Module 1A

Engr. Jefrey Jay S. Claus

1. Understand complex number
2. Familiarize with the basic complex number operations.
 The mathematics used in
Electrical Engineering to add
together resistances, currents or
DC voltages use what are called
“real numbers” used as either
integers or as fractions.
 In electrical engineering this type of number is called an
“imaginary number” and to distinguish an imaginary number from
a real number the letter “ j ” known commonly in electrical
engineering as the j-operator, is used. Thus the letter “j” is placed
in front of a real number to signify its imaginary number
operation.
• Examples of imaginary numbers are: j3, j12, j100 etc. Then
a complex number consists of two distinct but very much
related parts, a “ Real Number ” plus an “ Imaginary Number ”.
 Complex Numbers represent points in a two dimensional
complex or s-plane that are referenced to two distinct axes. The
horizontal axis is called the “real axis” while the vertical axis is
called the “imaginary axis”. The real and imaginary parts of a
complex number are abbreviated as Re(z) and Im(z), respectively.
Complex numbers that are made up of real (the active
component) and imaginary (the reactive component) numbers can
be added, subtracted and used in exactly the same way as
elementary algebra is used to analyse DC Circuits.
 The rules and laws used in mathematics for the addition or
subtraction of imaginary numbers are the same as for real
numbers, j2 + j4 = j6 etc. The only difference is in multiplication
because two imaginary numbers multiplied together becomes a
negative real number. Real numbers can also be thought of as a
complex number but with a zero imaginary part labelled j0.
 The j-operator has a value exactly equal to √-1, so
successive multiplication of “ j “, ( j x j ) will result in j having the
following values of, -1, -j and +1. As the j-operator is commonly
used to indicate the anticlockwise rotation of a vector, each
successive multiplication or power of “ j “, j2, j3 etc, will force the
vector to rotate through a fixed angle of 90o in an anticlockwise
direction as shown below. Likewise, if the multiplication of the
vector results in a -j operator then the phase shift will be -90o,
i.e. a clockwise rotation.
 So by multiplying an imaginary
number by j2 will rotate the vector
by 180o anticlockwise, multiplying
by j3 rotates it 270o and by j4 rotates
it 360o or back to its original position.
Multiplication by j10 or by j30 will cause
the vector to rotate anticlockwise by the
appropriate amount. In each successive
rotation, the magnitude of the vector
always remains the same.
We saw that a complex number is represented by a real part and
an imaginary part that takes the generalized form of:

• Where:
• Z - is the Complex Number representing the Vector
• x - is the Real part or the Active component
• y - is the Imaginary part or the Reactive component
• j - is defined by √-1
 The addition or subtraction
of complex numbers can be done
either mathematically or
graphically in rectangular form. For
addition, the real parts are firstly
added together to form the real
part of the sum, and then the
imaginary parts to form the
imaginary part of the sum and this
process is as follows using two
complex numbers A and B as
examples.
 The multiplication of
complex numbers in the rectangular
form follows more or less the same
rules as for normal algebra along
with some additional rules for the
successive multiplication of the j-
operator where: j2 = -1. So for
example, multiplying together our
two vectors from right
of A = 4 + j1 and B = 2 + j3 will
give us the following result.
 The Complex Conjugate, or simply Conjugate of a complex
number is found by reversing the algebraic sign of the complex numbers
imaginary number only while keeping the algebraic sign of the real
number the same and to identify the complex conjugate of z the
symbol z is used. For example, the conjugate of z = 6 + j4 is z = 6 – j4,
likewise the conjugate of z = 6 – j4 is z = 6 + j4.
The points on the Argand diagram for a complex conjugate have
the same horizontal position on the real axis as the original complex
number, but opposite vertical positions. Thus, complex conjugates can be
thought of as a reflection of a complex number. The following example
shows a complex number, 6 + j4 and its conjugate in the complex plane.
 The sum of a complex number
and its complex conjugate will always
be a real number as we have seen
above. Then the addition of a
complex number and its conjugate
gives the result as a real number or
active component only, while their
subtraction gives an imaginary
number or reactive component only.
The conjugate of a complex number is
an important element used in
Electrical Engineering to determine
the apparent power of an AC circuit
using rectangular form
 Mathematically, the division
of complex numbers in rectangular
form is a little more difficult to
perform as it requires the use of the
denominators conjugate function to
convert the denominator of the
equation into a real number. This is
called “rationalising”. Then the
division of complex numbers is best
carried out using “Polar Form”,
which we will look at later.
However, as an example in
rectangular form lets find the value
of vector A divided by vector B.
 In the rectangular form we
can express a vector in terms of its
rectangular coordinates, with the
horizontal axis being its real axis
and the vertical axis being its
imaginary axis or j-component. In
polar form these real and imaginary
axes are simply represented by
“A ∠θ“. Then using our example
above, the relationship between
rectangular form and polar form can
be defined as.
 Rectangular form is best for adding and subtracting
complex numbers as we saw above, but polar form is often better
for multiplying and dividing. To multiply together two vectors in
polar form, we must first multiply together the two modulus or
magnitudes and then add together their angles.
Multiplying together 6 ∠30o and 8 ∠– 45o in polar form gives us.
 Likewise, to divide together two vectors in polar form, we must
divide the two modulus and then subtract their angles as shown.

Fortunately today’s modern scientific calculators have built in

mathematical functions (check your book) that allows for the easy
conversion of rectangular to polar form, ( R → P ) and back from polar
to rectangular form, ( R → P ).
Module 1B
Engr. Jefrey Jay S. Claus
1. Appreciate why a.c. is used in preference to d.c.
2. Distinguish between unidirectional and alternating waveforms
3. Define cycle, period or periodic time T and frequency f of a
waveform
4. Perform calculations involving T = 1 / f
5. Define instantaneous, peak, mean and r.m.s. values, and form
and peak factors for a sine wave
 This part will be about the analysis of circuits in which the
source voltage or current is time-varying or sinusoidally time-
varying excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid. A sinusoid is
a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating
current (ac). This current reverses at regular time intervals and has
alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by
sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called ac circuits.
 A magnetic field near a wire causes electrons to flow in a single
direction along the wire, because they are repelled by the negative
side of a magnet and attracted toward the positive side. This is how DC
power from a battery was born, primarily attributed to Thomas Edison’s
work.
In late 1800s, the battle of direct current versus alternating
current began. Both had their own advantages. However, ac generators
gradually replaced Edison’s dc battery system because ac is more
efficient and economical to transmit over long distances. In ac, instead
of applying the magnetism along the wire steadily, scientist Nikola Tesla
used a rotating magnet. When the magnet was oriented in one
direction, the electrons flowed towards the positive, but when the
magnet’s orientation was flipped, the electrons turned as well.
 DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT
Electrons move steadily in one direction or Electrons keep switching directions - forward
Flow of Electrons
'forward' and backward
Cause of the direction of flow of
electrons
Steady magnetism along the wire Rotating magnet along the wire

Current It is the current of constant magnitude It is the current of magnitude varying with time

Amount of energy that can be Voltage of DC cannot travel very far until Safe to transfer over longer city distances and
carried it begins to lose energy can provide more power
The frequency of alternating current is 50Hz or
Frequency The frequency of direct current is zero
60Hz depending upon the country
Obtained from Cell or Battery AC generator and mains
Passive parameters Resistance only Impedance
Power factor it is always 1 Lies between 0 and 1
• Almost 90% of electric energy is generated by AC Machines.
• A great portion of AC Energy is converted to DIRECT CURRENT
for us in many types of Industry Electromechanical Industry
Production of Aluminum Manufacture of Fertilizers,
• Accomplished economically in large power plant that may be
located where fuel and water are abundant.
• Transmission over network of high-voltage lines to distant loads
centres is entirely practicable
• Widely used in Industrial Application
• Industrial motors
• Transformer equipment
• Control devices
 Alternating current is the current
which constantly changes in amplitude,
and which reverses direction at regular
intervals. Direct current flows only in one
direction, and that the amplitude of
current is determined by the number of
electrons flowing past a point in a circuit
in one second.
 For example, a coulomb of electrons moves past a point in
a wire in one second and all of the electrons are moving in the
same direction, the amplitude of direct current in the wire is one
ampere. Similarly, if half a coulomb of electrons moves in one
direction past a point in the wire in half a second, then reverses
direction and moves past the same point in the opposite direction
during the next half-second, a total of one coulomb of electrons
passes the point in one second. The amplitude of the alternating
current is one ampere.
 A D.C. power source, such as a battery, outputs a constant
voltage over time. Of course, once the chemicals in the battery
have completed their reaction, the battery will be exhausted and
cannot develop any output voltage. But until that happens, the
output voltage to the right will remain essentially constant. The
same is true for any other source of D.C. electricity: the output
voltage remains constant over time.
 By contrast, an A.C. source of electrical power changes
constantly in amplitude and regularly here. Because the changes
are so regular, alternating voltage and current have a number of
properties associated with any such waveform. These basic
properties include the following list:
• Frequency
One of the most important properties of any regular
waveform identifies the number of complete cycles it goes through
in a fixed period of time. For standard measurements, the period
of time is one second, so the frequency of the wave is commonly
measured in cycles per second (cycles/ sec) and, in normal usage,
is expressed in units of Hertz (Hz). It is represented in
mathematical equations by the letter ‘f ’.
• Period
Sometimes we need to know the amount of time required
to complete one cycle of the waveform, rather than the number of
cycles per second of time. This is logically the reciprocal of
frequency. Thus, period is the time duration of one cycle of the
waveform, and is measured in seconds/ cycle.
• Period
𝟏 𝑷𝑵
𝒇= =
𝑻 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝝅
𝑻=
𝝎
Where:
f = frequency in Hz or cycle per second
T = period of sinusoid
P = no. of poles
N = revolution in rpm
• Wavelength
It is the length of one complete wave or cycle. The Greek
letter (lambda) is used to represent wavelength in mathematical
expressions. And, λ = c/f. As mathematical expressions. And, λ =
c/f. As shown in the figure to the above, wavelength can be
measured from any part of one cycle to the equivalent point in the
next cycle. Wavelength is very similar to period as discussed
above, except that wavelength is measured in distance per cycle
while period is measured in time per cycle.
• Wavelength
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝝂
𝝀= =
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒇
Where:
𝝀 = wavelength in meters
𝝂 = velocity in meter/second
3X10^8 m/s for radio waves
344 m/s for sound waves
f = frequency in Hz
• Waveforms
Are basically a visual representation of the variation of a
voltage or a current plotted to a base of time. Generally, for AC
waveforms this horizontal base line represents zero condition of
either voltage or current. The most common periodic signal
waveforms that are used are sinusoidal waveform. AC waveforms
can also take the shape of either complex waves, square waves or
triangular waves,etc.
• Waveforms
• Waveforms
 In discussing alternating current and voltage, you will often
find it necessary to express the current and voltage in terms of
maximum or peak values, peak-to-peak values, effective values,
average values, or instantaneous values. Each of these values has
a different meaning and is used to describe a different amount of
current or voltage
Consider the sinusoidal voltage & current:
• 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕
• 𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 = 𝑬𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕

Where :
𝑖 𝑡 / 𝐸 𝑡 = instantaneous value Figure (a)
Em/Im = amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = angular frequency in radians/s
𝜃 = angular frequency in degrees
ωt = argument of the sinusoid
f = frequency in Hz or cycle per second
t = time in second
Figure (b)
• Refer to figure 1.7 , it is the
maximum of voltage [ Vp ] or
Current [ Ip ]. The peak value
applies to both positive and
negative values of cycle.
• It is the greatest value of either
voltage or current that the
waveform reaches during each half
cycle measured from zero baseline.
 During each complete cycle ac there are always two
maximum or peak values, one for the positive half-cycle and the
other for the negative half-cycle. The difference between the peak
positive value, and the peak negative value called the peak-to-
peak value of the sine wave. This value is twice the maximum or
peak value of the sine wave and is sometimes used for
measurement of ac voltages. Note the difference between peak
and peak-to-peak values in figure below. Usually alternating
voltage and current are expressed in effective values rather than
in peak-to-peak, values
• PHASE
meant the fraction of time period of that alternating
current which has elapsed since the current had passed through the
zero position of reference (𝝎t is the phase angle)
• PHASE ANGLE
the difference in degrees between the voltage waveform
and the current waveform having the same periodic time.
ANGULAR FREQUENCY
• represents the phasor relationship between two or more
waveforms. This is a rotational unit of angular frequency 2пf
with units in radians per second, rad/s. The complete revolution
of one cycle is 360 degrees or 2пr, therefore, half a revolution
is given as 180 degrees or п rad.
𝟐𝝅
• 𝝎= rad/sec
𝑻
• 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 rad/sec
 Are the same but their max or zero values are not reach
simultaneously but one after another.
This deficiency is supplied by using the terms "lag or leading”
• LEADING
Alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum or zero
value earlier as compared to the other quantity.
• LAGGING
Alternating quantity is which reached its maximum or zero
value later than the other quantity.
• INSTANTANEOUS ( i(t) )
The value of alternating quantity at any instant.
• AVERAGE VALUE
Is expressed by that steady current which transformed by
that alternating current driving the same time.
The arithmetical average or mean of all the values of an
alternating quantity over one cycle.
1 𝑇 Where:
• 𝐴𝑉𝐸 = ‫𝑦 ׬‬ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 y(t) = equation of the alternating quantity
𝑇 0
T = period of the alternating quantity
• AVERAGE VALUE
Iave = 2Im/п
Vave = 2Vm/п

• Average value = 0.636 Am

• Average of all the instantaneous values of half cycle.
• In general, Average value = Area under the curve/Base
• For the sinewave: Ave. Value = 2x Max Value/п = 0.636 x
Max Value
• The rms value of an alternating current is given by that steady
state current(dc) which when flowing through a given circuit for
a given time produces the same heat as produced by
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the
same time.
• Defined as the square root of the average of the squares of the
given quantity taken over a complete period.
 𝑇
1
𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න[𝑦 𝑡 ]2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
0

Where:
y(t) = equation of the alternating quantity
T = period of the alternating quantity

• RMS value = Am/√2 = 0.707 Am = 0.707 Maximum Value

• The period of a sine wave can be measured between any two
corresponding points on the waveform.
• ratio of the maximum value to the rms value or 1.414 (for
sinusoidal ac only)
• Peak Factor Max Value = Max Value/ RMS Value = 1.414 (for
sine wave)
• ratio of the rms value to the average value or 1.11(for
sinusoidal ac only)
• Knowledge of this factor is of importance in dielectric insulation
testing because the dielectric stress to which the insulation is
subjected, is proportional to the maximum peak value of the
applied voltage. It is also necessary when meaning iron losses
because their loss depends on the value of the max flow.
• Form Factor = RMS Value/ Ave. Value = 1.11 (for sine wave)
• SINUSOIDAL WAVE:
RMS 0.707 Amax
AV E half 0.636 Amax
Form factor = 1.11
Peak factor 1.414
• HALF — WAVE RECTIFIED SINUSOIDAL
WAVE: • RECTANGULAR WAVE:
RMS = 0.5 Amax
AVE half = 0.318 Amax
Form factor = 1.57
Peak factor = 2.0
• FULL — WAVE RECTIFIED SINUSOIDAL
WAVE:
RMS = 0.707 Amax
AVE = 0.636 Amax
Form factor = 1.11
Peak factor = 1.414
RMS = Amax
AVE = Amax
Form factor = 1.0
Peak factor = 1.0
• TRIANGULAR WAVE:
RMS = 0.577 Amax
AVE = 0.5 Amax
Form factor = 1.154
Peak factor = 1.732
EXAMPLE 1:
An alternating current of rectangular wave shape has amplitude of 10 and a
frequency of one. What is the RMS current?
SOLUTION
𝑹𝑴𝑺 = 𝑨𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟏𝟎𝑨
EXAMPLE 2:
Find the average current or a sinusoidal current wave during the half cycle given the
instantaneous maximum current of 20 A.
SOLUTION
𝑨𝑽𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟔 𝑨𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟔 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝟐 𝑨
EXAMPLE 3:
The instantaneous voltage of an single phase generator is
given by the equation of 300 sinwt. What is the rms voltage?

SOLUTION
𝑹𝑴𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑨𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟏𝟐. 𝟏 𝑽