Organizational Behavior

Sonakshi Gupta
Organization: A consciously
coordinated social unit,
composed of two or more
people, that functions on a
relatively continuous basis to
achieve a common goal or set of
goals.
What is OB
Is understanding behaviour relevant enough
to dedicate a course to it ?
Why study OB?

For everyone Bottom line

• Important for all • Helps financial Helps to manage yourself better
Predict how others will behave
• Mangers have to health
How you behave in groups
manage How other will behave in Groups
themselves &
others
• Its goals are to make mangers more effective
at describing, understanding, predicting, and
controlling human behavior.

• Key elements to consider are people,

structure, technology, and the external
environment.

• Different disciplines have contributed to

Organizational behavior. These disciplines
have a profound impact on OB as a subject
 The focus primarily on understanding the behaviour
of a person :
• As an individual
• In a Group behavior
Focus of • In an Organization

OB Individual behavior includes topics such as attitudes,

personality, perception, learning, and motivation.

Group behavior includes norms, roles, team

building, leadership, and conflict.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fkHlhiG0h70&list=PL92C55421E345BFEE&feature=iv&s
rc_vid=5SnIUYLRXro&annotation_id=annotation_424224
Objectives of OB

explain why employees engage in

Explain some behaviors rather than others

predict how employees will

Predict respond to various actions and
decisions

Influence influence how employees behave

behaviour
1. Individual behavior 2. Group behavior 3. Organizational
aspects
•Attitudes •Norms •Structure
•Personality •Roles •Culture
•Perception •Team building •Human resource
•Learning •Leadership policies & practices
•Motivation •Conflict

OB is a combination of Psychology, Sociology, social psychology,

Anthropology and Political science
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
Minztberg’s
Managerial
Roles
THEORETICAL
Organizational Organizational
Theory Behaviour

Human
Organizational
Resource
Development
APPLIED Management
MACRO MICRO
OB Model
 • Organizational Behavior (OB) is the
study of human behavior in
organizational settings, the interface
between human behavior and the
organization, and the organization
itself.

Nature of OB • As a multidisciplinary field,

organizational behavior has been
influenced by developments in a
number of allied disciplines including
sociology, psychology, anthropology as
well as by the experience of
practitioners.
Contribution of various academic disciplines
to the field of organizational behavior

SOCIOLOGY
SOCIAL
POLITICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
SCIENCE
OB

PSYCHOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY
• Psychology is the science that seeks to measure, explain, and
sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals. Ex.
Advertisements https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=56b09ZyLaWk

• Sociology studies people in relation to their fellow human beings to

improve organizational performance.

• Social psychology : An area within psychology that blends concepts

from psychology and sociology and that focuses on the influence of
people on one another.
• Anthropology :
• The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
• Study on culture and environment has helped us understand differences in
fundamental values, attitudes, and behaviour between people in different
countries and within different organisations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xJ_hbD4TQA

• Political science:
• The study of the behaviour of individuals and groups within a political
environment
• Study areas: structuring of conflicts, allocations of power, how people manipulate
power for individual self-interest
Fields that
contribute
towards OB
Anchors of Organizational Behaviour
Systematic Research Anchor

• OB should Study organizations using Systematic research methods

Multidisciplinary anchor

• OB should Import knowledge from other disciplines, not just create its own knowledge

Contingency Anchor

• OB theory should recognize

Multiple levels of analysis anchors

• OB events should be understood from three levels of analysis

 • Impact of personality on performance
• Employee motivation & Leadership
• How to create effective teams and groups
• Study of different organizational structures

Organisational • Individual behavior, attitude and learning

• Perception
Behaviour – • Organizational culture & Impact of culture on organizational
behavior
Scope • Organizational development & Management of change
• Management of conflict and stress
• Transactional analysis
• Group behavior, power and politics
• Job design
• Study of emotions
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2g88Ju6nkcg

Challenges and Opportunities

for Organizational Behaviour

The Creation of a Global Village

Adapting to Different People

Workforce demographics

Improving People's Skills

Management Control to Empowerment

Stability to Flexibility

Improving Ethical Behavior

 Environmental Challenges
• Globalization, Information Technology, Total Quality, Diversity and Ethics are like
comparative advantage of labor in the market.
• Challenges like workforce diversity, cross cultural leadership, decision making,
communication, dual career couple, stimulating innovation and change in the
organization.
• A manager has to manage a diversified workforce that is likely to have very different
needs, aspirations and attitudes from the ones that they are used to manage in their
home country.
• Understanding culture of local people in order to adapt appropriate management
style for the success the operations. It is important for the manager to show
tolerance to sensitivity to various individual in the workforce.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6glH8BjyWaA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7T-Wf3Wdbms
learning
 • Over the past century, educational
psychologist and researchers have posited
many theories to explain how individuals
acquire, organize and deploy skills and
knowledge.

• Learning theories are grouped into three

INTRODUCTION basic categories:
• Behaviorist learning theories
• Cognitive-information processing
learning theories
• Cognitive-constructivist learning
theories
LEARNING

Meaning
• Any relatively permanent change
in behavior brought about by
experience or practice.
• When people learn anything,
some part of their brain is
physically changed to record
what they have learned.
 CHARACTERISTICS
OF LEARNING

• Learning always involves some kind of

experience.
• The behavioral changes that take place
due to learning are relatively permanent.
• Learning cannot be observed
directly. We can only observe a
person's behaviour and draw the
inference from it
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Behaviourist, stimulus-response Cognitive, information processing

•Studies only observable •Also studies mental processes

behaviour
•Behaviour is determined by
•Behaviour is determined by memory, mental processes and
learned sequences of muscle expectations
movements
•We learn cognitive structures
•We learn habits and alternative ways to achieve
our goals
•Problem solving occurs by trial
and error •Problem solving also involves
insight and understanding
THE BEHAVIORIST APPROACH TO LEARNING
• Learning is a result of experience
• We use knowledge of the results of past behavior to change, modify and improve
our behavior in future.
• We cannot learn without appropriate feedback.
• Behaviorist psychologists speak of the association between stimulus and
response.
• The development of associations between stimuli and responses happens in two
different ways known as Pavlovian conditioning and Skinnerian conditioning.
PAVLOVIAN THEORY – CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
APPLICATION OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Advertisers use classical
conditioning to associate a
product with a specific experience
 OPERANT OR INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING

• Method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior = an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
• For example, when a lab rat presses a blue button, he receives a food pellet as a reward, but
when he presses the red button he receives a mild electric shock. As a result, he learns
to press the blue button but avoid the red button.
• Operant conditioning relies on a fairly
simple premise - actions that are followed
by reinforcement will be strengthened
and more likely to occur again in the
future.
 REINFORCEMENT THEORY

• Operant behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought

about by its consequences. Reinforcement conditions behavior.
• What controls behavior is reinforcers :-Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and
increases the likelihood it will be repeated.
• Argues that creating pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of behavior would increase
the frequency of that behavior. RT says people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they
are positively reinforced for doing so; that rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the
desired response; and that behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be
repeated.
• Skinner concluded people learn to associate stimulus and response, but their conscious
awareness of this association is irrelevant.
APPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
EXAMPLES
GRID FOR REINFORCEMENT THEORY
HOW OPERANT LEARNING IS LINKED WITH
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
• Operant conditioning theory (most relevant component of reinforcement
theory) for management, argues that people learn to behave to get
something they want or to avoid something they don’t want.
• Unlike reflexive or unlearned behavior, operant behavior is influenced by
the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by its
consequences.
• Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the
likelihood it will be repeated.
Reinforcement
theory
 Identify
Classical or
Operant
conditioning
 COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING
• The mental processes involved in learning: – Observing,
categorizing, forming generalizations to make sense of the
information provided
• Main Assumptions
• Learning results from internal
mental activity and not
from externally imposed
stimuli
• The learner comes with
knowledge, skills and
related experiences to
the learning situation
 Learning
Kolb’s Learning Model: Learning Styles Inventory" (LSI), and cycle of experiential
learning
“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and
transforming it.”

Kolb (1984, 41)

 Kolb proposes that experiential learning has six main
characteristics:
1. Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of
outcomes.
2. Learning is a continuous process grounded in
Characteristics experience.
3. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the
of learning world.
4. Learning involves transactions between the person and
the environment.
5. Learning is the process of creating knowledge that is
the result of the transaction between social
knowledge and personal knowledge.
 • Kolb's model differs from others since it offers both
Basis of a way to understand individual learning styles,
which he named the "Learning Styles Inventory"
Kolb's (LSI), and also an explanation of a cycle
of experiential learning that applies to all learners.

Experiential • “Experiential” means relating to or resulting from

experience while “experimental” means relating to
or based on experiment.
Learning • Kolb uses the term “experiential” as his theory is
based more on reflection of experiences.
Model • While others use “experimental” when referencing
experimental-inquiry techniques that requires
learners to test hypothesis (experiment) about
content knowledge.
Effective learning is
seen when a person
progresses through a
cycle of four stages of

Where the learner applies the new
ideas to her surroundings to see if
there are any modifications in the next
appearance of the experience.
Active
Experimentation
Where learners form new ideas, or
modify current abstract ideas, based
on the reflections that arise from the
last stage.
Ideas learned previously can be
applied in their real world.
Where the learner encounters a new
experience or reinterprets an existing
experience(learner is exposed to a
new task or a new way of carrying
Concrete
out a project, in a way they haven’t
Experience
seen before)
Reflective
Observation
Where the learner reflects on the
experience on a personal basis
Abstract (person is shown how to accomplish
Conceptualization a goal and then looks at how it could
be applied in differing
circumstances)
 • Learning to ride a bicycle:
• Reflective observation - Thinking about riding and watching another person
ride a bike.
• Abstract conceptualization - Understanding the theory and having a clear
grasp of the biking concept.
• Active experimentation - Leaping on the bike and have a go at it.
• Concrete experience - Receiving practical tips and techniques from a biking
expert.

Examples • Learning a software program:

• Active experimentation - Jumping in and doing it.
• Concrete experience - Using the help feature to get some expert tips.
• Reflective observation - Thinking about what you just performed.
• Abstract conceptualization - Reading the manual to get a clearer grasp on
what was performed.
• Learning to coach:
• Concrete experience - Having a coach guide you in coaching someone else.
• Reflective observation - Observing how other people coach.
• Abstract conceptualization - Reading articles to find out the pros and cons
of different methods.
• Active experimentation - Using your people skills with what you have
learned to achieve your own coaching style.
 • A typical presentation of
Kolb's two continuums is
that the east-west axis is
called the Processing
Continuum (how we
approach a task), and the
north-south axis is called the
Perception Continuum (our
emotional response, or how
we think or feel about it).
• Kolb believed that we cannot
perform both variables on a
single axis at the same time
(e.g. think and feel). Our
learning style is a product of
these two choice decisions.
Kolb’s Learning Styles
 Kolb’s
learning
Model
 • Concrete experience (feeling): Learning from
specific experiences and relating to people.
Sensitive to other's feelings.
• Abstract conceptualization (thinking): Logical
Depending upon the analysis of ideas and acting on intellectual
situation or environment, understanding of a situation.
the learners may enter
the learning cycle at any • Reflective observation (watching): Observing
point and will best learn before making a judgment by viewing the
the new task if they environment from different perspectives. Looks
practice all four modes.
for the meaning of things.
• Active experimentation (doing): Ability to get
things done by influencing people and events
through action. Includes risk-taking.
 • Essentially the opposite strengths of the Converger.
• Good at seeing the "big picture" and organizing
smaller bits of information into a meaningful whole.
• Emphasizes the innovative and imaginative
approach (creative) to doing things.
• Views concrete situations from many perspectives
and adapts by observation rather than by action.
Diverging • Interested in people and tends to be feeling-
(concrete /reflective) oriented. Likes such activities as cooperative groups
and brainstorming.
• Ex: Artists, musicians, counselors, and people with a
strong interest in the fine arts, humanities, and
liberal arts
 • Understanding and creating theoretical models
is one of their greatest strengths. Likes to reason
inductively and create models and theories.
• They tend to be more interested in abstract
ideas than in people, but they are not greatly
concerned with the practical applications of
theories.
Assimilating
• Likes to design projects and experiments
(abstract, reflective)
• Enjoy work that involves planning and research.
• Ex: Math and the basic sciences tend to have
this type of learning style.
 • Emphasizes the practical application of ideas
and solving problems.
• Likes decision-making, problem-solving, and the
practical application of ideas.
• Prefers technical problems over interpersonal
Converging issues.
(abstract, active) • They tend to do best in situations where there is a
single best solution or answer to a problem
 • Opposite of the Assimilator style.
• Accommodators are doers they enjoy performing
experiments and carrying out plans in the real
world.
• Uses trial and error rather than thought and
reflection.
• Good at adapting to changing circumstances; solves
problems in an intuitive, trial-and-error manner,
Accommodating such as discovery learning.
(concrete, active) • Also tends to be at ease with people.
• Greatest risk-takers. Good at thinking on their feet
and changing their plans spontaneously.
• Ex:technical fields or in action-oriented jobs such
as sales and marketing.
Preferred instructional techniques
Accommodating
a)Activities that allow them to be
actively engaged
b)Exploration and instructor support
for deeper questioning, such as
“what if?” or “why not?”
c)Tasks that promote independent
discovery
Converging
a)Workbooks or worksheets that provide
problems sets
b)Tasks that are computer-based
c)Interactive activities
Diverging
a) Hands-on activities and the
opportunity to explore
b) Classic teacher-class lecture that
highlights how to use a system as
well as its strengths and
weaknesses.
Assimilating
a)Independent, prepared exercises that
the learner can complete without the
instructor
b)Classic teacher-class lecture supported
by an audio or video presentation
c)Private exploration or demonstration
that follows a tutorial, with answers
provided
Perception
 Factors that Influence Perception

Perception
• A process by which
individuals organize and
interpret their sensory
impressions in order to
give meaning to their
environment.
 SP is directly concerned with how one individual perceives
other individuals: how we get to know others.
Characteristics of Perceiver

1. Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.

Social 2. One’s own characteristics affect the characteristics one is

Perception likely to see in others.

3. People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to

see favorable aspects of other people.

4. Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.

 • Research has shown that:

1. The status of the person perceived will greatly

Characteristics influence others’ perception of the person.
of the person 2. The person being perceived is usually placed into
being perceived categories to simplify the viewer’s perceptual
that influence activities. Two common categories are status and
social role.
perception.
3. The visible traits of the person perceived will
greatly influence others’ perception of the person.
Attribution theory
 Attribution
Theory
This Theory focuses on how
people explain their successes
and failures. An attempt to
determine whether an
individual’s behavior is
internally or externally caused.
That determination depends
largely on three factors:
• distinctiveness
• consensus, and
• consistency
Internally caused behaviors are those an observer
believes to be under the personal behavioral
control of the individual.
Externally caused behavior is what we imagine
the situation forced the individual to do.
• Distinctiveness refers to whether an
individual displays different behaviors in
different situations?
• Consensus If everyone who faces a similar
situation responds in the same way, we can
say the behavior shows consensus.
• Consistency Does the person respond the
same way over time?
 • Stereotyping

• Halo Effect

Perceptual • Selective Perception

Distortions • Contrast Effects

• Self-fulfilling Prophecies

• Projection
 Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the
group to which that person belongs.
Example: Degree to which African-American defendants in
murder trials looked “stereotypically colored/black”
Stereotyping essentially doubled their odds of receiving a death sentence
if convicted.
 Halo Effect is when we draw a positive general
impression about an individual on the basis of a single
characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or
appearance, a halo effect is operating.

• The opposite is sometimes called the “horns effect”

where an individual is downgraded because of a single
Halo/Horns negative characteristic or incident
Effect
Whatever the single trait is, it may override all other
traits in forming the perception of the person.
For example, a person’s physical appearance or dress
may override all other characteristics in making a
selection decision or in appraising the person’s
performance..
 • The tendency to selectively interpret what one
sees on the basis of one’s interests, background,
experience, and attitudes.
• This happens because people take in bits &
pieces of information, & those bits & pieces are
selectively chosen according to people’s interest,
Selective background, experiences & attitudes.
Perception • E.g. A prospective car buyer suddenly begins to
notice different cars on the road that would
normally have gone unnoticed.
• You get more attentive when someone is
discussing about a particular city if you are
planning to move there soon.
 Contrast Effects
• Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is
affected by comparisons with other people
recently encountered who rank higher or
lower on the same characteristics
– There a two types of contrast effect:
• Positive contrast effect: something is
viewed as better than it would usually be
when being compared to things that are
worse.
• Negative contrast effect: something is
viewed as being worse than it would
usually be when compared to something
better.
Projection
In many cases, our judgments have important
consequences for the organization. Some of the
most obvious applications.

• Employment Interview
• Performance Expectations
• Performance Evaluation
 Self-fulfilling prophecy & Pygmalion effect

• Self-fulfilling prophecy: A situation in which a person inaccurately perceives a

second person, and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave
in ways consistent with the original perception. Two types
• a)Self-imposed prophecies-When your expectation influence your actions
• b)Other-imposed prophecies-When others expectation influence your behaviour (esp. if you
value those opinions)
• The Pygmalion effect describes situations where someone's high expectations
improves our behavior and therefore our performance in a given area. It suggests
that we do better when more is expected of us.
• Pygmalion effect is a type of Other-imposed Self-fulfilling prophecy.
The Pygmalion effect is a type of self-fulfilling
prophecy (SFP) in which raising manager
expectations regarding subordinate performance
boosts subordinate performance.
Managers who are led to expect more of their
subordinates lead them to greater achievement.
Self-fulfilling Prophecies
 Overconfidence Bias
Overestimating abilities and misjudge
abilities, dont have contingency plan or
plan B

Common
Anchoring Bias: Is a tendency to
Biases fixate on initial information and fail
to adequately adjust for subsequent
and information. less chance to shift from this
decision, initial info is utmost imp

Errors in Confirmation Bias: specific case of selective

perception: we seek out information that
Decision reaffirms our past choices, and we discount
information that contradicts them.

Making negating opp info because u believe too much abt the other info

Availability Bias: This as is our using easily accessible

tendency to base judgments on info without dwelling
deeper
information readily available.
 after situation is over u
Hindsight Bias: This is the think it was very obv but
before u dint think so
tendency to believe falsely, after
the outcome is known, that we’d
Common have accurately predicted it.
Biases
Escalation of commitment: An putting more effort after

and
receiving info that task

increased commitment to a will be difficult af

previous decision in spite of

Errors in negative information.

Decision Randomness error: The tendency attaching meaning to

Making
everything that has been
of individuals to believe that they happening

can predict the outcome of

random events.
Attitudes and Behaviour
Sonakshi Gupta
Attitude
• Value
• Belief
• Attitudes
• Behavior
Attitude
I like my batchmates, I don’t like my job

Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgements—either

favorable or unfavorable—about objects, people, or events.

They reflect how we feel about something.

Complex→ What are the underlying reasons??

The statement “My pay is low” is a cognitive component of an
attitude—a description of or belief in the way things are. It sets
the stage for the more critical part of an attitude—its affective
component.

Affect is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude

reflected in the statement, “I am angry over how little I’m
paid.” Affect can lead to behavioral outcomes.

The behavioral component of an attitude describes an

intention to behave a certain way toward someone or
something—as in, “I’m going to look for another job that pays
better.”
Eg: I like X brand so I will recommend it to my friends &
relative
• Viewing attitudes as having three components—cognition, affect, and
behavior—helps understand their complexity and the potential
relationship between attitudes and behavior.
• These components are closely related and cognition and affect are
inseparable.
• For example, imagine you realized that someone treated you unfairly.
Aren’t you likely to have feelings about that, occurring virtually
instantaneously with the realization? Thus, cognition and affect are
intertwined.
Behavior
 Job Attitudes

Job Satisfaction and Job Involvement

• Job satisfaction describes a positive feeling about a job, resulting from
an evaluation of its characteristics.
• High JS = positive attitudes toward the job and vice versa.
• Job involvement refers to the degree to which a person identifies with
their job, actively participates in it and considers their perceived
performance level important to self-worth.
• High job involvement →strongly identify with and really care about
the kind of work they do.
• Psychological empowerment – employees’ beliefs in the degree to
which they affect their work environment, their competencies,
meaningfulness of their job, autonomy in their work.
• Perceived Organizational Support (POS) is the degree to which
employees believe the organization values their contribution and
cares about their well-being.
• POS is important in countries where the power distance (the
degree to which people in a country accept that power in
institutions and organizations is distributed equally) is lower.
• Employee engagement refers to an individual’s involvement with,
satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the work he or she does.
• Highly engaged employees have a passion for their work and
feel a deep connection to their company.
• Disengaged employees have essentially checked out, putting
time but not energy or attention into their work.
Organizational Commitment
• Organizational commitment refers to a state in which an
employee identifies with a particular organization and its
goals & wishes to remain a member
• Employees who are committed will be less likely to engage
in work withdrawal even if they are dissatisfied, because
they have a sense of organizational loyalty.
• Affective Commitment: Emotional Attachment to the
organization & belief in its values
• Continuance Commitment: Perceived economic value
of remaining organization
• Normative Commitment: An obligation to remain with
the organization for moral or ethical reasons
 • Managers should be interested in their
employees’ attitudes because attitudes
influence behavior and indicate potential
problems.

• Creating a satisfied workforce is hardly a

guarantee of successful organizational
performance, but evidence strongly
Importance of suggests that managers’ efforts to improve
understanding employee attitudes will likely result in
positive outcomes, including greater
attitudes - for organizational effectiveness, higher
Managers customer satisfaction, and increased profits.
How will understanding attitude help me?

• Cognitive dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or

between behavior and attitudes. Basically, this helps one rationalize when
there is a conflict of feelings.

• Job Attitudes:
• Job satisfaction,
• Job involvement,
• Organizational commitment,
• Perceived Organizational Support (degree to which employees believe the
organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being)
• Employee Engagement
 EVLN Model: Employee’s responses to Job dissatisfaction.
Constructive
VOICE
Active The voice response includes actively and
constructively attempting to improve
conditions, including suggesting
improvements, discussing problems with
superiors, and undertaking union activity.
LOYALTY
The loyalty response means passively but
Passive optimistically waiting for conditions to
improve, including speaking up for the
organization in the face of external
criticism and trusting the organization and
its management to “do the right thing.”
Destructive
EXIT
The exit response directs behavior toward
leaving the organization, including looking
for a new position or resigning
NEGLECT
The neglect response passively allows
conditions to worsen and includes chronic
absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort,
and increased error rate.
Beliefs,
Values,
Attitudes
and
Behaviour
Iceberg
analogy
Attitudes & behaviour
• Early research on attitudes assumed they were causally related to
behavior (Attitudes people hold determine what they do)
• However, Leon Festinger argued that attitudes follow behavior.
• Other researchers have agreed that attitudes predict future behavior
• Cases of attitude following behavior illustrate the effects of cognitive
dissonance, contradictions individuals might perceive between their
attitudes and their behavior
 VALUES

• Values: Basic convictions that a specific

mode of conduct or end-state of existence
is personally or socially preferable to an Instrumental
opposite or converse mode of conduct or Terminal values
values
end-state of existence.

•Self-respect
• Terminal values: Desirable end-states of
•Freedom
existence; the goals a person would like to
•Happiness
achieve during his or her lifetime.(Ends)
•A sense of
accomplishment
• Instrumental values: Preferable modes of
behavior or means of achieving one’s
terminal values.(Means)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQb5-kcnx18
 • Examples of terminal values prosperity and economic
Examples of success, freedom, health and well-being, and meaning in
life.
Terminal & • Examples of instrumental values are autonomy and self-
Instrumental Values reliance, personal discipline, kindness, and goal-
orientation.
 Rokeach’s Personal Values Survey
Terminal and Instrumental personal values
• In his research, Milton Rokeach separated personal values into two types: terminal values
and instrumental values.

Terminal Values
• Terminal values are values that reflect an individual’s desired stated of existence. These
are end state values, reflections of how we would like the world to be and where we would
like to end up. They are goals that we would like to see achieved.

Instrumental Values
• Instrumental values are Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s
terminal values. They reflect how an individual wants to live their life. They capture a
sense of behaviors and ways of interacting with and treating others throughout your life.
Discovering your Rokeach values

Rokeach’s Personal Values Survey can be used as a

helpful tool for discovering your personal values.

To complete this activity, simply review the schedules

of 18 Terminal and Instrumental values below and
prioritise them.

Once you’ve prioritized them, select the top three to

five from each list, and these are your core personal
values.
Reflecting on your values
• Once you’ve been through this lists that make up Rokeach’s Personal Values Survey and
identified your core values, it’s important to spend some time reflecting on the
exercise and what you’ve learned.
• The following questions may help that reflection process:
• When you think of the word values what comes to your mind?
• Do you think your values are innate or learned?
• Do you think your values will change over time? What are some of the reasons that
your values might change?
• Do you think it’s important to identify your values? If so, why?
• What are your top three instrumental and terminal values? Why do they stand out
to you? Do you feel that you currently living in line with them?
• How could awareness of your values help you in choosing direction in your career,
or in life in general?
 Generational Values/Dominant Work Values
Researchers have integrated several analyses of work values into groups that
attempt to capture the shared views of different cohorts or generations.
 • The effort to match job req. with personality is
best described in Holland’s personality-job fit
theory
• Personality–job fit theory identifies six
personality types and proposes that the fit
between personality type and occupational
environment determines satisfaction and
Linking an turnover.
Individual’s • Person–organization fit: a theory that people
Personality and are attracted to and selected by organizations
that match their values and leave that when
Values to the organization are not compatible with their
Workplace personality
Holland’s Typology : Personality and Job Fit

• Dr. Holland theorized that to have a career that is a

good fit, one has to identify their personality
characteristics and align them to their work
environment.

• He identified these six themes known as the RIASEC

(Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising,
Conventional).
There are four basic assumptions when using the
Holland Themes.

• The first is that most people fit into one of the six RIASEC
themes and may have characteristics of one or more themes.
• The second belief is that environments also can fit into these
six themes and will attract a certain type of person.
• Next is that individuals try to find careers that are
compatible to their skill set, values, and interests and stay
away from careers that clash with their values, interests and
skill set.
• Lastly, a person’s conduct and actions will reflect the
correlation between one’s personality and environment.
Holland’s Typology of personality & congruent occupations
Holland’s
Hexagonal
Diagram
Interpretation of Holland’s Hexagonal Diagram
• The closer two fields or orientations are in the hexagon the more
compatible they are.
• Adjacent categories are quite similar
• Whereas diagonally opposite ones are highly dissimilar
Personality
Sonakshi Gupta
 Defining Personality
• Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of
thinking, feeling and behaving.
• The study of personality focuses on two broad areas:
– One is understanding individual differences in particular personality
characteristics
– How different personality are suited for different job, leadership styles
etc.

(personality as the sum total

of ways in which an
individual reacts to and
interacts with others. )
 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The Big Five Personality Model

Personality The Dark Triad

Frameworks Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB

• Core Self-Evaluation
• Self-Esteem
• Self-Efficacy
• Locus of Control
• Attribution Errors & Bias
 In any organization, different roles
require different skill sets and
aptitudes, which are tied to
Importance personality.
of
Not everyone can be a motivating
Personality leader, an engaging front-line
customer contact or a micromanaging
in an organizational specialist.
Organization
Organizations are recognizing more
and more the importance of
personality when looking for
candidates to fill job openings.
The Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator

• The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is

the most widely used personality
assessment instrument in the world.

• It is a 100-question personality test that

asks people how they usually feel or act in
particular situations.
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
a personality test that taps four
characteristics and classifies people
Myers- into one of 16 personality types.

Briggs Type
Indicator
(MBTI) Respondents are classified as

Extraverted or Sensing or Judging or

Thinking or
Introverted Intuitive Perceiving
Feeling (T/F),
(E/I), (S/N), (J/P)
Extraverted individuals are Introverts are quiet and shy.
Extraverted (E) versus Introverted (I).
outgoing, sociable, and assertive.

Sensing types are practical and Intuitives rely on unconscious

Sensing (S) versus Intuitive (N).
prefer routine and order, and they processes and look at the “big
focus on details. picture.”

Thinking types use reason and Feeling types rely on their personal
Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F).
logic to handle problems. values and emotions.

Perceiving types are flexible and

Judging types want control and Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P). spontaneous.
prefer order and structure
MBTI: Ask yourself these four questions
MBTI

All sixteen combination in MBTI

framework
 Big 5
Personality
Model
The conscientiousness dimension is a measure of reliability. A highly conscientious person is responsible,
organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted,
disorganized, and unreliable.

The emotional stability dimension—often labeled by its converse, neuroticism—taps a person’s ability
to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and
secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.

The openness to experience dimension addresses range of interests and fascination with novelty.
Extremely open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the
category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.

The agreeableness dimension refers to an individual’s propensity to defer to others. Highly agreeable
people are cooperative, warm, and trusting. People who score low on agreeableness are
cold,disagreeable, and antagonistic

The extraversion dimension captures our comfort level with relationships. Extraverts tend to be gregarious,
assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet.
 High Low

Extraverted individuals are Introverts are quiet, shy, reserved,

extraversion dimension captures our
gregarious, outgoing, sociable, and timid, and quiet.
comfort level with relationships
assertive.
agreeableness dimension refers to an
individual’s propensity to defer to
cooperative, warm, and trusting cold,disagreeable, and antagonistic
others

are easily distracted, disorganized,

responsible, organized, conscientiousness dimension is a
and unreliable.
dependable, and persistent measure of reliability

emotional stability dimension taps a nervous, anxious, depressed, and

calm, self-confident, and secure person’s ability to withstand stress insecure

creative, curious, and artistically openness to experience dimension

conventional and find comfort in the
sensitive addresses range of interests and
familiar.
fascination with novelty
Core-self evaluation
People with +CSE People with -CSE
Like themselves, Dislike themselves
see themselves as effective capable Question their capability
Feel they are In control of their environment Feel they are powerless over their environment

• The Four Dimensions of CSE

• Locus of control,
• Emotional stability
• Self-efficacy, and
• Self-esteem
Self-Efficacy
• Self-efficacy is the belief
that you are capable of
carrying out a specific
task or of reaching a
specific goal. Note that
the belief and the
action or goal
are specific.

Situations Low Self Efficacy High Self Efficacy

Difficult Tasks Reduce efforts Try harder
Negative Feedback Efforts Efforts
How to increase self-
efficacy?
Enactive Mastery:
Vicarious Modelling:
Persuasion:.
Arousal:
Self-Esteem
Self-Monitoring
• Individual’s ability to adjust behaviour to external, situational factors.
High self-monitors Low self-monitors
adaptability in adjusting their behavior to high behavioral consistency between who
external situational factors they are and what they do.

highly sensitive to external cues

can behave differently in varying situations display their true dispositions and attitudes
in every situation
Present striking contradictions b/w their
public persona and their private selves
Proactive Personality
• People who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and
persevere until meaningful change occurs compared to others who
generally react to situations.
Proactive individuals
Higher levels of job performance
Do not need much oversight
Receptive to changes in job demands
Thrive when they can informally tailor their jobs to their strengths
Achieve career success.
Challenge Status-quo
Voice displeasure when situations are not suitable
Show persistence in obstacles
 Type A &
Type B
Personality
 • Dark Triad a constellation of negative
personality traits consisting of
Dark Triad • Machiavellianism,
• Narcissism, and
• Psychopathy.
 • Niccolo Machiavelli, (16th century on how to gain
and use power)
• An individual high in Machiavellianism is
• pragmatic,
• maintains emotional distance,
• believes ends can justify means.
• manipulate more,
Machiavellianism • win more,
• are persuaded less by others, but persuade
others more
• act aggressively and engage in CWBs as well.
• High-Mach employees, by manipulating others to
their advantage, win in the short term at a job,
but they lose those gains in the long term
because they are not well liked.
 • Greek myth of Narcissus, a youth so vain and
proud he fell in love with his own image.
• It describes a person who has a grandiose sense
of self-importance, requires excessive admiration,
is arrogant and has a sense of entitlement.
• Narcissists often have
• fantasies of grand success,
• a tendency to exploit situations and people,
Narcissism • a sense of entitlement, and a
• lack of empathy,
• be hypersensitive and fragile people, and
• more anger.
• Narcissists commonly think they are overqualified
for their positions. When they receive feedback
about their performance, they often tune out
information that conflicts with their positive self-
perception, but they will work harder if rewards
are offered.
 • Psychopathy is part of the Dark Triad, but in organizational
behavior, it does not connote clinical mental illness.
• In the OB context, psychopathy is defined as a lack of
concern for others, and a lack of guilt or remorse when
actions cause harm.
Psychopathy • Measures of psychopathy attempt to assess the motivation
to comply with social norms, impulsivity, willingness to use
deceit to obtain desired ends, and disregard, that is, lack of
empathic concern for others.
The Dark Triad
Emotions
& Moods
What Are Emotions and Moods?
 Affect, Emotions & Moods
Affect: A broad range of feelings that people experience in
form of feeling & moods.

Emotions: Intense, discrete and short-lived feeling

experiences that are often caused by a specific event.

Moods: Feelings that tend to longer-lived and less intense

than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.
 Positive affect: A mood dimension that
consists of specific positive emotions
Positive & such as excitement, enthusiasm, and
elation at the high end.
Negative
affect Negative affect: A mood dimension that
consists of specific negative emotions
emotions such as nervousness, stress,
and anxiety at the high end.
Self-awareness
Self Management
Social Awareness
Relationship Management
EI at the Workplace
Amygdala Hijack
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ShAeGDqT0xU
Why is EQ important at work?
• EQ helps us manage stress, it is vital for enhanced
cooperation and teamwork, and it helps us to learn
in relationships.

• Our ability to work together is profoundly

impacted by our emotions, and this requires an
ability to self-soothe, connect, and integrate in
workplace relationships.

• While skills and experience may get you the job,

your EQ will ultimately determine how well you
succeed and how far you rise in the organization.
Three major levels of emotional labor have been identified.

• Surface acting requires an individual to exhibit physical signs,

such as smiling, that reflect emotions customers want to
experience. In this case, the person is engaged in surface
acting.

• Deep acting takes surface acting one step further. This time,
instead of faking an emotion that a customer may want to
see, an employee will actively try to experience the emotion
they are displaying. This genuine attempt at empathy helps
align the emotions one is experiencing with the emotions one
is displaying.

• Genuine acting occurs when individuals are asked to display

emotions that are aligned with their own. If a job requires
genuine acting, less emotional labor is required because the
actions are consistent with true feelings. Ex: Nurse
When it comes to acting, the closer to
the middle of the circle that your
actions are, the less emotional labor
your job demands. The further away,
the more emotional labor the job
demands.
 Selection

Decision Making

OB Creativity

applications Motivation

of Emotions Leadership

& Moods Negotiation

Job Attitudes

Customer Service
Motivation
Motivation can be defined as the process that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal*.

Intensity Direction Persistence

*Organizational Context-Organizational Goal

 Basic Motivation Process
It starts with a psychological or physiological deficiency or need (want/desire)
that activates a behaviour or a drive (Motive) that is aimed at a goal or incentive.
1. Need /Desire or Wants: created whenever there is a Physiological or
Psychological imbalance
2. Drive/Motives: Set up to alleviate needs. ( Action-orientation--->Deficiency
with direction) …. …. Energising thrust towards reaching an Incentive
3. Incentive/Goal : Anything that will alleviate a need and reduce a drive.
Restore Psy/Phy Balance
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization
Needs(Achieving our
Esteem Needs (Internal: 5
potential, self-
Self-respect, Social Needs
fulfillment)
autonomy)(External: 4
Higher (Affection,
Status, recognition) Level 3
Belongingness,
Safety Needs Needs friendship )
2

Physiological
(Emotional & Physical
Needs (Hunger,
safety) 1

thirst, shelter)
Lower Level
needs

There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need
becomes dominant.
Content Model of Work Motivation

Self-Actualization
1
Needs (Personal
Esteem Needs Growth)
(Titles, Status, 2 Higher
promotion) Level Belongingness Needs
3

Safety Needs Needs (Formal/Informal groups,

(Insurance, Pension, 4 Teams
Union)
5
Basic Needs
Lower Level (Pay)
needs
ERG Theory
Existence needs: These include needs for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an individual’s physiological and physical safety
needs.

Relatedness needs: Individuals need significant relationships (be with family, peers or superiors), love and belongingness, they strive toward
reaching public fame and recognition. This class of needs contain Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem needs.

Growth needs: Need for self-development, personal growth and advancement form together this class of need. This class of needs contain
Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs.

Frustration-Regression Principle: If a higher-level need fails to be filled then a person may regress and seek to further fill lower-level needs
instead.
Similarity between ERG & Maslow’s Theory
Difference between Need Hierarchy Theory and ERG Theory

Basis Need Hierarchy ERG Theory

Theory

How many needs are At one point only 1 need More than one need may be
operational? operational

Frustration- N/A Applicable

Regression Principle

Flexibility Rigid (needs follow a Flexible (One can work on growth

specific and orderly needs even if his existence or
hierarchy) relatedness needs remain unsatisfied)
ii)Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory/Motivation-
Hygiene Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
When did you feel particularly good about your job ?
Job Satisfiers or Motivators
Intrinsic Factors/Job Content/Job Experience

Advancement, Recognition, Responsibility e.t.c.

When did you feel particularly bad about your job ?

Job Dissatisfiers or Hygiene
Extrinsic Factors/Job Context factors

Supervision, Pay, Company Policies, working conditions

e.t.c.
Contrasting View of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction “Removing dissatisfying
characteristics from a job does
not necessarily make the job
satisfying.” Herzberg
Link between Maslow’s need theory & Two factor theory
 Acquired Needs Theory- McClelland theory of
needs
● A theory that states
achievement,
power, and
affiliation are three
important needs
that help explain
motivation.
● Need for achievement (nach) The drive to excel, to achieve in

relationship to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed.

● Need for power (nPow) The need to make others behave in a way in

which they would not have behaved otherwise.

● Need for affiliation (naff) The desire for friendly and close interpersonal

relationships.
How to use 3 Need theory ?
Help us get most out of each team members
1) Determine needs
2) Decide the style or approach

Employee NAchievment NAffliation NPower Style

Name change ...
Vritti +3 +3 0

Vivek +5 -2 +4
Shinghita -1 +5 -2
+4 +1 +4
iv)McClelland’s Theory of Need
Need for Achievement (nAch) Is the drive to excel, to achieve in
relationship to a set of standards
Need for Power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in a way they would not have
otherwise
Need for Affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Implications….
● High achievers ----> Probability of success is .5
High (No satisfaction..Pure chance), Low (No challenge to their skills)

● High personal responsibility+feedback+medium risk levels = High Achiever

are Strongly motivated(Entrepreneurial

● High n(Ach)…..A good manager? nPow & nAff

Best managers High nPow and low nAff

 iii)Theory X & Y (Douglas McGregor)
Two Distinct views of Human Being

Basis Theory X(Negative) Theory Y(Positive)

Believe Employees dislike the work Employees likes the work and enjoy
& try to avoid it working towards a goal
Most employees Prefers to be directed, avoids Learn to Accept and seek
responsibility and have low ambition responsibility
Managers need Control, Threaten punishment and No need to Control, threaten or
to force force

Motivated by Fear and Money Variety of rewards

Process Theories of Motivation
● The content theories concentrate on the question of 'what' motivates, the
process theories address more the issues relating to how the process works
and sustains itself over time.

● Process theories that will be covered are:

○ Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Framework
○ Adams (Equity Theory)
○ Vroom (Expectancy Theory)
○ Locke (Goal Setting Theory)
 Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength
of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on
the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.

Q1 If I give a maximum Q3 If I’m rewarded, are the

effort, will it be recognized in rewards attractive to me?
my performance appraisal? Instrumentality
• Effort- • Reward-
Performance • Performance- Personal Goal
relationship Reward relationship
relationship
Expectancy Valence

Q2 If I perform, will it lead to

 Expectanc Instrumental Valenc
y ity e

Motivation= Expectancy X INSTRUMENTALITY X VALANCE

Session 17
 The Johari Window
▪ Tool to enhance self-knowledge
▪ Helps people better understand their relationship with
themselves and others.
▪ Created by JOseph Luft and HARrIngton Ingham
researching group dynamics at the (UCLA).
▪ Arena,
▪ Façade (Hidden),
▪ Blind,
▪ Unknown
 The Johari Window
• It helps people understand their self-
perception and the perception others have of
them, by organising information into a four-
square matrix, based on two opposing axes:
– What a person knows or doesn’t know about
themselves, and
– What others know or don’t know about that
person.
1. Open Area – What a person knows about
themselves and is known by others in the
team or group
2. Blind Spot – What a person does not know
about themselves but which others know
3. Façade – What a person knows about
themselves but others do not know
4. Unknown – What is unknown by the person
about themselves and is unknown by
others
 Application of Johari Window
• This understanding of oneself can help
in many ways, in particular,
– for developing and training individuals and
teams;
– for increasing effective communications
among leaders, managers and team
members; and
– for establishing and understanding group
dynamics and inter-group relationships.
 The Open Area
• The Open Area is an area of commonly known
information about a team member – their behaviour,
feelings, attitudes, emotions, skills, experiences and
views – which is understood and accepted by the
person and their group.
• A primary goal for a person working in a team or
group should be to develop and expand their Open
Area as fully as possible.
 The Blind Spot
• The Blind Spot is what is known about a person
by others in the team, but is unknown by the
person themselves.
• The Blind Spot may be:
– Ignorance about oneself
– Areas where a person’s self-perception is deluded,
exaggerated or limited, perhaps by a lack of
confidence or self-respect, or by ego and false
entitlements
– Areas where others are deliberately withholding
information about this person
 The Façade
• The Façade is the hidden (or avoided) self, representing
information and feelings that a person knows about
themselves but does not reveal or is deliberately kept
hidden from others.
• These hidden areas could include sensitivities, fears,
hidden agendas, manipulative intentions or secrets
that a person does not want to reveal, for whatever
reason.
• it’s also typical that most hidden information is not
personal. It is work or professionally oriented. So, this
knowledge is better positioned in the Open Area.
 Unknown
• The Unknown area contains information, feelings,
latent abilities, aptitudes and experiences that are
unknown to both the person and the team. Large
Unknown areas are typically expected in younger team
members, or people who lack experience or self-belief.
Older or mature people tend to have smaller Unknown
areas.
• Whether Unknown knowledge moves into the Open
Area depends upon who discovers it and what they do
with that knowledge. The extent and depth of what
one does with discovered feelings must be at their
discretion. Some people are more willing and able to
do this than others
 How To Open Windows
• The Open Area can be expanded horizontally into the Blind
Spot if the individual seeks and actively listens to
constructive feedback from the team members.
• The Open Area can be expanded vertically into the Façade
if the individual discloses relevant and appropriate
information and feelings to their team members, who
should be non-judgmental and accepting of this
constructive information.
• The Open Area can be expanded diagonally into the
Unknown by working with the team leader or other team
members in shared discovery, looking into new areas of
opportunity to try, with little to no pressure to immediately
succeed, or to be accepting of mistakes and errors along
the way.
http://www.humanresourcefulness.net/CypressCollege/docs/HUSR224/Johari_Windo
w_Questionnaire-package.pdf
Games People Play

https://www.youtube.co
m/watch?v=nn3I6-
DBLJM
Interpersonal Self-Transactional
Analysis
 • When you acted, thought and felt just as
you did when you were a child?

• When you found yourself behaving,

thinking and feeling in ways you copied
from your parents/parent-figures?

In recent • When you were responding simply direct

here-and-now to what was happening
past…Were around you at that moment? You
responded as the grown-up you now are,
there rather than dipping back into your
Moments childhood.
Transactional analysis - Eric Berne

Transactional analysis is the method for studying

interactions between individuals.
Transaction – the fundamental unit of social
interaction
Transactional stimulus and transactional
response
Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
 ▪ Ego States (a consistent
pattern of feeling and
experience directly related
Transactional to a corresponding
consistent pattern of
analysis - Eric behavior)
Berne ▪ Parent
▪ Child
▪ Adult

Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
 Transactional analysis - Eric Berne

▪ Inspired from Sigmund Freud’s work

▪ Id (irrational), Ego (rational), and Superego (moral)

▪ The interaction between these three manifest as an
individual’s thoughts, feelings and behavior
▪ The three components needed to be well-balanced to
produce reasonable mental health and stability

Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
 Parent
• Represents a massive collection of
recordings in the brain of external events
experienced or perceived in approximately
the first five years of life.
• E.g. “Never talk to strangers”; “Always
Ego states chew with your mouth closed” ; “Do not
play with matches”.
• The events are recorded without question
and without analysis
• Set of feelings, attitudes, and behavior
patterns, which resembles those of a
parental figure

Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
 Child
• Represents the recordings in the brain of
internal events associated with external
events the child perceives till age ~5 years
(The emotions or feelings which
accompanied external events)
Ego states • E.g. “When I saw the monster’s face, I felt
really scared”; “The clown at the birthday
party was really funny!”; “I feel sad when
Mom is sad”
• Set of feelings, attitudes, and behavior
patterns, which are relics of the
individual’s own childhood.

Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
 Adult
• Adult data grows out of the
child’s ability to see what is
different than what he or she
Ego states observed (Parent) or felt (Child)
• Objective appraisal of reality
• E.g. “I see that Suzie’s house was
burnt down. Mom was right—I
should not play with matches.

Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
Functions of P-A-C Ego states
Child and parent ego
state

• (Free Child)
Egogram
 Analyzing Transactions

▪ Simple Transactional Analysis

▪ Identifying which ego state directed the stimulus and which
ego state in the other person executed the response

▪ Must consider the context and the other

situational cues in the social interaction
 Analyzing Transactions
▪ Structural diagram
Complementary transactions
Complementary
Transactions ▪ E.g. The fevered child asks
for a glass of water, and
the nurturing mother
brings it, “here, dear”
• Agent’s Adult: “Do you
know where my cuff links
are?”
• Respondent’s Adult: “I
don’t know” or “They are
in the closet”
Complementary
•
Transactions An employee makes a mist
ake and, wanting some sy
mpathy, apologizes to
the boss.
• Employee’s Child:
“I just dropped the thing w
hen I was almost
done. Now I have to do
it all over again.'
• Supervisor’s Parent: “It
happens to all of us; don’t
worry about it”
Complementary
• A supervisor who wants a
Transactions job done and delegates it,
is
expecting the employee t
o do it. The supervisor
behaves on an adult-to-
adult level.
• Supervisor: ”please get th
is order ready for me
by two o'clock.”
• Employee: “I'll have it
done before two o’clock,
no problem”
Crossed transactions
Crossed Transactions
• Agent’s Adult: “Do you
know where my cuff links
are?” (note that this
stimuli is directed at the
Respondents Adult).
• Respondent’s Child: “You
always blame me for
everything!”
Crossed Transactions • An employee makes a mis
take and, wanting some sy
mpathy, apologizes to
the boss.
• Employee’s Child:
“I just dropped the thing
when I was almost
done. Now I have to do
it all over again.'
• Supervisor’s Child: “You
are so clumsy”
Crossed Transactions • A supervisor who wants a
job done and delegates it,
expecting the employee t
o do it. The supervisor
behaves on an adult-to-
adult level.
• Supervisor’s Adult
: ”please get this
order ready for me
by two o'clock.”
• Employee’s Child: “why
do I have to do it? Why
don’t you do it yourself? I
am busy.
Relationship diagram • Nine possible transactions
between an agent and a
respondent
• Complementary
Transactions: Between
psychological equals: (1-1),
(5-5), (9-9)
• Non-equals: (2-4, 4-2), (3-7,
7-3), (6-8, 8-6)
• All other transactions are
crossed transactions
 ▪ Involves the activity of more than two ego states
simultaneously
▪ Two messages are conveyed together. One of these is an
Ulterior overt or social level message. The other is a covert or
psychological level message
transactions ▪ Most often, the social level message is Adult-Adult. The
psychological level messages are usually either Parent-
Child or Child-Parent
Ulterior transactions
Angular and Duplex
Ulterior transactions
▪ Angular e.g.
▪ Salesman: “This one is
better but it may be too
expensive for you” (Adult-
Adult but Adult-Child)
▪ Customer: “Well, that’s
the one I’ll take” (I’ll show
that arrogant guy I’m as
good as any of his
customers) (Adult-Adult
but Child-Adult)
Three rules of communication
Q. For each conversational pair 1-2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-8 identify the ego states for each statement of Sam and
George, explain why and then indicate the type of transaction it is.

1.Sam: George would you stop smoking; I've told you before it's bad for your throat


2. George: Sorry, Sam, I will try to stop

3. Sam: Good, because 20 000 person-hours were lost last year because of sore throats

4. George: Where was the information published; I'd like to read more about it?


5. Sam: In the Medical Practitioner — there's a copy in the library. Go and read it now and then
make yourself useful by making the group a cup of tea

6. George: Not again! I made it yesterday; it's not fair

7. Sam: I'm not interested in what's fair. You're the junior around here. Do as you 're told

8. George: You've no right to tell me what to do. I'm going out. You can do the rest of the
coding yourself

 Ulterior transactions
▪ Duplex e.g.
▪ A: "I need you to stay late at the office with
me to complete my work." (Adult words) -
body language indicates sexual intent
▪ B: "Of course." (Adult response to Adult
statement). With a wink (Child accepts the
hidden motive)
 Strokes
▪ Fundamental unit of social action
▪ A unit of recognition, when one person
recognizes another person either verbally or
non verbally
▪ Based on the work of Rene Spitz - that infants
deprived of handling – in other words, not
receiving any strokes – were more prone to
emotional and physical difficulties
Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
 Strokes
▪ Adults substitute other types of recognition
instead of physical stimulation
▪ An adult craves a smile, a wink, a hand
gesture, or other form of recognition
▪ If stroking is not given, then it can result in
Hunger

Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
 Strokes

▪ Unconditional Positive Stroke

▪ You're lovely to have around
▪ Conditional Positive Stroke
▪ That was a good piece of work you did
▪ Conditional Negative Stroke
▪ I don't like your socks
▪ Unconditional Negative Stroke
▪ I hate you

Source: http://www.ericberne.com/
 GAMES people play
▪ Sets of ulterior transactions, repetitive in nature,
with a well-defined psychological payoff.

▪ "Why Don't You, Yes But"

▪ "Now I've Got You, You SOB"
▪ "I'm Only Trying To Help You".
▪ Why does this always happen to me?
▪ Poor Me. Pity me.
▪ See what you made me do?
 Why don’t you, Yes but
Conversation with teenage son:
Son – I’m bored.
Me – Why don’t you play football with your
friends?
S – Yes, but the field is too wet.
M – Why don’t you read a book?
S – Yes, but I read at night before I go to sleep.
M – Why don’t we play cards?
S – Yes, but we never play the game I like.
M – Why don’t you choose the game?
S – Yes, but then you’ll just complain.
 Life positions

▪ Four Life Positions:

Attitudes to
self/others
▪ I’m OK, You’re NOT OK
▪ I’m OK, You are OK
▪ I’m NOT OK, You’re
NOT OK
▪ I’m NOT OK, You’re OK
Life positions
 Conflict
● Conflict : A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively
affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.

• Types of Conflict
• Functional Conflict

• Dysfunctional Conflict

• Task Conflict

• Relationship Conflict

• Process Conflict
Intragroup Conflict: Conflict that occurs within a group or team
Intergroup Conflict: Conflict between different groups or teams.

Dyadic Conflict: Conflict that occurs between two people

Types Functional conflict : Conflict that supports the
goals of the group and improves its performance.
of
conflict Dysfunctional conflict : Conflict that hinders group
performance.

Task conflict :Conflict over content and goals of the

work.

Relationship conflict : Conflict based on

interpersonal relationships.

Process conflict :Conflict over how work gets done

Conflict Process
 Stage I: Potential opposition or
Incompatibility
Appearances of conditions that create
opportunities for conflict to arise. (Directly or
indirectly)

● a) Communication : Opposing forces that arise

from semantic difficulties/misunderstanding &
noise in communication channels.(How
communication act as a source of conflict)
● b) Structure:
● Size
● c) Personal Variables:
▪ Personality, (Traits like disagreeableness,
neuroticism, self-monitoring are prone more to
conflict, react poorly in conflict)
▪ emotions and values
 Stage II: Cognition and
If condition of Personalization
stage I negatively affect something
the other party cares about, potential for
opposition gets actualized in stage II.
● Perceived conflict (does not personalised)
Awareness by one or more parties of the
existence of conditions that create
opportunities for conflict to arise.
● Felt conflict Emotional involvement in a conflict
that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or
hostility.
 Stage III: Intentions (Decisions to act
in ato given
Infer other’s intent way)
know how to respond to his
behaviour.
● Cooperativeness
Intentions (the degree
Assertiveness to which one party
Cooperativeness

attempts
Competingto satisfy the otheruncooperative
assertive party’s concerns)
● Assertiveness
Collaborating (theassertive
degree to cooperative
which one party
attempts
Avoiding
to satisfy his or heruncooperative
unassertive
own concerns)
Accommodating unassertive cooperative

Compromising Midrange Midrange

 Competing : A desire to Collaborating A situation
satisfy one’s interests, in which the parties to a Avoiding The desire to
regardless of the impact conflict each desire to withdraw from or
on the other party to the satisfy fully the concerns suppress a conflict.
conflict. of all parties.

Accommodating The Compromising A

willingness of one party situation in which each
in a conflict to place the party to a conflict is
opponent’s interests willing to give up
above his or her own. something.
Conflict becomes Visible
Stage IV: Behavior
Includes statements, actions, reactions that are made by the parties to implement their own intentions

Dynamic process of interactions takes place.

See Conflic management on next slide
Conflict Management The use of resolution and
stimulation techniques to achieve the desired
level of conflict.
 V: Outcomes
The action reaction interplay between the conflicting parties results in consequences.
It can be a functional or dysfunctional conflict
Functional Outcomes
● Conflict is constructive when it improves the
○ quality of decisions,

○ stimulates creativity and innovation,

○ encourages interest and curiosity among group

members,

○ provides the medium for problems to be aired and

tensions released, and
 Dysfunctional Outcomes
● Conflict is deconstructive when it
● Hampers outcomes
● Decrease group cohesiveness
● Subordination of group goals
● Destruction of groups

○ Hampered communication

○ Reduce information sharing between group

○ At worst threaten group survival

All conflict even functional reduce trust and

satisfaction of the group Member
Group Dynamics
 Group dynamics
• Group dynamics deals with the attitudes
and behavioral patterns of a group.
Group dynamics is concerned with how
groups are formed, what is their structure
and which processes are followed in their
functioning. Thus, it is concerned with the
interactions and forces operating
between groups.
• Group dynamics is relevant to groups of all
kinds – both formal and informal.
 Factors Affecting Group Dynamics

Psychological Forces: The psychology or desires of the individuals

revolve around their need for status, security, recognition, experience
and belongingness. All this affects their adaptability to the group.
Past Experience: An individual’s behavior in a group depends upon
his/her learning from the past events of life comprising of the habits,
values, attitude, perception etc.
Goals and Ideology: Another essential component is the individual’s
goals and beliefs which may or may not align with that of the whole
group, leading to disagreement and unwillingness to perform.
Associational Forces: The associational factors, i.e., the impact of family,
geographical habitation, peers group, traditions, customs and religion
on the individual; direct his/her actions in a group.
Group Vs Teams
 Work Groups
1. The basic purpose of a work group is to interact primarily to share information.

2. The performance of a work group is merely the summation of each group member’s individual contribution. There is no positive
synergy.
3. Every work group must have strong and clearly focused leaders.

4. In the work group, the members are individually accountable.

5. The basic objective of work groups is the attainment of the goals of the organisation.

6. The work group has formal and efficient meetings.

7. The effectiveness of the work group is measured indirectly For example, if the overall financial performance of the business is good, it
will be presumed that the groups have also effectively contributed to the performance.
8. The functioning of the work group is that it discusses, decides and delegates.
 Work Teams
1. The basic purpose of a work team is collective performance.

2. A work team generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. The level of performance of a team is greater than the sum of
individual inputs.
3. The teams do not have a clearly focused leader, they it has shared leadership roles.

4. In a team, there is both individual and mutual accountability

5. The teams have their own specific objectives that the teams themselves deliver.

6. The team, generally encourages open ended active problem solving meetings

7. The effectiveness of the teams is directly measured by the teams by assessing the collective work products.

8. The functioning of the team is that it discusses, decides and does real work.
 Group Definition and types of groups
• Group: Two or more than two individual, interdependent and interacting who come together to
achieve a particular/Objective/task/job.

Formal Group Informal Group

Defined by Organization’s structure Neither formally structured nor organizationally

determined

Designated work assignments establishing Groups are natural formations in work

tasks reltionships environment

behaviours are stipulated and directed by Appear in response to the need for social Contact
organizational Goal
 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS

Formal Informal
A formal group is one
Group Group An informal group
that is defined by the is neither formally
organization's structure, Friendship structured nor
with designated work Command organizationally
assignments establishing Group Group determined.
tasks.
Informal groups in
In formal groups, the Task Interest the work
team members behaviors environment meet
are stipulated by and Group Group in response to the
directed toward need for social
organizational goals. contact.
Functional Reference
Group Group
 COMMAND GROUPS: Command groups are specified by
the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor
and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. E.g. A
FORMAL GROUPS

group of workers working on a project and reporting to

the same manager is considered as a command group

TASK GROUPS: Task groups consist of people who work

together to achieve a common task.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS. : A functional group is created by

the organization to accomplish specific goals within an
unspecified time frame.. E.g. a marketing department, a
customer service department, or an accounting
department.
 INTEREST GROUPS: Members of interest groups may not
be part of the same organizational department, but
they are bound together by some other common
Informal Groups
interest.

FRIENDSHIP GROUPS: Friendship groups are formed by

members who enjoy similar social activities, political
beliefs, religious values, or other common bonds.

REFERENCE GROUPS.:
A reference group is a group that we use as a standard of
comparison for ourselves regardless of whether we are
part of that group. We rely on reference groups to
understand social norms, which then shape our values,
ideas, behavior, and appearance. By comparing
themselves with other members, individuals are able to
assess whether their behavior is acceptable and whether
their attitudes and values are right or wrong.
Stages of Group Development
Stages of Group
Development
 Stage 1: Forming
Uncertainty about Group’s Purpose, Structure,
Leadership
Members try to understand what type of
behaviors are accepted?
Complete→ when members feel as part of a
group.
 Stage 2: Storming
Intragroup conflict

Members accept existence of the group,

However, resist the constraints it imposes on individuality

Conflict regarding who is going to control the group

Complete → When relatively clear hierarchy of Leadership exist

 Stage 3: Norming
Close relationships develop

Group becomes cohesive

Strong sense of group identity & camaraderie

Complete

• a)Group structure solidifies

• b) a common set of expectations-What defines correct member behavior
 Stage 4: Performing
Structure is fully functional and accepted

Group Energy changes from

• Getting to know → Understand each other & and to Perform task

For Permanent Group Performing is the last stage

However, when we talk about task force, temporary committee i.e. they have limited
task/job/work
 Stage 5: Adjourning
● Wrapping up activities and not performance
● Preparation to disband
Permanent vs Temporary Group
Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
1st Meeting- the group’s general purpose and direction is established.

Framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions through which the group will approach its
project emerges,

Phase I

Interia Phase 1: This is a period of inertia—the group tends to stand still or become locked into a
fixed course of action even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions.

Once set, the group’s direction is solidified and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first
half of its life.
 Transition
One of the most interesting discoveries in studies was that groups experienced a transition precisely
halfway between the first meeting and the official deadline—whether members spent an hour on their
project or 6 months.

The midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members’ awareness that their time is
limited and they need to get moving.

This transition ends phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old
patterns, and adoption of new perspectives.

The transition sets a revised direction for phase 2

Phase II-A new equilibrium or period of inertia in which the group executes plans
created during the transition period.

The group’s last meeting is characterized by a final burst of activity to finish its work.

The punctuated-equilibrium model-The punctuated-equilibrium model characterizes

groups as exhibiting long periods of inertia interspersed with brief revolutionary
changes triggered primarily by members’ awareness of time and deadlines. This is not
the only model of group stages by far, but it is a dominant theory with strong support.
#20 Group Properties
 Property of Groups
Role
Norms
Status
Size
Cohesiveness
Diversity
 Group Roles

A defined manner in which an individual is supposed to

behave while holding a particular position in the group
can be termed as his/her role. It comprises of the
following:
• Role Perception: How an individual interprets
his/her role in the group or the organization;
• Role Expectations: Anticipation of the individual’s
role in the team by the other group members;
• Role Conflict: Whenever the roles of two or more
group members are not adequately specified or
clash with one another, there is a situation of role
conflict.
 Group Property 1: Roles
● We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both
on and off our jobs.
● Examples
○ a)Nandita Das - Movie director, actress, film producer, social worker, jury at various film
festivals etc.
○ b)Sourav Ganguly: Caption, BCCI president, Bussinessman, Father, Husband etc.
● Role:- A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to
someone occupying a given position in a social unit. / A
defined manner in which an individual is supposed to behave while holding a particular position in the
group can be termed as his/her role
Group Property 1: Group Role

I. Role perception: An Individual’s view of how he or

she is supposed to act in a given situation (Stimuli-
books, movies, friends, elder in that profession)
II. Role expectations: How others believe a person
should act in a given situation/context. Eg Acting area
chair
Eg a) Football captain-Aggressive, Decisive b)
Journalist-Confident, good orator
 III. Role Conflict

● A situation in which an individual is confronted

by the divergent role expectation.
● At the extreme, two or more role expectations
may be contradictory. Eg Cross functional
teams- Marketing and NPD member, a family
oriented guy getting transferred after
promotion
● For example, if as a manager you were to
Group Property 2: Group Norms

Norms: All groups have established norms—

acceptable standards of behaviour shared by their

members that express what they ought and ought not

to do under certain circumstances. Once agreed by

the group-Norms influence behaviour of member to a

 Different types of group norms that are present in groups

● Appearance Norms: The group together

decides the attire and presentability of its
members;
● Performance Norms: The guidelines for the
desired level of contribution and expected
results are defined;
● Social Arrangement Norms: Also, the norms for
individual interaction
and communication within a group are pre-
determined;
Group Property 3: Group Status

A socially defined position or rank given to

groups or group members by others.
It is a significant motivator and has major
behavioural consequences.
Eg Marketing & Finance Majors
What determines status? Acc to Status
Characteristics theory….
These are the three sources of status
 Group Property 4: Group
Size
The size of the group is an essential component while
understanding group dynamics. It can be seen as
follows:
• Small Group: We know that small groups
comprising of three to ten individuals are more
functional than the larger ones. It facilitates better
discussion, higher satisfaction and individual’s
participation for effective decision making.
• Large Group: The huge groups comprise more than
ten people encounter issues like delay in decision
making, lack of participation of all the members,
dissatisfaction and lack of belongingness among
the group members.
How to determine group size based on the purpose

✓ Is size significant while forming a group ?

✓ The purpose of the group will determine
Group Size
✓ Small Groups→ Complete task fast
✓ Large Groups→ Compared to small groups
→ Score less in studies
✓ More or equal to 12 → for fact-finding &
Diverse opinions , eg NPD etc.
 Group Property 5: Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness :The degree to which group members are attracted to each
other and are motivated to stay in the group.
Cohesiveness affects productivity
What can you do to encourage group cohesiveness?
✓ Make the group smaller,
✓ Encourage agreement within group goals,
✓ Increase the time members spend together,
✓ Stimulate competition with other groups, (Healthy)
✓ Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members, and
Relationship b/w Cohesiveness and Productivity depends on performance-related norms
 Group Property 6: Diversity
Diversity: The extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, one another.

Cultural Diversity

Racial Diversity

Gender Diversity

Tenure Diversity

Age Diversity

High diversity affects →Group Conflict and performance (Organizational support and Leadership )
 Organizational Diversity
An organization in which the organizational culture fosters and
Multicultural values cultural differences

Organization

An organization that has diverse workforces and takes steps to be

Plural inclusive and respectful of people from different cultural
backgrounds, and diversity is tolerated but not fostered
Organization

An organization that is demographically and culturally

Monolithic homogeneous
Organization
 Strategic Importance of
Organizational Diversity

• Improves
– Corporate culture
– Recruitment
– Relationships with clients and customers
• Builds competitive advantage
– Understand and serve diverse customer base
– Heterogeneous teams deal better with complex
problems and challenging tasks
– More commitment to organization’s mission
 Roadblocks to Diversity
Prejudice
Unfair negative Discrimination
attitudes we hold about Behavior that results
people who belong to in unequal treatment
social or cultural groups of individuals based
other than our own on group
membership

Modern Racism
Subtle forms of discrimination
that occur because people
know that it is wrong to be
prejudiced against other
racial groups and believe
themselves not to be racists
Diversity
in groups
 Threats
Threats toEffectiveness
to Group Group Effectiveness

• What makes a group ineffective? Why do a

group fail to perform in the desired manner?
• A group is made up of people with different
mindsets and behaviour. Following are some
of the significant reasons for which the
workgroups tend to under-perform the given
task:
 ● Social Loafing
● Groupthink
Reasons why groups ● Poor Leadership
underperforms ● Blocking
Social Loafing free-loading

If even one of the group members tend to become reluctant and under-performs the given
task, the chances are that the other members need to put in extra efforts for completing
the project.
All of this may result in social loafing, which ultimately leads to poor teamwork and
ineffective group efforts.

Groupthink majority view is accepted, alternative view givers pressured

• Groupthink is a phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic
appraisal of alternative courses.
• Groupthink attacks many groups and can dramatically hinder their performance
• The individual’s moral judgement, efficiency deteriorate as a result of group pressure
Poor Leadership
Another significant risk to the group functioning is the improper guidance or direction to
the members.
If the group leader lacks the sufficient skills of management, then the team members
may not be able to rely on his/her decisions.

Blocking
When one of the group members hinders the formal communication, interaction or
discussion within the team, he/she is considered to carry out the blocking role.
#23 Group Decision Making
 Group Decision
Making
Strengths of Group Decision Making
Generate more complete information &
Knowledge
Offer increased diversity of views and greater
creativity
Increased acceptance of decisions
Generally, more accurate
Weakness of Group Decision Making
Time-consuming activity
Conformity pressure in the group
Discussion can be dominated by a few
members
A situation of ambiguous responsibility
 Phenomenon that affects Group Decision Making

Group shift or
Group
Groupthink Group Social Loafing
Conformity
Polarization
 Groupthink
• Groupthink is a phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic
appraisal of alternative courses.
• Groupthink attacks many groups and can dramatically hinder their performance
• The individual’s moral judgement, efficiency deteriorate as a result of group
pressure

• How to deal with Groupthink:-

• Monitor Group Size
• Encourage group Leaders to play an impartial role.
• Encourage one person to act as devil’s advocate (Challenge the majority
position)
• Does groupthink attack all groups?
7-9 group size is ideal
 12 Angry Men
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K4XnpEutPB
Y

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLFeLV9QS-
8&t=333s
 Groupshift
Groupshift : A change between a group’s decision and an individual
decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be
toward either conservatism or greater risk but it generally is toward a more
extreme version of the group’s original position.
Conservatives become more cautious, and more aggressive types take on
more risk.

The group’s decision reflects the dominant decision-making norm—toward

greater caution or more risk—that develops during discussion.
 How to use finding on Group Shift
● Recognize that group decisions exaggerate the initial
position of individual members, that the shift has been
shown more often to be toward greater risk, and that
which way a group will shift is a function of the
members’ pre-discussion inclinations.
Group Decision
Making : Group
think- Group shift
• Asch Experiment
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=BOBhKR4MK3w
 Types of Conformity

Normative conformity involves changing one's behavior in order to fit in with the
group.
Informational conformity happens when a person lacks the knowledge and looks
to the group for information and direction.
Identification occurs when people conform to what is expected of them based on
their social roles. Zimbardo's famous Eg: Stanford Prison Experiment
Compliance involves changing one's behavior while still internally disagreeing with
the group.
Internalization occurs when we change our behavior because we want to be like
another person.
 • The tendency for individuals to expend less
effort when working collectively than when
working individually.
• Ways to prevent social loafing:
– (1) set group goals, so the group has a common
purpose to strive toward;
– (2) increase intergroup competition, which focuses
Social on the shared group outcome;
– (3) engage in peer evaluations;
Loafing – (4) select members who have high motivation and
prefer to work in groups; and
– (5) base group rewards in part on each member’s
unique contributions.
Steps in
Decision
Making
Techniques of Group Decision Making

Nominal
Devil’s
Brainstorming Group
advocate
Technique

Dialectical
Fish Bowling
Inquiry
Brainstorming
Nominal Group Technique
Social Identity
Theory
 Social Identity Theory
Social Identity Theory : Tendency to take personal pride or offense
for the accomplishments of a group.

People have emotional reaction to the failure or success of their

group because their self esteem is tied into the group’s
performance.
When your group does well you are happy and your self-esteem
improves as you are linked with the winning team

When your group does poorly, you are sad and your self-esteem
reduces as you are linked with the loosing team, some might reject
that part of one’s identity
 Social Identity Theory
SIT helps in reducing uncertainty about who you are and what
you should do, but they have a negative side.
Negative side the of Social Identity Theory- In-group
favouritism
In-group favoritism: We see people from our ingroup as better
than other people who are not in our ingroup
Robber’s Cave theory

Concept of In-group and out-group

 When do people develop a
social identity?

Following reasons is why SI is important to a person.

– Similarity: Similar values & Characteristics, similar demographic.

– Distinctiveness: More likely to notice identities that show how

one is different from others in groups i.e. shared uncommon or
rare demographics

– Status: More interested in linking themselves to high-status

groups

– Uncertainty Reduction: As people understand who they are and

how they fit in the works. It gives you a sense of identity as you
know expected set of behaviours
 Stanford prison Experiment
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PcEPFMEtLIo&t=2
8s
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7y3-qEOtd4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PcEPFMEtLIo&t=2
8s (Trailer of the movie Stanford prison Experiment
interested students can watch the movie)

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KND_bBDE8RQ
(Not in the course but interested students can watch
this also )
 Robbers Cave Experiment
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rHDE9i4t
cYE&t=302s
#24 Team Effectiveness
 Team
Effectiveness
Model
Leadership
Sonakshi Gupta
 Leadership
• One of the most
Comprehensively
What Great Leaders do? researched
• To understand the success
Create a Vision for Organization of Organization-Study its
Articulate the vision to followers leaders

Build a shared vision

Plan a course of action to achieve the vision
Guide their organization into new directions
Are leaders born or made?
 Evolution of leadership
Theory Description
Trait Theory (1930's - The theory believes that people are born with certain qualities that will make them excel in
1940's) leadership roles.
Behavioural Theories These theories focuses on the behaviours of the leaders as opposed to their mental, physical
(1940's - 1950's) or social characteristics. The behavioural theories first divided leaders in two categories. Those
that were concerned with the tasks and those concerned with the people.

Contingency Theories These theories argue that there is no single way of leading and that every leadership style
(1960's) should be based on certain situations
Transactional leadership Also known as exchange theories of leadership, are characterized by a transaction made
Theories (1970's) between the leader and the followers. The theory values a positive and mutually beneficial
relationship. The transactional theorists state that humans in general are seeking to maximize
pleasurable experiences and to diminish un-pleasurable experiences. Thus, we are more likely
to associate ourselves with individuals that add to our strengths.

Transformational The essence of transformational theories is that leaders transform their followers through
Leadership Theories their inspirational nature and individualised motivation.
(1970s)
 Trait theory of Leadership
• Theories that consider personal qualities and
characteristics that differentiate leaders from non
leaders.
• First, we can say that traits can predict leadership.
• Second, traits do a better job predicting the emergence
and appearance of leaders than distinguishing between
effective and ineffective leaders.
• The fact that an individual exhibits the right traits and
others consider that person a leader does not necessarily
mean he or she will be an effective one, successful at
getting the group to achieve its goals.
Behavioral Theory
 The Ohio State Leadership Studies
• Objective→ To identify behavioural characteristics of Leaders that are related to
effective performance
• Leadership behaviours can be characterised into two distinct categories

Initiating Structure Consideration

Define & structure his and his employees roles A person’s job relationship is are characterised
for goal fulfilment (Organise work, goal & work by mutual trust, respect for employees ideas &
relationships) regard for their feelings

High IS →Assign employees to particular task, High C→ Helps with personal Problems,
Establish performance standard , Friendly/approachable,
Emphasise on meeting deadlines Express appreciation & Support
 Michigan Survey Research Centre
• Leadership behaviours can be characterised
into two distinct behavioural dimensions

Production-oriented Employee-oriented

Emphasise on technical and task related Emphasise on interpersonal relationship

aspects of the job, focuses on by taking interest in employees needs &
accomplishing group’s task accepting individual differences

Assign employees to specific tasks, set Listening to employees ideas, creating

goals & Deadlines, clarify work duties pleasant working environment, showing
procedures consideration of employees needs
Similarity between OSS & MSRC

Initiation
Consideration
Structure
Ohio State Studies

Production- Employee-
0riented oriented
Michigan Survey Research
Center
Summary of Behavioural Theory
Trait Theory of Leadership Behavioral Theory of
Leadership
 Fred Fiedler Contingency Theory
Types of Situational Leadership Theory
Contingency Path Goal Leadership
Theory
Leader-participation Model
 Fred Fiedler Contingency theory
( Assumption: Leadership style is
fixed)
• Effective Group Performance = Proper match b/w Task oriented Relationship
Leader’s Style +Degree to which the situation gives oriented
leader the control
Low LPC SCORE High LPC SCORE
• Three steps:
• A) Identifying Leadership Style:-

• Choose your least preferred coworker

questionnaire(LPCQ)
B) Defining the
Situation
(Contingency
Dimensions)
 B.Defining the Situation (Contingency Dimensions)

(Better)Leader Member
Situation gives Relations(Worse) Situation gives
Leader more Leader less Control
Control (High) Task Structure (Low) Conditions are
Conditions are UNFAVOURABLE
FAVOURABLE
(High) Position Power (Low)
c) Matching Leader’s
style & Situation • Match LPC Score with 8
Situations to achieve maximum
Leadership effectiveness

• High & Low Control →Task

Oriented Leadership

• Moderate control→
Relationship Leadership
 SITUATIONAL
LEADERSHIP by
Kenneth
Blanchard and
Paul Hersey

Follower’s Readiness
 • Transactional Leaders guide their
followers toward established goals by
clarifying role and task requirements.

Transformation
• Transformational leaders- inspire
al Leadership & followers to transcend their self-interests
for the good of the organization.
Transactional Transformational leaders can have an
Leadership extraordinary effect on their followers,
who respond with increased levels of
commitment.
Key Characteristics of Transactional Leadership
Key Characteristics of Transformational Leadership
Full Range of Leadership Model
 Authentic leadership
Contemporary
Leadership Servant leadership
Style
Shared Leadership