Lateral Forces

I. Basic Principles
A. Effect of Wind on Buildings
1. The primary effects of wind on buildings are lateral forces on the exterior cladding and
entire structure.
a. Wind loading can cause both positive pressure and negative
i. The exact location of the negative pressure depends on the configuration of the
building, but usually it is on the leeward side, and often also on the sides parallel
to the wind direction.
ii. Negative pressure also occurs on the roof.
iii. Localized areas like corners, eaves, and parapets can experience unique
pressures in comparison with larger faces of building
b. Building shape or location relative to other buildings in a group can also cause unusual
wind forces that affect the occupant comfort and use of the building.
i. Adjacent buildings can cause funneling effects, etc.
ii. Wind tunnel testing is generally needed to determine the precise behavior of
wind in these scenarios.
2. Lateral wind forces can also cause drift.
a. Excessive drift can cause damage to exterior materials and affect comfort of
occupants
b. Maximum drift should be limited to 1/500 th of building height, and drift between
adjacent stories should ≤.0025 times the story height
3. Wind can cause resonant (oscillating) loads.
a. This loading results in the building swaying side-to-side, perpendicular to the wind
direction.
b. Dynamic loads also occur when repeated wind gusts strike a building at the same rate
as a building’s fundamental period.
i. ASCE7 requires that potentially sensitive buildings be designed with approved
methods, which generally require wind-tunnel testing.
B. Wind Measurement
1. Fastest-Mile Wind – measurement of the average speed of a 1-mile-long column of air
passing over a given point
a. This method eliminates effects of gusts.
i. Measurements are taken with an anemometer.
2. 3-second peak gust wind – measurement of the maximum wind speed of a 3-second gust,
recorded at 33 feet above the ground.
a. This method is used for determining wind speeds for building design.
3. ASCE7 wind speed represents the maximum speed that is expected to occur every 700
years.
 a. Wind speeds are taken at 10m above the ground.
b. Linear interpolation between contours is acceptable.
c. Some regions are designated as “Special Wind Regions,” where local conditions
require using values set by local codes, etc.
C. Variables Affecting Wind Loading
1. The primary factor affecting wind speed at building level is the friction caused by the ground
and surface obstructions. Three main surface conditions are defined for building design:
a. Open country – most severe case, because nothing slows the movement of air.
Gradient height for open country is set at 900 ft.
b. Suburban area – Gradient height set at 1200 ft.
c. Metropolitan area – Gradient height set at 1500 ft.
2. In all cases, wind is slowest at the ground level and increases with height until the gradient
height is reached, at which point ground friction no longer affects wind speed.
3. Surrounding buildings can reduce the wind speed with shielding effects, or increase the
speed by funneling.
a. ASCE7 does not allow for reduction in design wind pressures due to shielding/
b. If wind tunnel tests are performed, any increases in wind pressures due to
surrounding buildings must be included in design calcs.

II. Analysis of Wind Loading

A. ASCE7 gives a simplified formula to determine design wind pressure,
P = qGCp – qi(CaCpi)
1. G factor – accounts for atmospheric and aerodynamic effects
a. G=.85 for rigid structures
b. Flexible or dynamically sensitive structures require more detailed calculations
2. Structures over 400’ high, buildings are subject to dynamic effects, such as those with
height-to-width ratios >5, or those sensitive to wind-excited oscillations must be designed in
accordance with approved national standards, which often involve more extensive
calculations and wind tunnel testing.
B. K2 Factor
1. ASCE7 combines the effects of height, exposure, and wind gusting into one factor, K 2, with
three exposure categories
a. Exposure D – most severe, applies to areas where terrain is flat and unobstructed,
facing large bodies of water at least 5000 feet or 10 times building height (excluding
hurricane-prone areas)
b. Exposure C – open terrain with scattered obstructions <30 feet in height and includes
all hurricane-prone areas
c. Exposure B – urban and sub-urban wooded areas, or other terrain that has closely-
spaced obstructions upwind for at least 2630 feet, or 10 times building height,
whichever is greater
C. Cp Factor
 1. Cp accounts for differing effect of wind on various parts of building
a. There are two general parts to the table of values – one for determining loads on
walls and other for roof calculations.
2. Similar procedures are required for calculations on individual elements and special areas
a. Cpi – used to evaluate internal pressures and =±.18 for enclosed buildings.
i. For symmetric buildings, internal pressures will cancel out
b. Cpi = ±.55 for partially-enclosed buildings.
3. Two methods are required by ASCE7 for pressure calculations.
a. Normal Force Method – (analytical) must be used for gabled rigid frames, and may be
used for any structure
i. Wind pressures are assumed to act simultaneously, normal to all exterior
surfaces
ii. For pressures taken at leeward side, the height is taken at the mean roof height
and is constant over the full height of the building
b. Projected Area Method – (simplified method) may be used for structures which are <60
feet high, approximately symmetrical, and have a simple diaphragm structure with no
special wind considerations
i. This method assumes that horizontal pressures act on the full vertical projected
area of the structure and vertical pressures act simultaneously on the full
horizontal projected area
ii. Wind pressures for this method are taken directly from ASCE7 tables
D. q Factor
1. The effect of wind speed on pressure is called the wind stagnation factor, q.
a. Pressures are based on the 3-second peak gust wind at 33 feet.
q = K2Kztkdv2I
b. Kzi – topographic factor, indicating hills, etc. K zi=1.0 for level ground
c. Kd – directionality factor, indicates type of structure, with K d=.85 for buildings
d. V – windspeed, taken from Basic Windspeed Map, local records, or local codes
E. Importance Factor, I
1. I represents the safety factor for essential facilities that must be safe and useable for
emergency purposes during a storm
F. Load Combinations
1. IBC requires that buildings be designed to resist the most critical effects of combination
loading
G. Special Areas and Components
1. IBC requires individual areas of structures to be analyzed where higher pressures may
develop.
a. The process of calculation for these areas is similar to that for general areas, however
GCp values are higher and depend on the tributary area supported by a component.
b. Internal pressure coefficients must be considered for all components and cladding.
 c. Parapets must be designed for the worst case of combined coefficients from the wall
and roof.
III. Special Areas and Components
A. Lateral Force Distribution
1. Wind pressure from the exterior of the building is transferred through the exterior cladding
to the connections to the floors and roof.
2. The horizontal surfaces of the floors and roof act as diaphragms to transfer forces to lateral-
force-resisting elements, like side walls, interior walls, or the structural frame.
a. Shear walls – walls designed to carry lateral loads and transfer horizontal shear to the
building foundation
b. Bents – column and beam lines designed to carry wind loads
B. Building Shape and Framing Methods
1. The first consideration when designing a building to resist wind is the shape of the building.
a. Rectangular shapes block more wind than round shapes.
b. Square shapes are more efficient than long rectangles.
i. Square shapes have less surface area facing wind.
ii. Increased width allows for longer shear walls.
c. If the length-to-width ratio increases enough, the regular structure will be adequate for
lateral loading in the long dimension, and bracing will only be required for the short
sides.
2. Framing methods are the second determination for lateral load resistance.
a. Moment-resisting frame – simplest system, columns and beams are connected with
moment-connections
i. Connections may be welded or use brackets if loads are larger
ii. System is useful for low-rise buildings and high-rise buildings under 30 stories
b. Knee-bracing – short diagonal bracing between columns and beams in a steel frame
i. System is economical
ii. Can be used for low- or high-rise buildings
c. X- and K-bracing – X- or K-shaped braces are usually placed on the central bays and act
as vertical trusses cantilevered from the ground. K bracing is also called chevron
bracing.
i. Diagonals can be designed primarily to act in tension to reduce size
ii. K-bracing results in less horizontal drift than X-bracing
iii. This is the most common lateral bracing system for tall buildings.
d. Portal frame system – system composed of trusses at each floor level with knee braces
connecting trusses back to columns
i. System is generally not used unless trusses are also used to support floor loading or
the roof of a one-story building.
e. Framed tube – system which creates a hollow tube of structure cantilevered from the
ground
i. System is used for very tall buildings (Sears Tower and Hancock Tower)
ii. Built of closely-spaced exterior columns rigidly connected to form a stiff structure
 f. Trussed tube – combination of rigid frame and diagonal bracing for exterior walls
i. X-braces span 5 to 10 floors
ii. For added strength and reduced drift, walls may be slightly sloped, as with the John
Hancock Tower.
g. Steel frame with concrete shear walls – steel frame carries majority of vertical loads and
shear walls transmit lateral loads to foundation
i. Commonly used with shear walls acting as part of the building core
ii. Shape of shear walls can vary to H- or T-shaped sections to suit building geometry
and provide rigidity in both directions
3. Framing systems for concrete are similar to the approaches used for steel.
a. Rigid frame structures are possible, however, creating moment connections between
columns and beams are difficult
b. Rigid frames can be combined with shear walls
c. Framed tubes can be built in concrete and extended to tube-within-a-tube systems
when a second ring of columns is added to the interior.
i. This is one of the most efficient concrete high-rise structural systems.
ii. This system was used in Water Tower Place in Chicago.
C. Diaphragm Design
1. Diaphragms must be able to resist lateral loads without excessive deformation or failure.
2. Diaphragms must be designed to act as a unit so that forces can be transferred to shear
walls.
3. Diaphragms can be made of plywood, particleboard, concrete, steel decking, etc.
a. The allowable shear for wood diaphragms depends on the material and grade,
thickness, nail size and spacing, framing member size, and whether the material is
blocked or unblocked.
b. Blocked diaphragms have solid framing members at each edge of the plywood or
particleboard.
D. Chord Force
1. Chord force – the compression and tension force produced in a diaphragm under wind
loading
a. Used to determine the type of connection needed between the diaphragm and the
shear walls to transfer the lateral load.
2. The diaphragm acts like a simple, uniformly-loaded beam between shear walls.
a. The chord force can be found by determining the moment at the edges of the
diaphragm M = wℓ2/8, as for a beam
b. The chord force, c = M/d, where d=depth of diaphragm
E. Shear Walls and Overturning
1. Shear walls must transfer lateral forces to the foundation.
a. Connections must be adequate to prevent the entire building from sliding
2. Shear walls must resist the tendency for building to overturn due to the lateral force
moment.
 a. Code requires that the resisting load developed by the dead load on the shear wall be
1.5 times the overturning moment caused by wind (check this-1.67 in Kaplan?)

F. Drift
1. Drift is the lateral displacement of a building from a vertical line caused by lateral loading.
a. For wind loading, maximum drift = .0025 times story height
G. Connections
1. Moment-resisting connections occur somewhere in almost all buildings designed to resist
lateral loads.
a. Resisting moment of a connection increases with increased distance between the
centroids of the top and bottom portions of the connection.
b. Angle brackets have little moment resistance and structural T’s are often used instead.
c. Beams and columns are often welded to reduce the number of pieces in a connection,
but an angle seat is usually used to hold the beam in place during erection.
d. Stub brackets can be used for an even more rigid connection, which usually uses a
combination of welded and bolted joints.