Review: Muslim Caste: Theory and Practice

Reviewed Work(s): Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims by Imtiaz Ahmad
Review by: A. R. Momin
Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 10, No. 14 (Apr. 5, 1975), pp. 580-582
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4537008
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 REVIE-W
.
MuBlim Caste: Theory and Practice
A R Momin
Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims, edited by
94hmad; IWanohar Book Service, Delhi, 1973; pp 256; Rs 35.
IT is one of the most tragic paradoxes
of Islam that many of its cardinal
tenets were thrown overboard by its
own followers. Islam arose as a re-
volutionary ideology based on the twin
premises of tlle unity of God and the
brotherhood of mankind. It had a
universalistic character since its mes-
sage was addressecl to the entire hu-
man race. It recognised no distinctions
based on birth, caste and class. It was
this broad humanistic outlook of lslam, this gap to some extent. Edited by
its tolerance and egalitarianism . which
attracted millions of people to its fold.
However, as Islam spread to various
,.. . . . . .
parts of the world, it took over many
elements and features of local environ-
ments. This fact is clearly evidenced
in the Indian subcontinent. As I have
poinsed cout e?lsewhere (1979, Islam,
as known and practisecl by Indian
Muslims, is not a replica of Islamic
society envisioned and g;iven concrete
shape by Muhammad; it is conditiqned
to a great extent lJy hlstorical and
soc.o-cultural forces operating in the
Indian eniranment. In other words,
Indian Muslim society is the product
of a prolongecl interaction between the
fIslamic Great tradition and the Indo-
Islamic Little tradition which is largely the issues raised in the volume, notes
based on folk, unwrittell customs,
corventions and hahits handed dosvn
from gen-erations. The dailv life and
behaviour of arx average Jnelian Muslim AtIlslims. There is some belief in purity
is governecl more by t he Indo-lslamic
Little tradition than bv the Islamic
Creat tradition. This fact could- be
borne out by the existence of caste-
like groups among lndlan S{uslims as
weIl as manv social and cultural
featttreS which are not indigenous to
th- J^cIamic Great trad!itionn as XAziz
Ahmad (19681) has ably demonstrated.
Jn laree measure this is due to the
fact that an o+?erwhelminaY majority: of
Ind an l\8ilslinls are (lscendants of early
eenverts from Han(lllism and so most of
thom hxve retainefl many Icultural fea-
tuves of their earlier faith. - \
;: £anee is an all-pervasive pheno-
menon gin Tndian noeietv and is a-living
-reu"5 ;tor *m7.1tiony os Ind an-ss ^Caste
has bF- Stlld}e(l by- soci)lo-gixts atid
\
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that it is due to the acoculturative
influence of Hinduism. The sentence,
however, contains a serious mistake
(or misprint?). It says that caste among
Indian Muslims is due to the accultu-
Imtiaz
rative influence of Islam. .
Ahmad's overalI conclusion is that
caste among Indian Muslims is directly
social anthropologlsts to an extent which
due to Hindu influences, but it has
borders on obsession. .Surprisingly
been reinforced by the justification
enough, not much attention has been
offered for the idea of birth and descent
given to the questioin of the existence
as criteria of status in Islamic law.
of caste-like groups among the ethnic
This contradicts llis earlier statement to
and religious minorities of the country
the effect that the acceptance of the
like Muslims, Christians and Parsis.
caste principle by Indian Mllslims does
\N'batever information we \ have on the
not enjoy any sanction or justification
existence of caste among non-Hindu
in the IsIamic Great tradition. AhInad
groups is largely fragmentary and dis-
also remarks that Islamisation (the pro-
jonted. The volume under review fills
cess whereby Muslims supposeelly purify
themseIves by shedding un-lsIam.e
Imtiaz Ahlz3ad, with an informative
customs and practices) serves to rein-
introduction, the hook consists of ten
force rather than weaken or eliminate
papers contributed by sociologists and
caste distinctions. Unfortunately, he
social anthropologists on the nature and
does not cite any evidence to substan-
functioning of WIuslim caste in India.
tiate his assertion, which makes it highly
For most of the contributors to the
questionable. I tend to thnk, as
volalme, the reference model is the
Yogendra Singh (1973) has noted, that
Hindu caste system and so they have
the process of Islamisation is essentially
tried to examine the similarities and
directed against the principle of hierar-
differences between the Hindu model
chy and that it tends to Iead to in-
and the pattern of stratification among
creased egalitarianism. X
Indian Muslims. All of them, except
one, are agreed that the system of While concedsng thaf the Islamic
stratification among Irldian Muslims is ideology upheld the principle of
comparable to the Hindu caste system, egalitarianism, Ahmad makes the asto-
but there is no exaict parallel between nishing remark that "the proclaimed
the . two. egalitarianism of Islam remained largely
an ideal". This statement flies in the
Imtiaz Ahmad, in his overview of
face of historical facts. The principle
of egalitarianism, which is one of the
that certain basic features of caste like
cornerstones of Islam, was practised in
endogamy, occupational specialisation
its truest spirit by Muhammad and his
and hierarchy exist among Indian
immediate successors. In his last
Sermon on the Mount, Muhammad
and pollution but it is quite weak and
deelared in unequivocal terms, "All of
is determined by regional factors. He
you have come from Adam, and Adam
also notes that unlike the Hindu caste
was made of dust. No Arab is superinr
system, the pattern of stratification
to a non-Arab, nor is a white superior
among Muslims does not enjoy any
to a non-wllite, save through piety"
ideological sanction or justifi-cation. That
(HamidulIah, 19635. It is true that
is because the egaIitarian ideology of
later developments in tslamic history
Islam is at odds with the notion of a
le(l to the decIine of the principle of
pre-ordained hierarchy which is the
egaIitarianism, but that should not be
backlione of caste.
misconstrued as an offshoot of Islam.
Ahmad concludes by saying that thereRegrettably, Ahmad confuses Islamic
exists a system of caste among Muslims ideolo¢y with Islamic history which are
but it differs from the Hindu mode] tso clifferent things.
in certain important respectso This Even as late as the l3th centllry,
conclusion raises the question whether the Islamic princlple of egalitarianism 4
this system: is due tz} the influence of was carried to its logical conclusion by
Hirrdursm or there is something in Muslisn saints and mystics. It was
Tslam itself which tacitly encourages the br(}ad humanism of Islam, its
the idea of-caste. Ahmad's answer is universal message of equality and
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 ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY April 5, 1975
fraternity, as proclaimed and practised
by Muslim Sufis, which led to the con-
version of millions of people to the
fold of Islam. As K A Nizami (1961)
has observed, "The unassuming ways of
the mystics, their broad human sym-
pathies and the classless atmosphere of
their khanqahs attracted the despised
sections of Indian society to its fold."
It is sad to note that Ahmad's intro-
duction throughout betrays an ambiva-
lent and sometimes confusing explanation
of the phenomenon of Muslim caste
in India. I think the problem can be
discussed more clearly and with greater
understanding if we employ the inter-
actional framework comprising the
Islamic Great tradition and the Indo-
Islamic Little tradition. I tend to agree
with Louis Dumont (1972) that the
existence of caste among Indian Mus-
lims is conditioned primarily by proxi-
mity to the Hindu environment which
predominates both generally and re-
gionally.
Let us now turn to the contributors
and see what they have to say about
Muslim caste in their respective regions
of study. As Abmad indicates in the
Preface, the contributions fall into two
categories. Some of the papers deal
exclusively with Muslim castes, without
taking into account their interaction
with the surrounding Hindu castes and
groups. Others take into consideration
the interaction of Muslim castes with
the neighbouring castes.
J C Masselos has investigated the
formal membership criteria among the
Khojas of Bombay during the 19th
Tamil Muslims are of approximately the
,century. Masselos notes that the Khojas
were characterised by a good deal of
social mobility. In the midst of this
mobility, their customs and beliefs
were preserved by a major institution,
the jamat and the jamatkhana. This
institufion provided the backbone of
the caste and the identity of the Khojas
revolved round it. In the course of
time, differentiation and division started
growing and the caste lost its old
encompassing identity. Masselos' paper
is in the nature of a historical survey
and therefore has a limited scope. The
study needs to be carried further to
take note of changes during the present
century and their impact on the com-
munity.
P C Aggarwal's paper deals with
the Meos of Rajasthan and Haryana.
The Meos are ranked in relationship
with other Hindu and Muslim castes.
Memborship in the Meo caste is defin-
ed by birth. The Meos are economi-
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cally and politically dominant in
Mewat. Aggarwal shows that the Meos
constitute a caste, but there is no exact
parallel between them and the sur-
rounding Hindu castes.
Victor D'Souza investigates the
nature of status groups among the
Moplah Muslims of Kerala. D'Souza
notes that the various Moplah groups
are hierarchically ranked. He lists
four major criteria of ranking: hyper-
gamy, the amount of dower payable
by the husband to his wife in the event
of a divorce, use of special articles of
distinction, and segregation in social
intercourse. He notes that in matters
of social intercourse and even in offer-
ing prayers, certain distinctions are
observed.. The qadis (priests) and
burial grounds for the various Moplab
groups are different. A somewhat
parallel pattern is found among the
Kokni Muslims of Bhiwandi in Maha-
rashtra (Momin, 1975).
D'Souza 'also notes that among the
Moplahs endogamy is the rule. Social
differences are based on considerations
like wealth, occupation, family connec-
tions, etc.
Mattison Mines describes the pattern
of stratification among the Muslims of
Tamil Nadu. Mines extends the scope
of his study by considering the question
of the Tamil Muslims' integration into
the surrounding Hindu society.
Mines notes that the Tamil Muslims
have sub-divisions with differentiating
features. But, he adds, they are not
considered hierarchically ranked castes.
All the four divisions found among
same status. There is no economic
interdependence defining the relation-
ship among them. Mines notes that
most marriages are between persons of
the same sub-division. The concern
in such selections, he says, is not for
maintaining purity of blood, but for
matching spouses who share the same
economic, cultural and religious back-
grounds.
Mlines alsQ notes that the organisa-
tion of Tamil Muslim society differs
from that of Tamil Hindus in two ways.
First, the identity of a Hindu caste
rests on blood which is not the case
with Muslims. Secondly, Hindui castes
are ranked in terms of interaction
'whereas among the Tamil Muslims
there are no caste distinctions.
P C Aggarwal discusses caste
hierarchy in a Meo village. His paper
contains an elaboration of the points
discussed in his- earlier paper.
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Zarina Bhatty's paper is concerned
with status and power in a Muslim-
dominated village of Uttar Pradesh.
She maintains that the caste system of
the village rests on its power structure.
The focus of her study is on the Mus-
lim dominant caste in the village. She
discusses the relations between caste
status and power in a socio-economic
situation brought about by the aboli-
tion of the zamindari system and the
changes which followed thereafter.
R K Bhattacharya, in his study of
caste among the Muslims of rural West
Bengal, observes that in spite of claims
to adhere to the egalitarian ideology
of Islam, there exists a rigid system
of stratification among West Bengal
Muslims which serves the purpose of
promoting their communal solidarity.
Bhatta,charya notes that in West:Bengal,
stratification among the local Muslims
is not highly ramified. The high castes
emphasise cleanliness and hygiene and
on that account do not interdine with
the low castes. They also have the
notion of purity and pollution. They
are characterised by endogamy 'and
occupational specialisation. Bhatta-
charya also makes the significant point
that the hierarchy among Muslims is a
situational one, while the Hindu social
hierarchy is basically a traditional one.
M K A Siddiqui, in his study of the
Muslimns of Calcutta, observes that the
composition of Muslim society is mainly
based on a number of ethnic sub-
groups. The membership of these
groups is determined by birth. They
are closed groups in the form of a
jati. Certain restrictions on interdining
are observed. He also notes that
certain basic elements of a system of
ranking similar to the caste system are
present.
Surprisingly, Siddiqui's paper con-
tains an obvious contradiction. He
begins his; paper by declaring that
"the concept of caste is basically
opposed, to Islamic ideology" and con-
cluides thbts, "This [caste-like] svstem
is roughly in harmony with the Islamic
Great tradition." I am at a loss to
understand the roots of this contradic-
tion.
Imtiaz Ahmad's paper deals wiih
endogamy and statuis mobility among
the Siddi(quic Shalikhs of Allahabad,
Uttar IPradesh. The stuidy was moti-
vated by the hypothesis that endogamy
and hypergamy can also 'serve as
mechanisms for social mobility for adi
uipwardly mobile grouip. Ahmad notes
that the Siddique Shaikhs used endo-
58L
 ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY April 5, 1975

gny for reinforcing book is misspelt as Kitabul Munaqib.

group Indian environment
identity and which is the
and
so were able toIt is raise their
Kitabul Manaqib. social
(That, inci- product of stand-
an interaction between
ing in the hierarchy dentally, makes meof Muslim
wonder whether Islam groups.
and Hinduism. This fact can
The Siddique Shaikh.s claim to be Arabic text.) help us in understanding certain knotty
the descendants of Abu Bakr Siddique,the editor has referred to the original and delicate issues like national inte-
the first Caliph of Islam, but actually The same is the case with proof gration. Mattison Mines' observation
they are converts from the Kayastko reading. There are quite a few mis- about Tamil Muslims that they identify
caste. They succeeded in forming a prints which are left uncorrected. themselves both with the greater Mus-
new status identity. This was made There is no uniformity with regard to lim population of the country and with
possible by two processes: abandon- -spelling. Newly converted Muslims the Hindu Tamilian society is particu-
niet of traditional customs and ritualsare described as neo-Muslims in one larly instructive in this connection.
and establishment of marital links withplace and new Muslims in another. The volume, though tentative and
the families of supposedly Sh ikh origin
The glossary attached at the end of exploratory in nature, adds considerably
and descent. the book is quite useful and instructive. to our knowledge of Indian Muslim
Discussing the Siddique Shaikhs' But here also inaccuracies have crept society. We need more such studies.
attempt to establish marital links with
in. No uniformity of spelling even
fanlilies of Shbaikh origin, Abmad makes
with regard to proper nouns in main- References
the generalisation that giving of a girl
tained (eg, Quraishite: a descendant
Ahmad, Aziz, "Studies in Islamic
in marriage is considered a sign of of the Koraish tribe). The word Culture in the Indian Environment"
low status among Indian Muslims and Ithna-ashari is wrongly printed as (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964).
the group giving its girls in marriage Itnasheri. Chisht has been misprinted Dumont, Louis, "Homo Hierarchicus:
is regarded as lower to the group as Chist. Moreover, certain explana- The Caste System and Its Impli-
cations" (London: Paladin, 1972).
which receives them. This phenomenon tions in the glossary are quite inade-
Ghurye, C S, "Social Tensions in
has various regional and local shades quate. The explanation of Ahle Hadith, India" (Bombay: Popular Praka-
and so I do not think Ahmad's genera- for instance, is clearly insufficient. shan, 1967).
lisatiop is valid for Indian Muslim These defects and shortcomings not- Hamidullab, M "Rassole Akram ki
Siyasi Zindagi" (Deoband : Saleem
society as a whole. withstanding, the volume deserves and Co, 1963).
appreciation from all those who are Momin, A R, "The Muslim Intellec-
Ahmad lists, in order of precedence,
interested not only in the varied tual's Role in India", a note pre-
the three Muslim Caliphs, Abu Bakr sented to the fifth all-India Muslim
Siddique, Usman and Umar. It was diniensiqns of caste but also in under-
Educational Conference held in
Umar who succeeded the first Caliph standing the mind of an important Kerala, forthcoming in Times of
and not Usman. minority group. of the country. As India.
Momin, A R, "Muslim Caste in an
Leela Dube discusses the pattern of I see it, the volume is valuable in Industrial Township of Maha-
three ways.
caste among the Laccadive Muslims. rashtra" (forthcoming paper).
She notes that the two groups of Lac- First, it enhances our understanding Nizami, K A, "Some Aspects of Reli-
of Muslim society in India which is gion and Politics in the 13th
cadive Muslims are hierarchically
Century" (Delhi: Idara-e-Isha'ate
ranked. They ate also characterised. ymistakenly assumed to be a monolithic Adabiyat, 1961).
endogamy and interdependence. and homogeneous society. There are
Singh, Yogendra, "Modernisation of
Dube's. assertion that Islam also a number of regional, economic and Indian Tradition" (Delhi: Thom-
son Press, 1973).
emphasises ancestry is not true. The cultural variations along the lines of
Quran explicitly denies ancestoral what I have called the Indo-Islamic
privileges. Little tradition. So no blanket general-
Now we shall say a few words aboutisations about Indian Muslims as a Books Received
editing. Regrettably, not sufficientwhole can be ventured without taldng
Amin, Samir: "Accumulation on a
care has been taken about editing andinto consideration these variations and
differences. World Scale: A Critique of the
proof reading. Here are a few instances Theory of Underdevelopment",
of editorial negligence. Zillur Khan's Second, and this is related to the Vols I and II; Monthly Review
paper "Caskte and Muslin first, the study takes note of, thoughPress, 1974; pp 666, $ 24.50.
peasautres
not in sufficient measure, two important
of India and Pakistan" is cited as forth- Bhutani, Surendra: "Israeli-Soviet Cold
War", Atul Prakashan, Delhi,
coming in Current Anthropology in cultural processes, in Indian Muslim
1975; pp 216, Rs 56.
one place and in another the same is society, Islamisation and Ashrafisation.
Breman, Jan: "Patronage and Exploita-
cited as published in Man in. India The varied dimensions of these pro-
tion: Changing Agrarian Relations
Probably the paper was rejected. by, cesses need to be explored fuirther, in in South Gujarat"; University of
Current Anthropology and later pub- the context of our. changing situation. California Press, 1974; pp 287,
$ 15.
lished in Man in India. In the intro- Third, the observations and conclu-
duction, K A Nizami is cited but Chatterjee, Partha: "Arms, Alliances
sioms of the- contributors in the volume
and Stability"; Macmillan Company
neither the bibliography nor the indexexpe the, biASed view of sociologists
of India, 1975; pp 292, Rs 60.
contain the name of his book, In the like Ghurye (1967) who claim that Ghosh, Sankar: "The Naxalite Move-
bibliography following the editor's there has been no commingling betweenment: A Maoist Experiment";
introduction, Bukhari's name is cited asHindu and Malim cultu,es. As I have Firma K L Mukhopadhyay, Cal-
Bukhari, Sahih. Sabih is the name ofemphasised earlier, the behaviour of cutta, 1974; pp 183, Rs 15.
Bukhari's famous compilation of Hadith, Indisa Muslms is oonditioned to a Gupta, Anupam: "A Study of Personal
and not his first name. which was airew etnt by the IndoIslamic little Taxation in India"; Progressive
Publishers, Calcutta, 1975; pp 190,
Jsmail, In the same place, Bulkhari'strafl;inn which is indligenouls to tXlw Rs 25.

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