METROLOGY & INSTRUMENTATION

MODULE 2
LIMIT GAUGES AND
OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS
What are the different types of Fits in Engineering

• Fit may be defined as the tightness or looseness between the two

mating components.
• These fits can be used for moving components or used to make them
fixed together.
• The following are the 3 different types of Fits in Engineering
• Clearance Fit
• Interference Fit
• Transition Fit

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Clearance Fit
• This means there is a gap between
the two mating parts.
• Let’s see the following schematic
representation of clearance fit.
• The diameter of the shaft is smaller
than the diameter of the hole. In clearance fit the difference between the
maximum size of the hole and the minimum size
• There is a clearance between the of the shaft is known as the Maximum
shaft and the hole. clearance and the difference between the
minimum size of the hole and the maximum size
• Hence the shaft can easily slide into of the shaft is known as the Minimum clearance.
the hole.

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Types of Clearance fit
• Slide Fit
• Easy Slide Fit
• Running Fit
• Slack Running Fit
• Loose Running Fit

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Interference Fit
• There is no gap between the faces and
there will be an intersecting of material
will occur.
• In the following schematic
representation of the Interference fit.
• The diameter of the shaft is larger than
the hole diameter.
• There will be the intersection of two
mating components will be occurred. In Interference fit the difference between
• Hence the shaft will need additional the maximum size of the shaft and the minimum
force to fit into the hole. size of the hole is known as the Maximum
Interference and the difference between the
Types of interference fit minimum size of the shaft and the maximum size
of the hole is known as the Minimum
Force Fit Interference.
Tight Fit
Shrink Fit © vishalnair 5
Transition Fit

• Transition fit is neither loose nor tight

as like clearance fit and interference fit.
• The tolerance zones of the shaft and
the hole will be overlapped between
the interference and clearance fits.
• See the following schematic
representation of the transition fit.
In transition fit, the tolerance zones are
overlapped.
Transition Fit further classified into the following
• Push Fit
• Wringing Fit
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B.I.S system of designation of tolerance
• According to Bureau of Indian Standard(BIS) system, tolerance is
specified by an alphabet (capital or small) followed by a number. For
example H7 or g5.
• The tolerance designation consists of two components such as:
• Fundamental deviation
• Magnitude of tolerance (IT grade)

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FUNDEMENTAL DEVIATIONS:
• It provides the location of tolerance zone with respect to zero line.
• According to Indian standard there are 25 types of fundamental
deviations.
• These are indicated by alphabets.
• The uppercase letters A,B,……Z, Za, Zb, Zc (excluding I,L,O,Q,W and
adding Js) are used to indicate the holes and the corresponding
lowercase letters (za,zb,….z, za,zb,zc) are used to indicate shaft.

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 Alphabets representing
fundamental deviations

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MAGNITUDE OF TOLERANCE (IT GRADES):
• Grade of tolerance is defined as a group of tolerance which are
considered to have the same level of accuracy for all basic sizes.
• There are total 18 grades of tolerances as follows:
IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2, IT3, IT4, IT5, IT6, IT7, IT8, IT9, IT10, IT11, IT12, IT13,
IT14, IT15, IT16.
• IT refers to international tolerance
• 01 represent finest finish and 16 represent roughest finish

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B.I.S system of designation of fits
• According to BIS, fit is specified by the basic size common to two
mating parts followed by the symbol for tolerance of each part.
• For example, 50H8/f7 refers : basic size=50mm, tolerance grade for
hole=H8, tolerance grade for shaft= f7

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LIMIT GAUGE- GO-NO GAUGE
• A go-no gauge refers to an inspection tool used to check a work piece
against its allowed tolerances.
• A go/no-go gauge is an integral part of the quality process that is used
in the manufacturing industry to ensure interchangeability of parts
between processes or even between different manufacturers.
• It does not return a size or actual measurement in the conventional
sense, but instead returns a state, which is either acceptable (the part
is within tolerance and may be used) or unacceptable (the part must
be rejected).

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Eight main types of limit gauges
1. Plug Gauge
2. Pin Gauge
3. Snap Gauge
4. Ring Gauge
5. Calliper Gauge
6. Thickness or Feeler Gauge
7. Radius or Fillet Gauge
8. Screw Pitch Gauge.

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1. Plug Gauge:

• A plug gauge is a cylindrical type of gauge, used to check the accuracy

of holes.
• The plug gauge checks whether the whole diameter is within
specified tolerance or not.
• The ‘Go’ plug gauge is the size of the low limit of the hole while the
‘Not-Go’ plug gauge corresponds to the high limit of the hole.

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 2. Pin Gauge
• When the holes to be checked are large than 75mm, such as
automobile cylinder, it is convenient to use a pin gauge as shown in
Fig.
• During measurement, the gauge is placed lengthwise across the
cylinder bore and measurement is made.
• These gauges are especially useful in measurement of width of
grooves or slots.

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 3. Snap Gauge
• A snap gauge is a U-Shaped frame having jaws, used to
check the accuracy of shafts and male members.
• The snap gauge checks whether the shaft diameter is
within specified tolerances or not.
• The ‘Go’ snap gauge is the size of the high (maximum)
limit of the shaft while the ‘Not-Go’ snap gauge
corresponds to the low (minimum) limit of the shaft.
• Snap gauges are available in different designs.
• Snap gauge may be single ended or double ended. Snap
gauge may have fixed or adjustable jaws.
• Generally Go and Not-Go both the features are provided
in a single jaw.
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4. Ring Gauge
• A ring gauge is in the form of a ring, used to check the shafts and
male members.
• The “Go’ and ‘Not Go’ members may be separate or in a single ring.
• The opening or hole in the Go gauge is larger than that in the Not-Go
gauge.

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5. Calliper Gauge
• A calliper gauge is similar to a snap gauge, but it is used to check both
the inside and outside dimensions.
• It’s one end check the inside dimensions (hole diameter) while it’s
another end checks outside dimensions (shaft diameter).

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6. Thickness or Feeler Gauge
• Thickness or feeler gauge is frequently used to measure clearances
between components.
• These gauges are ideal for measuring narrow slots, clearances, setting
small gap, and determining fit between mating parts.
• An important application of feeler gauge is for adjusting the spark gap
between the distributer points of an automobile.

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7. Radius or Fillet Gauge

Radius gauge are supplied in sets, are used:

(a) To check concave and convex radii on corners or shoulders.
(b) For layout work and inspection of components.
(c) As a template when grinding of cutting tools.

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 8. Screw Pitch Gauge
• A screw pitch gauge is also called thread gauge is looks similar to that
of a feeler gauge.
• Each strip or blade has several teeth, which are accurately shaped to
the standard thread form.
• These are used for checking the pitch of a screw thread.
• They are available with 55° and 60° included thread angles.
• They are also available in metric and inch pitches.

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TAYLOR’S PRINCIPLE OF GAUGING
• Taylor’s principle states that the ‘Go’ gauges should check all the
possible elements of dimensions at a time (roundness, size, location,
etc.) and the ‘No Go’ gauge should check only one element of the
dimension at a time.
• Based on Taylor’s principle, ‘Go’ gauge is designed for maximum
material condition and ‘No Go’ gauge is designed for minimum
material condition

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Allowances and tolerance
• Firstly, tolerance is the permissible variation in dimension of a component
(hole or shaft), whereas allowance is the prescribed difference between
dimension of two mating parts.
• Secondly, tolerance is the difference between higher and lower limits of a
dimension, depending on the manufacturing capability of a machine. As
regards to allowance, it is the intentional difference between lower limit of
hole and higher limit of shaft.
• Thirdly, tolerance on a part is intentionally provided on a dimension of a part,
as it is not possible on the part of a machine to manufacture to exact to size.
Allowance is given to dimension of a mating part to obtain desired type of fit.
• Lastly, tolerance is an absolute value, whereas allowance may be positive or
negative.
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LASER
Principles of working of a laser
In lasers, photons are interacted in three ways with the atoms:
1. Absorption of radiation
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission

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Absorption of radiation
• Absorption of radiation is the process by which electrons in the
ground state absorbs energy from photons to jump into the higher
energy level.
• The electrons orbiting very close to the nucleus are at the lower
energy level or lower energy state whereas the electrons orbiting
farther away from the nucleus are at the higher energy level.
• The electrons in the lower energy level need some extra energy to
jump into the higher energy level.
• This extra energy is provided from various energy sources such as
heat, electric field, or light.

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Cont…
• Let us consider two energy levels (E1 and E2) of electrons. E1 is the
ground state or lower energy state of electrons and E2 is the excited
state or higher energy state of electrons.
• The electrons in the ground state are called lower energy electrons or
ground state electrons whereas the electrons in the excited state are
called higher energy electrons or excited electrons.

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Cont..
• In general, the electrons in the lower energy state can’t jump into the
higher energy state. They need sufficient energy in order jump into
the higher energy state.
• When photons or light energy equal to the energy difference of the
two energy levels (E2 – E1) is incident on the atom, the ground state
electrons gains sufficient energy and jumps from ground state (E1) to
the excited state (E2).
• The absorption of radiation or light occurs only if the energy of
incident photon exactly matches the energy difference of the two
energy levels (E2 – E1).

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 Spontaneous emission
• Spontaneous emission is the process by which electrons in the excited
state return to the ground state by emitting photons.
• The electrons in the excited state can stay only for a short period.
• The time up to which an excited electron can stay at higher energy
state (E2) is known as the lifetime of excited electrons.
• The lifetime of electrons in excited state is 10-8 second.

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• Thus, after the short lifetime of the excited electrons, they return to
the lower energy state or ground state by releasing energy in the form
of photons.
• In spontaneous emission, the electrons move naturally or
spontaneously from one state (higher energy state) to another state
(lower energy state) so the emission of photons also occurs naturally.
• Therefore, we have no control over when an excited electron is going
to lose energy in the form of light.
• The photons emitted in spontaneous emission process constitute
ordinary incoherent light.
• Incoherent light is a beam of photons with frequent and random
changes of phase between them.
• In other words, the photons emitted in the spontaneous emission
process do not flow exactly in the same direction of incident photons.
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Stimulated emission
• Stimulated emission is the process by which incident photon interacts
with the excited electron and forces it to return to the ground state.
• In stimulated emission, the light energy is supplied directly to the
excited electron instead of supplying light energy to the ground state
electrons.
• Unlike the spontaneous emission, the stimulated emission is not a
natural process it is an artificial process.

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• In spontaneous emission, the electrons in the excited state will
remain there until its lifetime is over. After completing their lifetime,
they return to the ground state by releasing energy in the form of
light.
• However, in stimulated emission, the electrons in the excited state
need not wait for completion of their lifetime. An alternative
technique is used to forcefully return the excited electron to ground
state before completion of their lifetime. This technique is known as
the stimulated emission.

• When incident photon interacts with the excited electron, it forces

the excited electron to return to the ground state. This excited
electron release energy in the form of light while falling to the ground
state.

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• In stimulated emission, two photons are emitted (one additional
photon is emitted), one is due to the incident photon and another
one is due to the energy release of excited electron. Thus, two
photons are emitted.
• The stimulated emission process is very fast compared to the
spontaneous emission process.
• All the emitted photons in stimulated emission have the same energy,
same frequency and are in phase. Therefore, all photons in the
stimulated emission travel in the same direction.

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Light wave

A = Amplitude
A2 = Intensity
λ = Wave Length
V = λ/T = Velocity of Transmission
n=1/T = Frequency
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Light Waves as Standards-Benefits
High Degree of Accuracy
• Used by the International Committee of Weights and Measures
• Meter is defined as: 1,650,763.73 λ
• λ = Wavelength of the orange-red isotope of Krypton 86 (605.78 nm)
• Subdivision to 1 part per million
Virtually Independent of Ambient Conditions
•Temperature
•Pressure
Reproducible
•No need for a physical standard artifact

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Light Sources
Krypton 86 (605.78 nm)
Excitation takes place at very low temperatures (~68°K)
Used as International Standard of Length
Mercury 198 (546.1 nm)
Less expensive
Green light easily separated with filters
Drawback – radiates a mixture of wavelengths
Cadmium (644.85 nm)
(Almost) symmetrical red spectral line
Official secondary standard of length
White light (~500 nm). © vishalnair 36
 Gas Lasers
Helium – Neon (632.8 nm)
CO2 – (10600 nm)
 Gas Lasers - advantages
Produce highly monochromatic light
Highly intense (1000 times more intense than others)
Created by exciting a mixture of neon and helium in a special discharge tube
 Gas Lasers - disadvantages
High cost
Wavelength affected by temperature and vibration
Special optics required to spread the ray.

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Principle of Interference
• If two rays of same wavelength meet at some point, mutual
interference occurs & natural interference depends on Phase of two
waves at their meeting point

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Interference- Basics
• If two rays are in same phase, then
resulting intensity will be the sum
of two intensity.
• If two rays are out of phase, then
resulting intensity will be the
difference of the two intensity.
• If the two rays have the same
amplitude are in same phase, then
resultant will be twice & result will
be Bright spot.
• If two rays having same amplitude
are out of phase, then resultant will
be zero & result will be Dark spot.39
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Fringes
• Consider rays from two point sources, A & B

• The difference in the path lengths creates light and dark bands
– Difference of odd number of half wavelengths: destructive
– Difference of even number of half wavelengths: constructive

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Fringe Formation
• In order for light interference to occur, the following conditions are
necessary:
– Light from a single source must be divided into two component rays
– Before being re-combined at the receiver, the components must travel paths whose
lengths differ by an odd number of wavelengths
– Note, this is a relative measure

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Using Interference for Flatness Testing
• Optical Flat
– A circular piece of stress free glass or fused quartz
– Has two planes that are flat and parallel
– Surfaces are finished to an optical degree of flatness
• Properties of the Optical Flat
– Vary in size from 25 mm to 300 mm diameter
– Minimum expansion due to heat
– Thickness (up to 50 mm) insures freedom from distortion.

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 Optical Flat
• Interference in an optical flat
• Place an Optical Flat on the surface
– Will lie at a small angle to the surface
due to air cushion
• Illuminate with monochromatic light
• Will observe fringes like those shown
below
– Dark fringes occur for (1/2 + n)λ, n =
1,2,3,…
– Light fringes occur for nλ, n = 1,2,3,…

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Using Interference for Flatness Testing
• As the angle is increased, the fringes are brought closer
together
• As the angle is decreased, the fringes spacing increases
• Each adjacent fringe represents a change in elevation of
λ/2
• Total change in elevation = λ/2*n

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Errors
• The line of sight should be perpendicular to the reference
surface of the optical flat.
• Fringe spacing will be distorted
– A viewing error of 30°results in an error of 15%
– A viewing error of 45°results in an error of 40%

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Convex / Concave Surfaces
• A convex or concave surface will result in concentric
fringes, as shown below
• To determine which, apply pressure to optical flat

• In the following figure, the edge is half a wavelength

higher/lower than the centreline

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Practice for Using Optical Flats

• Handle optical flats carefully

• Handle optical flats minimally
• Ensure optical flat and work surface are clean by using a lint
free soft cloth
• Never wring an optical flat to a surface
• – do not push hard on an opticalflat
• Never wring two optical flats together.

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Drawbacks of Using Optical Flats
• Difficult to control the lay of the flat
• difficult to orient the fringes to their best advantage
• Fringe patter not viewed from directly above can cause
distortion and generate errors.

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Interferometers for Flatness Testing

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Types of Interferometers
1. Michelson Interferometer
2. Fabry-Perot Interferometer
3. Fringe counting Interferometer
4. NPL Flatness Interferometer
5. Pitter-NPL Interferometer
6. Zeiss gauge block Interferometer
7. Multiple beam Interferometer
8. Laser Interferometer
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NPL Flatness Interferometer
The NPL flatness interferometer is used for checking flatness
between gauge surfaces.

(a) Equal fringes on (b) Unequal fringes

parallel due to flatness error

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Working
• The light from a mercury vapour lamp is condensed and passed through a green
filter, resulting in a green monochromatic light source.
• The light will now pass through a pinhole, giving an intense point source of
monochromatic light.
• Therefore, the collimating lens projects a parallel beam of light onto the face of the
gauge to be tested via an optical flat.
• This results in the formation of interference fringes.
• The light beam, which carries an image of the fringes, is reflected back and
directed by 90° using a glass plate reflector.
• In Fig. (a), the fringes are parallel and equal in number on the two surfaces.
Obviously, the two surfaces are parallel, which means that the gauge surface is
perfectly flat.
• On the other hand, in Fig. (b), the number of fringes is unequal and, since the base
plate surface is ensured to be perfectly flat, the work piece surface has a flatness
error. © vishalnair 52
Pitter–NPL Gauge Interferometer

•This interferometer is used for determining actual lengths

of slip gauges.

• Illuminator provides a concentrated light source

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Working:-
• Light from a monochromatic source (the preferred light source is a cadmium lamp) is condensed by a
condensing lens and focused onto an illuminating aperture.
• This provides a concentrated light source. Thus, a parallel beam of light falls on a constant deviation prism.
• This prism splits the incident light into light rays of different wavelengths and hence different colors. The
user can select a desired color by varying the angle of the reflecting faces of the prism relative to the plane
of the base plate.
• The prism turns the light by 90° and directs it onto the optical flat.
• The optical flat can be positioned at a desired angle by means of a simple arrangement. The slip gauge that
is to be checked is kept right below the optical flat on top of the highly flat surface of the base plate.
• The lower portion of the optical flat is coated with a film of aluminium, which transmits and reflects
equal proportions of the incident light.
• The light is reflected from three surfaces, namely the surface of the optical flat, the upper surface of the slip
gauge, and the surface of the base plate.
• Light rays reflected from all the three surfaces pass through the optical system again; however, the axis is
slightly deviated due to the inclination of the optical flat. This slightly shifted light is captured by another
prism, so that the fringe.

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LASER INTERFEROMETERS
• The measuring capacity in interferometers of lamp of single
wavelength as source of light is limited because of their low
resolution and short measuring range.
• If the light source is replaced by a laser source, measurement can be
done over a long distance because it facilitates to maintain the quality
of interference fringes over long distance.
• Since laser is highly monochromatic coherent light source that follows
all the principles of light, the fringes formed due to interference of
laser are very sharp, accurate and precise

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LASER INTERFEROMETER

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Working
• Figure explains the operation of an Interferometer.
• It uses two-frequency laser system with opposite circular polarization.
• These beams get split up by beam splitter B1, one part travel towards
B2 and the other towards external cube corner where the
displacement has to be measured. Cube corner reflector is used.
• It reflects light parallel to its angle of incidence regardless of cube
corner reflector’s alignment accuracy.
• Beam splitter B2 optically separates the frequency f1, which alone is
sent to the movable cube corner reflector.

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Working
• The second frequency f2 from B2 is sent to a fixed reflector.
• When these two light sources again meets once the cube corners
reflect them to produce alternate light and dark interference
patterns.
• When the movable reflector moves, the returning beam frequency
will be Doppler shifted slightly up or down .
• Thus, the light beams moving towards the photo-detector P2 have
frequencies f2 and f1.
• P2 changes these frequencies into electrical signal.

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Working
• Photo detector P1 receives signal from the beam splitter B1 and
changes the reference beam frequencies into electrical signal.
• An AC amplifier A1 separates the frequency difference signal.
• The pulse converter extracts, one cycle per half wavelength of
motion.
• The up and down pulses from the converter are counted
electronically and displayed in analogue or digital form on the
indicator.
• From the value, the distance moved by the moving cube corner can
be determined.

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Thank you
End of module 2

VISHAL NAIR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
KUTTIPURAM

+919544487260
vishalsg@mesce.ac.in
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