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N Linear Algebra of Type II
N Linear Algebra of Type II
W. B. Vasantha Kandasamy
e-mail: vasanthakandasamy@gmail.com
web: http://mat.iitm.ac.in/~wbv
www.vasantha.in
Florentin Smarandache
e-mail: smarand@unm.edu
INFOLEARNQUEST
Ann Arbor
2008
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Peer reviewers:
Professor Diego Lucio Rapoport
Departamento de Ciencias y Tecnologia
Universidad Nacional de Quilmes
Roque Saen Peña 180, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Dr.S.Osman, Menofia University, Shebin Elkom, Egypt
Prof. Mircea Eugen Selariu,
Polytech University of Timisoara, Romania.
ISBN-10: 1-59973-031-6
ISBN-13: 978-1-59973-031-8
EAN: 9781599730318
2
CONTENTS
Preface 5
Chapter One
n-VECTOR SPACES OF TYPE II AND THEIR
PROPERTIES 7
1.1 n-fields 7
1.2 n-vector Spaces of Type II 10
Chapter Two
n-INNER PRODUCT SPACES OF TYPE II 161
Chapter Three
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS 195
3
FURTHER READING 221
INDEX 225
4
PREFACE
5
suggests over a hundred problems. It is important that the reader
should be well versed with not only linear algebra but also n-
linear algebras of type I.
W.B.VASANTHA KANDASAMY
FLORENTIN SMARANDACHE
6
Chapter One
1.1 n-Fields
7
We illustrate this by the following example.
8
Example 1.1.4: Let F = F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 where F1 = Z2,
F2 = Z7, F3 = Q( 7 ), F4 = Q( 3, 5 ) and F5 = Q( 3, 23, 2 )
then F is a 5-field of mixed characteristic; as F1 is of
characteristic two, F2 is a field of characteristic 7, F3, F4 and F5
are fields of characteristic zero.
9
field. If all the fields Fi in F are non prime i.e., are not prime
fields then we call F to be a non prime field. Now in case of n-
semiprime field or semiprime n-field if we have an m-subfield
m < n then we call it as a quasi m-subfield of F m < n.
10
Example 1.2.2: Let F = F1 F2 F3 where F1 = Q( 3 ) u
Q( 3 ) u Q( 3 ) a vector space of dimension 3 over Q( 3 ). F2
= Q( 7 ) [x] be the polynomial ring with coefficients from
Q( 7 ), F2 is a vector space of infinite dimension over Q( 7 )
and
° ªa b º °½
F3 = ® « » a, b,c,d Q( 5) ¾ ,
°¯ ¬ c d ¼ °¿
F3 is a vector space of dimension 4 over Q( 5 ) . Thus F = F1
F2 F3 is a 3-vector space over the 3-field Q( 3 ) Q( 7 )
Q( 5 ) of type II.
11
is a linearly independent subset of Vi over Fi, this must be true
for each i, i = 1, 2, … , n. If even one of the subsets of the n-
subset S; say { D1j ,D 2j ,...,D kjj } is not a linearly independent
subset of Vj over Fj, then the subset S of V is not a n-linearly
independent subset of V, 1 d j d n. If in the n-subset S of V every
subset is not linearly independent subset we say S is a n-linearly
dependent subset of V over F = F1 F2 … Fn.
12
T = {(1, 3) (0, 2) (5, 1)} {x3, 1, x2 + 1, x3 + x3 + x5}
° ª0 1 º ª1 0 º °½
®« »,« »¾
°¯ ¬1 0 ¼ ¬0 0 ¼ °¿
= T1 T2 T3 V1 V2 V3
P = P1 P2 P3
= {(1, 2) (2, 5), (5, 4), (–1, 0)} {1, x2 + x, x, x2}
ª1 0 º ª0 1 º ª1 1º ª1 1 º ½
®« » , «1 0 » , «1 1» , «1 0» ¾
¯ ¬ 0 1 ¼ ¬ ¼ ¬ ¼ ¬ ¼¿
V1 V2 V3
13
Example 1.2.4: Let V = V1 V2 … V4 be a 4-vector space
over the field F = Q( 2 ) Z7 Z5 Q( 3 ) where V1 =
Q( 2 ) u Q( 2 ), a vector space of dimension two over Q( 2 )
V2 = Z7 u Z7 u Z7 a vector space of dimension 3 over Z7,
° ª a b c º °½
V3 = ® « » a, b,c,d,e,f Z5 ¾
¯° ¬ d e f ¼ ¿°
a vector space of dimension 6 over Z5 and
V4 = Q( 3 )u Q( 3 ) u Q( 3 )u Q( 3 )
a vector space of dimension 4 over Q( 3 ). Clearly V is of (2,
3, 6, 4) dimension over F. Since the dimension of each Vi is
finite we see V is a finite dimensional 4-vector space over F.
° ª a b c º ½
V3 = ® « » a, b,c,d,e,f Q
°¯ ¬ d e f ¼
2 °¾°
¿
a vector space of dimension 6 over Q( 2 ). Clearly V is a 3-
vector space of infinite dimension over F.
14
^ ` ^ ` ^
= D11 ,D 21 ,...,D n11 D12 ,D 22 ,...,D n22 … D1n ,D 2n ,...,D nnn `
in V, provided there exists n-scalars
^ ` ^ ` ^
C = C11 , C21 ,..., Cn11 C12 , C22 ,..., Cn22 … C1n , C2n ,..., Cnnn `
such that
= (1 2 … n) =
^ 1 1
1
2
1
2 ` ^ `
C D C D ... Cn11D n11 C12D12 C22D 22 ... Cn22 D n22 …
1 1
^C D C D ... C D
1
n n
1
n
2
n
2
n
nn
n
nn `.
We just recall this for it may be useful in case of representation
of elements of a n-vector in V, V a n-vector space over the n-
field F.
15
^D 1
1 ` ^
D 21 ... D k11 D12 D 22 ... D k22 … `
^D1n D 2n ... D kn ` n
by
S 1
1 S12 ... S1k1 S21 S22 ... S2k2 …
S 1
n
Sn2 ... S nkn .
For any ni scalars x1i , x i2 ,..., x in i we have x1i D1i ... x ini D ini
16
ni
= ¦ x ijDij
j 1
ni mi
= ¦ x ij ¦ A ikjEik
j 1 k 1
ni mi
= ¦¦ (A ikj x ij )Eik
j 1 k 1
mi ni
= ¦¦ (A ikj x ij )Eik .
k 1 j 1
Since ni > mi this imply that there exists scalars x1i , x i2 ,..., x in i not
all zero such that
mi
¦A
j 1
i
kj x ij 0 ; 1 k mi.
17
spanned by S. Then the n-subset obtained by adjoining to S is
n-linearly independent.
18
W1 W2 = W11 W12 W21 W22 ... Wn1 Wn2
has a finite n-basis.
{ D11 , D12 ,..., D1k1 , E11 ,..., E1n1 k1 } { D12 , D 22 ,..., D k2 2 , E12 , E22 ,..., En2 2 k 2 }
{ D1n , D 2n ,..., D kn n , E1n , E2n ,..., Enn n k n }
is a n-basis of W1 and
¦x D ¦y E ¦z J
k k k k k k
i i j j r r
0
true for k = 1, 2, …, n.
¦ z r J kr ¦ x D ¦ y E
k k k k k
i i i i
¦z J
k k
which shows that r r
belongs W1k , true for k = 1, 2, …, n.
¦z J
k k
As already r r
belongs to W2k for k = 1, 2, …, n it follows;
¦z J ¦C D
k k k k
r r
= i i
19
for certain scalars C1k ,C 2k ,...,Cnk k true for k = 1, 2, …, n.
But the n-set { D1i , Di2 , !, D iki , J1i , J i2 , !, J in i }, i = 1, 2, …, n is n-
independent each of the scalars z kr 0 true for each k = 1, 2, …,
n. Thus ¦x D ¦y E
k
i
k
i
k
j
k
j 0 for k = 1, 2, …, n, and since
{ D1k , D 2k , !, D kk k , E1k , Ek2 , !, Ekn k k k } is also an independent set
each x ik 0 and each y kj 0 for k = 1, 2, …, n. Thus
Finally
dim W1 + dim W2
= {k1 + m1 + k1 + n1, k2 + m2 + k2 + n2, …, kn + mn + kn + nn}
= {k1 + (m1 + k1 + n1), k2 + (m2 + k2 + n2), …, kn + (mn + kn +
nn)}
= dim(W1W2) + dim (W1 + W2).
20
Let { x11 , x12 ,! , x1n1 } { x12 , x 22 ,! , x n2 2 } … { x1n , x n2 ,!, x nn n }
be the n-coordinates of a given n-vector in the ordered n-basis
C.
= { x11E11 ! x1n1 E1n1 } { x12E12 ! x n2 2 En2 2 } …
{ x1n E1n ! x nn n Enn n }
n1 n2 nn
= ¦ x1jE1j ¦x E 2
j
2
j … ¦ x nj Enj
j 1 j 1 j 1
n1 n1 n2 n2 nn nn
= ¦ x1j ¦ Pij1Dii ¦ x 2j ¦ Pij2 D i2 … ¦ x nj ¦ Pijn Din
j 1 i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1 i 1
n1 n1 n2 n2 nn nn
= ¦¦ (Pij1 x1j )D1i ¦¦ (Pij2 x 2j )Di2 … ¦¦ (Pijn x nj )Din .
j 1 i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1 i 1
21
X = P-1Y
X1 X2 … Xn = (P1)-1Y1 (P2)-1Y2 … (Pn)-1 Yn.
[]B = P[]C
and []C = P-1[]B
22
Proof: Let V = V1 V2 … Vn be a n-vector space of (n1,
n2, …, nn) dimension over the n-field F = F1 F2 … Fn.
Let B = {( D11 , D12 ,..., D1n1 ) ( D12 , D 22 ,..., D 2n 2 ) …
( D1n , D n2 ,..., D nn n )} be a set of n-vectors in V. If C =
{( E11 , E12 ,..., E1n1 ) ( E12 , E22 ,..., E2n 2 ) … ( E1n , En2 ,..., Enn n )} is an
ordered n-basis of V for which (i) is valid, it is clear that for
each Vi which has ( E1i , Ei2 ,!, Eini ) as its basis we have
ni
Eij ¦P D
k 1
kj
i
k – I, true for every i, i = 1, 2, …,n.
§ ·
= ¦ ¨ ¦ Pkji Qijr ¸Dik
k © j ¹
= Dik
true for each i = 1, 2, …, n. Thus the subspace spanned by the
set { E1i , Ei2 ,..., Ein i } contain { D1i , Di2 ,..., D ini } and hence equals Vi;
this is true for each i. Thus
B = { D11 , D12 ,..., D1n1 } { D12 , D 22 ,..., D n2 2 } …
{ D1n , D 2n ,..., D nn n }
is contained in V = V1 V2 … Vn.
Thus
C = { E11 , E12 ,..., E1n1 } { E12 , E22 ,..., E2n 2 } … { E1n , En2 ,..., Enn n }
is a n-basis and from its definition and by the above theorem (i)
is valid hence also (ii).
23
Now we proceed onto define the notion of n-linear
transformation for n-vector spaces of type II.
T[C + ] = (T1 T2 … Tn )
[C11 + 1] [C22 + 2] … [Cnn + n]
= T1(C11 + 1) T2(C22 + 2) …
Tn(Cnn + n)
I = I (1 2 … n)
= I1(1) I2(2) … In(n)
= 1 2 … n
24
W1 W2 … Wn be a n-vector space over the same n-field F
= F1 F2 … Fn.
Let { E11 , E 21 ,..., E n11 } { E12 , E 22 ,..., E n22 } … { E1n , E 2n ,..., E nnn } be
any n-vector in W. Then there is precisely a n-linear
transformation T = T1 T2 … Tn from V into W such that
TiD ij E ij for i = 1, 2, …, n and j = 1, 2, …, ni.
25
ni
i = ¦x Dj 1
i
j
i
j
we have
ni
Uii = U i ¦ x ijDij
j 1
ni
= ¦ x ij (U i Dij )
j 1
ni
= ¦ x ijEij
j 1
26
= {( x11 , x12 , !, x1n1 ) ( x12 , x 22 , !, x n2 2 ) …
( x1n , x 2n , !, x nn n )}.
ª B111 ! B11n1 º
« »
[x11 , x12 ,..., x1n1 ] « # # »
« B1 ! B1m1n1 »
¬ m11 ¼
ª B11
2
! B1n2
º
« 2
»
[x12 , x 22 , !, x n2 2 ] « # # »…
« B2 ! B2m2 n 2 »
¬ m2 1 ¼
ª B11
n
! B1nn
º
« n
»
[x1 , x 2 , ! , x n n ] « #
n n n
# ».
« Bn ! Bnmn n n »
¬ mn 1 ¼
27
W = W1 W2 … Wn . Let RT = R1T1 R T22 ... R Tnn be
the n-range of T = T1 T2 … Tn that is the set of all n-
vectors = (1 2 … n) in W = W1 W2 … Wn
such that = T i.e., Eij Ti Dij for each i = 1, 2, …, n and for
some D in V. Let E1i , Ei2 R iTi and Ci Fi. There are vectors
D1i , D i2 Vi such that Ti D1i E1i and Ti D i2 Ei2 . Since Ti is linear
for each i; Ti (Ci D1i D i2 ) = Ci Ti D1i Ti D i2 = CiE1i Ei2 which
shows that CiE1i Ei2 is also in R iTi . Since this is true for every i
we have
( C1E11 E12 ) … ( Cn E1n En2 ) RT = R1T1 R T22 ... R Tnn .
Another interesting n-subspace associated with the n-linear
transformation T is the n-set N = N1 N2 … Nn consisting
of the n-vectors V such that T = 0. It is a n-subspace of V
because
28
THEOREM 1.2.11: Let V and W be n-vector spaces over the
same n-field F = F1 F2 … Fn and suppose V is finite say
(n1, n2, …, nn) dimensional. T is a n-linear transformation from
V into W. Then n-rank T + n-nullity T = n-dim V = (n1, n2, …,
nn).
We shall prove the result for one Ti and it is true for every i, i =
1, 2, …, n. Suppose { D1i , Di2 , !, D iki } is a basis of Ni; the null
space of Ti. There are vectors Diki 1 , Dik i 2 , !, D ini in Vi such that
{ D1i , D i2 , !, D ini } is a basis of Vi, true for every i, i = 1, 2, …, n.
We shall now prove that { Ti Diki 1 ,...,Ti Din i } is a basis for the
range of Ti. The vector Ti D1i , Ti D i2 , …, Ti Dini certainly span the
range of Ti and since Ti Dij 0 for j d ki we see that
{ Ti D i
k i 1 ,...,Ti D } span the range. To see that these vectors are
i
ni
¦ C TD
r k i 1
i
r i
i
r 0.
29
ni
and accordingly the vector i = ¦ CD
j k i 1
i
r
i
r is in the null space of
Ti. Since D1i , D i2 ,..., D iki form a basis for Ni, there must be scalar
ki
E1i , Ei2 ,..., Eik i in Fi such that D i ¦E D
r 1
i
n
i
r . Thus
ki ni
¦ Ein Dir
r 1
¦ CD
j k i 1
i
j
i
j =0
and since D1i , Di2 ,..., D ini are linearly independent we must have
E1i Ei2 ! Eiki Ciki 1 ! Cini 0 . If ri is the rank of Ti, the
fact that Ti D ki 1 , ! , Ti D ni form a basis for the range of Ti tells us
that ri = ni – ki. Since ki is the nullity of Ti and ni is the
dimension of Vi we have rank Ti + nullity Ti = dim Vi = ni. We
see this above equality is true for every i, i = 1, 2, …, n. We
have rank Ti + nullity Ti = dimVi = ni; we see this above
equality is true for every i, i = 1, 2, …, n. We have (rank T1 +
nullity T1) (rank T2 + nullity T2) … (rank Tn + nullity
Tn) = dim V = (n1, n2, …, nn).
30
… Fn . Let U = U1 U2 … Un and T = T1 T2 …
Tn be two n-linear transformations from V into W, to show
the function (T + U) defined by (T + U)() =T + U is a n-
linear transformation from V into W.
For = 1 2 … n V = V1 V2 … Vn, C =
C C2 … Cn; consider
1
(T + U)(C + )
= T(C + ) + U(C + )
= CT() + T + CU() + U()
= CT() + CU() + T + U
= C(T + U) + (T + U)
31
(we know from properties of linear transformation each CiTi is a
linear transformation for i = 1, 2, …, n) so CT = C1T1 C2T2
… CnTn is a n-linear transformation as
32
Proof: Given V = V1 V2 … Vn is a n-vector space over
the n-field F = F1 F2 … Fn of (n1, n2, …, nn)-dimension
over F. Also W = W1 W2 … Wn is a n-vector space over
the n-field F of (m1, m2, …, mn) dimension over F. Let T = T1
T2 … Tn be any n-linear transformation of type II i.e. Ti: Vi
o Wi, this is the only way the n-linear transformation of type II
is defined because Vi is defined over Fi and Wi is also defined
over Fi. Clearly Wj (i j) is defined over Fj and Fi Fj so one
cannot imagine of defining any n-linear transformation. Let B =
{ D11 , D12 , ! , D1n1 } { D12 , D 22 , ! , D n2 2 } … { D1n , D 2n , ! , D nn n }
be a n-ordered basis for V over the n-field F. We say n-ordered
basis if each basis of Vi is ordered and B1 = { E11 , E12 , !, E1m1 }
{ E12 , E22 , ! , Em2 2 } … { E1n , E2n , ! , Emn n } be a n-ordered basis
of W over the n-field F.
For every pair of integers (pi, qi); 1 d pi d mi and 1 d qi d mi,
i = 1, 2, …, n, we define a n-linear transformation Ep,q =
1 1 2 2 n n
E1p ,q E p2 ,q ! E pn ,q from V into W by
pi ,qi
°0 if j z q i
E (D ) ® i
i
= G jqi Eipi ,
°̄Epi if j q
i j i
33
mi
Ti Dij ¦A i
i i
pi j pi
E .
p 1
mi ni
¦¦ A
i i
i
We wish to show that T = pi q i
E ip ,q (I).
pi 1 q i 1
pi qi
= ¦¦ Ai i
i
pi q i
G jqi Eipi
p q
mi
= ¦ A ipi Eipi
j
pi 1
=Ti Dij
¦¦ A
i i
i
Ui pi q i
E ip ,q
pi qi
34
from W into Z. Then the n-composed n-function UT defined by
UT() = U(T()) is a n-linear transformation from V into Z.
35
LEMMA 1.2.1: Let V = V1 V2 … Vn be a n-vector space
over the n-field F = F1 F2 … Fn of type II. Let U, T1 and
T2 be the n-linear operators on V and let C = C1 C2 …
Cn be an element of F = F1 F2 … Fn. Then
a. IU = UI = U where I = I1 I2 … In is the n-
identity linear operator on V i.e. Ii (vi) = vi for every vi
Vi ; Ii; Vi o Vi, i = 1, 2, …, n.
b. U(T 1 + T 2) = UT 1 + UT 2
(T 1 + T 2)U = T 1U + T 2U
c. C(UT1) = (CU)T 1 = U(CT 1).
36
Clearly Ln(V, V) = Ln(V1, V1) Ln (V2, V2) … Ln(Vn, Vn)
we see each Ln(Vi, Vi) is a vector space over the field Fi, true for
i = 1, 2, …, n. Hence Ln (V, V) is a n-vector space over the n-
field F = F1 F2 … Fn of type II.
Since we have composition of any two n-linear operators to
be contained in Ln (V, V) and Ln (V, V) contains the n-identity
we see Ln (V, V) is a n-linear algebra over the n-field F of type
II. To this end we just recall the definition of n-linear algebra
over the n-field of type II.
° ª a b c º ½°
V1 = ® « » a, b,c,d,e,f Z2 ¾
°¯ ¬ d e f ¼ ¿°
37
a vector space over the field Z2. Clearly V1 is only a vector
space over Z2 and never a linear algebra over Z2. V2 = {All
polynomials in x with coefficients from Q}; V2 is a linear
algebra over Q.
ªa b º ½
°« » °
V3 = ® « c d » a, b,c,d,e,f Z7 ¾ ;
°«e f » °
¯¬ ¼ ¿
38
The following theorem is immediate.
39
Thus Ci D1i D i2 is the unique vector in Vi which is sent by Ti
into Ti ( CiE1i Ei2 ) and so
Ti1 (CiE1i Ei2 ) = Ci D1i D i2 = Ci Ti1E1i Ti1Ei2
and Ti1 is linear. This is true for every Ti i.e., for i, i = 1, 2, …,
n. So T 1 T11 T21 ... Tn1 is n-linear. Hence the claim.
We say a n-linear transformation T is n-non-singular if TJ =
0 implies J = (0 0 … 0); i.e., each Ti in T is non singular
i.e. TiJi = 0 implies Ji = 0 for every i; i.e., if J = J1 J2 …
Jn then TJ = 0 … 0 implies J = 0 0 … 0.
Thus T is one to one if and only if T is n-non singular.
The following theorem is proved for the n-linear
transformation from V into W of type II.
40
Suppose T = T1 T2 … Tn is such that it carriers
independent n-subsets onto independent n-subsets. Let = 1
2 … n be a non zero n-vector in V i.e. each Di is a non
zero vector of Vi, i = 1, 2, …, n. Then the set S = S1 S2 …
Sn consisting of the one vector = 1 2 … n is n-
independent each i is independent for i = 1, 2, …, n. The n-
image of S is the n-set consisting of the one n-vector T = T11
T22 … Tnn and this is n-independent, therefore T 0
because the n-set consisting of the zero n-vector alone is
dependent. This shows that the n-nullspace of T = T1 T2 …
Tn is the zero subspace as each Tii 0 implies each of the
zero vector alone in Vi is dependent for i = 1, 2, …, n. Thus
each Ti is non singular so T is n-non singular.
(i) T is n-invertible
(ii) T is n-non-singular
(iii) T is onto that is the n-range of T is W.
41
only if T(V) = W i.e. T1(V1) T2(V2) … Tn(Vn) = W1
W2 … Wn. So if either condition (ii) or (iii) hold good, the
other is satisfied as well and T is n-invertible. We further see if
the 3 conditions of the theorem are also equivalent to (iv) and
(v).
(iv). If { D11 , D12 , !, D1n1 } { D12 , D 22 , !, D n2 2 } …
{ D1n , D 2n , ! , D nn n } is a n-basis of V then { T1D11 , ! , T1D1n1 }
{ T2 D12 , ! ,T2 D n2 2 } … { Tn D1n , !,Tn D nn n } is a n-basis for
W.
(v). There is some n-basis { D11 , D12 , !, D1n1 } { D12 , D 22 ,!, D 2n 2 }
… { D1n , D n2 ,..., D nn n } for V such that { T1D11 ,T1D12 ,!,T1D1n1 }
{ T2 D12 ,T2 D 22 , !, T2 D n2 2 } … { Tn D1n ,Tn D n2 , !, Tn D nn n }
is an n-basis for W.
The proof of equivalence of these conditions (i) to (v)
mentioned above is left as an exercise for the reader.
42
Clearly T is a n-linear transformation of type II, one to one and
maps V onto F1n1 F2n 2 ... Fnn n or each Ti is linear and one to
one and maps Vi to Fini for every i, i = 1, 2, …, n. Thus we can
as in case of vector spaces transformation by matrices give a
representation of n-transformations by n-matrices.
43
ni
Tii = (Ti ¦ x ijD ij )
j 1
ni
= ¦ x (T D )
j 1
i
j i
i
j
ni mi
= ¦ x ij ¦ A iki jEiki
j 1 k 1
mi ni
= ¦¦ (A iki j x ij )Eiki .
k 1 j 1
44
B = {D11 , D 21 ,...,D n11 } {D12 ,D 22 ,...,D n22 } … {D1n ,D 2n ,...,D nnn }
= B1 B2 … Bn be the n-basis of V over F and
C = {E11 , E 21 ,..., E m11 } {E12 , E 22 ,..., E m22 } … {E1n , E 2n ,..., E mnn }
= C1 C2 … Cn,
¦A
k1 1
1
k1 j E 1j ¦ Ak2 j E j2 ... ¦ Akn j E jn
k2 1
2
kn 1
n
45
C i Aij Pji C i [TiD ij ]C i [U iD ij ]C i C i [TiD ij U i D ij ]C i . This is
true for every i, i = 1, 2, … , n and 1 j ni.
46
for the n-spaces V, W and Z respectively, if A = A1 A2 …
An is a n-matrix relative to T to the pair B, C and R = R1 R2
… Rn is a n-matrix of U relative to the pair C and D then the
n-matrix of the composition UT relative to the pair B, D is the
product n-matrix E = RA i.e., if E = E1 E2 … En = R1A1
R2A2 … RnAn.
… C = {E , E , !, E }
n 1
1
1
2
1
m1 {E , E 22 , !, E m22 } …
1
2
with j th
component of the n-columns Pji [ E ij ]B ; 1 j ni, i =
1, 2, …, n then [T ]C P 1[T ]B P i.e. [T1 ]C1 [T2 ]C 2 ... [Tn ]C n
= P11[T1 ]B1 P1 P21[T2 ]B2 P2 ... Pn1[Tn ]Bn Pn . Alternatively if U
is the n-invertible operator on V defined by U iD ij E ij , j = 1, 2,
…, ni, i = 1, 2, …, n then [T ]C [U ]B1 B[T ]B [U ]B i.e.
[T1 ]C1 [T2 ]C 2 ... [Tn ]C n =
[U1 ]B11 [T1 ]B1 [U1 ]B1 [U 2 ]B12 [T2 ]B 2 [U 2 ]B 2 ... [U n ]B1n [Tn ]Bn [U n ]Bn .
The proof of the above theorem is also left for the reader.
47
square matrix of n-order (n1 u n1, n2 u n2, …, nn u nn) over the
same n-field F. We say that B is n-similar to A over the n-field F
if there is an invertible n-matrix P = P1 P2 … Pn of n-
order (n1 u n1, n2 u n2, …, nn u nn) over the n-field F such that B
= P-1 A P i.e.
B1 B2 … Bn = P11 A1 P1 P21 A2 P2 ... Pn1 An Pn .
48
linear function f = f1 f2 … fn from F1n1 F2n 2 ... Fnn n to
F1 F2 … Fn given by f1( x11 ,..., x1n1 ) f2( x12 ,..., x 2n 2 ) …
fn( x1n ,..., x nn n ) = ( D11x11 ... D1n1 x1n1 ) ( D12 x12 ... D n2 2 x n2 2 )
… ( D1n x1n ... D nn 2 x nn n ) where D ij are in Fi, 1 j ni; for each
i = 1, 2, … , n; is a n-linear functional on F1n1 F2n 2 ... Fnn n . It
is the n-linear functional which is represented by the n-matrix
[ D11 , D12 ,..., D1n1 ] [ D12 , D 22 ,..., D n2 2 ] … [ D1n , D 2n ,..., D nn n ]
relative to the standard ordered n-basis for F1n1 F2n 2 ... Fnn n
and the n-basis {1} {1} … {1} for F = F1 F2 …
Fn. D ij = f i (E ij ); j = 1, 2, …, ni for every i = 1, 2, …, n. Every
n-linear functional on F1n1 F2n 2 ... Fnn n is of this form for
some n-scalars ( D11 ! D1n1 ) ( D12 ! D n2 2 ) … ( D1n D 2n ! D nn n ).
That is immediate from the definition of the n-linear functional
of type II because we define Dij f i (E ij ) .
§ ni
· § n2
· § nn
·
= f1 ¨ ¦ x1j E1j ¸ f 2 ¨ ¦ x 2j E 2j ¸ … f n ¨ ¦ x nj E nj ¸
©j1 ¹ ©j1 ¹ ©j1 ¹
= ¦ x jf1 (e j ) ¦ x j f 2 (e j ) … ¦ x j f n (e j )
1 1 2 2 n n
j j j
n1 n2 nn
= ¦ a1j x1j ¦ a 2j x 2j ... ¦ a nj x nj .
j j 1 j 1
Now we can proceed onto define the new notion of n-dual space
or equivalently dual n-space of a n-space V = V1 … Vn
defined over the n-field F = F1 F2 … Fn of type II. Now as
in case of Ln(V,W) = L (V1,W1) L (V2,W2) … L(Vn, Wn)
we in case of linear functional have Ln(V,F) = L(V1,F1) L(V2,
F2) … L(Vn,Fn). Now V* = Ln(V,F)= V1* V2* ... Vn*
i.e. each Vi* is the dual space of Vi, Vi defined over the field Fi;
i = 1, 2, …, n. We know in case of vector space Vi, dim Vi* =
49
dim Vi for every i. Thus dim V = dim V* = dim V1* dim V2*
… dim Vn* . If B = { D11 , D12 ,..., D1n1 } { D12 , D 22 ,..., D n2 2 } …
{ D1n , D n2 ,..., D nn n } is a n-basis for V, then we know for a n-linear
functional of type II. f = f1 f2 … fn we have fk on Vk is
such that f ik (D kj ) Gijk true for k = 1, 2, …, n. In this way we
obtain from B a set of n-tuple of ni sets of distinct n-linear
functionals { f11 ,f 21 ,...,f n11 }{ f12 ,f 22 ,...,f n22 }…{ f1n ,f 2n ,...,f nnk }
= f1 f2 … fn on V. These n-functionals are also n-linearly
independent over the n-field F = F1 F2 … Fn i.e.,
{ f1i ,f 2i ,...,f ni i } is linearly independent on Vi over the field Fi; this
is true for each i, i = 1, 2, …, n.
ni
Thus f i ¦c f
j 1
i i
j j , i = 1, 2, …, n i.e.
n1 n2 nn
f= ¦c f
j 1
1 1
j j ¦c f
j 1
2 2
j j … ¦c f
j 1
n n
j j .
ni
f i (Dij ) ¦c fk 1
i i
k k (D kj )
ni
= ¦ cik G kj
k 1
= cij .
50
{ D1n , D n2 ,..., D nn n }. B* forms the n-basis of V* =
V1* V2* ... Vn* .
i.e.,
n1 n2 nn
f= ¦k 1
f 1 (D k1 ) f k1 ¦
k 1
f 2 (D k2 ) f k2 … ¦f
k 1
n
(D kn ) f kn
i.e.,
n1 n2 nn
= ¦f
k 1
k
1
(D 1 )D k1 ¦f
k 1
k
2
(D 2 )D k2 … ¦ f kn (D n )D kn .
k 1
51
n1 n2 nn
= ¦ x1i D1i
i 1
¦ x i2Di2 … ¦ x in Din
i 1 i 1
is a n-vector in V then
n1 n2 nn
fj() = ¦ x1i f j1 (D1i )
i 1
¦ x i2f j2 (Di2 ) … ¦ x in f jn (Din )
i 1 i 1
n1 n2 nn
= ¦ x1i G1ij ¦x G 2 2
i ij … ¦ x in Gijn
i 1 i 1 i 1
= x1j x 2j ... x nj ;
52
1, 2, …, n); the n-annihilator of S is So = S1o ... S no of n-
linear functionals on V such that f () = 0 0 … 0 i.e. if f
= f 1 f 2 … f n for every S i.e., = 1 2 … n
S1 S2 … Sn. i.e., fi(Di) = 0 for every i Si; i = 1, 2, …,
n. It is interesting and important to note that S o S1o ... S no
is an n-subspace of V* = V1* V2* ... Vn* whether S is an n-
subspace of V or only just a n-subset of V. If S = (0 0 …
0) then So = V*. If S = V then So is just the zero n-subspace
of V*.
53
+ 1; r = 1, 2, …, n, 1 i kr, because f ir (D rj ) Gij and Gij 0 if i
kr + 1 and j kr + 1, from this it follows that for i < kr. f ir (r)
= 0 whenever Dr is a linear combination a1r ,a 2r ,...,a kr r . The
functionals a rk r 1 ,a kr r 2 ,...,a rn r are independent for every r = 1, 2,
…, n. Thus we must show that they span Wro , for r = 1, 2, …, n.
nr
Suppose f r Vr* . Now f r ¦f
i 1
r
(D ir )f ir so that if f r is in Wro we
nr
have f r (Dir ) 0 for i kr and f r = ¦f
i k r 1
r
(D ir )f ir .
Proof: If W1 = W2 i.e., if
W11 W12 ... W1n = W21 W22 ... W2n
54
W2j for j = 1, 2, …, n, so that W1j = W2j for
o o
then each W1j
every j = 1, 2, …,n. Thus W1o = W2o . If on the other hand W1
W2 i.e. W11 W12 ... W1n W21 W22 ... W2n then one of
the two n-subspaces contains a n-vector which is not in the
other. Suppose there is a n-vector 2 = 1 2 … n which
is in W2 and not in W1 i.e. 2 W2 and 2 W1 by the earlier
corollary just proved and the theorem there is a n-linear
functional f = f 1 f 2 … f n such that f() = 0 for all in
W, but f(2) 0. Then f is in W1o but not in W2o and W1o W2o .
Hence the claim.
2 2
A11 x1 ! A1n
2
x n2 2 0
2
# #
A x ! A m2 n 2 x n2 2
2 2
m2 1 1
2
0,
so on
n n
A11 x1 ! A1n
n
n
x nn n 0
# #
A x ! A mn n n x nn n
n n
mn 1 1
n
0
55
f ik (x1k ,..., x nk k ) = A i1k x1k ... A ink k x kn k , this is true for every k, k =
1, 2, …, n; then we are seeking the n-subspace of
F1n1 F2n 2 ... Fnn n ; that is all = 1 2 … n such that
f ik (D k ) = 0, i = 1, 2, …, mk and k = 1, 2, …, n. In other words
we are seeking the n-subspace annihilated by {f11 ,f 21 ,...,f m1 1 }
{f12 ,f 22 ,...,f m2 2 } … {f1n ,f 2n ,...,f mn n }. Row reduction of each of
the coefficient matrix of the n-matrix provides us with a
systematic method of finding this n-subspace. The (n1, n2, …
nn) tuple ( A1i1 ,..., A1in1 ) ( A i12 ,..., A in2 2 ) … ( A i1n ,..., A inn n )
gives the coordinates of the n-linear functional f ik , k = 1, 2, …,
n relative to the n-basis which is n-dual to the standard n-basis
of F1n1 F2n 2 ... Fnn n . The n-row space of the n-coefficient n-
matrix may thus be regarded as the n-space of n-linear
functionals spanned by ( f11 ,f 21 ,...,f m1 1 ) ( f12 ,f 22 ,...,f m2 2 ) …
( f1n ,f 2n ,...,f mn n ). The solution n-space is the n-subspace n-
annihilated by this space of n-functionals.
Now one may find the n-system of equations from the n-dual
point of view. This is suppose that we are given, mi n-vectors in
F1n1 F1n 2 ... Fnn n ;
= D1i ... D in = ( A1i1A1i2 ...A1in1 ) … ( Ai1n A i2n ...Ainn n ) and we
find the n-annihilator of the n-subspace spanned by these
vectors. A typical n-linear functional on F1n1 F1n 2 ... Fnn n
has the form f1( x11 ,..., x1n1 ) f2( x12 ,..., x n2 2 ) … fn( x1n ,..., x nn n )
= ( (c11x11 ... c1n1 x1n1 ) (c12 x12 ... c 2n 2 x 2n 2 ) …
(c x ... c x ) and the condition that f … f be in this
n
1
n
1
n
nn
n
nn
2 n
n1 n2 nn
n-annihilator; that is ¦A
j 1
c ¦ A i22 jc 2j ... ¦ A inn jc nj = 0
1 1
i1 j j
j 1 j 1
56
As in case of usual vector space we in case of the n-vector
spaces of type II define the double dual. Here also it is
important to mention in case of n-vector spaces of type I we
cannot define dual or double dual. This is yet another difference
between the n-vector spaces of type I and type II.
The proof is left for the reader, using the fact if we choose a
ordered n-basis B = { D11 , D12 ,..., D1n1 } { D12 , D 22 ,..., D n2 2 } …
57
{ D1n , D 2n ,..., D nn n } for V = V1 V2 ... Vn such that =
D11 , D12 ,..., D1n and let f be a n-linear functional which assigns to
each n-vector in V its first coordinate in the n-ordered basis B.
58
F2 ... Fn. If L is a n-linear functional on the dual space V*
of V then there is a unique n-vector = 1 2 … n in V
such that L(f) = f () for every f in V*.
59
W = Woo. We can prove this yet in another way. We know dim
W + dim Wo = dim V. dim Wo + dim (Wo)o = dim V* since dim
V = dim V* we have dim W + dim Wo = dim Wo + dim Woo
which implies dim W = dim Woo. Since W is a subspace of Woo
we see that W = Woo.
Let V be an n-vector space over the n-field of type II. We
define an n-hyper subspace or n-hyperspace of V. We assume V
is (n1, n2, …, nn) dimension over F = F1 F2 … Fn. If N is
a n-hyperspace of V i.e. N is of (n1 – 1, n2 – 1, …, nn – 1)
dimension over F then we can define N to be a n-hyperspace of
V if
(1) N is a proper n-subspace of V
(2) If W is a n-subspace of V which contains N then either
W = N or W = V.
Conditions (1) and (2) together say that N is a proper n-
subspace and there is no larger proper n-subspace in short N is a
maximal proper n-subspace of V.
60
vector
+ c where J =
1 …
n and c = c1 c2 cn,
Now we state a lemma and the proof is left for the reader.
61
THEOREM 1.2.28: Let V = V1 V2 … Vn be an n-vector
space over the n-field F = F1 F2 … Fn. If {g 1 , f11 ,..., f r11}
{g 2 , f12 , !, f r2 } … {g n , f1n ,!, f rn } be n-linear functionals
2 n
¦c f
j 1
i i
j j . Then hi is a linear functional on Vi and this tells hi(i) =
62
Now the result is true for each i, i = 1, 2, …n hence the
theorem.
63
... Fn. For each n-linear transformation T = T1 … Tn
from V into W there is unique n-linear transformation Tt =
T1t ... Tnt from W* = W1* ... Wn* into V* = V1* ... Vn*
such that (Tgt )D g (T D ) for every g in W* and in V.
We call T t = T1t ... Tnt as the n-transpose of T. This n-
transformation T t is often called the n-adjoint of T.
64
For (II), let N = N1 … Nn be the n-null space of T. Every n-
function in the n-range of Tt is in the n-annihilator of N, for
suppose f = Ttg i.e. f 1 … f n = Tt1g1 … Ttngn for some
g in W* then if is in N; f() = f 1(1) … f n(n) = (Ttg) =
(Tt1g1)1 … (Ttngn)n = g(T) = g1(T11) … gn(Tnn) =
g(0) = g1(0) … gn(0) = 0 0 … 0. Now the n-range of
Tt is an n-subspace of the space Nº and dim Nº = (n1-dim N1)
(n2-dimN2) … (nn-dim Nn) = n-rank T = n-rank Tt so that
the n-range of Tt must be exactly Nº.
Further
65
(Tkt g kj )(Dik ) = g kj (Tkt Dik )
mk
g kj (¦ A kpiEkp )
p 1
mk mk
= ¦ A kpi g kj (Ekp ) ¦A pi G jp = A kji .
p 1 p 1
follows Bijk A ijk ; true for k = 1, 2, …, n i.e., B1ij Bij2 ... Bijn
= A1ij A ij2 ... A ijn . If A = A1 A2 … An is a (m1 u n1,
m2 u n2, , …, mn u nn) n-matrix over the n-field F = F1 F2
… Fn, the n-transpose of A is the (n1 u m1, n2 u m2, …, nn u
mn) matrix At defined by
66
a. multiplication is associative () = () for , ,
Ai for i = 1, 2, …, n.
b. multiplication is distributive with respect to addition,
( + ) = + and ( + ) = + for , ,
Ai for i = 1, 2, …, n.
c. for each scalar ci Fi, ci() = (ci) = (ci), true for
i = 1, 2, …, n.
67
where F = F1 F2 … Fn is the n-field. We call F[x] the n-
polynomial over the n-field F = F1 … Fn. Any element p(x)
F[x] will be of the form p(x) = p1(x) p2(x) … pn(x)
where pi(x) is a polynomial in Fi[x] i.e., pi(x) is a polynomial in
the variable x with coefficients from Fi; i = 1, 2, …, n.
The n-degree of p(x) is a n-tuple given by (n1, n2, …, nn)
where ni is the degree of the polynomial pi(x); i = 1, 2, …, n.
68
c. fg is n-monic if both f and g are n-monic
for k = 1, 2, …, n; 1 i nk.
69
n1 n2 nn
f(D) = ¦ fi1 (D1i ) ¦ f i 2 (D 2i ) ! ¦ f i n (D ni )
i 0 i 0 i 0
Proof:
m1 mn
f(x) = ¦ fi1x i ! ¦ fin x i
i 0 i 0
and
n1 nn
g(x) = ¦ g1j x j ! ¦ g nj x j
j 0 j 0
fg = ¦f g x
i, j
1 1
i j
i j
¦f g x
i, j
i
2 2
j
i j
! ¦ f in g nj x i j
i, j
and hence
(fg) = ¦f g D
i, j
1 1
i j
i j
1 ¦ f i2 g 2j D i2 j ! ¦ f in g nj D in j
i, j i, j
( = 1 2 … n A, i Ai ; for i = 1, 2, …, n)
§ m1 1 i · § n1 1 j · § m2 2 i · § n 2 2 j ·
= ¨ ¦ f i D1 ¸ ¨ ¦ g jD1 ¸ ¨ ¦ f i D 2 ¸ ¨ ¦ g j D 2 ¸ !
©i 0 ¹© j 0 ¹ ©i 0 ¹© j 0 ¹
§ mn n i · § n n n j ·
¨ ¦ fi D n ¸ ¨ ¦ g j D n ¸
©i 0 ¹© j 0 ¹
= f()g()
= f1(1)g1(1) f2(2)g2(2) … fn(n)gn(n).
70
Let V = V1 V2 … Vn be a n-subspace of F[x] = F1[x]
F2[x] … Fn[x] consisting of all n-polynomial of n-degree
less than or equal to (n1, …, nn) together with the n-zero
polynomial and let L = L1i , L2i , ! , Lni be the n-function from V =
V1 V2 … Vn into F = F1 F2 … Fn defined by Li(f)
= Li11 (f 1 ) ! Linn (f n ) = f 1 (t1i1 ) ! f n (t inn ) , 0 i1 n1, 0 i2
n2, …, 0 in nn.
By the property (cf + g)() = cf() + g() i.e., if c = c1 …
cn, f = f1 … fn; g = g1 … gn and = 1 … n
then c1f1(1) c2f2(2) … cnfn(n) + g1(1) g2(2) …
gn(n) = (c1f1 + g1)(1) … (cnfn + gn)(n) each Li is a n-linear
functional on V and one of the things we intend to show is that
the set consisting of L0, L1, …, Ln is a basis for V* the dual
space of V. L0 = L01 (f 1 ) ... L0n (f n ) = f1( t10 ) … fn( t 0n )
and so on we know from earlier results (L0, L1, …, Ln) that is
{ L01 , ! , Ln11 } { L02 , ! , Ln22 } … { L0n , ! , Lnnn } is the dual
basis of { P10 , ! , P1n1 } { P20 , ! , P2n 2 } … { Pn0 , ! , Pnn n } of
V. There is at most one such n-basis and if it exists is
characterized by L0j0 (Pi00 ) L1j1 (Pi11 ) L2j2 (Pi22 ) ... Lnjn (Pinn ) =
Pi00 (t 0j0 ) Pi11 (t1j1 ) ! Pinn (t njn ) Gi0 j0 Gi1 ji ! Gin jn . The n-
polynomials Pi = Pi11 ... Pinn
(x t10 )...(x t1i1 1 )(x t1i1 1 )...(x t1n1 )
=
(t1i1 t10 )...(t1i1 t1i1 1 )(t1i1 t1i1 1 )...(t1i1 t1n1 )
(x t 0n )...(x t inn 1 )(x t inn 1 )...(x t nn n )
…
(t inn t 0n )...(t inn t inn 1 )(t inn t inn 1 )...(t inn t nn n )
71
n1 n2 nn
= ¦ c1i1 Pi11
i1 1
¦ ci22 Pi22 …
i2 1
¦c
in 1
n
in Pinn
72
It can also be shown directly that the n-matrix is n-invertible
when (t10 , t11 , ! , t1n1 ) (t 02 , t12 ,..., t n2 2 ) … (t 0n , t1n , ! , t nn n ) are
{n1 + 1, n2 + 1, …, nn + 1} set of n-distinct elements from the n-
field F = F1 … Fn i.e., each (t i0 , t1i , ! , t ini ) is the ni + 1
distinct elements of Fi; true for i = 1, 2, …, n.
Now we proceed on to define the new notion of n-
polynomial function of an n-polynomial over the n-field F = F1
F2 … Fn. If f = f1 … fn be any n-polynomial over the
n-field F we shall in the discussion denote by
f ~ f1~ f 2~ ... f n~ the n-polynomial n-function from F into
F taking each t = t1 … tn in F into f(t) where ti Fi for i = 1,
2, …, n. We see every polynomial function arises in this way, so
analogously every n-polynomial function arises in the same
way, however if f ~ g ~ and f = f1 … fn and g = g1 g2
… gn then f1~ g1~ ,f 2~ g 2~ ,...,f n~ g n~ for any two equal n-
polynomial f and g. So we assume two n-polynomials f and g
such that f g. However this situation occurs only when the n-
field F = F1 F2 … Fn is such that each field Fi in F has
only finite number of elements in it. Suppose f and g are n-
polynomials over the n-field F then the product of f ~ and g ~ is
the n-function f ~ g ~ from F into F given by f ~ g ~ (t) = f ~ (t)
g ~ (t) for every t = t1 … tn F1 F2 … Fn.
Further (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) hence ( f ~ g ~ )(x) = f ~ (x) g ~ (x) for
each x = x1 … xn F1 F2 … Fn.
Thus we see f ~ g ~ = fg and it is also an n-polynomial
~
73
(c + d)~ = c~ + d~ and ()~ = ~~ for all , A and n-
scalar c, d in the n-field F. Here c = c1 … cn and d = d1
… dn, = 1 … n and = 1 … n then (c + d)~
= (c11 + d11)~ (c22 + d22)~ … (cnn + dnn)~ = (c1~1
+ d1~1) (c2~2 + d2~2) … (cn~n + dn~n) here (cii +
dii)~ = ci~i + di~i where i, i Vi, the component vector
space of the n-vector space and i, di Fi; the component field
of the n-field F, true for i = 1, 2, …, n. Further ()~ = (11)~
… (nn)~ = ~1~1 … ~n~n. The n-mapping ~ is
called an n-isomorphism of A onto A~. An n-isomorphism of A
onto A~ is thus an n-vector space n-isomorphism of A onto A~
which has the additional property of preserving products.
74
field F. Since f~ = 0, fk(ti) = 0 for k = 1, 2, …, n; i = 0, 1, 2, …,
nk and it is implies f = 0.
Now we proceed on to define the new notion of n-
polynomial n-ideal or we can say as n-polynomial ideals.
Throughout this section F[x] = F1[x] … Fn[x] will denote a
n-polynomial over the n-field F = F1 … Fn.
Proof: Suppose f = f1 … fn
m1 1 m 2 1
= (a1m1 x m1 ¦ a1i1 x i1 ) (a 2m2 x m2
i1 0
¦a
i2 0
2
i2 x i2 )
m n 1
! (a nmn x mn ¦a
in 0
n
in x in ) ;
d = d 1 … dn =
§ 1 n1 n1 1
· § 2 n n 2 1 2 i ·
¨¨ b n1 x ¦ bi1 x 1 ¸¸ ¨¨ b n 2 x 2 ¦ bi2 x 2 ¸¸ …
1 i
© i1 0 ¹ © i2 0 ¹
§ n nn n n 1
·
¨¨ b n n x ¦ bin x n ¸¸ ;
n i
© in 0 ¹
§ § a1m · m n · § § a 2m · m n ·
¨ f1 ¨ 1 1 ¸ x 1 1 d1 ¸ ¨ f2 ¨ 2 2 ¸ x 2 2 d2 ¸ …
¨ ¨ bn ¸ ¸ ¨ ¨ bn ¸ ¸
© © 1 ¹ ¹ © © 2 ¹ ¹
75
§ § a nm · m n ·
¨ fn ¨ n n ¸ x n n dn ¸
¨ ¨ bn ¸ ¸
© © n ¹ ¹
= 0 … 0,
§ § a · m n ·
1
§ § a 2m2 · m n ·
¨
or deg f1 ¨ 1 ¸ x ¸ ¨
d1 deg f 2 ¨ 2 ¸ x 2 2 d2 ¸ …
m1 1 1
¨ ¨ bn ¸ ¸ ¨ ¨ bn ¸ ¸
© © 1¹ ¹ © © 2 ¹ ¹
§ § a nmn · m n ·
¨
deg f n ¨ n ¸ x n n d n ¸ < degf1 degf2 … deg fn.
¨ ¨ bn ¸ ¸
© © n ¹ ¹
76
g = g1 g2 … gn such that f – dg = 0 … 0, i.e. (f1 –
d1g1) (f2 – d2g2) … (fn – dngn) = 0 … 0, or n-deg(f –
dg) < n-deg f. If f – dg 0 and n-deg (f – dg) > n-deg d we
choose a n-polynomial h such that (f – dg) – dh = 0 or [(f1 –
d1g1) – d1h1] [(f2 – d2g2) – d2h2 ] … [(fn – dngn) – dnhn] = 0
… 0 or n-deg[f – d(g + h)] < nd(f – dg) i.e., deg(f1 – d1(g1 +
h1)) deg(f2 – d2(g2 + h2)) … deg(fn – dn(gn+hn)) < deg(f1 –
d1g1) deg(f2 – d2g2) … deg(fn – dngn).
Continuing this process as long as necessary we ultimately
obtain n-polynomials q = q1 q2 … qn and r = r1 … rn
such that r = 0 … 0 or n-deg r < n-deg d i.e. deg r1 …
deg rn < deg d1 deg d2 … deg dn, and f = dq + r, i.e., f1
f2 … fn = (d1q1 + r1) (d2q2 + r2) … (dnqn + rn).
Now suppose we also have f = dq1 + r1, i.e., f1 … fn =
(d1q11 r11 ) ... (d n q1n rn1 ) where r1 = 0 … 0 or n-deg r1 <
n-deg d; i.e. deg r11 ... deg rn1 < deg d1 … deg dn. Then
dq + r = dq1 + r1 and d(q – q1) = r1 – r if q – q1 0 … 0 then
d(q – q1) 0 … 0. n-deg d + n-deg(q – q1) = n-deg (r1 – r);
i.e. (deg d1 deg d2 … deg dn) + deg(q1 – q11) …
deg(qn – q1n) = deg (r11 – r1) … deg (r1n – rn).
But as n-degree of r1 – r is less than the n-degree of d this is
impossible so q – q1 = 0 … 0 hence r1 – r = 0 … 0.
77
be an element of F. Then f is n-divisible by x – c = (x1 – c1) …
(xn – cn) if and only if f(c) = 0 … 0 i.e., f1(c1) f2(c2)
… fn(cn) = 0 0 … 0.
cn
1
2c n2 x ! cn n c nn n x n n 1 .
78
Now we will use the notation
Df = fc = Df1 … Dfn = f1c f 2c ... f nc .
D2f = fs = f1cc f 2cc ... f ncc
and so on. Thus Dfk f1k ... f nk .
Now we will prove the Taylor’s formula for n-polynomials
over the n-field F.
m1
§m · mn
§m ·
= ¦ ¨ 1 ¸ c1m1 k1 (x c1 ) k1 … ¦ ¨ n ¸ c mn n k n (x c n ) k n
k1 0 © k1 ¹ kn 0 © k n ¹
79
= {c1m1 m1c1m1 1 (x c1 ) ... (x c1 ) m1 }
{c m2 2 m 2 c m2 2 1 (x c 2 ) ... (x c 2 ) m2 } …
{c mn n m n c nmn 1 (x c n ) ... (x c n ) mn }
n1 n2
Dfk (c) ¦a
m1 0
1
m1 D k1 x m1 (c1 ) ¦a
m2 0
2
m2 D k 2 x m2 (c 2 ) ...
nn
¦a
mn 0
n
mn D k n x mn (c n )
and
m1
D k1 f1 (c1 )(x c1 ) k1
¦
k1 0 k1
m2
D f 2 (c 2 )(x c 2 ) k 2
k2 mn
D k n f n (c n )(x c n ) k n
¦
k2 0 k2
… ¦
kn 0 kn
D k1 x m1 (c1 )(x c1 ) k1
= ¦¦ a1m1
k1 m1 k1
D k 2 x m2 (c 2 )(x c 2 ) k 2
¦¦ a 2m2
k 2 m2 k2
…
D k n x mn (c n )(x c n ) k n
¦¦ a
k n mn
n
mn
kn
D k1 x m1 (c1 )(x c1 ) k1
= ¦ a1m1 ¦
m1 k1 k1
D k 2 x m2 (c 2 )(x c 2 ) k 2
¦ a 2m2 ¦
m2 k2 k2
…
80
D k n x mn (c n )(x c n ) k n
¦ a nmn ¦
mn kn kn
= f1 … fn.
ª n1 r1 (D m1 g )(c )(x c ) m1 º
f = (x c1 ) r1 « ¦ 1 1 1
»
«¬ m1 0 m1 »¼
ª n 2 r2 (D m2 g )(c )(x c ) m2 º
(x c 2 ) r2 « ¦ 2 2 2
»…
«¬ m2 0 m2 »¼
ª n n rn (D mn g )(c )(x c ) mn º
(x c n ) rn « ¦ n n n
»
«¬ mn 0 mn »¼
81
D m1 g1 (x c1 ) r1 m1
n1 r1 n n rn
D mn g n (x c n ) rn mn
= ¦
m1 0 m1
… ¦
mn 0 mn
.
0 if 0 d k i d ri 1
(D k i f i )(ci ) ° k i ri
= ® D g i (ci )
ki ° (k r )! ri d k i d n.
¯ i i
0 0 … 0.
Now suppose that (r1, r2, …, rn) is not the largest positive n-
integer tuple such that x c1 1 x c 2 2 … x c n n
r r r
82
… fngn belongs to m = m1 … mn; i.e. each figi mi
whenever f is in F[x] and g m.
If in particular the n-ideal m = dF[x] for some polynomial d
= d1 … dn F[x] i.e. m = m1 … mn = d1F[x] …
dnF[x]; i.e. the n-set of all n-multiples d1f1 … dnfn of d = d1
… dn by arbitrary f = f1 … fn in F[x] is a n-ideal. For
m is non empty, m in fact contains d. If f, g F[x] and c is a
scalar then c(df) – dg = (c1d1f1 – d1g1) … (cndnfn – dngn) =
d1(c1f1 – g1) … dn(cnfn – gn) belongs to m = m1 … mn;
i.e. di(cifi – gi) mi ; i = 1, 2, …., n so that m is a n-subspace.
Finally m contains (df)g = d(fg) = (d1f1)g1 … (dnfn)gn =
d1(f1g1) … dn(fngn) as well; m is called the principal n-ideal
generated by d = d1 … dn.
83
m and f m so f – dq = r = r1 r2 … rn m. But since d is
an n-polynomial in m of minimal n-degree we cannot have n-
deg r < n-deg d so r = 0 … 0. Thus m = dF[x] = d1F1[x]
… dnFn[x]. If g is any other n-monic polynomial such that
gF[x] = m = g1F1[x] … gnFn[x] then their exists non zero n-
polynomial p = p1 p2 … pn and q = q1 q2 … qn
such that d = gp and g = dq i.e., d = d1 … dn = g1p1 …
gnpn and g1 … gn = d1q1 … dnqn. Thus d = dpq = d1p1q1
… dnpnqn = d1 … dn and n-deg d = n-deg d + n-deg p +
n-deg q.
Hence n-deg p = n-deg q = (0, 0, …, 0) and as d and g are n-
monic p = q = 1. Thus d = g. Hence the claim.
In the n-ideal m we have f = pq + r where p, f m i.e. p =
p1 p2 … pn m and f = f1 … fn m; f = f1 … fn
= (p1q1 + r1) … (pnqn + rn) where the n-remainder r = r1
… rn m is different from 0 … 0 and has smaller n-
degree than p.
84
{ p11 F1[x] p12 F1[x] … p1n F1[x]} { p12 F2[x] …
p n2 F2[x]} … { p1n Fn[x] … p nn Fn[x]}.
85
… { p1n Fn[x] … pnn Fn[x]} is called the greatest common
n-divisor or n-greatest common divisor of p1, …, pn. This
terminology is justified by the proceeding corollary. We say the
n-polynomials p1 = p11 … p1n , p2 = p12 … pn2 ,…, pn = p1n
… pnn are n-relatively prime if their n-greatest common
divisor is (1, 1, … , 1) or equivalently if the n-ideal they
generate is all of F[x] = F1[x] … Fn[x].
86
relatively prime if f = f1 … fn and p = p1 … pn, then f1
and p1 are relatively prime f2and p2 are relatively prime i.e. (fi,
pi) = 1 for i = 1, 2, …, n. We shall prove that p n-divides g.
Since (f, p) = (f1, p1) … (fn, pn) = 1 … 1 there are n-
polynomials f0 = f 01 … f 0n ; p0 = p10 … p 0n such that 1
… 1 = fof + pop i.e. 1 … 1 = ( f 01f 1 + p10 p1 ) ( f 02 f 2 +
p 02 p 2 ) … ( f 0n f n + p 0n p n ) n-multiplying by g = g1 … gn
we get g = f0fg + popg i.e. (g1 … gn) = ( f 01f 1g1 + p10 p1g1 )
… ( f 0n f n g n + p 0n p n g n ). Since p n-divides fg it n-divides (fg)f0
and certainly p n-divides pp0g. Thus p n-divides g. Hence the
claim.
87
…, nn). Thus f and g can be n-factored as n-products of monic n-
primes in F[x] = F1[x] … Fn[x] and hence f = f 1 … f n
= (p11 , ! , p1m1 ) … (p1n , ! , p nmn ) = (q11 , ! , q1n1 ) …
(q1n ,q 2n ,...,q nn n ) where (p11 , ! , p1m1 ) … (p1n , p n2 ,!, p nmn ) and
(q11 ,...,q1n1 ) … (q1n ,q 2n ,...,q nn n ) are monic n-primes in F[x] =
F1[x] … Fn[x]. Then (p1m1 ... p nmn ) must n-divide some
( q ii1 … q inn ). Since both (p1m1 ... p nmn ) and ( q ii1 … q inn )
are monic n-primes this means that q itt p mt t for every t = 1, 2,
…, n. Thus we see mi = ni = 1 for each i = 1, 2, …, n, if either mi
= 1 or ni = 1 for i = 1, 2, …, n. For
§ m1 n1 mn nn
·
n-deg f = ¨¨ ¦ deg p1i1 ¦ deg q1j1 , !, ¦ deg pinn ¦ deg q n
jn ¸¸ .
© i1 1 j1 1 in 1 jn 1 ¹
88
1 n1 n
f = p1n1 ... pk1k1 ... p1n1 ... pknkn
nn
be the prime n-factorization of f. For each jt, 1 jt kt, let
p
nt nkt i
f jt f t pj j i ,
iz j
89
If T = T1 … Tn is any n-linear operator on the n-vector
space V = V1 … Vn. We call the n-characteristic values
associated with T to be n-characteristic roots, n-latent roots, n-
eigen values, n-proper values or n-spectral values.
If T is any n-linear operator and C = C1 … Cn in any
n-scalar, the set of n-vectors = 1 … n such that T =
C is a n-subspace of V. It is in fact the n-null space of the n-
linear transformation (T – CI) = (T1 – C1I1) … (Tn – CnIn)
where Ij denotes a unit matrix for j = 1, 2, …, n. We call C1 …
Cn the n-characteristic value of T if this n-subspace is
different from the n-zero space 0 = 0 0 … 0, i.e.,(T – CI)
fails to be a one to one n-linear transformation and if the n-
vector space is finite dimensional we see that (T – CI) fails to be
one to one and the n-det(T – CI) = 0 0 … 0.
a. C = C1 … Cn is a n-characteristic value of T = T1
… Tn.
b. The n-operator (T1 – C1I 1) … ( Tn – CnIn) = T – CI
is n-singular or (not n-invertible).
c. det(T – CI ) = 0 0 … 0 i.e., det(T1 – C1I) …
det( Tn – CnIn) = 0 … 0.
90
field, F = F1 F2 … Fn, if and only if n-det(A – CI) = 0
0 … 0 i.e., det(A1 – C1I1) … det(An – CnIn) = (0 0
… 0), we form the n-matrix (xI – A) = (xI1 – A1) …
(xIn – An).
Clearly the n-characteristic values of A in F = F1 F2 …
Fn are just n-scalars C = C1 … Cn in F = F1 F2 …
Fn such that the n-scalars C = C1 … Cn in F = F1 F2 …
Fn such that f(C) = f1(C1) … fn(Cn) = 0 0 … 0.
For this reason f = f1 f2 … fn is called the n-characteristic
polynomial of A. Clearly f is a n-polynomial of different degree
in x over different fields. It is important to note that f = f1 f2
… fn is a n-monic n-polynomial which has n-degree
exactly (n1, n2, …, nn). The n-monic polynomial is also a n-
polynomial over F = F1 F2 … Fn.
ª1 0 0 0 0º
ª2 1 0 1º «0
ª1 0 1 º « 1 0 0 0 »»
«0 1 0 » «1 1 0 0 »» ª0 4 º «
A «0 4 6 0 1»
« » «0 2 2 1 » «¬1 0 »¼ « »
«¬1 0 0 »¼ « » «0 0 0 5 0»
¬0 0 0 1¼
«¬ 0 0 0 0 3»¼
ªx 1 2 0 2 º
ªx 1 0 1º «
« 0 » « 2 x2 0 0 »»
« x 1 0»
« 0 1 x 1 2 »
¬« 1 0 x »¼ « »
x 2¼
¬ 0 0 0
91
ªx 6 0 0 0 0 º
« 0 x6 0 0 0 »»
ª x 1 º «
«4 x» « 0 3 x 1 0 6 »
¬ ¼ « »
« 0 0 0 x2 0 »
«¬ 0 0 0 0 x 4 »¼
92
Example 1.2.10: Let A = A1 A2 A3
ª0 1 0 1º
ª 3 1 1º «
ª 0 1º « 1 0 1 0 »»
= « » « 2 2 1»» «
¬1 0 ¼ « 2 2 0 » « 0 1 0 1»
¬ ¼ «1 »
¬ 0 1 0¼
93
ªC1n I1n 0 ! 0 º
« »
0 C I n n
! 0 »
! «
2 2
« # # # »
« »
«¬ 0 0 ! Cknn I knn »¼
94
LEMMA 1.2.4: Suppose that T = C, where T = T1 … Tn
is the n-linear operator C = C1 … Cn where the n-scalar Ci
Fi; i = 1, 2, …, n and = 1 … n is a n-vector. If f = f1
f2 … fn is any n-polynomial then f(T) = f(C) i.e.,
f1(T1)1 … fn(Tn)n = f1(C1)1 … fn(Cn)n .
Proof: We will prove the result for a Wt for that will hold for
every t, t = 1, 2, …, n. Let Wt = W1t } Wkt t , 1 d t d n, be
the subspace spanned by all the characteristic vector of Tt.
Usually when we form the sum Wt of subspaces Wit we see that
dim Wt < dim W1t + } + dim Wkt t because of linear relations
which may exist between vectors in the various spaces. This
result state the characteristic spaces associated with different
characteristic values are independent of one another.
95
Suppose that (for each i) we have a vector Eit in Wit and
assume that E1t + } + Ekt t = 0. We shall show that Eit = 0 for
each i. Let f be any polynomial. Since Tt Eit Cit Eit the
proceeding lemma tells us that 0 = ft(Tt) thus 0 = ft(Tt) E1t + } +
ft(Tt) Ekt t = ft( C1t ) E1t + } + ft( Ckt t ) Ekt t . Choose polynomials f1t
+ } + f kt t such that
1 i j
f it C tj Gijt ® .
¯0 i z j
Then 0 f it Tt ,0 ¦G E
j
t t
ij j = Eit .
sequence Bt B , !, B . Then B
t
1
t
kt
t
spans the subspace Wt =
W1t , !, Wkt t . Also Bt is a linearly independent sequence of
vectors for the following reason.
Any linear relation between the vectors in Bt will have the
form E1t E2t ! Ekt t 0 , where Eit is some linear combination
of the vectors in Bit . From what we just proved we see that
Eit 0 for each i = 1, 2, …, kt. Since each Bit is linearly
independent we see that we have only the trivial linear relation
between the vectors in Bt.
This is true for each t = 1, 2, …, n. Thus we have
dimW = ((dim W11 +…+ dim Wk11 ), (dim W12 +… + dim Wk22 ),
…, (dim W1n + } + dim Wknn ))
= (dimW1, dimW2, }, dim Wn).
96
characteristic values of T and let Wi = Wi11 Wi22 } Winn
be the n-null space of T CiI = (T1 C1i I ) ... (Tn Ckii I ) .
The following are equivalent:
(i) T is n-diagonalizable.
(ii) The n-characteristic n-polynomial for T = T1 … Tn
is f = f 1 … f n
x C11 ! x Ck11 x C12 ! x Ck22
d11 d k11 d12 d k22
! x C ! x C
n
d knn
n d1 n
1 kn
and dim Wi d ,d
1
i1
2
i2 ,!, d , i = 1, 2, …, k.
n
in
(iii) ((dim W11 +…+ dim Wk11 ), (dim W12 +…+ dim Wk22 ), …,
(dim W1n +…+ dim Wknn )) = n-dim V = (n1, n2, …, nn).
The n-matrix analogous of the above theorem may be
formulated as follows. Let A = A1 … An be a (n1× n1, n2×
n2, …, nn× nn) n-matrix with entries from the n-field, F = F1 …
^ ` ^
Fn and let C11 ,! , Ck11 C21 ,!, Ck22 ! C1n ,!, Cknn be ` ^ `
the n-distinct n-characteristic values of A in F. For each i let Wi
= Wi11 + … + Winn be the n-subspace of all n-column matrices X
= X1 … Xn (with entries from the n-field F = F1 … Fn )
such that (A CiI)X = (A1 Ci11 I i1 )X1 … (An Cinn I in )Xn =
(0 … 0) = ( Bi11 … Binn ) and let Bi be an n-ordered n-
basis for Wi = Wi11 + } + Winn . The n-basis B = B1, …, Bn
collectively string together to form the n-sequence of n-columns
of a n-matrix P = [ P11 , …, Pnn ] = {B1, …, Bn} = B11 ,! , Bk11 ^ `
^B ,!, B `
1
2
1
k2 … ^ B1n , B2n ,! , Bkn ` . The n-matrix A over the
n
97
Now we proceed on to define the new notion of n-annihilating
n-polynomials of the n-linear operator T, the n-minimal n-
polynomial for T and the analogue of the Cayley-Hamilton
theorem for a n-vector space V over n-field of type II and its n-
linear operator on V.
In order to know more about the n-linear operator T = T1
… Tn on V1 … Vn over the n-field F = F1 … Fn one
of the most useful things to know is the class of n-polynomials
which n-annihilate T = T1 … Tn.
To be more precise suppose T = T1 … Tn is a n-linear
operator on V, a n-vector space over the n-field F = F1 …
Fn. If p = p1 … pn is a n-polynomial over the n-field F = F1
… Fn then p(T) = p1(T1) … pn(Tn) is again a n-linear
operator on V = V1 … Vn.
If q = q1 … qn is another n-polynomial over the same
n-field F = F1 … Fn then
(p + q)T = (p)T + (q)T
i.e.,
(p1 + q1)T1 … (pn + qn)Tn
= [p1(T1) … pn(Tn)] + [q1(T1) … qn(Tn)]
and
(pq)T = (p)T(q)T
i.e.,
(p1q1)T1 … (pnqn)Tn = [p1T1q1T1 … pnTnqnTn].
98
first n, ( n i2 + 1) operators, (i = 1, 2, …, n) must be n-linearly
dependent i.e., the first ( n12 + 1, n 22 + 1, }, n 2n + 1) n-linear
operators are n-linearly dependent i.e., we have C10 I1 + C11 T1 +
2 2
} + C1n 2 T1n1 = 0, C02 I2 + C12 T2 + } + C2n 2 T2n 2 = 0 and so on,
1 2
2
C0n In + C1n Tn + … + Cnn 2 Tnn n = 0;
n
2
That is { C10 I1 + C11 T1 + … + C1n 2 T1n1 } { C02 I2 + C12 T2 +
1
2 2
} + C2n 2 T2n 2 } … { C0n In + C1n Tn + … + Cnn 2 Tnn n } = 0 0
2 n
99
for the n-linear operator T = T1 T2 … Tn is uniquely
determined by the following properties.
1. p is a n-monic n-polynomial over the n-scalar n-field F
= F1 … Fn .
2. p(T) = p1(T1) … pn(Tn) = 0 … 0.
3. No n-polynomial over the n-field F = F1 … Fn
which n-annihilates T = T1 T2 … Tn has smaller
n-degree than p = p1 … pn has.
(n1 × n1, n2 × n2, …, nn × nn) is the order of n-matrix A = A1
… An over the n-field F = F1 … Fn where each Ai has
ni × ni matrix with entries from the field Fi, i = 1, 2, …, n.
The n-minimal n-polynomial for A = A1 … An is
defined in an analogous way as the unique n-monic generator of
the n-ideal of all n-polynomial over the n-field, F = F1 …
Fn which n-annihilate A.
If the n-operator T = T1 T2 … Tn is represented by
some ordered n-basis by the n-matrix A = A1 … An then T
and A have same n-minimal polynomial because f(T) = f1(T1)
… fn(Tn) is represented in the n-basis by the n-matrix f(A) =
f1(A1) … fn(An) so f(T) = 0 … 0 if and only if f(A) = 0
… 0 i.e., f1(A1) … fn(An) = 0 … 0 if and only if
f1(T1) … fn(Tn) = 0 … 0. So f(P-1AP) = f1(P-1A1P1)
… fn( Pn1 AnPn) = P11 f1(A1)P1 … Pn1 fn(An) Pn1 =
P-1f(A)P for every n-polynomial f = f1 f2 … fn.
Another important feature about the n-minimal polynomials
of n-matrices is that suppose A = A1 … An is a (n1 × n1, …,
nn × nn) n-matrix with entries from the n-field F = F1 … Fn.
Suppose K = K1 … Kn is n-field which contains the n-field
F = F1 … Fn i.e., K F and Ki Fi for every i, i = 1, 2, …,
n. A = A1 … An is a (n1 × n1, …, nn × nn) n-matrix over F
or over K but we do not obtain two n-minimal n-polynomial
only one minimal n-polynomial.
100
THEOREM 1.2.45: Let T = T1 … Tn be a n-linear operator
on a (n1, n2, …, nn) dimensional n-vector space V = V1 …
Vn [or let A be a (n1 × n1, …, nn × nn)n-matrix i.e., A = A1 …
An where each Ai is a ni × ni matrix with its entries from the
field Fi of F = F1 … Fn, true for i = 1, 2, }, n].
The n-characteristic and n-minimal n-polynomial for T [for
A] have the same n-roots except for n-multiplicities.
101
the n-distinct n-characteristic values of T. Then the n-minimal
n-polynomial for T is the n-polynomial p = p1 … pn = (x –
C11 ) … (x – C1k1 ) (x – C12 ) … (x – C2k 2 ) … (x – C1n ) …
(x – Cnk n ).
If = 1 … n is a n-characteristic n-vector then one of
the n-operators {(T1 C11 I1), …, (T1 C1k1 I1)}, {(T2 C12 I2), …,
(T2 C2k 2 I2)}, …, {(Tn C1n In), …, (Tn Cnk n In)} send = 1
… n into 0 … 0, thus resulting in {(T1 C11 I1), …, (T1
C1k1 I1)}, {(T2 C12 I2), …, (T2 C2k 2 I2)}, {(Tn C1n In), …, (Tn
Cnk n In)} = 0 … 0 for every n-characteristic n-vector = 1
… n .
Hence there exists an n-basis for the underlying n-space
which consist of n-characteristic vectors of T = T1 … Tn.
Hence p(T) = p1(T1) … pn(Tn) = {(T1 C11 I1), …, (T1
C1k1 I1)} … {(Tn C1n In), …, (Tn Cnk n In)} = 0 … 0.
Thus we can conclude if T is n-diagonalizable, n-linear
operator then the n-minimal n-polynomial for T is a product of
n-distinct n-linear factors.
102
Ti = T1 D1i1 … Tn D inn
n1 n2 nn
n1 n2
¦
j1 1
G j1i1 T1 A1j1i1 Ii1 D1j1 ¦ G j2i2 T2 A 2j2i2 Ii2 D 2j2.
j2 1
nn
! ¦ G jn in Tn A njn in Iin D njn
jn 1
= 0 … 0, 1d in d n.
ª Tt A11
t
It A 21
t
It º
Bt « »
¬ A12 I t Tt A 22 I t ¼
t
= 0, 1, …, nt.
By the definition of Bt; the vectors D1t … D nt t satisfy
the equations;
103
nt
¦B
jt 0
t
i t jt D tjt = 0,
ªTt A 22
t
It t
A 21 I º
t
B « »
t
«¬ A12 I Tt A 11t I »¼
and
t Bt ªdet Bt 0 º
B « ».
¬ 0 det Bt ¼
Hence
ª Dt º ª D1t º
det Bt « 1t » B B «D
t t
t »
¬D 2 ¼ ¬ 2¼
t Bt ª« D1 º» t Bt ª« D1 º» ª0 º
t t
B B «0 » .
¬D 2 ¼ ¬D 2 ¼
t t
¬ ¼
t
In the general case B adj Bt . Then
nt
¦ B
jt 1
t
k t it Bitt jt D tj 0,
nt nt t
0 ¦¦ Bk tit Bitt jt D tjt
i t 1 jt 1
nt
§ nt t t t ·
¦ ¨¨ ¦ Bk t it Bit jt D jt
i t 1 © jt 1
¸¸ .
¹
104
i t Bt = (det Bt)It so that
Now B
n t
¦B
it 1
k t it Bitt jt Gk t jt det Bt .
Therefore
nt
0 ¦ G det B D
jt 1
k t jt
t t
jt det B D
t t
kt , 1d kt d nt.
105
Example 1.2.10: Let
ª1 1 0 0º
« 1 1 0 ª 3 1 1º
0 »» « ª0 1º
A= « « 2 2 1»» «
« 2 2 2 1» ¬ 1 0 ¼»
« » « 2 2 0 ¼»
¬ 1 1 1 0¼ ¬
106
… n then Tw(1 … n) = Tw1 1 (1) … Twn n (n).
Clearly Tw is different from T as domain is W and not V. When
V is finite dimensional say (n1, …, nn) dimensional the n-
invariance of W under T has a simple n-matrix interpretation.
Let B = B1 … Bn = { D11 … D1r1 } … { D1n … D nrn } be a
chosen n-basis for V such that Bc = B1c ... Bcn = { D11 … D1r1 }
… { D1n … D nrn } ordered n-basis for W. r = (r1, r2, …, rn) =
n dim W.
Let A = [T]B i.e., if A = A1 … An then A = A1 …
An = [T1]B1 … [Tn]Bn so that
nt
TDt t
j
1
¦A
it 1
t
i t jt Dit
for t = 1, 2, …, n i.e.,
TDj = T1 D1j1 … Tn D njn
n1 n2 nn
¦A
i1 1
1
i1 j1 D1i1 ¦ A i22 j2 D i22 ! ¦ A inn jn D inn .
i2 1 in 1
i.e., A k
i k jk 0 if jk rk and ik ! rk for every k = 1, 2, …, n.
Schematically A has the n-block
ªB Cº ª B1 C1 º ª Bn Cn º
A «O D » « » ! « »
¬ ¼ ¬O D1 ¼ ¬O Dn ¼
107
LEMMA 1.2.6: Let W = W1 … Wn be an n-invariant
subspace of the n-linear operator T = T1 … Tn on V = V1
… Vn. The n-characteristic, n-polynomial for the n-restriction
operator TW = T1W1 ... TnWn divides the n-characteristic
polynomial for T. The n-minimal polynomial for TW divides the
n-minimal polynomial for T.
Proof: We have
ªB Cº ª B1 C1 º ª Bn Cn º
A « » « » ! « »
¬O D ¼ ¬O D1 ¼ ¬O Dn ¼
the n-matrix
det(xI A) = det(xI1 A1) det(xI2 A2) … det(xIn An)
where
A = A1 … An
= det(xI B) det(xI D)
= {det (xI1 B1) det(xI1 D1) … det(xIn Bn) det(xIn
Dn)}.
That proves the statement about n-characteristic
polynomials. Notice that we used I = I1 … In to represent n-
identity matrix of these n-tuple of different sizes.
The kth power of the n-matrix A has the n-block form
Ak = (A1)k … (An)k.
ª B1 k C
1 k º ª Bn k C n k º
A k « » ! « »
« k» « k»
¬« O D
1
¼» ¬« O D n
¼»
108
Let T = T1 … Tn be any n-linear operator on a (n1, n2,
…, nn)finite dimensional n-space V = V1 … Vn. Let W =
W1 … Wn be n-subspace spanned by all of the n-
characteristic vectors of T = T1 … Tn. Let { C11 , …, C1k1 }
{ C12 , …, C2k 2 } … { C1n , …, Cnk n } be the n-distinct
characteristic values of T. For each i let Wi = Wi11 … Winn
be the n-space of n-characteristic vectors associated with the n-
characteristic value Ci = C1i1 … Cinn and let Bi = { B1i …
Bin } be the ordered basis of Wi i.e., Bit is a basis of Wit . Bc =
{ B11 , …, B1k1 } … { B1n , …, Bnk n } is a n-ordered n-basis for
W = ( W11 + … + Wk11 ) … ( W1n + … + Wknn ) = W = W1
… Wn.
In particular n-dimW = {(dim W11 + } + dim Wk11 ),
(dim W12 + … + dim Wk22 ), …, (dim W1n + } + dim Wknn )}.
We prove the result for one particular Wi = { W1i + } + Wki1 }
and since Wi is arbitrarily chosen the result is true for every i, i
= 1, 2, }, n. Let Bci = { D1i , …, Diri } so that the first few Di ’s
form the basis of Bci , the next few Bc2 and so on.
Then Ti D tj = t ijD tj , j = 1, 2, …, ri where ( t1i , …, t iri ) = { C1i ,
…, C1i , …, Ciki , Ciki , …, Ciki ) where Cij is repeated dim Wji
times, j = 1, }, ri. Now Wi is invariant under Ti since for each
Di in Wi, we have
D i = x1i D1i + … + x iri Diri
Ti Di = t1i x1i D1i + … + t iri x iri Diri .
109
ª t1i 0 ! 0º
« »
«0 t i2 ! 0 »
Bi .
«# # #»
« »
¬« 0 0 ! t iri »¼
110
LEMMA 1.2.7: If W = W1 … Wn is an n-invariant subspace
for T = T1 … Tn, then W is n-invariant under every n-
polynomial in T = T1 … Tn. Thus for each = 1 … n
in V = V1 … Vn the n-conductor S(D; W) = S(D1;W1) …
S(Dn; Wn) is an n-ideal in the n-polynomial algebra F[x] =
F1[x] … Fn[x].
Proof: Given W = W1 … Wn V = V1 … Vn a n-
vector space over the n-field F = F1 … Fn. If E = E1 …
En is in W = W1 … Wn, then TE = T1E1 … TnEn is in
W = W1 … Wn. Thus T(TE) = T2E = T12 E1 … Tn2 En is
in W. By induction TkE = T1k1 E1 … Tnk n En is in W for each
k. Take linear combinations to see that f(T)E = f1(T1)E1 …
fn(Tn)En is in W for every polynomial f = f1 … fn.
The definition of S(D; W) = S(D1;W1) … S(Dn; Wn) is
meaningful if W = W1 … Wn is any n-subset of V. If W is
a n-subspace then S(D; W) is a n-subspace of F[x] = F1[x] …
Fn[x] because (cf + g)T = cf(T) + g(T) i.e., (c1f1 + g1)T1 …
(cnfn + gn)T1 = c1f1(T1) + g1(T1) … cnfn(Tn) + gn(Tn). If W
= W1 … Wn is also n-invariant under T = T1 … Tn and
let g = g1 … gn be a n-polynomial in S(D; W) = S(D1;W1)
… S(Dn; Wn) i.e., let g(T)D = g1(T1)D1 g2(T2)D2 …
gn(Tn)Dn be in W = W1 … Wn is any n-polynomial then
f(T)g(T)D is in W = W1 … Wn i.e.,
f(T)[g(T)D] = f1(T1) [g1(T1)D1] … fn(Tn)[gn(Tn)Dn]
will be in W = W1 … Wn.
Since (fg)T = f(T)g(T) we have
(f1g1)T1 … (fngn)Tn = f1(T1) g1(T1) … fn(Tn)gn(Tn)Dn
be (fg) S(D; W) i.e., (figi) S(Di; Wi); i = 1, 2, …, n. Hence
the claim.
The unique n-monic generator of the n-ideal S(D; W) is also
called the T-n-conductor of D in W(the T-n annihilator in case
W = {0} {0} … {0}). The T-n-conductor of D into W is
the n-monic polynomial g of least degree such that g(T)D =
g1(T1)D1 … gn(Tn)Dn is in W = W1 … Wn.
A n-polynomial f = f1 … fn is in S(D; W) = S(D1;W1)
… S(Dn; Wn) if and only if g n-divides f. Note the n-
111
conductor S(D; W) always contains the n-minimal polynomial
for T, hence every T-n-conductor n-divides the n-minimal
polynomial for T.
2 rk22 n n rknn
c22 ) r2 … (x – ck22 ) … (x – c1n ) r (x – c2n ) r … (x – ckn )
1 2
n
;
c Fi, k1 d ti d kn , i = 1, 2, }, n.
i
ti
(1) is not in W
(2) (T cI) = (T1 c1I1)1 … (Tn cnIn)n is in W
for some n-characteristic value of the n-operator T.
112
(T1 c1j1 jI1)D1 … (Tn cnjn jIn)Dn
= (T1 c1j1 I1)h1(T1)E1 … (Tn cnjn In)hn(Tn)En
= g1(T1)E1 g2(T2)E2 … gn(Tn)En
with gi(Ti)Ei Wi for i = 1, 2, }, n.
ªa111 a12
1
! a1n
1
º ª a11
2 2
a12 ! a1n2
º
« 1 1
1
» « 2 2
2
»
« 0 a 22 a 2n1 » « 0 a 22 a 2n 2 »
« »« » …
«# # # » « # # # »
«0 0 ! a1n1n1 »¼ «¬ 0 0 ! a 2n 2 n 2 »¼
¬
ªa11
n n
a12 ! a1nn
º
« n
n
»
« 0 a 22 a n2n n »
« ».
« # # # »
«0 0 ! a n
»
¬ nn nn ¼
113
Merely [T]B = the n-triangular matrix of (n1 × n1, …, nn × nn)
order shows that
114
COROLLARY 1.2.12: If F = F1 … Fn is an n-algebraically
closed n-field. Every (n1 × n1, …, nn × nn) n-matrix over F is
similar over the n-field F to be a n-triangular matrix.
115
for every n-polynomial h. Now
p = (x – cj)q
= p1 … pn
= (x c1j1 )q1 . .. (x c njn )q n
for some n-polynomial q = q1 … qn. Also
q – q(cj) = (x – cj)h,
i.e., q1 q1 (c1j1 ) (x c1j1 )h1j1 , …, q n q n (c nj ) (x c njn )h njn .
We have
q(T)D – q(cj)D = h(T) (T – cjI)D = h(T)E
But h(T)E is in W = W1 … Wn and since
0 = p(T)D = (T – cjI) q(T)D
= p1(T1)D1 … pn(Tn)Dn
= (T1 c1j1 I1 )q1 (T1 )D1 . . . (Tn c njn )q n (Tn ) D n
and the n-vector q(T)D is in W i.e., q1(T1)D1 … qn(Tn)Dn is
in W. Therefore
q(c j ) D q1 (c1j1 )D1 . .. q n (cnjn )D n
is in W. Since D = D1 … Dn is not in W, we have q(cj) =
q1 (c1j1 ) . .. q n (c njn ) = 0 … 0.
This contradicts the fact that p has distinct roots. Hence the
claim.
We can now describe this more in terms of how the values
are determined and its relation to Cayley Hamilton Theorem for
n-vector spaces of type II. Suppose T = T1 … Tn is a n-
linear operator on a n-vector space of type II which is
represented by the n-matrix A = A1 … An in some ordered
n-basis for which we wish to find out whether T is n-
diagonalizable. We compute the n-characteristic polynomial f =
f1 … fn. If we can n-factor f = f1 … fn as
1 d1k1 n d kn n
(x c11 )d1 . .. (x c1k1 ) . .. (x c1n )d1 . .. (x c nk n )
we have two different methods for finding whether or not T is
n-diagonalizable. One method is to see whether for each i(t) (i(t)
means i is independent on t) we can find a d it (t = 1, 2, …, n); 1
d i d kt independent characteristic vectors associated with the
characteristic value c tj . The other method is to check whether or
not
116
(T – c1I) … (T – ckI) =
(T1 c I ) . .. (T1 c1k1 I1 ) .. . (Tn c1n I n ) . .. (Tn c kn n I n )
1
1 1
117
b. for each T = T1 … Tn in = 1 … n the n-
vector TD = T1D1 T2D2 … TnDn is in the n-
subspace spanned by D = D1 … Dn and W = W1
… Wn.
118
Let V2 be the set of all n-vectors E in V1 such that (T2 – c2I) E
is in W. Then V2 is n-invariant under . Applying earlier results
to U 3 U13 . . . U 3n the restriction of T3 to V2. If we continue
in this way we shall reach a n-vector D = Er (not in W)
Er E1r . . . Ern such that (T j c j I)D is in W; j = 1, 2, …, r.
119
dimensional space. Choose any T = T1 … Tn in which is
not a scalar multiple of n-identity.
Let {c11 , . . ., c1k1 } {c12 , .. ., ck2 2 } .. . {c1n , .. ., c kn n } be distinct
n-character values of T and for each (i(t)) let Wit be the null
space of the n-null space W i Wi1 . .. Win ; t = 1, 2, …, n of
(T – ciIi) = (T1 – C1I1) … (Tn – cnIn). Fix i, then Wit is
invariant under every operator that commutes with Tt. Let
{it } be the family of linear operators on Wit obtained by
restricting the operators in t where = 1 … n; 1 d t d
n to the subspace Wit . Each operator in it is diagonalizable
because its minimal polynomial divides the minimal polynomial
for the corresponding operator in t since dim Wit < dimVi, the
operators in it can be simultaneously diagonalized.
In other words Wit has a basis Bit which consists of vectors
which are simultaneously characteristic vectors for every
operator it . Since this is true for every t, t = 1, 2, …, n we see
T = T1 … Tn is n-diagonalizable and
B {B11 , . .., B1k1 } {B12 , .. ., B2k 2 } .. . {B1n , .. ., Bnk n }
is a n-basis for the n-vector space V= V1 … Vn.
Let V = V1 … Vn be a n-vector space over the n-field, F =
F1 … Fn. Let W {W11 , .. . Wk11 } .. . {W1n , .. ., Wknn } be
n-subspaces of the n-vector space V. We say that W1t , . . ., Wkt t
are independent if D11 . . . D kt t 0, D it in Wit implies that each
D it 0 i.e., if (D11 . . . D1k1 ) .. . (D1n . .. D nk n ) = 0 …
0 implies each Dit 0,1 d i d k t ; t = 1, 2, …, n; then
{W11 , . . ., Wk11 } … {W1n , . . ., Wknn }
is said to be n-independent.
The following lemma would be useful for developing more
properties about the n-independent n-subspaces.
120
LEMMA 1.2.10: Let V = V1 … Vn be a finite dimensional (n1,
n2, …, nn) n-vector space of type II. Let {W11 , . .., Wk11 } …
{W1n , .. ., Wknn } be n-subspaces of V and let W = W1 … Wn =
W11 .. . Wk11 W12 . . . Wk22 . .. W1n . . . Wknn . Then the
following are equivalent
121
Any linear relation between the vector in Bt will have the
form E1t .. . Ekt t = 0 where Eit is some linear combination of
vectors in Bit . Since W1t , . .. , Wkt t are independent each of Eit is
0. Since each Bit is an independent relation. The relation
between the vectors in Bt is trivial. This is true for every t, t = 1,
2, …, n; so in
B = B1 … Bn
= {B11 , ..., B1k1 } ... {B1n , . .., Bnk n }
every n-relation in n-vectors in B is the trivial n-relation.
It is left for the reader to prove (c) implies (a).
If any of the conditions of the above lemma hold, we say
the n-sum W = (W11 ... Wk11 ) ... (W1n ... Wknn ) ; n-
direct or that W is the n-direct sum of {W11 , . .., Wk11 } …
{W1n , W2n , .. ., Wknn } and we write
W (W11 . .. Wk11 ) . . . (W1n . . . Wknn ) .
2. V = R N i.e., V1 … Vn = R1 N1 … Rn
Nn, i.e., each Vi = Ri Ni; i = 1, 2, …, n.
122
3. The unique expression for D as a sum of n-vector in R
and N is D = ED + (D – ED), i.e., D1 … Dn = E1D1 +
(D1 – E1D1) … EnDn + (Dn – EnDn).
123
sum of vectors from the spaces Wit with i z j. In terms of the
projections E tj we have Dt = E1t D t . . . E kt D t for each D in V.
The above equation implies; I t E1t . .. E kt . Note also that if i
z j then E it E tj = 0 because the range of E tj is the subspace Wjt
which is contained in the null space of E it . This is true for each
t, t = 1, 2, …, n. Hence true on the n-vector space
V = (Wit . . . Wk11 ) . .. (W1n . .. Wknn ) .
Now as in case of n-vector spaces of type I we in case of n-
vector spaces of type II obtain the proof of the following
theorem.
124
vectors {D11 , . .., D1k1 } . .. {D1n , . .., D kn n } with Dit in Wit such
that D D11 .. . D1k1 .. . D1n .. . D nk n and then
TD T11D11 . .. Tk11 D1k1 . . . T1n D1n . .. Tknn D kn n .
We shall describe this situation by saying that T is the n-direct
sum of the operators {T11 , .. ., Tk11 } . .. {T1n , . .., Tknn } . It must
be remembered in using this terminology that the Tit are not n-
linear operators on the space V = V1 … Vn but on the
various n-subspaces
V = W1 … Wn.
= (W11 .. . Wk11 ) .. . (W1n .. . Wknn )
125
be as before. Then a necessary and sufficient condition that
each n-subspace Wi t ; to be a n-invariant under Tt for 1 d i d kt
is that Eit Tt Eit Tt or TE = ET for every 1 d i d kt and t = 1, 2,
…, n.
126
i = 1, 2, …, n. Then
i. V = W1 … Wn
= (W11 .. . Wk11 ) . .. (W1n .. . Wknn )
ii. each Wi Wi1 . .. Wi n is n-invariant under T; i = 1, 2,
…, n.
iii. if Ti r is the operator induced on Wi r by Ti then the
minimal polynomial for Ti r is r = 1, 2, …, ki; i = 1, 2,
…, n.
127
D = (c11 E11 .. . c1k1 E1k1 ) . .. (c1n E1n .. . c nk n E nk n )
so
N = {(T1 c11 I1 ) E11 . .. (T1 c1k1 I1 ) E1k1 } …
{(Tn c1n I n ) E1n . . . (Tn c nk1 I n ) E nk n } .
128
The n-diagonalizable operator D and the n-nilpotent
operator N are uniquely determined by (i) and (ii) and each of
them is n-polynomial in T1, …, Tn.
129
view of this we give the following definition for a n-linear
operator on V.
130
The set of all g in F[x] = F1[x] … Fn[x] such that g(T)D =0
is clearly an n-ideal in F[x]. It is also a non zero n-ideal in F[x]
because it contains the n-minimal polynomial p = p1 … pn
of the n-operator T. p(T)D = 0 … 0, i.e., p1(T1)D1 …
pn(Tn)D n = 0 … 0 for every D = D1 … Dn in V = V1
… Vn).
131
(iii) If U = U1 … Un is a n-linear operator on Z(D, T)
induced by T, then the n-minimal polynomial for U is
p D.
132
= g(T) pD(T)D
= g1 (T1 ) p1D1 (T1 ) D1 . . . g n (Tn ) p nDn (Tn ) D n
= g1(T1)0 … gn(Tn)0
= 0 … 0.
133
If we let Di Ui 1D ; i.e., Di D1i . . . Din and Di U i 1D
implies D1i U1i1 1D1 , . . ., D in U inn 1D n ; 1 d i d ki – 1 then the
action of U on the ordered n-basis {D11 , . .., D1k1 } …
{D1n , . .., D nk n } is UDi = Di+1 for i = 1, 2, …, k – 1 i.e.,
U t D it Ditt 1 for i = 1, 2, …, kt – 1 and t = 1, 2, …, n. UDk = –
c0D1 – … –ck–1Dk i.e.,
U t D kt c0t D1t .. . c kt t 1D kt
for t = 1, 2, …, n, where
pD = {c10 c11 x .. . c1k1 1x k1 1 x k1 } …
{c0n c1n x .. . c nk n 1x k n 1 x k n } .
The n-expression for UDk follows from the fact pD(U)D = 0
… 0 i.e.,
p1D1 (U1 )D1 . .. p1Dn (U n )D n = 0 … 0.
i.e.,
U k D c k 1 U k 1D . . . c1UD cD0 = 0 … 0,
i.e.,
U1k1 D1 c1k1 1U1k1 1D1 . .. c11U1D1 c10 D1
U k2 2 D 2 c k2 2 1U 2k 2 1D 2 .. . c12 U 2 D 2 c02 D 2 …
U kn n D n ckn n 1U kn n 1D n .. . c1n U n D n c0n D n
= 0 … 0.
ª0 0 0 ! 0 c10 º
« »
«1 0 0 ! 0 c11 »
= «0 1 0 ! 0 c12 » …
« »
«# # # # # »
«0 0 0 ! 1 c1k1 1 »¼
¬
134
ª0 0 0 ! 0 c0n º
« »
«1 0 0 ! 0 c1n »
«0 1 0 ! 0 c n2 » .
« »
«# # # # # »
«0 0 0 ! 1 c nk n 1 »¼
¬
135
Proof: One way to see this is to let U = U1 … Un a n-linear
operator on F1k1 . .. Fnk n which is represented by A = A1
… An in the n-ordered n-basis and to apply the earlier
theorem and the Cayley Hamilton theorem for n-vector spaces.
Yet another method is by a direct calculation.
136
T- n-invariant n-subspace has a complementary n-subspace
which is also n-invariant under the same T.
Let us suppose V = W W'; i.e., V = V1 … Vn = W1
W'1 … Wn W'n where both W and W' are n-invariant
under T, then we study what special property is enjoyed by the
n-subspace W. Each n-vector E = E1 … En in V = V1 …
Vn is of the form E = J + J' where J is in W and J' is in W'
where J = J1 … Jn and J' = J'1 … J'n.
If f = f1 … fn any n-polynomial over the scalar n-field
F = F1 … Fn then f(T) E = f(T)J + f(T)J'; i.e., f1(T1)E1 …
fn(Tn)En
= {f1(T1)J1 … fn(Tn)Jn} + {f1(T1)J'1 … fn(Tn)J'n}
= {f1(T1)J1 … fn(Tn)J'1} + {f1(T1)Jn … fn(Tn)J'n}.
1. W is n-invariant under T
2. f(T)E is in W, for each E V,
137
Thus n-admissibility characterizes those n-invariant n-
subspaces which have n-complementary n-invariant n-
subspaces.
138
If {D11 , . .., D1j1 } . .. {D1n , . .., D njn } have been chosen so that
Wj is T-n-admissible n-subspace then it is rather easy to find a
suitable D1j1 . .. D njn 1 .
Let W = W1 … Wn be a proper T-n-invariant n-
subspace. Let us find a non zero n-vector D = D1 … Dn
such that W Z(D; T) = {0} … {0}, i.e., W1 Z(D1; T1)
… Wn Z(Dn; Tn) = {0} … {0}. We can choose
some n-vector E = E1 … En which is not in W = W1 …
Wn i.e., each Ei is not in Wi; i = 1, 2 ,…, n. Consider the T-n-
conductor S(E; W) = S(E1; W1) … S(En; Wn) which consists
of all n-polynomials g = g1 … gn such that g(T)E = g1(T1)E1
… gn(Tn)En is in W = W1 … Wn. Recall that the n-
monic polynomial f = S(E; W); i.e., f1 … fn = S(E1; W1)
… S(En; Wn) which n-generate the n-ideals S(E; W) = S(E1;
W1) …S(En; Wn); i.e., each fi = S(EI; Wi) generate the ideal
S(EI; Wi) for i = 1, 2, …, n, i.e., S(E; W) is also the T-n-
conductor of E into W. The n-vector f(T)E = f1(T1)E1 …
fn(Tn)En is in W = W1 … Wn. Now if W is T-n-admissible
there is a J= J…Jn in W with f(T)E= f(T)J. Let
D EJand let g be any n-polynomial. Since E – D is in W,
g(T)Ewill be in W if and only if g(T)D is in W; in other words
S(DW) = S(EW). Thus the n-polynomial f is also the T-n
conductor of D into W. But f(T)D = 0 … That tells us
f1(T1)D … fn(Tn)Dn = 0 … 0; i.e., g(T)D is in W if
and only if g(T)D = 0 … 0 i.e., g1(T1)D1 …gn(Tn)Dn =
0 … 0. The n-subspaces Z(D; T) = Z(D; T1)… Z(Dn;
Tn) and W = W1 … Wn are n-independent and f is the T-n-
annihilator of D
139
^ `
exists non zero n-vectors D11 !D r11 ! D1n !D rnn in V with ^ `
respective T-n-annihilators ^ p ! p ` … ^ p ! p ` such
1
1
1
r1
n
1
n
rn
that
^W o
2
Z D ; T " Z D ; T ` …
2
1 2
2
r2 2
^W o
n
Z D ; T " Z D ; T ` .
n
1 n
n
rn n
… ^ p1n ,..., prn ` are uniquely determined by (i) and (ii) and
n
Proof: The proof is rather very long, hence they are given under
four steps. For the first reading it may seem easier to take W0 =
{0} …{0} = W01 … W0n ; i.e., each W0i = {0} for i =
1, 2, …, n, although it does not produce any substantial
simplification. Throughout the proof we shall abbreviate f(T)E
to fE. i.e., f1(T1)E1 … fn(Tn)En to f1E1 … fnEn.
STEP I:
There exists non-zero n-vectors E11 ! E1r1 ^ ` ^
… E1n ! Enrn `
in V = V1 …Vn such that
1. V = W0 + Z(E1; T) + … + Z(Er; T)
= ^ `
W01 Z E11 ;T1 ... Z E1r1 ;T1
^W 2
0 Z E ;T ... Z E ;T ` …
2
1 2
2
r2 2
140
^W
n
0 Z E1n ;Tn ... Z Enrn ;Tn `
2. if 1 d ki d ri; i = 1, 2, …, n and
Wk = Wk11 " Wknn
= ^W 1
o `
Z E11 ;T1 " Z E1k1 ;T1
^W 2
o Z E ;T " Z E ;T ` …
2
1 2
2
k2 2
^W n
o Z E ;T " Z E ;T `
n
1 n
n
kn n
max deg S D ; W . n n
k n 1
n
D in Vn
141
and we can choose a n-vector E= E1 … En so that n-
deg(S(EW)) = deg(S(E1, W1)) …deg(S(En; Wn)) attains
that maximum. The n-subspace W + Z(ET) = (W1 + Z(E1; T1))
… Wn + Z(En; Wn)) is then T-n-invariant and has n-
dimension larger than n-dim W. Apply this process to W = W0
to obtain E1 E11 " E1n . If W1 = W0 + Z(E; T), i.e.,
W11 ... Wn1 W 1
0
Z E11 ;T1 … W0n Z Enn ;Tn
is still proper then apply the process to W1 to obtain E2 = E12
… En2 . Continue in that manner.
Since n-dim Wk > n-dim Wk-1 i.e., dim Wk11 … dim Wknn >
dim Wk11 1 … dim Wknn 1 we must reach Wr = V; i.e., Wr11
… Wrnn = V1 … Vn in not more than n-dim V steps.
STEP 2:
^
Let E11 , ! , E1r1 ` … ^E , !, E ` n
1
n
rn be a n-set of nonzero n-
vectors which satisfy conditions (1) and (2) of Step 1. Fix (k1,
…, kn); 1 d ki d ri; i = 1, 2, …, n. Let E = E1 … En be any n-
vector in V = V1 …Vn and let f = S(E; Wk–1) i.e., f1 …
fn = S(E1; Wk11 1 ) … S(En; Wknn 1 ).
If fE = E0 + ¦ gE
1d i d k
i i i.e., f1E1 … fnEn
§ · § ·
= ¨¨ E10 ¦ g1i1 E1i1 ¸¸ ¨¨ E02 ¦ g i22 Ei22 ¸¸ …
© 1d i1 d k1 ¹ © 1d i 2 d k 2 ¹
§ n ·
¨¨ E0 ¦ g in Ein ¸¸
n n
© 1d i n d k n ¹
142
(1, 1, …, 1) apply the n-division algorithms gi = fhi + ri , ri = 0 if
n-deg ri < n-deg f i.e.,
g1i1 " g inn
f i h1i1 ri11 … f n h inn rinn ;
ri = (0 … 0) if n-deg ri < n-deg f.
We wish to show that ri = (0 … 0) for each i = (i1 ,…, in).
Let
k 1
J = E ¦ h i Ei ;
1
i.e.,
§ k1 1
· § k n 1
·
J…Jn= ¨ E1 ¦ h1i1 E1i1 ¸ … ¨ En ¦ h inn Einn ¸ .
© 1 ¹ © 1 ¹
i.e.,
S J1 ; Wk11 1 ! S J n ; Wknn 1
= S E1 ; Wk11 1 " S E ; W
n
n
k n 1
= f1 …fn.
S(J; Wk–1) = S(E; Wk–1) = f.
k 1
Further more fJ = E0 ¦ J iEi i.e.,
1
§ k1 1
· § n k n 1 n n ·
f1J1 … fnJn = ¨¨ E10 ¦ J 1i1E1i1 ¸¸ … ¨¨ E0 ¦ J in Ein ¸¸
© i1 ¹ © in ¹
rj = rj11 , ! , rjnn z (0, …, 0) and n-deg rj < n-deg f. Let p = S(J;
Wj-1); j = (j1, …, jn). i.e.,
p1 … pn =
S J1 , Wj11 1 … S J n , Wjnn 1 .
Since
143
Wk–1 = Wk11 1 ! Wknn 1
contains
Wj–1 = Wj11 1 ! Wjnn 1 ;
the n-conductor f = S(J; Wk-1) i.e., f1 … fn = S(J; Wk11 1 )
… S(Jn; Wknn 1 ) must n-divide p. p = fg i.e., p1 … pn =
f1g1 … fngn. Apply g(T) = g1(T1) … gn(Tn) to both
sides i.e., pJ = gfJ = grj Ej + gEo + ¦ griEi i.e.,
1d i j
§ ·
= ¨¨ g1J 1j1E1j1 g1E10 ¦ g1ri11Ei11 ¸¸
© 1d i1 j1 ¹
§ ·
¨¨ g2 J j2 E j2 g 2E0 ¦ g 2 ri2 Ei2 ¸¸ …
2 2 2 2 2
© 1d i 2 j2 ¹
§ ·
¨¨ gn J jn E jn g n E0 ¦ g n r jn E jn ¸¸ .
n n n n n
© 1d i n jn ¹
144
= deg (S(J; Wj11 1 )) … deg(S(Jn; Wjnn 1 ))
= n-deg p
= deg p1 …deg pn
= n-deg fg
= deg f1g1 …deg fngn.
Thus n-deg rj > n-deg f; i.e., deg rj1 … deg rjn > deg f1 …
deg fn and that contradicts the choice of j = (j1, …, jn). We
now know that f = f1 … fn, n-divides each gi = g1i1 …
g inn i.e., f it divides g itt for t = 1, 2, …, n and hence that E0 = fJ
i.e., E10 ... E0n = f1J1 … fnJn. Since W0 = W01 ... W0n is
T-n-admissible (i.e., each W0k is Tk-admissible for k = 1, 2, …,
n); we have E0 = fJ0 where J J10 ... J 0n W0 = W01 …
W0n ; i.e., E10 ... E0n = f1 J10 ... f n J 0n where J0 W0. We
make a mention that step 2 is a stronger form of the assertion
that each of the n-subspaces W1 = W11 ... W1n ,W2 = W21 …
W2n , …, Wr = Wr1 ... Wrn is T-n admissible.
STEP 3:
There exists non zero n-vectors ( D11 , …, D1r1 ) … ( D1n , …,
D nrn ) in V = V1 … Vn which satisfy condition (i) and (ii) of
the theorem. Start with n-vectors { E11 , !, E1r1 } … { Enn , …,
Enrn } as in step 1. Fix k = (k1, …, kn) as 1 d ki d ri. We apply step
2 to the n-vector E = E1 … En = E1k1 ... Enk n Ek and T-
n-conductor f = f1 … fn = p ! p 1
k1
n
kn = pk. We obtain
pkEk = p k J 0 ¦p hE
1d i k
k i i ;
i.e.,
p1k1 E1k1 ! p nk n Enk n =
§ · § n n ·
¨¨ p1k1 J10 ¦ p1k1 h1i1 E1i1 ¸¸ … ¨¨ p k n J 0 ¦ p k n h in Ein
n n n
¸¸
© 1d i1 k1 ¹ © 1d i n k n ¹
145
where J0 = J10 ! J 0n is in W0 = W01 ! W0n and
^h , ! , h ` … ^h
1
1
1
k1 1
n
1 `
, ! , h kn n 1 are n-polynomials. Let
Dk = Ek J 0 ¦ hE
1d i k
i i
i.e.,
^D 1
k1 ! D nk n `=
§ 1 · § n ·
¨¨ Ek1 J 0 ¦ h i1 Ei1 ¸¸ ! ¨¨ Ek n J 0 ¦ h in Ein
1 1 1 n n n
¸¸ .
© 1d i1 k1 ¹ © 1d i n k n ¹
Since Ek – Dk = E1k1 D1k1 ! Ekn n D kn n is in
Wk–1 = Wk11 1 ! Wknn 1 ;
S(Dk;Wk–1) = S(Ek;Wk–1)
= pk
=
S D1k1 , Wk11 1 ! S D nk n , Wknn 1
= S E 1
k1 ,W1
k1 1 ! S E n
kn ,W n
k n 1
= p ! p
1
k1
n
kn
and since
pkDk = 0 …0.
p D1k1 ! p nk n D nk n = 0 … 0.
1
k1
we have
Wk–1 Z(Dk; T) = {0} … {0}.
That is
Wk11 1 Z D1k1 ;T1 ... Wkn1 1 Z D kn n ;Tn
= {0} ... {0}.
146
^W 2
0
Z D12 ;T2 ... Z D k2 2 ;T2 ` …
^W n
0 Z D ;T ... Z D
n
1 n
n
kn ;T `
n
and that pk = p1k1 ... p kn n is the T-n-annihilator of Dk = D1k1
… D nk n . In other words, n-vectors D11,! , D1r1 , ^ ` ^D ,..., D ` ,
2
1
2
r2
piDi = p1i1 D1i1 ... pinn D inn = (0 … 0)
we have the trivial relation
pkDk = p1k1 D1k1 ... p nk n D nk n
= 0 p11D11 ... p1k1 1D1k1 1 0 p D 2
1
2
1 ... p k2 2 1D k2 2 1 …
0 p D n
1
n
1 ... p knn 1D knn 1 .
^
Apply step 2 with E11 ,..., E1k1 , ! , E1n ,..., Ekn n ` ^ ` replaced by
147
= D1k1 ! D kn n ; pk n-divides each pi, i < k that is (i1, …, in) <
(k1, …, kn) i.e., p1k1 ... p nk n n-divides each p1i1 ... pinn i.e.,
each p kt t divides pitt for t = 1, 2, …, n.
STEP 4:
The number r = (r1, …, rn) and the n-polynomials (p1, …, p r1 ),
…, (p1, …, p rn ) are uniquely determined by the conditions of
the theorem. Suppose that in addition to the n-vectors
^ `^ ` ^ `
D11,..., D1r1 , D12 ,..., D r22 ,..., D1n ,..., D rnn we have non zero n-
vectors ^J ,..., J ` ,...,^J ,..., J ` with respective
1
1
1
s1
n
1
n
sn T-n-
annihilators ^g ,...,g ` ,...,^g ,...,g ` such that
1
1
1
s1
n
1
n
sn
V = W0 Z J1 ;T ... Z J s ;T
i.e.,
V = V1 … Vn
^W Z J ;T ... Z J ;T ` …
1
0
1
1 1
1
s1 1
^W Z J ;T ... Z J ;T `
n
0
n
1 n
n
sn n
t t
g kt divides g k t 1 for t = 1, 2, …, n and kt = 2, …, st. We shall
show that r = s i.e., (r1, …, rn) = (s1, …, sn) and pit g it ; 1 d t d
n. i.e., p1i ... pin = g1i ... g in for each i. We see that p1 = g1
= p11 ... p1n = g11 ... g1n . The n-polynomial g1 = g11 ... g1n
is determined by the above equation as the T-n-conductor of V
into Wo i.e., V = V1 … Vn into W01 ... W0n . Let S(V;
Wo) = S(V1; W01 ) … S(Vn; W0n ) be the collection of all n-
polynomials f = f1 … fn such that fE = f1E1 … fnEn is
in Wo for every in E = E1 … En in V = V1 … Vn i.e., n-
polynomials f such that the n-range of f(T) = range of f1(T1)
range of f2(T2) … range of fn(Tn) is contained in W0 =
W01 ... W0n , i.e., range of fi(Ti) is in W0i for i = 1, 2, …, n.
Then S(Vi; Wi) is a non zero ideal in the polynomial algebra so
148
that we see S(V; W0) = S(V1; W01 ) … S(Vn; W0n ) is a non
zero n-ideal in the n-polynomial algebra.
The polynomial g1t is the monic generator of that ideal i.e.,
the n-monic polynomial g1 = g11 ... g1n is the monic n-
generator of that n-ideal; for this reason. Each E = E1 … En
in V = V1 … Vn has the form E= E10 f11J11 ... f s11 J 1s1
… E0n f1n J1n ... f snn J snn and so
s
g1E g1E0 ¦ g1f i J i
1
i.e.,
§ 1 1 s1 1 1 1 ·
g11E1 ... g1n En ¨ g1E0 ¦ g1f i1 J i1 ¸ …
© 1 ¹
§ n n sn
n n n ·
¨ g1 E0 ¦ g1 f in J in ¸ .
© 1 ¹
149
hand fW for the set of all n-vectors fD = f1D1 …fnDn with
D = D1 … Dn in W = W1 … Wn.
The three facts can be proved by the reader:
150
dim W01 + dim Z J11 ;T1 …dim W0n + dim Z J1n ;Tn <
dim V1 …dim Vn,
which shows that s = (s1, s2, …, sn) > (2, 2, …, 2). Now it makes
sense to ask whether or not p2 = g2, p12 ... p n2 = g12 ... g 2n .
From the two decompositions, of V = V1 …Vn, we obtain
two decomposition of the n-subspace
151
and g2 n-divides p2 i.e., g 2t divides p 2t for each t; t = 1, 2, …, n.
The argument can be reversed to show that p2 n-divides g2 i.e.,
p 2t divides g 2t for each t; t = 1, 2, …, n. Hence p2 = g2.
152
iii. If p = f1r1 ... f krk is the prime factorization of p then f =
f1d1 ... f kdk where di is the n-multiplicity of fi (T ) ri
n-divided by the n-degree of fi.
then f = f11 ... f k11 ... f1n ... f knn
d11 d k11 d1n d knn
; dit = d1t ,..., d ktt
rit
is the nullity of fi t (Tt ) which is n-divided by the n-degree fi t
i.e., d it ; 1d i d kt. This is true for each t = 1, 2, …, n.
V = Z(D1; T) … Z(Dr; T)
=
Z D11 ;T1 ... Z D1r1 ;T1 …
Z D ;T ... Z D ;T .
n
1 n
n
rn n
153
Let p = f11 ! f k11 ! f1n ! f knn
r11 rk11 r1h rknn
be the prime
n-factorization of p. We employ the n-primary decomposition
theorem, which tell us if Vti V1i ! Vni is the n-null space
for f ti Tt i then
rt
and f it
rit
is the minimal polynomial of the operator Tti
restricting Tt to the invariant subspace Vti . This is true for each t
= 1, 2, …, n. Apply part (ii) of the present theorem to the n-
operator Tti . Since its minimal polynomial is a power of the
prime f it the characteristic polynomial for Tti has the form
f
t
t ri
i where d it ! rit , t = 1, 2, …, n.
dim Vti
We have d it = t
for every t = 1, 2 ,…, n and dim Vti
deg f i
= nullity f it Tt i for every t = 1, 2, …, n. Since Tt is the direct
rt
^D ,T D ,!,T
1
i1 1
1
i1 1
ki11 1
1 ` ^
D i1 … D in ,TnD in ,! , Tn n n
ki11 1
D inn `
154
for Z(Di; T) = Z D i11 ; T1 … Z D in ; Tn . Here ki1 ,! , ki1
n n
155
similar over the field to one and only one n-matrix C which is in
the rational n-form.
^
The n-polynomials p11 ,!, p1r1 , !, p1n ,!, p nrn are called `
invariant n-factors or n-invariant factors for the n-matrix B =
B1… Bn.
We shall just introduce the notion of n-Jordan form or
Jordan n-form. Suppose that N = N1 …Nn be a nilpotent n-
linear operator on a finite (n1, n2,…, nn) dimension space V = V1
… Vn. Let us look at the n-cyclic decomposition for N
which we have depicted in the theorem. We have positive
integers (r1, …, rn) and non zero n-vectors D1n ,!, D rnn in V ^ `
with n-annihilators p , ! , p ^ 1
1
1
r1 ` ! ^p , !, p ` such that
n
1
n
rn
V = Z D1 ; N " Z D r ; N
=
Z D11 ; N1 " Z D1r1 ; N1 "
Z D1n ; N n " ZD n
rn ; Nn
and pitt 1 divides pitt for it = 1, 2 ,…, rt – 1 and t = 1, 2, …, n.
Since N is n-nilpotent the n-minimal polynomial is
x k1 ! x k n with kt d nt; t = 1, 2, …, n. Thus each pitt is of
t
the form pitt x k i and the n-divisibility condition simply says
k1t t k 2t t ! t k rtt ; t = 1, 2, …, n. Of course k1t = kt and k rt t 1.
k1i k ni
The n-companion n-matrix of x 1
! x n
is the k ir u k ir n-
matrix. A = A1i1 ! A inn with
ª0 0 " 0 0º
«1 0 ! 0 0 »»
«
A itt «0 1 0 0 » ; t = 1, 2, …, n.
« »
«# # # #»
«¬ 0 0 ! 1 0 »¼
156
Thus we from earlier results have an n-ordered n-basis for V =
V1 … Vn in which the n-matrix of N is the n-direct sum of
the elementary nilpotent n-matrices the sizes it of which
decrease as it increases. One sees from this that associated with
a n-nilpotent (n1 un1, …, nn unn), n-matrix is a positive n-tuple
integers (r1, …, rn) i.e.,
^ `
k11 , ! , k1r1 … k1n ,! , k rnn ^ `
such that
k11 ! k nr1 n1
k12 ! k rn2 n2
and
k1n ! k rnn nn
and k t k t
it
t
i t 1 ; t = 1, 2, …, n and 1 d i, i + 1 d rt and these n-sets
of positive integers determine the n-rational form of the n-
matrix, i.e., they determine the n-matrix up to similarity.
Here is one thing, we like to mention about the n-nilpotent,
n-operator N above. The positive n-integer (r1, …, rn) is
precisely the n-nullity of N infact the n-null space has a n-basis
k 1 k 1
with (r1, …, rn) n-vectors N1 i1 D1i1 ! N n in D inn . For let D =
D1 …Dn be in n-nullspace of N we write
D= f11D11 ! f r11 D1r1 … f1n D1n ! f r1n D nrn
where f i11 ,! ,f inn is a n-polynomial the n- degree of which we
may assume is less than k i1 , ! , k in . Since ND = 0 … 0;
i.e., N1D… NnDn = 0 …0 for each ir we have
0 0 … 0 N(fi Di)
= N1 f i1 D i1 ! N n f in D in
= N1f i1 (N1 )Di1 " N n f in N n D in
= xf D
i1 i1 ! (xf in )D in .
157
k i1 k in
Thus xf i1 ! xf in is n-divisible by x ! x and since
n-deg f i1 , !, f in > k i1 , k i2 , !, k in this imply that
k i11 k in 1
f i1 ! f in = c1i1 x ! cin1 x
where c1i1 ! cin1 is some n-scalar. But then
D = D1 … D ns
=
c11 x
ki
1
1
D11 " c1r1 x ki
1 1
D1r1
c12 x
ki
2
1
D12 ! c 2r2 x ki
2
1
D 2r2 …
c1n x
k in 1
D1n ! c nrn x k in 1
D nrn ;
which shows that all the n-vectors form a n-basis for the n-null
space of N = N1 …Nn. Suppose T is a n-linear operator on
V = V1 … Vn and that T factors over the n-field F = F1
…Fn as
f = f1 …fn
= x c11 ! x c1k1 ! x c " x c
d11 d1k1 n
d1k n
n d1 n
1 kn
^
where c11, ! , c1k1 ` ! ^c , !, c ` are n- distinct n-element
n
1
n
kn
ri1 rinn
T ci I
ri
= T1 C1i1 I1 1
! Tn cinn I n
then the n-primary decomposition theorem tells us that
V = V1 …Vn = W11 ! Wk11 ! W1n ! Wknn
and that the operator Titt induced on Witt defined by Ttit has n-
rit
minimal polynomial x citt for t = 1, 2, …, n; 1 d it d kt. Let
158
N itt be the n-linear operator on Witt defined by N itt Titt citt I t .
1 d it d kt; then Nitt is n-nilpotent and has n-minimal polynomial
rt
x it it . On Witt , Tt acts like N itt plus the scalar citt times the
identity operator. Suppose we choose a n-basis for the n-
subspace Wi11 ! Winn corresponding to the n-cyclic
decomposition for the n-nilpotent Nitt . Then the k-matrix Titt in
this ordered n-basis will be the n-direct sum of n-matrices.
ª c1 0 ... 0 0 º ª c 2 0 ... 0 0º
«1 c 0 0 »» «« 1 c2 0 0 »»
« 1
«# # # # »« # # # » …
« » « »
« c1 » « c2 #»
«¬ 0 0 ! 1 c1 »¼ «¬ 0 0 ! 1 c 2 »¼
ªcn 0 ... 0 0º
«1 cn ! 0 0 »»
«
«# # # #»
« »
« cn »
«¬ 0 0 ! 1 c n »¼
159
ª A11 0 ! 0 º ª A1n 0 ! 0 º
« » « »
0 A12 ! 0 » 0 A n2 " 0 »
A= « ! «
«# # # » « # # # »
« 1 » « »
¬« 0 0 ! A k1 »¼ ¬« 0 0 " A nk n »¼
^ `
of the ki sets of n-matrices A11 , ..., A1k1 … A1n , ..., A kn n . ^ `
Each
ª J t1it 0 ... 0 º
« »
« 0 J t 2t ... 0 »
i
A itt « »
« # »
« 0 0 ... J tnt »¼
i
¬
J jtt
i
where each is an elementary Jordan matrix with
characteristic value citt ; 1 < it < kt; t = 1, 2, …, n. Also with in
each A itt the sizes of the matrices J itjt t decrease as jt increase 1 d
jt d nt ; t = 1, 2, …, n. A (n1 u n1, …, nn u nn) n-matrix A which
satisfies all the conditions described so far for some n-sets of
^ ` ^
distinct ki-scalars c11 ! c1k1 … c1n ! c kn n will be said to `
be in Jordan n-form or n-Jordan form.
The interested reader can derive several interesting
properties in this direction.
In the next chapter we move onto define the notion of n-
inner product spaces for n-vector spaces of type II.
160
Chapter Two
n-INNER PRODUCT
SPACES OF TYPE II
161
a. (DEJ) = (DJ) + (EJ)
i.e., (D1+E1/J1) …(Dn+En/Jn) =
ª¬D1 / J 1 E1 / J 1 º¼ " ª¬D n / J n E n / J n º¼
b. (cD/E) = (cD/E) i.e.,
(c1D1/E1) … (cnDn/En)
= c1(D1/E1) … cn(Dn/En)
c. (D/E) = (E/D) i.e., (D1/E1) … (Dn/En)
= (E1/D1) … (En/Dn)
d. (D / D) = (D1 / D1) … (Dn/Dn) > (0 … 0) if
Di z 0 for i = 1, 2, …, n.
D / E ¦ x1j y1j 1 1
! ¦ x njn y njn .
j1 jn
162
THEOREM 2.1: If V = V1 … Vn is an n-inner product space
then for any n-vectors D = D1 … Dn, E = E1 … En in V
and any scalar c = c1… cn.
(E / D)
J=E– D
|| D ||2
§ (E / D ) ·
i.e., J1 …Jn = ¨ E1 1 12 D1 ¸ …
© || D1 || ¹
§ (En / D n ) ·
¨ En Dn ¸ .
© || D n ||2 ¹
163
i.e., (D1 / E1) … (Dn / En) = 0 … 0.
Since this implies E = E1… En is n-orthogonal to D =
D1… Dn.
164
^ `
Suppose D11, ! , D1m1 ! D1n , ! , D nmn ^ ` (1 d m d n ; i = 1, 2, i i
let
D1m1 1 E1m1 1 ¦
m1
E 1
m1 1 D1k1 D1k
k1 1 || D ||
1
k1
2
and so on
D nmn 1 Enmn 1 ¦
mn
E n
m n 1 D kn n D n
.
|| D ||
n 2 kn
kn 1 kn
Thus D1m1 1 ! D nmn 1 | D1j1 ! D njn = (0 … 0) for 1 d
j d m ; t = 1, 2, …, n. For other wise E
t t ! E will 1
m n 1
n
m n 1
Further 1 d jt d mt; t = 1, 2, …, n.
Then
(Dm+1 / Dj) =
D1m1 1 D1j1 ! D nmn 1 D njn
ª m1
E 1
D 1
º
=
«¬
« E 1m1 1 D1j1 ¦
k1 1
m1 1
|| D1k1 ||2
D
k1
1
k1 D1
j1
» …
»¼
ª mn
Enmn 1 D kn n D nk n D njn º
«¬
« E nmn 1 D njn ¦
kn 1 || D nk n ||2
»
»¼
= ¬
ª E 1m 1 D1j
1 1
E 1m1 1 D1j1 º¼ !
= ¬
ª E m 1 D j
n
n
n
n
E nmn 1 D njn º¼
= 0 …0.
165
Therefore ^D , !, D ` ! ^D , !, D `
1
1
1
m1 1
n
1
n
m n 1 is an n-
orthogonal n-set consisting of {m1 + 1 … mn + 1} non zero
n-vectors in the n-subspace spanned by
^ ` ^ `
E1 , !, Em1 1 ! E1 , !, Emn 1 . By theorem we have just
1 1 n n
i.e., D11 ! D1n1 E 1
1 ! E1n1
ª E12 D11 D1 º» !
D12 ! D 2n 2 = «E12
«¬ || D11 ||2
1
»¼
ª
«En
2 E1n D1n 1 º
Dn » .
«¬ || D1n ||2 »¼
|| D11 ||2
D1
|| D 22 ||2
D2 » …
»¼
ª
«E3n
E3n D1n D1 E3n D n2 D 2 º» .
|| D1n ||2 || D 2n ||2
n n
«¬ »¼
166
a n-vector in V. To find the n-best approximation to E = E1
… En by n-vectors in W = W1 … Wn. This means to
find a vector D = D1 … Dn for which || E – D || = ||E1 –
D1|| … ||En – Dn|| is as small as possible subject to the
restriction that D = D1 … Dn should belong to W = W1
… Wn. i.e., to be more precise.
A n-best approximation to E = E1 … En in W = W1
… Wn is a n-vector D = D1 … Dn in W such that
|| ED || < || EJ ||
i.e.,
|| ED || …|| EnDn || d || E1J1 || …|| EnJn ||
for every n-vector J = J1 … Jn in W.
167
DEFINITION 2.4: Let V = V1 … Vn be n-inner product
space and S = S1 … Sn any set of n-vectors in V. The n-
orthogonal complement of S denoted by SA = S1A … SnA is
the set of all n-vectors in V which are n-orthogonal to every n-
vector in S.
168
idempotent n-linear transformation of V onto WA with n-null
space W.
| ( E1 | D 1K1 ) |2 | ( E 2 | D K2 2 ) |2
¦
K1 ||D 1K1 ||2
¦
K2 ||D K2 2 ||2
!
| ( E n | D Kn n ) |2
¦
Kn ||D n 2
||
d || E1 ||2 ! || E n ||2
Kn
( E n | D Kn n )
¦ ||D n
|| 2
D Kn n
E1 ! E n .
Kn
169
(T11 | 1) … (Tnn | n) = (1 | T1* 1) … (n | Tn* n) for
all , in V.
By the use of an n-orthonormal n-basis the n-adjoint
operation on n-linear operators (passing from T to T*) is
identified with the operation of forming the n-conjugate
transpose of a n-matrix.
Suppose V = V1 ! Vn is an n-inner product space
over the n-field F = F1 ! Fn and let = 1 … n be
some fixed n-vector in V. We define a n-function f from V into
the scalar n-field by fE (D) = (|);
i.e. f1E1 (1) … f nEn (n) = (1 | 1) … (n | n)
for = 1 … n V = V1 … Vn.
then
f(K) = f1E1 (D1K ) … f nEn (D nK )
170
§ 1 · § n ·
¨¨ D K | ¦ f1 (D j1 )D j1 ¸¸ ! ¨¨ D K | ¦ f n (D jn )D jn
1 1 n n
= ¸¸
© j1 ¹ © jn ¹
= f1 (D K ) … fn (D K ) .
1 n
171
The uniqueness of T* is clear. For any in V the n-vector T* is
uniquely determined as the vector c such that (T|) = (|c) for
every .
= 1 … n.
The n-matrix A is defined by
n
TD j ¦A K 1
Kj D K , i.e.,
n1 nn
T1 D1j1 ! Tn D njn ¦ A1K1 j1 D1K1 !
K1 1
¦A
Kn 1
n
K n jn D nK n
since
n
TD j ¦ (TD
K 1
j | D K )D K ;
i.e.,
n1
T1D1j1 ! Tn D njn ¦ (T D
K1 1
1
1
j1 | D1K1 ) D1K1
nn
! ¦ (T D
Kn 1
n
n
jn | D nK n ) D Kn n
172
The following corollary is immediate and left for the reader to
prove.
i. (T + U)* = T* + U*
i.e., (T1 + U1)* … (Tn + Un)*
= T1* U1* … ( Tn* U n* ).
ii. (cT)* = cT*.
iii. (TU)* = U*T*.
iv. (T*)* = T.
173
THEOREM 2.10: Let V and W be finite dimensional n-inner
product spaces over the same n-field F = F1 … Fn. Both V
and W are of same n-dimension equal to (n1,…,nn). If T = T1
… Tn is a n-linear transformation from V into W, the
following are equivalent.
i. T = T1 … Tn preserves n-inner products.
ii. T = T1 … Tn is an n-isomorphism.
iii. T = T1 … Tn carries every n-orthonormal n-basis
for V into an n-orthonormal n-basis for W.
iv. T carries some n-orthonormal n-basis for V onto an n-
orthonormal n-basis for W.
174
i.e., {T1D1j1 |T1D1K1 }! {Tn D njn |Tn D Kn n }
= (D1j1 | D1K1 ) ! (D njn | D Kn n )
= G j1K1 ! G jn K n .
For any
= 1 ! n
= x11 D11 ! x1n1 D1n1 ! x1n D1n ! x nn n D nn n
and
E = y11D11 ! y1n1 D1n1 ! y1n D1n ! y nn n D nn n
in V we have
n
(|) = ¦x y
j 1
j j
that is
n1 nn
[ (D1 | E1 ) ! (D n | En ) ] ¦ x1j1 y1j1 !
j1 1
¦x
jn 1
n
jn y njn .
© jn Kn ¹
= ¦¦ x y
j K
j K (TD j |TD K )
= ¦¦ x
j1 K1
j1 y K1 (T1D1j1 | T1D1K1 ) !
¦¦ x
jn Kn
n
jn y nK n (Tn D njn | Tn D nK n )
175
n
= ¦x y
j 1
j j
n nn
= ¦ x1j1 y1j1 ! ¦ x njn ynjn
j1 1 jn 1
176
It is left for the reader to verify that the product of two n-unitary
operator is n-unitary.
for all , V.
We call a real n-mixed square matrix A = A1 … An
over the n-field F = F1 … Fn to be n-orthogonal if AtA = I
i.e., A1t A1 … A nt An = I1 … In. We say A = A1 …
177
An to be n-anti orthogonal if AtA= – I, i.e., A1t A1 … A nt An
= –I1 –I2 … –In.
Let V = V1 … Vn be a finite dimensional n-inner
product space and T = T1 … Tn be a n-linear operator on V.
We say T is n-normal if it n-commutes with its n-adjoint i.e.
TT* = T*T, i.e., T1 T1* … Tn Tn* = T1* T … Tn* Tn.
178
= ( | d) = d(| )
= d( | ).
If c z d then ( | ) = 0 … 0; i.e., if d1 … dn z c1 …
cn i.e., ci z di for i = 1, 2, …, n then (1 | 1) … (n | n) =
0 … 0.
179
Hence (cj – ci) (|) = 0 ! 0. i.e.,
(c1j1 c1i1 )(D1 | E1 ) ! (cnjn cinn )(D n | En ) = 0 … 0;
since cj – ci z 0 … 0. It follows (|) = (1 | 1) …
(n|n) = 0 … 0. Thus Wj = Wj11 ! Wjnn is n-orthogonal
to Wi = Wi11 ! Winn when i z j. From the fact that V has an
n-orthonormal basis consisting of n-characteristic, it follows
that V = W1 + … + WK i.e.,
V = V1 ! Vn
= (W11 ! WK1 1 ) ! (W1n ! WKn n )
when it z jt ; 1 d it, jt d Kt or t = 1, 2, …, n. From the fact that V
= V1 … Vn has an n-orthonormal n-basis consisting of n-
characteristic n-vectors it follows that V = W1 + … + WK, If
D tjt Wjtt (1d jt d K t ) and (D11 ! D1K1 ) ! (D1n ! D nK n )
= 0 … 0 then 0 … 0
§ ·
= ¨ (D i | ¦ D j ) ¸
© j ¹
= ¦ (D i | D j )
j
§ · § ·
i.e. ¨¨ (D1i1 | ¦ D1j1 ) ¸¸ ! ¨ (D inn | ¦ D njn ) ¸
© j1 ¹ © ¹
¦ (Di1 | D j1 ) ! ¦ (Din | D jn )
j1
1 1
jn
n n
|| D || ! || Dinn ||2
1
i1
2
180
This decomposition is called the n-spectral resolution of T. The
following corollary is immediate however we sketch the proof
of it.
COROLLARY 2.7: If
ej e1j1 ! enjn
§ x ci11 · § x cinn ·
= ¨ 1
¨ 1 ¸¸
i1 z j1 © c j1 ci1 ¹
… ¨¨ n n ¸¸
in z jn © c jn cin ¹
Proof: Since E itt E tjt 0 for every 1 < it, jt < Kt; t = 1, 2, …, n (it
z jt) it follows that T = (T1 … Tn)2 = T12 ! Tn2 .
2
we have
f(T) = f1(T1) … fn(Tn)
r1 rn
= ¦a
n1 0
1
n1 T1n1 ! ¦ a nn n Tnn n
nn 0
r1 K1
= ¦ a ¦c
n1 0
1
n1
j1 1
n1
j1 E1j1 !
rn Kn
¦ a ¦c
nn 0
n
nn
jn 1
nn
jn E njn
181
K1
§ r1
· Kn
§ rn
·
= ¦ ¨¨ ¦ a c ¸¸ E1j1 !
1 n1
n1 j1 ¦ ¨¨ ¦ a n
nn c njnn ¸¸ E njn
j1 1 © n1 0 ¹ ©
jn 1 n n 0 ¹
K1 Kn
= ¦ f (c
j1 1
1
1
j1 ) E1j1 ! ¦ f n (c njn ) E njn .
jn 1
182
THEOREM 2.15: Let T = T1 … Tn be a n-diagonalizable
normal n-operator with n-spectrum S = S1 … Sn on a finite
(n1, …, nn) dimensional n-inner product space V = V1 …
Vn. Suppose f = f1 … fn is a n-function whose domain
contains S that has n-values in the field of n-scalars. Then f(T)
is a n-diagonalizable normal n-operator with n-spectrum f(S) =
f1(S1) … fn(Sn). If U = U1 … Un is a n-unitary map of V
onto Vc and Tc = UTU-1 = U1T1 U11 ! U nTnU n1 then S = S1
… Sn is the n-spectrum of Tc and f(Tc) = f1 (T1c) …
fn(Tcn) = Uf(T)U –1 = U1f1(T1) U11 ! U n f n (Tn )U n1 .
1 … n = ¦E 1
j1 1 … ¦ E njn D n
j jn
and
f(T) = f1(T1)1 … fn(Tn)n
= ¦ f1 (T1 ) E1j1 D1 … ¦ f n (Tn ) E njn D n
j1 jn
= ¦f j1
1 (c )E D1 …
1
j1
1
j1 ¦f
jn
n (c )E njn D n
n
jn
= ¦b j1
1 E D1 …
1
j1 ¦b
jn
n E njn D n .
183
Hence
2
¦ (f (c ) b) E D
j
j j
2 2
= ¦ (f (c
j1
1
1
j1 ) b1 ) E D1 1
j1 … ¦ (f
jn
n (c ) b n ) E D n
n
jn
n
jn
¦ f (c ¦f
2 2 2 2
= 1
1
j1 b1 ) E1j1 D1 … n (c njn b n ) E njn D n .
j1 jn
= ¦E
i1
1
i1 ! ¦ E inn
in
184
characteristic n-vectors belonging to the n-characteristic value
bm of f(T) i.e., b1m1 … b nmn of f1(T1) … fn(Tn) and
f(T) = f1(T1) … fn(Tn)
r1 rn
= ¦ b1m1 Pm1 1 …
m1 1
¦b
mn 1
n
mn Pmn n
T1c ! Tnc = ¦c
j1
1
j1 (E1j1 )c ! ¦c jn
n
jn (E njn )c
Here
E' = (E1j1 )c ! (E njn )c .
= ¦ f (c
j1
1
1
j1 j1
1
)U1 E U …
1
1 ¦f
jn
n (cnjn )U n E njn U n1
185
= ¦ f (c
j1
1
1
j1 ) U1 E1j1 U11 …
¦f
jn
n (cnjn )U n E njn U n1
= U1 ¦ f (c
j1
1
1
j1 ) (E1j1 ) U11 … Un ¦ f n (cnjn )(E njn ) U n1
jn
= U1f1(T1) U ! Unfn(Tn) U
1
1
1
n
= Uf(T) U-1.
¦ P f (T) D
i
ij i = ¦P
i1
1
f (T1 ) D1i1 …
i1 j1 1 ¦P
in
n
i n jn f n (Tn ) D inn
186
¦d P
i
i ij Di = ¦d
i1
P D1i1 …
1 1
i1 i1 j1 ¦din
n
in Pinn jn D inn
= ¦ (DP)
i
ij Di
= ¦ (D P )
i1
1 1
i1 j1 D i1 … ¦ (D P n n
)in jn Din
= ¦ (DP) ¦ P
i
ij
K
1
KtDcK
= ¦ (DP) ¦ P
i1
i1 j1
K1
1
K1t1 (D1K1 )c …
¦ (DP) ¦ P
in
i n jn
Kn
1
Kn tn (D nK n )c
= ¦ (P
K1
1
1
D1P1 ) K1 j1 (D1K1 )c …
¦ (P
Kn
1
n D n Pn1 ) K n jn (D nK n )c .
187
from V × V into F = F1 … Fn i.e., (V1 × V1) … (Vn ×
Vn) into F1 … Fn i.e., f: V × V o F is f1 … fn : (V1 ×
V1) … (Vn × Vn) o F1 … Fn with ft: Vt × Vt o Ft for t
= 1, 2, …, n which is a n-linear function of either of its
arguments when the other is fixed. The n-zero function or zero
n-function from V × V into F is clearly a bilinear n-form. It is
also true that any bilinear combination of bilinear n-forms on V
is again a bilinear n-form.
Thus all bilinear n-forms on V is a n-subspace of all n-
functions from V × V into F. We shall denote the space of
bilinear n-forms on V by Ln (V, V, F) = L(V1, V1, F1) …
L(Vn, Vn, Fn).
188
i.e., (c1f1 + g1) (D1i1 , D1j1 ) … (cnfn + gn) (Dinn , D njn )
= [c1f1 (D1i1 , D1j1 ) + g1 (D1i1 , D1j1 ) ] …
[cnfn (Dinn , D njn ) + gn (Dinn , D njn ) ].
189
DEFINITION 2.10: If f = f1 … fn is a bilinear n-form on the
finite dimensional n-vectors space V and n-rank of f is the n-
tuple of integers (r1, …, rn); (r1, …, rn) = n-rank Lf = (rank L1f1 ,
…, rank Lnfn ) and n-rank Rf = (rank R1f1 , …, rank R nfn ).
190
If f = f1 … fn is a n-symmetric bilinear n-form the
quadratic n-form associated with f is the function q = q1 …
qn from V = V1 … Vn onto F = F1 … Fn defined by
q() = q1(1) … qn(n) = f(, ) = f1(1, 1) … fn(n,
n). If V is a real n-vector space an n-inner product on V is a n-
symmetric bilinear form f on V which satisfies f(, ) > 0 …
0 i.e., f1(1, 1) … fn(n, n) > (0 … 0) where each
i z 0 for i = 1, 2, …, t. A bilinear n-form in which fi(i, i) > 0
for each i = 1, 2, …, n is called n-positive definite.
So two n-vectors , in V are n-orthogonal with respect to
a n-inner product f = f1 f2 … fn if f(, ) = 0 … 0
i.e., f(, ) = f1(1, 1) … fn(n, n) = 0 … 0.
The quadratic n-form q() = f(, ) takes only non negative
values.
191
1ª 1 º
« q n ( D n E n ) q n (D n E n ) » .
4¬ 4 ¼
f = f1 … fn
= 0 … 0.
Thus there is n-vector = 1 … n in V such that f(, ) =
q() z 0 … 0 i.e.,
f1(1,1) … fn(n, n) = q1(1) … qn(n)
z 0 … 0.
Let W be the one-dimensional n-subspace of V which is
spanned by = 1 … n and let WA be the set of all n-
vectors = 1 … n in V such that
f(, ) = f1 (1, 1) … fn(n, n)
= 0 … 0.
Now we claim W WA = V i.e., W1 W1A ! Wn WnA =
V = V1 … Vn.
Certainly the n-subspaces W and WA are independent. A
typical n-vector in V is c where c is a n-scalar. If c is in WA
i.e.,
c = (c11 … cnn) WA = W1A ! WnA
then
f1(c11, c11) … fn(cnn, cnn)
= c12 f1(1, 1) … c 2n fn(n, n)
= 0 … 0.
192
f ( J, D)
f(, ) = f(, J) – f (D, D ) ;
f (D, D )
f ( J, D)
J DE
f (D , D )
The proof of the theorem is lengthy and left for the reader to
prove.
193
Now for complex vector spaces we in general find it
difficult to define n-vector spaces of type II as it happens to be
the algebraically closed field. Further when n happens to be
arbitrarily very large the problem of defining n-vector spaces of
type II is very difficult.
First we shall call the field F1c ! Fnc Fc to be a
special algebraically closed n-field of the n-field F = F1 …
Fn if and only if each Fic happens to be an algebraically closed
field of Fi for a specific and fixed characteristic polynomial pi of
Vi over Fi relative to a fixed transformation Ti of T, this is true
of every i.
194
Chapter Three
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
195
3. Let V = V1 V2 V3 V4 be a 4-vector space over the
4-field (Q 2 Q 7 Z11 Z2) of dimension (3,
4, 5, 6).
a. Is A3 diagonalizable?
b. Does A give rise to a 3-invertible 3-transformation?
c. Find 3-nullspace associated with A.
196
Find a 4-linear transformation T from V into W, which
will give way to a nontrivial 4-null subspace of V.
197
11. Given V = V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 is a 5-space of (5, 4,
2, 3, 7) dimension over the 5-field F = Q 3 Z2 Z5
Q 2 Z7. Find a 5-hypersubspace of V. Find V*?
Prove W is a 5-hypersubspace of V. What is Wo? Find a
5-basis for V and its dual 5-basis. Find a 5-basis for W.
What is its dual 5-basis?
198
17. Given A = A1 A2 A3 where A1 is a set of all 3 u 3
matrices with entries from Q 3 . A1 is the linear
algebra over Q 3 . A2 = {All polynomials in the
variable x with coefficient from Z7}; A2 is a linear algebra
over Z7 and A3 = {set of all 5 u 5 matrices with entries
from Z2}. A3 a linear algebra over Z2. Is A a 3-linear
algebra over the 3-field F = Q 3 uZ7 uZ2? Is A a 3-
commutative, 3-linear algebra over F? Does A contain the
3-identity?
199
25. Using the 5-field F = Z2 =7 =3 Z5 =11, construct
the 5-vector space = V = Z2 [x] Z7 [x] Z3 [x] Z5 [x]
Z11 [x]. Verify
(i) (cf + g)D = cf (x) + g (D)
(ii) (fg)D = f(D) g(D)
For C = C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
= 1 5 2 3 10;
f = (x + x + 1) (3x3 + 5x + 1) (2x4 + x +1) (4x +
2
200
= 1, 2, …, n. An ideal M = M1 … Mn is said to be n-
semi maximal if and only if there exists atleast m number
of ideals in M, m d n which are maximal and none of
them are minimal. Similarly we say M = M1 … Mn is
n-semi minimal if and only if M contains atleast some p-
ideals which are minimal, p d n and none of the ideals in
M are maximal.
201
36. Find the 4-characteristic polynomial and 4-minimal
polynomial for any 4-linear operator T = T1 T2 T3
T4 defined on the 4-vector space V = V1 V2 V3 V4
where V is a (3, 4, 2, 5) dimensional over the 4-field F =
Z5 Q Z7 Z2.
a. Find a T on V so that the 4-characteristic polynomial
is the same as 4-minmal polynomial.
b. Define a T on the V so that T is not a 4-
diagonializable operator on V.
c. For a T in which the 4-chracteristic polynomial is
different from 4-minimal polynomial find the 4-ideal
of polynomials over the 4-field F which 4-annihilate
T.
d. For every T can T be 4-diagonalizable. Justify your
claim.
37. Let
ª1 0 0 0 1º
ª4 0 1 1º «
ª0 1 0 º « 0 1 0 1 0 »»
0 1 1 3»» «
A = ««1 0 1 »» « «1 0 1 0 1»
«1 0 0 0» « »
«¬ 0 0 2 »¼ « » 0 0 1 1 0»
¬2 1 0 0¼ «
«¬1 1 0 0 1 »¼
ª0 1 0 2 3 5º
«7 0 0 1 0 0 »»
«
ª 1 0 º « 1 0 2 0 0 1»
«2 6» « 0 0 »
¬ ¼ « 1 1 0 0»
« 0 1 0 0 1 0»
« »
¬« 1 0 0 1 1 1 ¼»
202
characteristic space of all D such that TD = cD, T related
to A.
203
a. If A = (A1 A2 A3 A4), choose fixed 4-matrix
4-diagonalizable; then T is 4-diagonalizable. Is this
statement true or false?
b. If A is 4-diagonalizable then U is 4-diagonalizable.
Is this statement true or false?
204
x c ! x c ! x c ! x c
1
d1k1 n
d nk n
1 d1 1 n d1 n
1 k1 1 kn
205
52. Let A = A1 … An be a n-matrix which is n-diagonal
over the n-field F = F1 … Fn of (n1 u n1, …, nn unn)
order i.e., if Ak = A ijk ; A ijk = 0 if i z j for k = 1, 2, …, n.
Let f = f1 … fn be the n-polynomial over the n-field F
defined by F =
x A111 ! x A1n1n1 x A112 ! x A n22n2 !
x A ! x A
n
11
n
nn nn .
What is the n-matrix of f (A) = f1 (A1) fn (An)?
x n
1 ! x nn n 0.
a. Prove W = W W ... Wno consists of all n-
o
1
o o
2
206
n1 nn
f1 x11 ! x1n1 ! f n x1n ...x nn n ci ¦ x1j ! c n ¦ x nj .
j 1 j 1
^ `
where N11 ! N1r1 ! N1n ! N rnn ^ ` is the n-set of n-null
space of the n-linear functionals
^
f = f1 … fn = f11 ! f r11 ! f1n ! f rnn ` ^ `
and
^g !g ` ! ^g
1
1
1
r1
n
1 ! g nrn `
is the n-linear combination of the n-linear functions f = f1
… fn.
207
cf(x) = c1f1(x) … cnfn(x)where c = c1 … cn F
= F1 … Fn . Let W = W1 … Wn be any (n1, …,
nn) dimensional space of V(S; F) = V1(S1; F1) …
Vn(Sn, Fn).
Prove that there exists (n1, …, nn) points
x11 ! x1n1 x12 ! x n2 2 ! x1n ! x nn n
in S = S1 … Sn and (n1, …, nn) functions
f11 ! f n11 f12 ! f n22 ! f1n ! f nnn
in W such that f x
i
t t
j Gijt ; i = 1, 2, …, n.
208
62. Let V = V1 … Vn be a n-vector space over the n-field
F = F1 … Fn. Show that for a n-linear transformation
T = T1 … Tn on T oTt is an n-isomorphism of
Ln(V, V) onto Ln (V*, V*);
i.e., T = T1 … Tn oTt = T1t ... Tnt is an n-
isomorphism of Ln(V, V) = L(V1, V1) … L(Vn, Vn)
onto Ln(V*, V*) = L V1* , V1* ! L Vn* , Vn* .
209
L1(f1) L1(g1) … Ln(fn) Ln(gn).
Prove that if L = L1 … Ln is any n-linear functional
on F[x] = F1[x] … Fn[x] such that L(fg) = L(f)L(g)
for all f, g then L = 0 … (0) or there is a t = t1 …
tn such that L(f) = f(t) for all f. i.e., L1(f1) … Ln(fn)
= f1(t) … fn(t).
k1 0 k1 kn 0 k n
210
69. Let V = V1 … Vn be a (n1, n2, …, nn) dimensional n-
vector space. Let W1 = W11 ! Wn1 be any n-
subspace of V. Prove that there exists a n-subspace W2 =
W21 ! W2n of V such that V = W1 W2 i.e.,
V = W1 W2
= W W W12 W22 ! W1n W2n .
1
1
1
2
211
74. Obtain some interesting properties about n-vector spaces
of type II which are not true in case of n-vector spaces of
type I.
212
r
Wjt is the null space of p tj (Tt ) j , j = 1, 2, …, kt. and t = 1,
2, …, n. Let Wr = W1r ! Wnr be any n-subspace of V
which is n-invariant under T. Prove that
Wr = W1r W1 W2r W2 ... Wnr Wn .
213
special 5-subfield F = F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 of the
complex field (such that Fi zFj if i zj, 1 d i, j d 5.
a. V is of (7, 3, 4, 5, 6) dimension over F = F1 …
F5 .
b. Prove P2 = P is a 5-projection.
c. Find 5-rank P and 5-nullily P. Is 5 rank P = (21, 3, 6,
10, 15) and 5-nullity P = (28, 6, 10, 15, 21).
214
92. Prove that every positive n-matrix is the square of a
positive n-matrix.
215
tr(AnBn*) where A = A1 $n and B = B1 %n
are (n1 u n1, …, nn unn) n-matrix.
216
For D = D1 … Dn and E E1 … En in V.
i.e., ||DE||2 + ||D – E||2 … ||DnEn||2 + ||Dn – En||2
= 2||D1||2 + 2||E||2 … 2||Dn||2 + 2||En||2.
109.
a. Let T = T1 … Tn be a n-linear operator on the n
space V of n-dim (n1, …, nn) . Let R = R1 … Rn
be the n-range of T. Prove that R has a n-
217
complementary T-n-invariant n-subspace if and only
if R is n-independent of the n-null space N = N1 …
Nn of T.
b. Prove if R and N are n-independent N is the unique T-
n-variant n-subspace complementary to R.
that fV = f V ! f V ! f V ! f V .
1
1
1 1
1
k1 n 1
n
n
n
kn
218
… Tn be a n-linear operator on V. When is every non
zero n-vector in V a n-cyclic vector for T? Prove that this
is the case if and only if the n-characteristic n-polynomial
for T is n-irreducible over F.
219
118. Let A = A1 … An be a (m1 u n1, …, mn unn) n-
matrix over the n-field F = F1 … Fn and consider the
n-system of n-equation AX = Y i.e., A1X1 … AnXn =
Y1 … Yn. Prove that this n-system of equations has a
n-solution if and only if the row n-rank of A is equal to
the row n-rank of the augmented n-matrix of the n-
system.
S= S1 … Sn is an associated n-set.
220
FURTHER READING
221
11. GREUB, W.H., Linear Algebra, Fourth Edition, Springer-
Verlag, 1974.
23. JOHNSON, T., New spectral theorem for vector spaces over
finite fields Zp , M.Sc. Dissertation, March 2003 (Guided by
Dr. W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy).
222
25. KOSTRIKIN, A.I, and MANIN, Y. I., Linear Algebra and
Geometry, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1989.
223
38. VASANTHA KANDASAMY and RAJKUMAR, R. Use of best
approximations in algebraic bicoding theory, Varahmihir
Journal of Mathematical Sciences, 6, 509-516, 2006.
224
INDEX
225
M
m-subfield, 9-10
226
n-linear algebra with identity of type II, 66-7
n-linear functional on a n-vector space of type II, 48, 57
n-linear n-combination of n-vectors, 14-5
n-linear operator on a n-vector space of type II, 35-6
n-linear transformation of type II n-vector spaces, 24
n-linearly dependent n-subset in n-vector space of type II, 11-2
n-linearly dependent, 11-2
n-linearly independent n-subset of type II n-vector space, 11-2
n-mapping, 168
n-monic n-polynomial, 68
n-normality, 183
n-nullity of T, 28
non degenerate, 190
n-ordered pair, 161-2
n-orthogonal projection of a n-subspace, 167-8
n-orthogonal, 163, 178, 190-1
n-orthonormal, 163-4
n-positive definite, 190-1
n-range of T, 28
n-rank of T, 28
n-rational form, 136-7
n-reducible n-polynomial over a n-field, 86
n-root or n-zero of a n-polynomial, 68
n-semiprime field, 9-10
n-similar, 47-8
n-spectrum, 182
n-standard inner product, 161-2
n-subfield, 9
n-subspace spanned by n-subspace, 15
n-symmetric bilinear n-form, 190-1
n-T-admissible, 137-8, 152
n-T-annihilator of a n-vector, 131, 152
n-vector space of type I, 7
n-vector space of type II, 7-10
Prime n-field, 9
Principal n-ideal generated by a n-polynomial, 83
227
Q
228
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
229
n-Linear Algebra of Type II - Cover:Layout 1 1/12/2009 3:16 PM Page 1