Diversity Schemes and Combining Techniques

Diversity Schemes
The basic idea of diversity is to provide to receiver two or more such
inputs that their fast fading characteristics are uncorrelated. By combining
these inputs we can smooth out the fast fading and reduce the variations in
the received signal to the level of slow fading due to the shadowing on the
path from BS to MS.
The following figure shows how the fading characteristics are
significantly improved, if we always select the stronger one of the two
fading signals.

1
2
  It is observed that no severe fast fading is normally observed in rural areas,
so diversity techniques are only required in urban and suburban environments.
 Diversity schemes not only reduce the signal fading, they also reduce the
delay spread. Thus, the employment of a diversity scheme relaxes the
requirements for equalization in digital cellular systems.
The uncorrelatedness in fading characteristics of two received signals can be
achieved by separating them in
 space,
 frequency,
 polarization,
 field component,
 angle and
 time.
3
So, we can classify diversity schemes as:

Space Diversity

Frequency Diversity

Polarization, Field Component and Angle Diversity

Time Diversity

Multipath Diversity

4
Space Diversity
Scattered radio waves coming to two different locations have different path
lengths, so they sum up with different phases, and the fading characteristics
in these locations are different.

Thus, when two receiving antennas are separated by a large enough distance,
they can provide signals that are uncorrelated.

Since the MS antenna is normally always lower than the surrounding

scatterers, the scattered waves arrive from all directions around the mobile
unit, and a small antenna separation makes the received signals uncorrelated.

5
The space separation d, where the envelope correlation coefficient between
two signals has fallen to one half of its maximum value is given
approximately as

Thus, we can safely assume, that for all antenna separations greater than
0.5the two received signals are uncorrelated. Thus, a separation of 0.5 or
17 cm for 900 MHz between two antennas at the MS is enough to provide
significant diversity gain.

6
The situation for BS antenna, that is normally situated above the surrounding
scatterers, is quite different. Here relatively large antenna separations are
required to make the received signals uncorrelated. Experimentally it has
been found out that the correlation coefficient between two BS antennas at
800-900 MHz frequency range is dependent on a parameter

7
For efficient diversity reception a correlation coefficient below 0.7 can be
considered acceptable. This value corresponds to value = 11. Thus, for BS
antenna height of 100 m a separation of 9 m is required, and for BS antenna
height of 30 m a separation of 2.7 m.
As the distance between antennas increases, the correlation between
signals from two separate antennas decreases at a much faster rate with
horizontal spacing than with vertical.
Thus, horizontal separation of antennas is used in practice to achieve
diversity gain. The previous results are only valid for horizontal separation
between antennas.

8
Space Diversity Scheme

9
Transmitter Diversity

10
Frequency Diversity
Reflected waves at two different frequencies have
identical path lengths but different phase shifts due
to different frequencies, so again they sum up with
different phases, and the fading characteristics at
distinct frequencies are different. We have already
seen that two received signals at different
frequencies are uncorrelated only, if their
frequency separation is greater than the coherence
bandwidth of the radio channel.
11
The typical coherence bandwidths in different kinds of manmade
environments were earlier found to be:

12
Since we only need diversity for urban and suburban areas, the frequency
separations above 300 kHz are enough. This requirement is the same for
diversity reception at MS or at BS.
Transmitting two identical copies of the same message at two different
frequency channels means serious waste of spectrum, which can not be
tolerated in practical systems.

13
However, the use of several frequencies for transmission of a single message
is possible by frequency hopping, in which N frequency channels are divided
among N transmitters in such a way that each transmitter uses different
channels at successive time intervals. Frequency hopping is not a true
diversity scheme, since we only have a single copy of the transmitted signal
available at any time instant. However, even when we experience a deep
fade in one of the frequencies, we only lose the corresponding short time
interval of the transmitted message. When powerful forward error
correction (FEC) codes are used, the original message can be still recovered
from the correctly decoded segments in other time intervals.

14
If the duration of a single time interval is several symbol durations, the
scheme is called slow hopping. If the duration of a single time interval is less
than the duration of a single symbol, the scheme is called fast hopping. The
fast hopping places high demands to the implementation technique, and
today only slow hopping with time intervals of couple of milliseconds is
used in practical TDMA systems.

15
Polarization, Field Component and Angle Diversity
The fading characteristics of two orthogonally polarized electric field
components transmitted by two polarized antennas are different. Thus,
theoretically two separate receivers for two polarized components can
provide diversity gain without space separation between antennas. The
drawback of polarization diversity is the power loss at the transmitter due to
splitting of power into two separate polarized antennas. Also the fading
characteristics of the electric field component and the magnetic field
component of the transmitted radio wave transmitted by a single antenna are
uncorrelated.

16
Thus, an antenna system that can separate the electric and magnetic field
components can provide diversity gain without space separation between
antennas. Because only one transmitter antenna is required for field
component diversity, we do not experience the power loss of polarization
diversity. Note, that polarization and field component diversity can only
provide two diversity branches, whereas multiple branches are possible by
using other diversity schemes.
Since the MS receives scattered waves from all directions around the mobile
unit, two or more directional antennas pointing at different angles can
provide signals that are uncorrelated. Since the BS antenna is usually clear
of its surroundings, there are no significant reflected components from the
MS signal available from all directions, and angle diversity is not applicable
to BS.
17
Time Diversity
For a rapidly moving MS two identical copies of the same message
transmitted at different time intervals normally have different fading
characteristics. However, if the MS has stopped in a location of deep fade,
the repeated transmission is received with the same low level as the initial
transmission. The fading characteristics for two copies of the same message
are uncorrelated only, if the time separation between transmissions is larger
than the coherence time of the channel. The coherence time varies according
to the mobile velocity (and the carrier frequency).

18
As with frequency diversity, transmission of two identical copies of the
same message at two different time intervals would mean very inefficient
usage of radio spectrum. However, by using interleaving successive symbols
in the transmitted data can be separated in time in such a way that their
fading characteristics are uncorrelated. Interleaving is a process, where the
symbols of message are reordered in such a way that originally successive
symbols are located far from each other.

19
When interleaving is used, the group of symbols that are affected by a single
fade correspond to symbols that are relatively far from each other in the
original data sequence. Such bit errors are more easily corrected by forward
error correction codes. Thus, interleaving does not change the number of
symbols destroyed by a fade, but it changes their location in the received
sequence in such a way that they are more easily correctable. As frequency
hopping, also interleaving by itself is not a true diversity scheme, since we
again have only a single copy of the transmitted signal available at any time
instant. Frequency hopping and interleaving can only function when
combined with forward error correction coding, which spreads information
of a single bit into multiple symbols in the transmitter, so that original
information can be recovered in the receiver even when individual symbols
are incorrectly detected.
20
The fading characteristics of two time instants are uncorrelated only if their
time separation is greater than the coherence time of the channel. The
coherence times of typical radio channels are several milliseconds, which
correspond to duration of many symbols for cellular systems with high bit
rates. Since the interleaving does not increase the number of symbols, the
required time separation between symbols can be achieved only, if the block
within the symbols are reordered is quite long (hundreds of symbols).

21
Multipath Diversity
In CDMA spread spectrum systems the chip rate is typically much higher
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel, i.e. the typical delay spread of
the channel is equal to several chip durations. Thus, successive chips within
a single bit duration have usually uncorrelated fading characteristics. The
Rake receiver is a spread spectrum receiver, which detects separately
consecutive chips of a single information bit. When delays of the outputs of
these detectors are made equal, they can be combined by a (maximal-ratio)
combiner, and significantly better estimate of the transmitted signal can be
formed than by using only a single bit detector.

22
The Rake receiver is diversity receiver that is specifically
designed for spread spectrum systems. The time resolution
for identification of the individual multipath components
is equal to the chip duration of the system.
Thus, very large chip rates and very large bandwidth is
required for diversity improvement.

23
Combining Techniques
For combining the diversity branches, there are four major techniques:
selective, switched, maximal-ratio and equal-gain combining. They can be
used in combination with any of the previously mentioned diversity schemes.
The block diagrams of these combining techniques are shown in the
following figure for a two-branch diversity receiver.

24
Selective Combining
By selecting the strongest baseband signal among M diversity branches, we
can reduce fast fading considerably.

25
Switched Combining
The difference between switched combining and selective combining is that
only one receiver front end is used in switched combining.

26
In switched combining one of the diversity signals is selected, based on a
given threshold level in the receiver. If the first signal is above the threshold,
it is used until it falls below the threshold. Then the receiver switches to the
other signal regardless of whether it is above the threshold or not. If the
other signal is below the threshold, then depending on the switching
algorithm, the receiver can switch back to the first signal or continue to use
the other signal until it reaches the threshold level.

27
Maximal-Ratio Combining
In maximal-ratio combining the signal of each branch is weighted in
proportion to its own signal envelope-to-noise power ratio before summation.

28
Equal-Gain Combining
Equal-gain combining is similar to maximal-ratio combining, but the signals
of all branches are summed without weighting.

29
For this method the probability of the signal-to-noise ratio being below s
must be calculated by using numerical methods. The results show that equal
gain combining in only slightly worse than maximum ratio combining. The
difference with two branches is for a given probability of only about 0.4 dB.
Because of this, and because the implementation of the necessary circuitry is
much simpler, equal-gain combining is usually used at base stations.
Performance curves for two-branch combining by different combining
techniques are shown in the following figure.

30
31
The previous performance analysis – i.e. the probabilities of the signal-to-
noise ratio being below threshold for different combining schemes – is based
on assumption that the signals of different diversity branches are completely
uncorrelated. In practice, there is some level of correlation between diversity
branches, and the diversity gains are smaller than predicted by the previous
equations. However, as high correlation as 0.7 already provides significant
diversity improvement, since main improvement of diversity comes from
avoidance of very deep fades.

32
Baseband Combining
All the previously mentioned combining methods can be classified as
predetection combining, since the combining takes place at radio frequency
(RF) or at intermediate frequency (IF). In postdetection combining the
combining is done at baseband, and all stages of a receiver must be
duplicated. For predetection combining less hardware is needed, but
typically this hardware is more complicated.

33
For linear modulation methods, it does not matter whether the combining
takes place before or after the detection. However, for nonlinear modulation
methods (e.g. FM) the predetection combining yields a higher output SNR.
In baseband combining the choice between the detected signals is based on
the signal quality. In analog systems the criterion is the SNR, which can be
measured e.g. by using a pilot signal. In digital systems the criterion is the
BER. Instead of just choosing a better-quality signal, which corresponds to
selective combining in RF, the detected signals can also be combined by
using their quality as a weighting factor. However, this combining makes the
receiver even more complicated.

34
 Combining Techniques
• Selection Combining
– Fading path with highest gain used

• Equal Gain Combining

– All paths cophased and summed with equal weighting

• Maximal Ratio Combining

– All paths cophased and summed with optimal
weighting to maximize combiner output SNR

35
 Diversity Performance
• Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
– Optimal technique (maximizes output SNR)
– Combiner SNR is the sum of the branch SNRs.
– Exhibits 10-40 dB gains in Rayleigh fading.

• Selection Combining (SC)

– Combiner SNR is the maximum of the branch SNRs.
– Can get up to about 20 dB of gain.

• Equal Gain Combining

– In general, comes within 1-3 dB of MRC performance

36