w’i
ntheLat
inal
phabet
.Int
heMi
ddl
eAges,
whent
hepeopl
einBr
it
ainceasedt
o

uset
heol
drunes,
thel
ett
ert
hor
nwasev
ent
ual
l
ysubst
it
utedby‘
th’
,andt
her
uni
c‘wy
nn’

became‘
uu’
thatl
aterev
olv
edi
nto‘
w.Lat
eri
nthesameper
iod,
thel
ett
ers‘
j
’and‘
u’wer
e

addedandbr
oughtt
henumberofl
ett
erst
o26.Howev
er,
thel
ett
ercombi
nat
ionsl
i
ke

‘
æ,’
‘œ’
andt
hesy
mbol
amper
sandwer
en'
ti
ncl
udedi
ntheal
phabet
.

MODERNENGLI
SHAPHABETS

I
nthe15cent
ury
,thepr
int
ingpr
esswasi
ntr
oducedt
oGr
eatBr
it
ainbyWi
l
li
am Caxt
on.

Byt
hist
ime,
theEngl
i
shl
anguagewasst
andar
dized.Fr
om bei
ngusedi
nter
changeabl
y,
t
hel
ett
ersVandUwer
esepar
ated,
wit
hthef
ormerbecomi
ngaconsonantwhi
l
eusi
ng

Uasav
owel
.

TheTabl
eAl
phabet
ical
l
,thef
ir
stdi
cti
onar
yinEngl
i
sh,
publ
i
shedbyRober
tCawdr
eyi
n

1604.Thel
ett
erJwasal
soaddedt
oModer
nEngl
i
sh,
dur
ingt
hist
imeaswel
l
.

TheNoun.

Thei
nfl
ect
ionoft
heOl
dEngl
i
shnouni
ndi
cat
esdi
sti
nct
ionsofnumber(
singul
apl
ural
)

andcase.Thecasesy
stem i
ssomewhatsi
mpl
ert
hant
hatofLat
inandsomeoft
he

ot
herI
ndo-
Eur
opeanl
anguages.Ther
eisnoabl
ati
ve,
andgener
all
ynol
ocat
iveor

i
nst
rument
alcase,
thesehav
ingbeenmer
gedwi
tht
hedat
ive.I
nthesamewayt
he

v
ocat
iveofdi
rectaddr
essi
sgener
all
yident
ical
wit
hthenomi
nat
ivef
orm.Thust
heOl
d

Engl
i
shnounhasonl
yfourcases.Theendi
ngsoft
hesecasesv
arywi
thdi
ff
erentnouns,
butt
heyf
all
int
ocer
tai
nbr
oadcat
egor
iesordecl
ensi
ons.Ther
eisav
owel
decl
ensi
on

andaconsonantdecl
ensi
on,
alsocal
l
edt
hest
rongandweakdecl
ensi
ons,
accor
dingt
o

whet
hert
hest
em endedi
nGer
mani
cinav
owel
oraconsonant
,andwi
thi
neachof

t
heset
ypest
her
ear
ecer
tai
nsubdi
vi
sions.Thest
emsofnounsbel
ongi
ngt
othev
owel

decl
ensi
onendedi
noneoff
ourv
owel
sinGer
mani
c(al
thought
hesehav
edi
sappear
ed

i
nOl
dEngl
i
sh)
:a,
ō,i
,oru,
andt
hei
nfl
ect
ionv
ari
esaccor
dingl
y.I
tisi
mpossi
bleher
eto

pr
esentt
hei
nfl
ect
ionsoft
heOl
dEngl
i
shnouni
ndet
ail
.Thei
rnat
uremaybegat
her
ed

f
rom t
woexampl
esoft
hest
rongdecl
ensi
onandoneoft
heweak:
stān(
stone)
,a

mascul
i
nea-
stem;
gief
u(gi
ft
),af
emi
nineō-
andhunt
a(hunt
er)
,amascul
i
neconsonant

st
em.For
msar
egi
venf
ort
hef
ourcases,
nomi
nat
ive,
geni
ti
ve,
dat
ive,
andaccusat
ive:

Si
ngul
ar N. st
ān gi
ef-
u hunt
-a

G. st
ā-es gi
ef-
e hunt
-an

D. st
ān-
e gi
ef-
e hunt
-an

A. st
ān gi
ef-
e hunt
-an

Pl
ural N. st
ān-
as gi
ef-
a hunt
-an

G. st
ān-
a gi
ef-
a hunt
-ena

D. st
ān-
um gi
ef-
um hunt
-um

A. st
ān-
as gi
ef-
a hunt
-an

I
tisappar
entf
rom t
heseexampl
est
hatt
hei
nfl
ect
ionoft
henounwasmuchmor
e

el
abor
atei
nOl
dEngl
i
sht
hani
tist
oday
.Ev
ent
hesef
ewpar
adi
gmsi
l
lust
rat
ecl
ear
lyt
he
mar
kedsy
nthet
icchar
act
erofEngl
i
shi
nit
sear
li
estst
age.

Gr
ammat
icalGender
.

Asi
nIndo-
Eur
opeanl
anguagesgener
all
y,t
hegenderofOl
dEngl
i
shnounsi
snot

dependentuponconsi
der
ati
onsofsex
.Al
thoughnounsdesi
gnat
ingmal
esar
eof
ten

mascul
i
neandt
hosei
ndi
cat
ingf
emal
esf
emi
nine,
thosei
ndi
cat
ingneut
erobj
ect
sar
e

notnecessar
il
yneut
er.St
ān(
stone)i
smascul
i
ne,
mōna(
moon)i
smascul
i
ne,
butsunne

(
sun)i
sfemi
nine,
asi
nGer
man.I
nFr
encht
hecor
respondi
ngwor
dshav
ejustt
he

opposi
tegender
s:pi
err
e(st
one)andl
une(
moon)ar
efemi
ninewhi
l
esol
eil
(sun)i
s

mascul
i
ne.Of
tent
hegenderofOl
dEngl
i
shnounsi
squi
tei
l
logi
cal
.Wor
dsl
i
kemœgden

(
gir
l)
,wī
f(wi
fe)
,bear
n(chi
l
d,son)
,andci
l
d(chi
l
d),
whi
chweshoul
dexpectt
obe

f
emi
nineormascul
i
ne,
arei
nfactneut
er,
whi
l
ewī
fmann(
woman)i
smascul
i
nebecause

t
hesecondel
ementoft
hecompoundi
smascul
i
ne.Thesi
mpl
i
cit
yofModer
nEngl
i
sh

genderhasal
readybeenpoi
ntedoutasoneoft
hechi
efasset
soft
hel
anguage.

TheAdj
ect
ive.

Ani
mpor
tantf
eat
ureoft
heGer
mani
clanguagesi
sthedev
elopmentofat
wof
old

decl
ensi
onoft
headj
ect
ive:
one,
thest
rongdecl
ensi
on,
usedwi
thnounswhennot

Whent
hest
em i
sshor
ttheadj
ect
iveendsi
n-ui
nthenomi
nat
ivesi
ngul
aroft
he

f
emi
nineandt
henomi
nat
iveandaccusat
ivepl
ural
oft
heneut
er.accompani
edbya

def
ini
tear
ti
cleorsi
mil
arwor
d(suchasademonst
rat
iveorpossessi
vepr
onoun)
,the

ot
her
,theweakdecl
ensi
on,
usedwhent
henouni
spr
ecededbysuchawor
d.Thuswe
hav
einOl
dEngl
i
shgōdmann(
goodman)butsēgōdamann(
thegoodman)
.Thef
orms

ar
ethoseoft
henomi
nat
ivesi
ngul
armascul
i
nei
nthest
rongandweakdecl
ensi
ons

r
espect
ivel
y,asi
l
lust
rat
edbel
ow.

STRNGDECLENSI
ON WEAKDECLENSI
ON

Masc. Fem. Neut

. Masc. Fem. Neut
.

N gōd gōd gōd gōd-

a gōd-
e gōd-
e

G. gōd-
es gōd-
re gōd-
es gōd-
an gōd-
an gōd-
an

Si
ngl
ar D. gōd-
um gōd-
re gōd-
um gōd-
an gōd-
an gōd

A. gōd-
ne gōd-
re gōd gōd-
an gōd-
an gōd-
e

I
. gōd-
e gōd-
e

N. gōd-
e gōd-
a gōd gōd-
an

G. gōd-
ra gōd-
ra gōd-
ra gōd-
enaor
gōd-
ra
Pl
ural
D. gōd-
um gōd-
um gōd-
um gōd-
um

A. gōd-
e gōd-
a gōd gōd-
an

Thi
sel
abor
ati
onofi
nfl
ect
ioni
ntheOl
dEngl
i
shadj
ect
ivecont
rast
sint
hemostst
ri
ki
ng

waywi
tht
hecompl
eteabsenceofi
nfl
ect
ionf
rom t
headj
ect
ivei
nModer
nEngl
i
sh.Such

compl
exi
tyi
squi
teunnecessar
y,ast
heEngl
i
shl
anguagedemonst
rat
esev
erydayby

get
ti
ngal
ongwi
thouti
t.I
tsel
i
minat
ionhasr
esul
tedi
nasecondgr
eatadv
ant
aget
hat

Engl
i
shpossessesov
ersomeot
herl
anguages.

Per
sonalPr
onouns:

Ol
dEngl
i
shexhi
bit
sav
ari
etyofpr
onounsf
ort
hesamepr
onouni
nthesamecasef
or
t
hef
ir
standsecondper
sonpr
onouns.Forexampl
e,þē,
þeċf
orYoui
ntheaccusat
ive

case.Moder
nEngl
i
shexhi
bit
s,usual
l
y,onepr
onounf
oreachcaseoft
hepr
onoun.For

exampl
e,hi
sforgeni
ti
vecase.

Fr
om t
hef
requencyofi
tsuseandt
henecessi
tyf
orspeci
fi
cref
erencewhenused,
the

per
sonal
pronouni
nal
ll
anguagesi
sli
kel
ytopr
eser
veaf
air
lycompl
etesy
stem of

i
nfl
ect
ions.Ol
dEngl
i
shshowst
hist
endencynotonl
yinhav
ingdi
sti
nct
ivef
ormsf
or

pr
act
ical
l
yal
lgender
s,per
sons,
andcasesbutal
soi
npr
eser
vingi
naddi
ti
ont
othe

or
dinar
ytwonumber
s,si
ngul
arandpl
ural
,asetoff
ormsf
ort
wopeopl
eort
wot
hings

t
hedual
number
.Indo-
Eur
opeanhadsepar
atef
ormsf
ort
hedual
numberi
nthev
erbas

wel
l
,andt
heseappeari
nGr
eekandt
oacer
tai
next
enti
nGot
hic.Theyar
enotf
ound,

howev
er,
inOl
dEngl
i
sh,
andt
hedi
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
hedual
andt
hepl
ural
was

di
sappear
ingev
enf
rom t
hepr
onouni
nOl
dEngl
i
sh.

TheVer
b.

Thei
nfl
ect
ionoft
hev
erbi
ntheGer
mani
clanguagesi
smuchsi
mpl
ert
hani
twasi
nIndo

Eur
opeant
imes.Acompar
isonoft
heOl
dEngl
i
shv
erbwi
tht
hev
erbal
inf
lect
ionofGr
eek

orLat
inwi
l
lshowhowmuchhasbeenl
ost
.Ol
dEngl
i
shdi
sti
ngui
shedonl
ytwosi
mpl
e

t
ensesbyi
nfl
ect
ion,
apr
esentandapast
,and,
exceptf
oronewor
d,i
thadnoi
nfl
ect
ional

f
ormsf
ort
hepassi
veasi
nLat
inorGr
eek.I
trecogni
zedt
hei
ndi
cat
ive,
subj
unct
ive,
and

i
mper
ati
vemoodsandhadt
heusual
twonumber
sandt
hreeper
sons.

Apecul
i
arf
eat
ureoft
heGer
mani
clanguageswast
hedi
vi
sionoft
hev
erbi
ntot
wogr
eat
cl
asses,
theweakandt
hest
rong,
oft
enknowni
nModer
nEngl
i
shasr
egul
arand

i
rr
egul
arv
erbs.Theset
erms,
whi
char
esocommonl
yempl
oyedi
nmoder
ngr
ammar
s,

ar
rat
herunf
ort
unat
ebecauset
heysuggestani
rr
egul
ari
tyi
nthest
rongv
erbst
hati
s

mor
eappar
entt
hanr
eal
.Thest
rongv
erbs,
lkesi
i ng,
sang,
sung,
whi
chr
epr
esentt
he

basi
cIndo-
Eur
opeant
ype,
aresocal
l
edbecauset
heyhav
ethepowerofi
ndi
cat
ing

changeoft
ensebyamodi
fi
cat
ionoft
hei
rrootv
owel
.Int
heweakv
er suchaswal
bs, k,

wal
ked,
wal
ked,
thi
schangei
sef
fect
edbyt
headdi
ti
onofa“
dent
al,
”somet
imesofan

ext
rasy
ll
abl
e.Theappar
enti
rr
egul
ari
tyoft
hest
rongv
erbsi
sduet
othef
actt
hatv
erbs

oft
hist
ypear
emuchl
essnumer
oust
hanweakv
erbs.I
nOl
dEngl
i
sh,
ifweexcl
ude

compounds,
ther
ewer
eonl
yaf
ewov
er300oft
hem,
andev
ent
hissmal
lnumberf
all
s

i
ntosev
eral
classes.Wi
thi
nthesecl
asses,
howev
er,
aper
fect
lyr
egul
arsequencecanbe

obser
vedi
nthev
owel
changesoft
her
oot
.Nowaday
sthesev
erbs,
gener
all
yspeaki
ng,

hav
edi
ff
erentv
owel
sint
hepr
esentt
ense,
thepastt
ense,
andt
hepastpar
ti
cipl
e.I
n

somev
erbst
hev
owel
soft
hepastt
enseandpastpar
ti
cipl
ear
eident
ical
, nbr
asi eak,

br
oke,
broken,
andi
nsomeal
lthr
eef
ormshav
ebecomeal
i
kei
nmoder
nti
mes(
bid,
bid,

bi
d).I
nOl
dEngl
i
sht
hev
owel
oft
hepastt
enseof
tendi
ff
ersi
nthesi
ngul
arandt
hepl
ural
;

or
,tobemor
eaccur
ate,
thef
ir
standt
hir
dper
sonsi
ngul
arhav
eonev
owel
whi
l
ethe

secondper
sonsi
ngul
arandal
lper
sonsoft
hepl
ural
hav
eanot
her
.Int
hepr
inci
pal
par
ts

ofOl
dEngl
i
shst
rongv
erbs,
ther
efor
e,wehav
efourf
orms:
thei
nfmi
ti
ve,
thepr
eter
it
e

si
ngul
ar(
fi
rstandt
hir
dper
son)
,thepr
eter
it
epl
ural
,andt
hepastpar
ti
cipl
e.I
nOl
d

Engl
i
sht
hest
rongv
erbscanbegr
oupedi
nsev
engener
alcl
asses.Whi
l
ether
ear
e

v
ari
ati
onswi
thi
neachcl
ass,
theymaybei
l
lust
rat
edbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngsev
env
erbs:
I
. dr
īf
an(
dri
ve)dr
āfdr
if
on(
ge)dr
if
en

I
I. cēosan(
choose)cēascur
on cor
en

I
II
. hel
pan(
hel
p)heal
phul
ponhol
pen

I
V. ber
an(
bear
)bærbor
en

V. spr
ecan(
speak)spr
æcspr
ecen

VI

VI
I

Thechangeofst
ori
sduet
othef
actt
hatt
heaccentwasor
igi
nal
l
yont
hef
inal
syl
l
abl
e

i
nthepr
eter
it
epl
ural
andt
hepastpar
ti
cipl
e.I
tisknownasGr
ammat
ical
Changeor

Ver
ner
’sLawf
ort
heschol
arwhof
ir
stexpl
ainedi
t.I
nModer
nEngl
i heshasbeen
sht

r
est
oredi
nthepastpar
ti
cipl
e(chosen)byanal
ogywi
tht
heot
herf
orms.Thei
nit
ial

soundhasbeenl
evel
edi
nthesameway
.

Theor
igi
noft
hedent
alsuf
fi
xesbywhi
chweakv
erbsf
ormt
hei
rpastt
enseandpast

par
ti
cipl
eisst
rongl
ydebat
ed.I
twasf
ormer
lycust
omar
ytoexpl
aint
heseaspar
toft
he

v
erbdo,
ast
houghIwor
kedwasor
igi
nal
l
yIwor
k—di
d(i
.e.
,Idi
dwor
k).Mor
erecent
lyan

at
tempthasbeenmadet
otr
acet
hesef
ormst
oat
ypeofv
erbt
hatf
ormedi
tsst
em by

addi
ng-
to-t
other
oot
.Theor
igi
nofsoi
mpor
tantaf
eat
ureoft
heGer
mani
clanguages

ast
heweakconj
ugat
ioni
snat
ural
l
yaquest
iont
owhi
chweshoul
dli
kev
erymucht
o

f
indt
heanswer
.For
tunat
elyi
tisnotofpr
imei
mpor
tancet
oourpr
esentpur
poseof

descr
ibi
ngt
hest
ruct
ureofOl
dEngl
i
shandModer
nEngl
i
sh.Her
eiti
ssuf
fi
cientt
onot
e

t
hatal
argeandi
mpor
tantgr
oupofv
erbsi
nOl
dEngl
i
shf
ormt
hei
rpastt
ensebyaddi
ng

-
ede,
-ode,
or-
det
othepr
esentst
em,
andt
hei
rpastpar
ti
cipl
esbyaddi
ng-
ed,
-od,
or-
d.
Thusf
remman(
toper
for
m)hasapr
eter
it
efr
emedeandapastpar
ti
cipl
egef
remed;

l
ufi
an(
tol
ove)hasl
ufodeandgel
ufod;
li
bban(
tol
i
ve)hasl
i
fdeandgel
i
fd.Theper
sonal

endi
ngsexcepti
nthepr
eter
it
esi
ngul
arar
esi
mil
art
othoseoft
hest
rongv
erbsandneed

notber
epeat
ed.I
tist
obenot
ed,
howev
er,
thatt
heweakconj
ugat
ionhascomet
obe

t
hedomi
nantonei
nourl
anguage.

Manyst
rongv
erbshav
epassedov
ert
othi
sconj
ugat
ion,
andpr
act
ical
l
yal
lnewv
erbs

addedt
oourl
anguagear
einf
lect
edi
naccor
dancewi
thi
t.

I
naddi
ti
ont
othesef
ormst
hei
mper
ati
vewasdr
īf(
si )anddr
ng. īf
að(
plur
.)
,thepr
esent

par
ti
ci edr
pl īf
ende,
andt
heger
und(
i.
e.,
thei
nfi
nit
iveusedasav
er noun)t
bal ōdr
īf
enne.

SYNTAX

Thewor
dor
derandt
hesent
encest
ruct
urei
nOl
dEngl
i
shwer
erat
herf
ree.Whi
l
e

Moder
nEngl
i
shf
oll
owst
hesubj
ect
-ver
b-obj
ectsent
encest
ruct
ure.

I
nModer
nEngl
i
shpunct
uat
ioni
susedt
opoi
ntoutt
hemai
npl
ayer
sint
hesent
encet
hat

i
ssubj
ect
,ver
b,andobj
ect
.Al
soi
nModer
nEngl
i
sht
hef
ir
stl
ett
eroft
hepr
opernounsi
s

al
way
scapi
tal
i
zed.Manyt
imes,
adv
erbsorr
elat
ivecl
auses,
ift
heyar
eoutofpl
aceor

pr
ovi
debackgr
oundi
nfor
mat
ion,
arei
ndi
cat
edbycommas.I
nthedi
ffer
encei
ncomma

pl
acementmakesadi
ffer
encei
nthemeani
ng.Thewor
dor
derofModer
nEngl
i
shi
sSVO,

wi
thVer
b-f
ront
ingi
nquest
ions.Subj
ect
sar
eobl
i
gat
ory
,excepti
nthephenomenonof

t
opi
c-dr
op,
typi
cal
fore-
mai
landl
ett
ers.
PHONOLOGY

Ol
dEngl
i
shhadsomesi
l
entl
ett
ers.Forexampl
e,nsēċean,
i youwi
l
l onouncec.
notpr

Thatmeanst
hewor
dispr seek.
onouncedas‘ ’Whi
l
eSomel
ett
ersar
enotpr
onouncedi
n

Moder
nEngl
i
sh.Forexampl
e,Ki
nkni
ghti
ssi
l
ent
.

Pr
efi
xesandSuf
fi
xes.

Aspr
evi
ousl
yment
ioned,
apar
toft
hef
lexi
bil
i
tyoft
heOl
dEngl
i
shv
ocabul
arycomes

f
rom t
hegener
oususemadeofpr
efi
xesandsuf
fi
xest
ofor
m newwor
dsf
rom ol
d

wor
dsort
omodi
fyorext
endt
her
ooti
dea.I
nthi
srespecti
tal
sor
esembl
esmoder
n

Ger
man.

Amongt
hewor
dsment
ionedi
nthepr
ecedi
ngpar
agr
aphst
her
ear
esev
eral
thatar
e

f
ormedwi
tht
hesuf
fi
xes-
ig,
-ful
l
,-l
ēas,
-l
īce,
-nes,
and-
ung.Ot
her
sfr
equent
lyempl
oyed
i
ncl
udet
headj
ect
ivesuf
fi
xes-
sum (
wynsum)and-
wīs(
ri
htwī
s),
thenounsuf
fi
xes-
dōm

(
cyni
ngdōm,
eor
ldōm)
,-end,
and-
eredenot
ingt
heagent
,-hād(
cil
dhād)
,-i
ngi
n

pat
rony
mics,
-ung(
dagungdawn)
,-sci
pe(
frēondsci
pe)
,andmanymor
e.I
nli
kemanner

t
heuseofpr
efi
xeswasaf
ert
il
eresour
cei
nwor
dbui
l
ding.I
tispar
ti
cul
arl
yaf
eat
urei
n

t
hef
ormat
ionofv
erbs.Ther
ear
eaboutadozenpr
efi
xest
hatoccurwi
thgr
eat

f
requency
,suchasā-
,be-
,for
-,f
ore-
,ge-
,mi
s-,
of-
,of
er-
,on-
,tō-
,un-
,under
-,andwi
þ-.

Thus,
wit
hthehel
poft
hese,
OldEngl
i
shcoul
dmakeoutofasi
mpl
ever
bli
keset
tan(
to

set
)newv
erbsl
i
keāset
tan‘
place’
,beset
tan‘
appoi
nt’
,for
set
tan‘
obst
ruct
’for
eset
tan

‘
placebef
ore’
,geset
tan‘
peopl
e’
,‘
gar
ri
son’
,of
set
tan‘
aff
li
ct’
,onset
tan‘
oppr
ess’
,t
ōset
tan

‘
dispose’
,unset
tan‘
putdown’
,andwi
þset
tan‘
resi
st’
.Thepr
efi
xwi
þent
ersi
ntomor
e

t
hanf
if
tyOl
dEngl
i
shv
erbs,
wher
eithast
hef
orceofagai
nstoraway
.Such,
forexampl
e,

ar
ewi
þcēosan‘
rej
ect
’(cēosan=choose)
,wi
þcweþan‘
deny
’(cweþan=say
),wi
þdr
īf
an

‘
repel
’
,wi
þspr
ecan‘
cont
radi
ct’
,andwi
þst
andan.Oft
hesef
if
tyv
erbswi
thst
andi
sthe

onl
yonest
il
li
nuse,
alt
houghi
nMi
ddl
eEngl
i
sht
wonewv
erbs,
wit
hdr
awandwi
thhol
d,

wer
efor
medont
hesamemodel
.Thepr
efi
xof
er-occur
sinmor
ethanahundr
edOl
d

Engl
i
shv
erbs.Bysuchmeanst
her
esour
cesoft
heEngl
i
shv
erbwer
eincr
easedal
most

t
enf
old,
andenoughsuchv
erbssur
viv
etogi
veusar
eal
i
zat
ionoft
hei
rempl
oymenti
n

t
heOl
dEngl
i
shv
ocabul
ary
.

I
ngener
alonei
ssur
pri
sedatt
heappar
enteasewi
thwhi
chOl
dEngl
i
shexpr
essed

di
ff
icul
tideasadequat
elyandof
tenwi
thv
ari
ety
.‘Compani
onshi
p’i
sli
ter
all
yrender
edby

gef
ērasci
pe;
‘hospi
tal
i
ty’
bygi
est
lī
þnes(
giestst
ranger
,li
þegr
aci
ous)
;gī
tsung

‘
cov
etousness’
(gī
tsi
an=t
obegr
eedy
).Godcundl
i
c‘di
vi
ne’
,i
ndr
yht
en‘
ari
stocr
ati
c’

(
dry
hten=pr
ince)
,gi
efol
nes‘
l
iber
ali
ty’
(gi
efu=gi
ft
),gader
sci
pe‘
mat
ri
mony
’
(
gadr
ian=t
ogat
her
),l
æcecr
æft‘
medi
cine’
(læce=phy
sici
an)i
l
lust
rat
e,sot
ospeak,
the

met
hodofappr
oach.Of
tensev
eral
wor
dst
oexpr
esst
hesamei
dear
esul
t.An

ast
ronomerorast
rol
ogermaybeat
ungl
ere(
tungol
=st
ar)
,tungol
cræf
ti
ga,
tungol
wīt
ega,

at
īdy
mbwl
ātend(
tī
d=t
ime,
ymb=about
,wl
āti
an=t
ogaze)
,orat
īdscēawer
e(scēawi
an=

see,
scr
uti
nize)
.Inpoet
ryt
hev
ocabul
aryat
tai
nsar
emar
kabl
efl
exi
bil
i
tyt
hrought
he

weal
thofsy
nony
msf
orwor
dsl
i
kewar
,war
ri
or,
shi
eld,
swor
d,bat
tl
e,sea,
shi
p

somet
imesasmanyast
hir
tyf
oroneoft
hesei
deasandt
hrought
hebol
duseof

met
aphor
s.Theki
ngi
sthel
eaderofhost
s,t
hegi
verofr
ings,
thepr
otect
orofeor
ls,
the

v
ict
ory
-l
ord,
theher
oes’
treasur
e-keeper
.Aswor
dist
hepr
oductoff
il
es,
thepl
ayof

swor
dsabat
tl
e,t
hebat
tl
e-seatasaddl
e,t
heshi
eld-
bear
erawar
ri
or.War
ri
orsi
nthei
r

wov
enwar
-shi
rt
s,car
ryi
ngbat
tl
ebr
andorwar
-shaf
t,f
ormt
hei
ron-
cladt
hrong.Aboati
s

t
hesea-
wood,
thewav
e-cour
ser
,thebr
oad-
bosomed,
thecur
ved-
stem,
ort
hef
oamy
-

neckedshi
p,andi
ttr
avel
sov
ert
hewhal
e-r
oad,
thesea-
sur
ge,
ther
oll
i
ngofwav
es,
or

si
mpl
ythewat
er’
sback.Sy
nony
msnev
erf
ail
theBeowul
fpoet
.Gr
endel
ist
hegr
im spi
ri
t,

t
hepr
owl
eront
hewast
eland,
thel
onel
ywander
er,
thel
oat
hedone,
thecr
eat
ureofev
il
,

t
hef
iendi
nHel
l
,thegr
im monst
er,
thedar
kdeat
h-shadow,
thewor
kerofhat
e,t
hemad

r
avi
sher
,thef
ell
spoi
l
er,
andt
hei
ncar
nat
ionofadozenot
herat
tr
ibut
eschar
act
eri
sti
cof

hi
senmi
tyt
owar
dhumanki
nd.Noonecanl
ongr
emai
nindoubtaboutt
her
ichand

col
orf
ulchar
act
eroft
heOl
dEngl
i
shv
ocabul
arywhi
chsomev
ital
element
scanst
il
lb

f
oundi
ntheModer
nEngl
i
sh.
CONCLUSI
ON
THEHOMEOFENGLI
SH(
MAP)
 REFERENCES

Hl
adký
,Josef
.AnOl
dEngl
i
sh,
Middl
eEngl
i
sh,
andEar
ly-
NewEngl
i
shReader
.Br
no:

Masar
ykov
auni
ver
zit
a,1992.

McAr
thur
,T.(
1998)TheEngl
i
shLanguages.Cambr
idge:
Cambr
idgeUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess.

Wal
l
wor
k,J.
F.(
1985)
.AnI
ntr
oduct
iont
othest
udyofLanguage2nded.Gr
eatBr
it
ain:

Hei
nemann

LI
NKS

ht
tp:
//www.
engl
i
shcl
ub.
com

ht
tps:
//www.
googl
e.com/
amp/
s/www.
day
transl
ati
ons.
com/
blog/
ori
gin-
engl
i
sh-

al
phabet
/amp/

ht
tps:
//omni
glot
.com/
wri
ti
ng/
oldengl
i
sh.
htm