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Received for review September 9, 1968
Accepted January 6, 1970
Work financially supported by the Bethlehem Steel Corp. and
conducted at the Homer Research Laboratories.

EVAPORATION OF WATER IN AIR, HUMID

AIR, AND SUPERHEATED STEAM

TETSUO YOSHIDA AND TSUTOMU HYODO

Faculty of Engineering, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan

The rate of evaporation of water into air, humid air, and superheated vapor
was estimated. When the mass velocity is constant, at one inversion point
the evaporation rate is the same for different degrees of humidity. Up to this
point, it decreases as the humidity increases; above it, this relation is reversed.
These relations were confirmed experimentally by a wetted-wall column with
countercurrent water and air, after which the heat and mass transfer coefficients
were calculated. On the basis of these studies, modern dryers might be modified
and extended to a completely closed circuit. Heat and mass transfer terms
obtained were: Jh = (hc/CmGm) Pr2'3 =0.029 Re-0'2 and Jd = (kopeuMm/Gm)
3 °
Sc2 = 0.022 Re 2.

of water in air is important in heat
yHE evaporation
and mass transfer andin applications such as drying
and air conditioning. For this reason, many experiments
in water evaporation have used flat pans (Lurie and
Michailoff, 1936; Shepherd et al., 1938), wetted-wall
columns (Barnet and Kobe, 1941; Gilliland and Sherwood,
1934), and water droplets (Rantz and Marshall, 1952).
The study of the evaporation of water in superheated
vapor instead of air is comparatively recent. For example,
experiments carried on by Wenzel and White (1951) and
Chu, Lane, and Conklin (1953) have shown that more
water evaporates in superheated vapor than in air. These
applications to drying have been reported by several
authors (Basel et al., 1962; Yoshida and Hyodo, 1963,
1966).
Furthermore, studies of evaporation of water in highly

Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970 207
humid air by Cairns and Roper (1954), using a wetted-
wall column, confirmed the effect of Pbm on the J factor
of heat and mass transfer. Chu, Finelt, Hoerrner, and
Lin (1959) studied the evaporation of water using a pan
in air, humid air, and superheated steam. Toei, Okazaki,
and coworkers (1966) reported a study of evaporation
from water droplets into air, superheated steam, and a
mixture of the two.
These simultaneous heat and mass transfer data are
usually correlated by the J factor, and recent studies
have shown how the mass transfer coefficient is affected
by Pbm·
Some confusion and disagreement exist concerning the
results of these studies. To clarify the results and conclu-
sions, the authors believe that research should be done
as a series on air and superheated vapor. Superheated
steam and dry air may be considered extreme conditions
of these two gas mixtures, and between them the humidity
of air varies. Then it is most important to make clear
the rate of water evaporation into air, humid air, and
superheated steam under various conditions of tem-
perature, flow rate, and humidity.
This report first considers the evaporation rate itself
and estimates the evaporation curve in the range from
air to superheated steam. Its purpose is to confirm these
evaporation curves by experiments using a wetted-wall
column, in which case convection heat can be more easily
measured and undesirable effects of other forms of heat
considerably lessened. The conditions are extremely
important, because convection heat should play the leading
role in our experiments.
Estimation of Evaporation Curves
When the mass velocity is constant, the rates of evapora-
tion of water into air, steam, and their mixtures are shown
in Equation 1,
We = —
(t —
U (1)
TV
where, if the variations of the ratio hc/ru. are small com-
pared with the variations of temperature, the evaporation
rate, Wc, is in proportion to the temperature difference,
(t -1«).
In the case of air, the surface water temperature, V,
is nearly equal to the wet-bulb temperature; so the evapo-
ration curve rises slightly at lower temperatures, and is
approximately straight at higher temperatures.
In the case of superheated vapor, the temperature of
the evaporation surface is equal to 100° C. independent
of the temperature of vapor at atmospheric pressure, and
the evaporation rate is zero at 100° C., so the evaporation
line becomes approximately straight starting from this
zero point.
According to the studies of Chu et al. (1953), Wenzel
and White (1951), and the authors, water evaporates more
rapidly into superheated vapor than into air. The curves
for evaporation of air and steam would intersect at one
point, as shown in Figure 1. Then, where would the curves
of the evaporation rate in humid air or in an air-stream
mixture be located on Figure 1? When the humidity in
air increases, the rate of evaporation of water into air
decreases; furthermore, the evaporation rate becomes zero
at the dew point temperature of humid air. According
to Chu, Finelt, Hoerrner, and Lin (1959) water evaporates
208 Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970
1. Effect of change of temperature on
Figure evaporation
rate in air, humid air, and superheated vapor
more rapidly in humid air and superheated steam than
in air.
How can this contradictory relation of evaporation rate
in humid air or an air-stream mixture be explained? These
evaporation curves, at constant humidity, starting at the
dew point of air, would intersect at the same point as
the curve of air and steam intersected, the “inversion
point.” All evaporation curves in air, steam, and humid
air would pass this inversion point; if the concentration
of steam in air increased above this point, the evaporation
rate would increase. But below this inversion point, as
steam concentration increased the evaporation rate would
decrease.
The empirical fact that the evaporation rate in humid
air is less than in dry air is true only in the temperature
range below this inversion point. Chu and other
investigators obtained a higher evaporation rate in steam
than in air at a temperature above the inversion point.
To confirm the existence of the inversion point is an
important purpose of this experiment.
Experimental Apparatus and Procedure
The equipment was the same as the countercurrent
wetted-wall column of other investigators, but varied in
detail because the boiling point of 100° C. water had to
be supplied when superheated steam was used and the
temperature of air and steam was raised to 400° C.
An outline of the apparatus is shown in Figure 2. Air
from a blower, measured by orifice, was put through
an electric preheater (superheater) involving five 1-kw.
heaters, and led to the wetted-wall column. The steam
was generated in the boiler, then put through the same
electric heater, and led to the wetted-wall column. In
this case, the rate of flow of steam from the boiler was
measured by the boiler level gage. When the air-steam
mixture was used, the boiler and the blower were used
at the same time, and the flow rate was measured separate-
ly, the total being the assumed flow rate of the mixture.
The temperature of the steam, air, or their mixture
was controlled by a Slidac connected to a heater, and
at the inlet of the column ranged from 50° to 400° C.
The mass velocity was from 9100 to 27,300 kg. per sq.
meter per hour.
The boiler having a 50-liter capacity was heated by
four 2-kw. immersion heaters and lagged with a 5-cm.
diatom. One of the four heaters was connected to the
Slidac.
The wetted-wall column was made of a gun metal tube
2.9cm. in inside diameter and 1 meter long. The inside

Figure 2. Experimental wetted-wall column apparatus
of this tube was polished carefully. The column was
enclosed in another gun metal tube 6 cm. in inside
diameter, lagged with 3 cm. of asbestos. Between these
two tubes heated oil was circulated to check the leakage
of heat by conduction.
The upper and lower parts of this column were equipped
with peep windows which allowed the water film to be
seen at all times, to ascertain whether complete wetting
occurred during all runs. The water leaving the column
was recirculated by a small polypropylene centrifugal
pump.
The temperature of the water entering the column was
adjusted to the wet-bulb temperature of gas in an upper
large vessel and a small vessel attached to the entrance
of the column, by using electric immersion heaters.
The upper large vessel had a small overflow tank, so
that the water level in it was maintained constant. The
oil and water temperatures were automatically controlled
by thermistor temperature regulators having a sensitivity
of 0.2° C.
Distilled water was supplied to the lower vessel at regu-
lar intervals.
The evaporation rate was determined by measuring the
water flow at the inlet and outlet of the column with
a measuring cylinder and stop watch.
A constant flow rate of water to the column was
required.
When high temperature water was recirculated, the gen-
eration of bubbles in the pipe disturbed the accurate
measurement of flow rate, so several small nozzles of vari-
ous diameters were used instead of valves at the inlet
of the column to regulate the flow rate.
The temperature of the gas was measured at the inlet
and outlet of the column with the copper-constantan
thermocouples and the millivoltmeter, and the wall tem-
peratures at the inlet and outlet of the column were
measured to check the wall radiation effect, to calibrate
the temperature.
The humidity of the air and steam mixture entering
and leaving the column was measured by the wet- and
dry-bulb thermometer of the thermistor. Manometers were
used at the upper and lower parts of the column to deter-
mine the pressure in the column.
To examine the rate of fluid evaporation, liquid rates
of 16.1, 18.0, 34.0, and 67.0 kg. per hour in air were
used; the maximum difference was 10%. But only 18.0
kg. per hour were used in all runs.
Calculations
The evaporation rates were obtained by measuring the
difference of the rate of flow of water at the inlet and
outlet of the column and calculating heat and mass
balances. These three methods agreed within 5%c. In the
case of low temperature and low mass velocity, measure-
ment of flow rate was difficult, because the difference
of the flow at the top and bottom was very little. At
high temperature, wet-bulb temperature included the
radiation error, so this affected the mass balance.
Therefore, during all runs, the evaporation rate obtained
from a heat balance was adopted and Equation 2 was
used;
cm{ti ~
%) G'
(2)
ru· + cs(t2 -
tu)
where ii and i2 represent the temperature of gas at the
inlet and outlet of the column, calibrated in the study
of the wall radiation effect by McAdams (1954).
The principal experimental data and calculation results
are shown in Tables I and II. A sample calculation for
run AS-10 is given in the Appendix.
Results
The evaporation curves obtained in air, humid air, and
superheated vapor at inlet mass velocities of 9100 and
18,200 kg./sq. meter hour are shown in Figure 3. The
evaporation curves initially assumed agree with this
experimental result, and the inverse point exists at 176° C.
for mass velocity 9100 and at 170° C. for 18,200 kg./
sq. meter hour. The relation of the inverse point and
mass velocity is shown in Figure 4. The temperature
for the inversion point decreased slightly as mass velocity
increased, because the evaporation curves of steam slope
gradually as the mass velocity is increased and evaporation
curves of air move up as the mass velocity increases.
This inversion point is important to decide the temperature
of the operation of a closed circuit dryer.
However, this inversion point would also change
according to surface conditions of evaporating liquid and
be different for different materials.
The change in evaporation rate when the steam in
the air was changed from 0 to 100%c at 120°, 170°, 200°,
250°, and 300° C. and the mass velocity was 18,200 kg./
sq. meter hour, is shown in Figure 5. This figure shows
clearly that at the temperature of the inversion point,
the evaporation rate was the same in spite of the increase
in steam. Above this point, at 200°, 250°, and 300° C.,
the evaporation rate increased as the percentage of steam
increased, and inversely, below the inversion point at
120°C. the evaporation rate decreased as the percentage
of steam increased. The evaporation curves in this figure
are almost linear and differ from Chu and Finelt’s result
Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970 209
 Table I. Data and Calculated Results
Mass
Velocity Humidity Water
(Inlet), (Inlet), = Temp.
Gas Temp. C.
Run G, Kg.; H, (Mean) Wt, Wa Aita,
No. Hr. Sq. M. Kg.; Kg. In Out °C. Kg.(Hr. Kg./Hr. °c. Pbm/Pi
A- 1 9100 0.012 110.0 66.0 37.9 0.108 0.108 46.6 0.955
A- 2 9100 0.012 156.9 86.0 45.7 0.176 0.176 70.2 0.935
A- 3 9100 0.012 202.4 102.8 49.0 0.242 0.242 94.9 0.923
A- 4 9100 0.012 228.0 112.0 50.5 0.286 0.286 109.2 0.912
A- 5 9100 0.012 269.8 129.6 55.0 0.344 0.344 132,5 0.906
A- 6 9100 0.012 349.4 156.5 61.1 0.476 0.476 174.1 0.860
A- 7 9100 0.012 416.7 177.6 62.5 0.590 0.590 212.9 0.844
A- 8 18200 0.009 98.0 62.0 35.6 0.176 0.176 41.9 0.959
A- 9 18200 0.009 125.5 74.5 40.5 0.249 0.249 55.7 0.946
A 10 18200 0.009 163.6 96.8 45.0 0.326 0.326 75.6 0.929

A-ll 18200 0.009 193.8 110.1 48.0 0.412 0.412 98.3 0.923
A-12 18200 0.016 217.6 121.5 51.5 0.469 0.469 111.1 0.906
A-13 18200 0.016 237.3 141.0 53.5 0.520 0.520 123.0 0.907
A-14 18200 0.010 260.7 137.0 54.0 0.603 0.603 135.3 0.905
A-15 18200 0.016 259.4 139.4 54.8 0.589 0.589 135.8 0.890

A-16 18200 0.016 329.3 170.8 59.0 0.771 0.771 179.2 0.850
A-17 18200 0.017 401.6 198.1 63.3 0.986 0.986 221.0 0.845
A-18 27300 0.018 189.9 113.1 49.5 0.565 0.565 97.0 0.915
A-19 27300 0.018 228.9 130.3 53.0 0.725 0.725 120.0 0.900

S- 1 9100 135.8 113.8 100.0 0.114 0.105 23.1

S- 2 9100 171.8 130.2 100.0 0.216 0.198 46.8
S- 3 9100 208.8 146.2 100.0 0.317 0.284 73.1
S- 4 9100 240.4 161.9 100.0 0.396 0.354 94.7
S- 5 9100 313.0 192.2 100.0 0.598 0.527 144.3

S- 6 9100 380.1 220.8 100.0 0.780 0.680 189.6

S- 7 18200 128.0 113.4 100.0 0.131 0.126 19.8
S- 8 18200 156.0 127.5 100.0 0.294 0.279 40.1
S- 9 18200 188.7 144.3 100.0 0.450 0.425 63.9
S-10 18200 234.7 166.0 100.0 0.687 0.656 96.3
S-ll 18200 299.3 197.5 100.0 1.003 0.935 142.9
S-12 18200 367.3 232.2 100.0 1.310 1.215 190.5

AS- 1 9100 1.0 168.2 118.1 87.7 0.192 0.177 51.4 0.368
AS- 2 9100 1.0 215.1 137.2 87.9 0.300 0.276 78.6 0.358
AS- 3 9100 1.0 249.8 149.7 88.6 0.376 0.342 101.1 0.353
AS- 4 9100 1.0 254.7 152.9 88.6 0.383 0.350 107.2 0.354
AS- 5 9100 1.0 332.0 180.3 89.2 0.564 0.509 154.5 0.342

AS- 6 9100 1.0 398.6 205.7 89.8 0.711 0.624 196.5 0.332
AS- 7 18200 1.0 132.2 106.7 87.1 0.193 0.184 30.6 0.375
AS- 8 18200 1.0 156.4 119.5 87.4 0.279 0.256 48.2 0.370
AS- 9 18200 1.0 201.6 138.6 87.8 0.470 0.449 78.2 0.371
AS-10 18200 1.0 242.4 157.0 88.6 0.627 0.590 105.4 0.356

AS-11 18200 1.0 310.6 190.2 89.2 0.890 0.840 153.2 0.345
AS-12 18200 1.0 376.5 221.4 89.8 1.131 1.045 199.2 0.336
AS-13 18200 0.333 138.6 102.7 74.7 0.226 0.219 43.4 0.632
AS-14 18200 0.333 253.7 147.5 78.4 0.646 0.621 114.1 0.595
AS-15 18200 0.333 315.0 183.0 80.0 0.814 0.787 160.6 0.581

AS 16 18200 0.333 387.8 212.1 80.5 1.060 1.010 206.5 0.566

AS-17 18200 3.0 237.1 163.9 95.3 0.641 0.604 100.8 0.156
AS-18 18200 3.0 303.8 196.0 95.5 0.929 0.864 147.5 0.155
AS-19 18200 3.0 371.1 222.8 95.7 1.210 1.120 195.5 0.147
AS-20 27300 1.0 169.3 129.9 87.8 0.448 0.431 59.7 0.369

AS-21 27300 1.0 209.4 148.3 88.3 0.693 0.665 87.2 0.356

3
(Chu et al., 1959), which is not linear. The rate of evapora- Jn =
(koPBMMm/Gm) Sc2 = 0.022 Re~02 (4)
tion in their study is comparatively large up to 50%
_<u'
of steam, but does not change above 50%. These J factors do not include the term (pbm/Pi)
~0'21
From the experimental result, the heat and mass transfer for JH, and (pbm/ Pt) for Jn, as do the results of Cairns
coefficients of gas film and Colburn type J« and Jd factors and Roper (1954) in their study of highly humid air.
were calculated, and Equations 3 and 4 were written. The gas film coefficient of mass transfer in Equation 3
3 02
was inversely proportional to Pbm, as is assumed in the
Jh =
(hJcmGm) Pr2 = 0.029 Re (3) film theory. Recently this has been confirmed theoretically

210 Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970
 Table II. Data and Calculated Results

Run
No. G„ s, Pr Jh Re APlm k'c Sc Jd
A- 1 9190 0.00662 0.734 0.00539 3787 23.64 0.0501 0.624 0.00458
A- 2 9240 0.00698 0.722 0.00565 3643 41.16 0.0470 0.623 0.00412
A- 3 9290 0.00705 0.721 0.00567 3550 47.98 0.0554 0.604 0.00471
A- 4 9300 0.00716 0.730 0.00581 3492 49.86 0.0629 0.604 0.00471
A- 5 9380 0.00699 0.723 0.00563 3362 69.70 0.0542 0.599 0.00435
A- 6 9460 0.00711 0.754 0.00593 3270 95.12 0.0550 0.598 0.00407
A- 7 9550 0.00709 0.762 0.00591 3180 94.05 0.0689 0.599 0.00494
A- 8 18380 0.00610 0.712 0.00487 7690 22.95 0.0841 0.615 0.00380
A- 9 18420 0.00636 0.719 0.00505 7478 32.20 0.0849 0.639 0.00385
A-10 18950 0.00587 0.724 0.00452 7431 44.33 0.0808 0.619 0.00341
A-ll 18550 0.00605 0.731 0.00489 7098 50.59 0.0896 0.605 0.00377
A-12 18600 0.00580 0.736 0.00472 6975 56.60 0.0906 0.604 0.00350
A-13 18600 0.00586 0.735 0.00474 6863 66.90 0.0854 0.600 0.00348
A-14 18700 0.00601 0.734 0.00489 6817 69.40 0.0954 0.598 0.00405
A-15 18700 0.00572 0.741 0.00468 6800 67.47 0.0960 0.599 0.00378
A-16 18820 0.00570 0.750 0.00470 6541 83.90 0.1010 0.598 0.00372
A-17 19000 0.00573 0.762 0.00477 6236 105.10 0.0953 0.603 0.00343
A-18 27800 0.00516 0.736 0.00421 10624 49.85 0.1245 0.605 0.00346
A-19 27900 0.00548 0.737 0.00447 10384 60.88 0.1308 0.601 0.00352
S- 1 9210 0.00610 1.039 0.00625 5879
S- 2 9280 0.00570 1.044 0.00586 5647
S- 3 9360 0.00519 1.048 0.00535 5484
S- 4 9400 0.00495 1.045 0.00510 5321
S- 5 9540 0.00472 1.023 0.00497 5129
S- 6 9700 0.00450 1.012 0.00453 4932
S- 7 18350 0.00435 1.044 0.00447 11713
S- 8 18470 0.00471 1.050 0.00487 11401
S- 9 18600 0.00418 1.049 0.00433 11050
S-10 18700 0.00450 1.043 0.00462 10636
S-ll 19050 0.00424 1.041 0.00431 10115
S-12 19250 0.00401 1.032 0.00409 9625
AS- 1 9240 0.00629 0.870 0.00574 4589 10.70 0.1845 0.599 0.00449
AS- 2 9340 0.00625 0.871 0.00570 4483 19.34 0.1565 0.562 0.00374
AS- 3 9400 0.00602 0.886 0.00555 4399 23.05 0.1628 0.565 0.00382
AS- 4 9410 0.00575 0.870 0.00524 4384 22.06 0.1741 0.564 0.00406
AS- 5 9550 0.00566 0.888 0.00523 4226 29.10 0.1920 0.573 0.00426
AS- 6 9670 0.00534 0.879 0.00490 4092 36.90 0.1825 0.572 0.00394
AS- 7 19750 0.00531 0.893 0.00494 10059 7.32 0.2820 0.561 0.00345
AS- 8 18460 0.00483 0.890 0.00447 9230 10.40 0.2700 0.556 0.00338
AS- 9 18600 0.00501 0.898 0.00467 8986 19.00 0.2595 0.561 0.00321
AS-10 18700 0.00497 0.878 0.00456 8766 22.00 0.2950 0.564 0.00352
AS-11 18900 0.00517 0.887 0.00477 8400 26.70 0.3450 0.575 0.00402
AS-12 19100 0.00501 0.874 0.00458 8116 38.30 0.3020 0.577 0.00335
AS-13 18420 0.00557 0.790 0.00497 8702 15.07 0.1585 0.548 0.00374
AS-14 18750 0.00577 0.766 0.00484 8132 47.40 0.1438 0.545 0.00317
AS 15 18870 0.00513 0.774 0.00434 7800 56.70 0.1527 0.551 0.00324
AS-16 19050 0.00500 0.782 0.00432 7342 68.27 0.1625 0.564 0.00343
AS-17 18750 0.00454 0.957 0.00441 9783 9.00 0.7366 0.571 0.00371
AS-18 18920 0.00436 0.954 0.00442 9260 13.18 0.7184 0.588 0.00350
AS-19 19180 0.00416 0.949 0.00402 8935 15.74 0.7831 0.581 0.00351
AS-20 27700 0.00437 0.872 0.00399 13645 11.73 0.0895 0.560 0.00338
AS-21 27900 0.00456 0.869 0.00415 13349 18.53 0.0850 0.563 0.00322

and experimentally by Wasan and Wilke (1968) and Vivian
and Behrmann (1965).
These data are compared with results of other
investigators in Figures 6 and 7. The Jh factor is about
30% higher than the Jd factor. This difference might
be considered due to the difference in film thickness
(Barnet and Kobe, 1941).
The effects of (Pbm/Pi) on the J factors are shown
in Figures 8 and 9.
Application to a Completely Closed Circuit Dryer
The experimental results of this study permit prediction
of the completely closed circuit dryer. Nowadays, the
rate of recirculation of the exhaust humid air in the usual
dryer is limited because the drying rate decreases as air
humidity increases. However, at high temperatures this
limit would not be an essential factor.
If humid air is used as a drying gas at temperatures

Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970 211
 0008
0007
0006

0005
-
^ 0004

J
jO 00 03

0002
2000 3000 4000 6000 6000 10000 15000
Re

Figure 7. Comparison of mass transfer data with results of

Figure 3. Rate of water evaporation in air, superheated other investigators
steam, and 50% mixture
Mass velocity. 9100 and 18,200 kg./sq. meter hour

10000 15000 20000 25000

MASS VELOCITY Kg/nfhr

Figure 4. Variation of inverse point temperatures with mass

velocity

above the inverse point, the drying rate will be higher

than if dry air is used.
When a dryer is operated in a completely closed circuit,
air inside changes to humid air, then highly humid air,
and finally superheated steam almost completely replaces
the air. Consequently, air drying may change to a
superheated vapor drying, which has many merits
(Yoshida and HyodS, 1963, 1966).
Figure 5. Effect of percentage of steam in air on evaporation Figure 10 shows the outline of this dryer. At first,
rate it is filled with atmospheric air. Then the air is circulated
by the blower. The amount of steam in the dryer increases
as time goes on, because the steam is evaporated from
the drying material. To keep the pressure inside the cham-
ber at 1 atm. a regulating valve is mounted on the cham-
ber. Therefore the mixture of evaporating steam and air
over 1 atm. is exhausted from this valve.
The change of steam content in the air of the completely
closed circuit dryer was examined. If the volume of the
dryer, including the heating chamber and the pipeline,
is V cu. meters and the amount of evaporated steam
from drying material is v cu. meters per hour, the amount
of steam, x, in the chamber at time T is shown as Equation
Re 5,
v
X = V (1
-

e~l r) (5)
Figure 6. Comparison of heat transfer data with results of
other investigators Then, the following assumptions were made: the tem-

212 Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970
 Convective heat transfer coefficient of gas film
hc Wcrw/At¡mA = 33.6 kcal./sq. meter hr. °C.
=

A = evaporation surface area = 9.11 x 10~2 sq. meter

Inlet humidity of gas, Hi = 1 kg./kg. dry air
Outlet humidity of gas, H2 Hi + W,/[G'(1/1 + Hi)] =

= 1.105 kg./(kg. dry air)

Inlet partial pressure of air
Pi Pt/(1 + 1.61 Hi) = 272 mm. Hg
=

Outlet partial pressure of air

p2 = P,/(l + 1.61 H2) = 272 mm. Hg
Vapor pressure for L
, = 498.4 mm. Hg
Logarithmic mean partial pressure of air
Inlet gas film pB«i [pi (Pt pj]/[ln pi/(Pt = - - -

pA] 273.2 mm. Hg

=

Outlet gas film pB«2 [p2 (Pt pK)]/[ln p2/(P, = - -

pO] 264.8 mm. Hg =

Logarithmic mean partial pressure of gas film in column

Pbm = (Pbmi + PbmA/2. 269.0 mm. Hg =

Ratio of pBM and total pressure, Pbm/Pi = 0.356

Mean temperature of gas film
tm [(ti + t2)/2 + tu]/2 144.2° C.
= =

Specific heat of air at tm c„ = 0.2432 kcal./kg. C.

°

Figure 10. Closed circuit dryer and relation of steam content Specific heat of steam at tm c, = 0.4725 kcal./kg. C.
°

to time Mean molecular weight

Mm [29 Pbm + 18 (Pt —

Pbm)
—

]/Pt = 21.9
perature of the chamber was 300° C., and the evaporation Mean specific heat of gas film
rate was 0.25 to 5.0 kg. per hour (constant drying). Cm = [29 CoPbm + 18 cs (P,
-

Pbm)}/Pt Mm = 0.365
Thereafter, Equation 5 was calculated. kcal./kg. °C.
Figure 10 shows the relation of cubic meters of steam Mean mass velocity
in the drying chamber, x, and time, T. In the case of Gm =
(1/S)(G' + Wt/2) 18700 kg./sq. meter hour =

an evaporation rate of 5 kg. per hour, this chamber will S = sectional area of column 6.52 x 10'2 sq. =

be almost entirely filled with steam in about 20 minutes. meter

St K/CmGm= = 0.00497
Conclusions
Viscosity of gas film, µ 0.064 kg./meter hour by =

The statement that the rate of water evaporation de- method of Bromley and Wilke (1951)
creases as the humidity of air increases should be revised. Thermal conductivity of gas film
The rate of evaporation of water has a limit point 0.064 kg./meter hr. C. by the method of Lindsay
=
°

(inversion point) with respect to air temperature. The and Bromley (Wassiljewa, 1904)
above statement holds below this point, but at higher Pr „µ/\ 0.878
= =

temperature the rate of water evaporation increases as Jh St Pr2 3

=
(hc/CmGm) [cm(µ/ ) ]2,3 0.00456 = =

the humidity of air increases. Reynolds number Re DGm/ µ 8766 = =

Since water evaporates more rapidly into superheated D inside diameter of column 0.029 meter
= =

vapor than into air at temperatures above this point, Logarithmic mean driving force
an ideal closed-circuit dryer should be operated at a tem- Apim [ (pu Pt + Pi) =
(p„. Pt + p2) ]/[In (pa- - -

perature above the inversion point. -

Pt + pi)/(p„ Pt + p2)] 22.0 mm. Hg -

=

Further investigation of the inversion point is necessary Mass transfer coefficient

to make clear theoretically the reasons for its existence. kk Wc/ApimA 0.295 kg./ (sq. meter hour mm.
= =

Hg)
Appendix kG 0.0164 kg. mole/sq. meter hour mm. Hg
=

Sample Calculation for Run AS-10. Jd =

(kGpBMMm/Gm) Sc2'3 = 0.00352
Total pressure of column, P, 756.1 Hg = mm. Dc = 0.067 sq. meter/hour
Inlet temperature of gas, C 242.4° C. = Sc =
µ/pDu = 0.564
Outlet temperature of gas, t2 157.0° C. =
Acknowledgment
Evaporation rate by heat balance 0.627 kg./hour =

(Equation 2) A. Sumí, T. Nishioka, K. Nakamura, F. Ikeda, and

Mean temperature of water t 88.6° C. = H. Tamura were very helpful in the experimental work
Flow rate, G' 12 kg./hour
= and calculations.
Evaporation rate by gas radiation, Wr 0.036 kg./ = Nomenclature
hour (by method of Perry, 1963)
A =
evaporation surface, sq. meters
Evaporation rate, eliminating gas radiation effect ca =
specific heat of air, kcal./kg. °C.
Wc W,
=
Wr 0.591 kg./hour
-
=
cs =
specific heat of steam, kcal./kg. °C.
Logarithmic mean temperature difference Cm =
specific heat of air and steam mixture gas, keal./
Ailm =
[Ul -

í») (Í2
-

tA ]/ [In (it
-

/ (Í2 U] - -
=
kg. °C.
105.4° C. Dt = diffusion coefficient, meters/hour

Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970 213
 D = inside diameter of column, meters Literature Cited
G' = mass rate, kg./hour
mass velocity, kg./sq. meter hour
Gm = mean
Barnet, W. I„ Kobe, K. A., Ind. Eng. Chem. 33, 436
G = inlet mass velocity, kg./sq. meter hour (1941).
hc —
convective heat transfer coefficient of gas film, Basel, L., Conn, S., Gray, E., Chem. Eng. Progr. 58, 67
kcal./sq. meter hr. °C. (1962).
=
humidity of gas, kg./kg. dry air Bromley, L. A., Wilke, C. R., Ind. Eng. Chem. 43, 1641
Jh =
(,hc/CmGm) Pr2'3 (1951).
./c =
(.kGpBMMm/Gm) Sc2'3 Cairns, R. C., Roper, G. H., Chem. Eng. Sci. 3, 97 (1954).
he = mass transfer coefficient of gas film, kg./sq. meter Chu, J. C., Finelt, S., Hoerrner, W., Lin, . M., Ind.
hr. mm. Hg Eng. Chem. 51, 275 (1959).
mass transfer coefficient of gas film, kg. mole/
Chu, J. C., Lane, A. M., Conklin, D., Ind. Eng. Chem.
=
kg
sq. meter hr. mm. Hg 45, 1586 (1953).
Mm mean molecular weight of gas
Gilliland, E. R., Sherwood, T. K., Ind. Eng. Chem. 26,
=

Pi = total pressure in column, mm. Hg 516 (1934).

P =
partial pressure of gas, mm. Hg Lurie, M., Michailoff, N., Ind. Eng. Chem. 28, 345 (1936).
Pbm —

logarithmic, mean partial pressure of air in gas McAdams, W. H., “Heat Transmission,” 3rd ed., p. 262,
film, mm. Hg McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954.
Pr = Prandtl number = „µ/ Perry, J. H., “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 4th ed.,
r„. = latent heat at G, kcal./kg. p. 10-40, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.
Re =
Reynolds number = DGm/µ Rantz, W. ., Marshall, W. R., Chem. Eng. Progr. 48,
S = sectional area of column, sq. meters 141, 173 (1952).
Sc = Schmid number = µ/pDc Shepherd, C. B., Handlock, C., Brewer, R. C., Ind. Eng.
t =
temperature of gas, °C. Chem. 30, 338 (1938).
temperature of water surface, C.
0
G =
Tóei, R., Okazaki, M., Kubota, K., Óhashi, K., Kataoka,
T =
time, hours K., Mizuta, K., J. Chem. Eng. Japan 30, 43 (1966).
v volume of evaporation steam, cu. meters/hour Vivian, J. ., Behrmann, W. C., A.I.Ch.E. J. 11, 656
V = volume of dryer, cu. meters (1965).
w< =
evaporation rate, kg./hour Wasan, D. T., Wilke, C. R., A.I.Ch.E. J. 14, 577 (1968).
w =
evaporation rate eliminated radiation effect, kg./ Wassiljewa, A., Physik. Z. 5, 737 (1904).
hour Wenzel, L., White, R. R., Ind. Eng. Chem. 43, 1829 (1951).
x = volume of steam in dryer, cu. meters Yoshida, T., Hyódo, T., Food Eng. 38, 86 (1966).
µ =
viscosity of gas film, kg./hour meter Yoshida, T., Hyódó, T., Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Design
= thermal conductivity of gas film, keal./meter hr. Develop. 2, 52 (1963).
"C.
\Plm =
logarithmic mean driving force, mm. Hg
P =
density of gas film, Kg./cu. meter
Subscripts
1 = inlet Received for review October 7, 1968
2 -
outlet Accepted September 29, 1969

RADIATION-INITIATED SIDE-CHAIN CHLORINATION OF TOLUENE

Kinetic Investigations
J. Y. YANG AND C. C. THOMAS, JR.
Western New York Nuclear Research Center, Inc., Power Drive, Buffalo, N.Y. 14214

. T. CULLINAN
Department of Chemical Engineering, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, N.Y. 14214

A LTHOUGH there have been significant advances toward
^the peaceful utilization of atomic energy in many areas
of industrial applications, the extent of developments
within the chemical industry has been rather disap-
pointing. Silverman (1968) and Ballantine (1968) recently
reviewed the problems as well as achievements in the
field of radiation chemical processing. The application of
radiation energy for the initiation of chemical synthesis
has made particularly slow progress and more efforts
directed toward the development of such applications are
definitely needed.
The side-chain chlorination of toluene is expected to
proceed by free radical chain reactions, resulting in a
large number of molecules reacted for a given amount
of energy absorbed. A recent report (Collins et al., 1967)
based on a literature survey and economic evaluations

214 Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1970