101

LEARNING GUIDE

Week No. : 10

Topic : Heat Exchangers II – Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient/LMTD Method

Expected Competencies:
At the end of the lesson you should have
1. reviewed the concept of overall heat transfer coefficient;
2. performed a general energy analysis on heat exchangers;
3. solved temperature difference using LMTD and AMTD
method;
4. Modifed the LMTD for different types of heat exchangers using the correction factor.

Content/Technical Information:

The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

A heat exchanger typically involves two flowing fluids separated by a solid wall. Heat is first
transferred from the hot fluid to the wall by convection, through the wall by conduction, and from
the wall to the cold fluid again by convection.

Figure 1
Thermal resistance in a double-pipe heat exchanger.

In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to

combine all the thermal resistances in the path of heat
flow from the hot fluid to the cold one into a single
resistance R, and to express the rate of heat transfer
between the two fluids as

∆
∆ ∆ ∆

Where
⁄

As is the surface area and U is the overall heat transfer

coefficient, whose unit is W/m2·K.
1 1 1 1 1
ℎ ℎ

The overall heat transfer coefficient can also be

expressed in terms of the inside area or outside area of the pipe or duct.
 102

1
1 ⁄ 1
ℎ 2 ℎ

1
1 ⁄ 1
ℎ 2 ℎ

When the wall thickness of the tube is small and the thermal conductivity of the tube material is
high, as is usually the case, the thermal resistance of the tube is negligible (Rwall < 0) and the
inner and outer surfaces of the tube are almost identical (Ai < Ao < As).

1 1 1
≈
ℎ ℎ

The overall heat transfer coefficient relation for an unfinned double-pipe heat exchanger
is valid for clean surfaces and needs to be modified to account for the effects of fouling
on both the inner and the outer surfaces of the tube. For an unfinned double-pipe heat
exchanger, it can be expressed as
1 1 1 1 , ⁄ , 1
ℎ 2 ℎ

where Rf, i and Rf, o are the fouling factors at those surfaces.

Analysis of Heat Exchangers

Assumptions: Steady flow and perfectly insulated
The heat transfer rate from hot fluid is equal to the heat transfer rate to the cold fluid.
, − ,
, − ,

where the subscripts c and h stand for cold and hot fluids, respectively, and
ṁc, ṁh = mass flow rates
cpc, cph = specific heats at constant pressure
Tc,out, Th,out = outlet or exit temperatures
Tc,in, Th,in = inlet or entering temperatures

Note that the heat transfer rate Q̇ is taken to be a positive quantity, and its direction is understood
to be from the hot fluid to the cold one in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics.

In heat exchanger analysis, the heat capacity rate is used for convenience. It is the product of the
mass flow rate and the specific heat of a fluid.

for the hot fluid Ch =

for the cold fluid Cc =
 103

The heat capacity rate of a fluid stream represents the rate of heat transfer needed to change the
temperature of the fluid stream by 1°C as it flows through a heat exchanger.

Note that in a heat exchanger, the fluid with a large heat capacity rate experiences a small
temperature change, and the fluid with a small heat capacity rate experiences a large temperature
change. Therefore, doubling the mass flow rate of a fluid while leaving everything else unchanged
will halve the temperature change of that fluid.

With the definition of the heat capacity rate

, − ,
, − ,

And the rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger is given as

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, As is the heat transfer surface area, and Tm is an
appropriate mean temperature difference between the two fluids.

Log mean temperature difference method or the LMTD method

Consider the double-pipe heat exchanger. The fluids may flow in either parallel flow or
counterflow.
Q̇ = UAsTlm

For the parallel-flow double-pipe heat exchanger, the expression for the log mean temperature
difference is given as

∆ ∆
Tlm = ∆
∆

T1 and T2 represent the temperature difference between the two fluids at the two ends (inlet and
outlet) of the heat exchanger. It makes no difference which end of the heat exchanger is designated
as the inlet or the outlet.
 104

Figure 2 Figure 3
T1 and T2 for parallel flow heat exchanger T1 and T2 for counter flow heat exchanger

Counterflow Heat Exchangers

Note that the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger from opposite ends, and the outlet
temperature of the cold fluid in this case may exceed the outlet temperature of the hot fluid. In the
limiting case, the cold fluid will be heated to the inlet temperature of the hot fluid. However, the
outlet temperature of the cold fluid can never exceed the inlet temperature of the hot fluid, since
this would be a violation of the second law of thermodynamics.

For specified inlet and outlet temperatures, the log mean temperature difference for a counter-flow
heat exchanger is always greater than that for a parallel-flow heat exchanger. That is,
Tlm, CF > Tlm, PF, and thus a smaller surface area (and thus a smaller heat exchanger) is needed
to achieve a specified heat transfer rate in a counter-flow heat exchanger, assuming the same value
of the overall heat transfer coefficient. Therefore, it is common practice to use counter-flow
arrangements in heat exchangers.

A condenser or a boiler can be considered to be either a parallel- or counterflow heat exchanger

since both approaches give the same result.

Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers: Use of a Correction Factor

Tlm = FTlm, CF

where F is the correction factor, which depends on the geometry of the heat exchanger and the
inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams. The Tlm, CF is the log mean
temperature difference for the case of a counter-flow heat exchanger with the same inlet and outlet
temperatures and is determined by taking T1 = Th, in – Tc, out and T2 = Th, out – Tc, in

The correction factor is less than unity for a cross-flow and multipass shell and-tube heat
exchanger. That is, F 1. The limiting value of F = 1 corresponds to the counter-flow heat
exchanger. Thus, the correction factor F for a heat exchanger is a measure of deviation of the Tlm
from the corresponding values for the counter-flow case.
 105

Figure 4
Crossflow or multipass shell and tube heat exchanger

Heat transfer rate:

Q̇ = UAsFTlm,CF

∆ ∆
Where Tlm,CF = ∆ ⁄∆

∆ = Th,in – Tc,out

∆ = Th,out – Tc,in

The correction factor F for common cross-flow and shell-and-tube heat exchanger configurations
is given in Figure versus two temperature ratios

P and R defined as

and =

where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent the inlet and outlet, respectively. Note that for a shell-and-
tube heat exchanger, T and t represent the shell- and tube side temperatures, respectively, as shown
in the correction factor charts.
 106

Figure 5
Correction factor F charts for common shell and tube and cross flow heat exchanger
From Bowman, Mueller and Nagle, 1940
 107

It makes no difference whether the hot or the cold fluid flows through the shell or the tube. The
determination of the correction factor F requires the availability of the inlet and the outlet
temperatures for both the cold and hot fluids.

Note that the value of P ranges from 0 to 1. The value of R, on the other hand, ranges from 0 to
infinity, with R = 0 corresponding to the phase-change (condensation or boiling) on the shell-side
and R→ ∞ to phase-change on the tube side. The correction factor is F = 1 for both of these
limiting cases. Therefore, the correction factor for a condenser or boiler is F = 1, regardless of the
configuration of the heat exchanger.

Arithmetic mean temperature difference or AMTD

Tam = ∆ ∆

Note that Tlm is always less than Tam. Therefore, using Tam in calculations instead of Tlm will
overestimate the rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger between the two fluids. When T1 differs
from T2 by no more than 40 percent, the error in using the arithmetic mean temperature difference
is less than 1 percent. But the error increases to undesirable levels when T1 differs from T2 by
greater amounts.

Therefore, we should always use the logarithmic mean temperature difference when determining
the rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger.

The LMTD method is very suitable for determining the size of a heat exchanger to realize
prescribed outlet temperatures when the mass flow rates and the inlet and outlet temperatures of
the hot and cold fluids are specified.
 108

With the LMTD method, the task is to select a heat exchanger that will meet the prescribed heat
transfer requirements. The procedure to be followed by the selection process is:

1. Select the type of heat exchanger suitable for the application.

2. Determine any unknown inlet or outlet temperature and the heat transfer rate using an energy
balance.
3. Calculate the log mean temperature difference Tlm and the correction factor F, if necessary.
4. Obtain (select or calculate) the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient U.
5. Calculate the heat transfer surface area As.

The task is completed by selecting a heat exchanger that has a heat transfer surface area equal to
or larger than As.

Example:
1. Hot oil is to be cooled in a double-tube counter-flow heat exchanger. The copper inner tubes
have a diameter of 2 cm and negligible thickness. The inner diameter of the outer tube (the shell)
is 3 cm. Water flows through the tube at a rate of 0.5 kg/s, and the oil through the shell at a rate of
0.8 kg/s. Taking the average temperatures of the water and the oil to be 45°C and 80°C,
respectively, determine the overall heat transfer coefficient of this heat exchanger.

Figure 6
Figure for example 1

Consider the water inside the tube:

Evaluate properties of water at 45°C
ρ = 990.1 kg/m3 cp = 4180 J/kg°C k = 0.637 W/m °C µ = 0.596 kg/m s Pr = 3.91
Solving for the Reynolds number of water

. .
53408 (turbulent)
. .

Using the equation

Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.3
.
Nu = .
0.023 (53408)0.8 (3.91)0.3

hi = 7652 W/m2 °C
 109

Consider the oil in the annular space:

Evaluate the properties of oil at 80°C

ρ = 852 kg/m3 cp = 2132 J/kg°C k = 0.138 W/m °C
µ = 0.03232 kg/m s ν = 3.794 x 10−5 m2/s Pr = 499.3

solving for the hydraulic diameter (Dh) for the circular annulus
Dh = Do – Di = 0.03 – 0.02 = 0.01 m

. .
630 laminar
. . .

Table 1
Nusselt number for fully developed laminar flow in a circular annulus with one surface insulated
and the other isothermal (Kays and Perkins, 1972)

and

https://www3.nd.edu/~sst/teaching/AME60634/lectures/AME60634_F13_lecture23.pdf

.
Computing for Di/Do = 0.667
.

The only heat transfer involves only the inside surface and assuming fully developed flow, the
Nusselt number on the tube side of the annular space Nui corresponding to Di/Do = 0.667 can be
determined from Table by interpolation to be

Nu = 5.45

.
= 5.45 = ho = 75.2
.

Using the equation,

1 1 1
ℎ ℎ
 110

1 1 1
7652 75.2

U = 74.5 W/m2K or W/m2°C

2. Water at the rate of 1.15 kg/s is heated from 35°C to 75°C by an oil having a specific heat of
1.90 kJ/kg · °C. The fluids are used in a counterflow double-pipe heat exchanger, and the oil
enters the exchanger at 110°C and leaves at 75°C. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is 320
W/m2 · °C. Calculate the heat-exchanger area.

Solution: Counterflow double pipe HE

cold fluid - water: ṁ = 1.15 kg/s Tc,in = 35°C Tc,out = 75°C

Taken from table and based on the mean temperature of 55°C cpc = 4183 J/kg°C

hot fluid - oil: cp = 1.90 kJ/kg · °C Th,in = 110°C Th,out = 75°C

Figure 7
Figure for example 2

To solve for the area of the heat exchanger use the equation,

Q̇ = UAsTlm,CF

∆ ∆ , , , ,
Where Tlm,CF = ∆
, , , ,
∆

Tlm ⁄
37.44℃

Solving for the rate of heat transfer

, − ,

1.15 / 4183 J/kg°C)(75 −35) °C(1 W/ 1 J/s) = 192,418 W

 111

substitute the given and computed values to the equation Q̇ = UAsTlm

192,418 W = 320 W/m2 · °C (As) (37.44 °C)

As = 16.1 m2

Using AMTD
Tam = ∆ ∆

Tam = 110 − 75 75 − 35 37.5℃

192,418 W = 320 W/m2 · °C (As) (37.5 °C)

As = 16.0 m2

3. Instead of the double-pipe heat exchanger of Example 2, it is desired to use a shell-and-tube

exchanger with the water making one shell pass and the oil making two tube passes. Calculate
the area required for this exchanger, assuming that the overall heat-transfer coefficient remains at
320 W/m2 · °C.

Figure 8
Figure for example 3 (one shell pass, two tube passes)

https://media.cheggcdn.com/media/1e1/1e1d126a-7a12-4832-97ed-fe82ca2755e8/php2qF6YV.png

Solution: shell and tube HE with one shell pass(water) and two tube passes(oil)
U = 320 W/m2 · °C

Heat transfer rate:

Q̇ = UAsFTlm,CF

∆ ∆
Where Tlm,CF = ∆ ⁄∆

∆ = Th,in – Tc,out
 112

∆ = Th,out – Tc,in

for the same temperatures, Tlm,CF = 37.44 °C

Q̇ = 192,418 W

To determine F use the two temperture ratios:

and

where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent the inlet and outlet, respectively. Note that for a shell-and-
tube heat exchanger, T and t represent the shell- and tube side temperatures, respectively.

Shell – water Tube – oil

T1 = 35 °C t1 = 110 °C
T2 = 75 °C t2 = 75 °C

0.47 = 1.14

Figure 9
Solution for the correction factor F for problem no. 3: one shell pass and two tube passes

From Table, F = 0.82

Q̇ = UAsFTlm,CF

192,418 = (320)As(0.82)(37.44)

As = 19.6 m2
 113

4. A heat exchanger like that shown in the figure shown below is used to heat an oil in the tubes
(c=1.9 kJ/kg · °C) from 15°C to 85°C. Blowing across the outside of the tubes is steam that enters
at 130°C and leaves at 110°C with a mass flow of 5.2 kg/sec. The overall heat-transfer coefficient
is 275 W/m2 · °C and c for steam is 1.86 kJ/kg · °C. Calculate the surface area of the heat
exchanger.

Solution:
cold fluid - oil: cpc = 1.9 kJ/kg · °C Tc,in = 15°C Tc,out = 85°C

hot fluid - steam: ṁh = 5.2 kg/s cph = 1.86 kJ/kg · °C

Th,in = 130°C Th,out = 110 °C

Figure 10
Crossflow, one fluid mixed and the other unmixed
 114

Solution: crossflow HE with one fluid mixed (steam) and one unmixed (oil)
U = 275 W/m2 · °C

Heat transfer rate:

Q̇ = UAsFTlm,CF

∆ ∆
Where Tlm,CF = ⁄
∆ ∆

∆ = Th,in – Tc,out = 130 – 85 = 45 °C

∆ = Th,out – Tc,in = 110 – 15 = 95 °C

Tlm,CF = ⁄
66.9 ℃

Solving for the rate of heat transfer

, − ,

5.2 / 1860 J/kg°C)(130 −110) °C(1 W/ 1 J/s) = 193,440 W

To determine F use the two temperture ratios:

and

where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent the inlet and outlet, respectively.

and

cold fluid – oil (inside the tubes): t1= 15°C t2 = 85°C

hot fluid – steam (outside the tubes): T1 = 130°C T2 = 110 °C

0.61 = 0.29
 115

Figure 11
Solution for the correction factor F for problem no.4: crossflow, one fluid mixed the other fluid
unmixed

F = 0.955

substitute the given and computed values to the equation

Q̇ = UAsFTlm,CF

193,440 W = 275 W/m2 · °C (As)(0.955)(66.9 °C)

As = 11.0 m2

Using AMTD
Tam = ∆ ∆

Tam = 45 95 70℃

193,440 W = 275 W/m2 · °C (As)(0.955)(70 °C)

As = 10.5 m2
 116

5. A counter-flow double-pipe heat exchanger is to heat water from 20°C to 80°C at a rate of 1.2
kg/s. The heating is to be accomplished by geothermal water available at 160°C at a mass flow
rate of 2 kg/s. The inner tube is thin-walled and has a diameter of 1.5 cm. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient of the heat exchanger is 640 W/m2 K, determine the length of the heat exchanger
required to achieve the desired heating.

Solution: Counter-flow double pipe HE

U = 640 W/m2 K Di = 1.5 cm

cold fluid – water : ṁ = 1.2 kg/s Tc,in = 20°C Tc,out = 80°C

Based on the mean temperature of 50°C cpc = 4181 J/kg°C

hot fluid – geothermal water: ṁ = 2 kg/s Th,in = 160°C

Based on the mean temperature of 143°C after iteration, cph = 4293 J/kg°C
Or from Figure 3 of steam table (say 1MPa) cph = 4300 J/kg°C (approximate value)

Figure 12
Counter-flow double pipe heat exchanger

Solving for Th,out :

− ,, , − ,
1.2(4181)(80 – 20) = 2(4293)(160 – Th,out)
Th,out = 125°C

T1 = , − , = 160 – 80 = 80 °C
T2 = , − , = 125 – 20 = 105 °C

To solve for the area of the heat exchanger use the equation,

Q̇ = UAsTlm,CF

∆ ∆ , , , ,
Where Tlm,CF = ∆
, , , ,
∆
 117

Tlm ⁄
91.9 ℃

Solving for the rate of heat transfer

, − ,

1.20 / 4181 J/kg°C)(80 − 20) °C(1 W/ 1 J/s) = 301032 W

substitute the given and computed values to the equation Q̇ = UAsTlm

301032 = 640 W/m2 · °C (As) (91.9 °C)

As = 5.118 m2 = DiL = (0.015m)L

L = 109 m

Using AMTD
Tam = ∆ ∆

Tam = 80 105 92.5 ℃

301032 = 640 W/m2 · °C (As) (92.5 °C)

As = 5.085 m2 = (0.015m)L

L = 108 m

Note: The counter-flow heat exchanger needs to be over 100 m long to achieve the desired heat transfer, which is impractical. In
cases like this, we need to use a plate heat exchanger or a multipass shell-and-tube heat exchanger with multiple passes of tube
bundles.
 118

6.A test is conducted to determine the overall heat transfer coefficient in an automotive radiator
that is a compact cross-flow water-to-air heat exchanger with both fluids (air and water) unmixed
as shown in the figure . The radiator has 40 tubes of internal diameter 0.5 cm and length 65 cm in
a closely spaced plate-finned matrix. Hot water enters the tubes at 90°C at a rate of 0.6 kg/s and
leaves at 65°C. Air flows across the radiator through the interfin spaces and is heated from 20°C
to 40°C. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient Ui of this radiator based on the inner
surface area of the tubes.

Solution: cross-flow HE with both fluids unmixed

N = 40 tubes L = 65 cm = 0.65m Di = 0.5 cm = 5 mm = 5 x 10−3 m

cold fluid – air : cpc = 1007 J/kg · °C Tc,in = 20°C Tc,out = 40°C

hot fluid – water : ṁh = 0.6 kg/s cph = 4195 J/kg · °C

Th,in = 90°C Th,out = 65 °C

Figure 13
Cross-flow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed

Heat transfer rate:

Q̇ = UAsFTlm,CF
∆ ∆
Where Tlm,CF = ∆ ⁄∆

∆ = Th,in – Tc,out = 90 – 40 = 50 °C

∆ = Th,out – Tc,in = 65 – 20 = 45 °C
 119

Tlm,CF = ⁄
45.46 ℃

Solving for the rate of heat transfer

, − ,

0.6 / 4195 J/kg°C)(90 − 65) °C(1 W/ 1 J/s) = 62925 W

To determine F use the two temperture ratios:

and

where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent the inlet and outlet, respectively.

cold fluid – air (outside the tubes): T1= 20°C T2 = 40°C

hot fluid – water (inside the tubes): t1 = 90°C t2 = 65 °C

0.36 = 0.8

Figure 14
Solution for the correction factor F for problem no.6:crossflow, both fluid unmixed

F = 0.97

substitute the given and computed values to the equation

Q̇ = UAsFTlm,CF
 120

if total surface area = As = N tubes (DiL/tube) = 40 tubes()(5 x 10−3m)(0.65 m)/tube

As = 0.4084 m2

62925 W = U (0.4084 m2)(0.97)(45.46 °C)

U = 3494 W/ m2 °C

PROGRESS CHECK:

1.The tube in a heat exchanger has a 2-in. inner diameter and a 3-in. outer diameter. The thermal
conductivity of the tube material is 0.5 Btu/h ft °F, while the inner surface heat transfer coefficient
is 50 Btu/h ft2 °F and the outer surface heat transfer coefficient is 10 Btu/h ft2 °F. Determine the
overall heat transfer coefficients based on the outer and inner surfaces.

2. A long thin-walled double-pipe heat exchanger with tube and shell diameters of 1.0 cm and 2.5
cm, respectively, is used to condense refrigerant-134a by water at 20°C. The refrigerant flows
through the tube, with a convection heat transfer coefficient of hi = 4100 W/m2 K. Water flows
through the shell at a rate of 0.3 kg/s. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient of this heat
exchanger. Answer: 1856 W/m2 K

3. A double-pipe heat exchanger is constructed of a copper (k = 380 W/m K) inner tube of internal
diameter Di = 1.2 cm and external diameter Do = 1.6 cm and an outer tube of diameter 3.0 cm.
The convection heat transfer coefficient is reported to be hi = 700 W/m2 K on the inner surface of
the tube and ho = 1400 W/m2 K on its outer surface. For a fouling factor Rf,i = 0.0005 m2 K/W on
the tube side and Rf,o = 0.0002 m2 K/W on the shell side, determine (a) the thermal resistance of
the heat exchanger per unit length and (b) the overall heat transfer coefficients Ui and Uo based
on the inner and outer surface areas of the tube, respectively.

3. A stream of hydrocarbon (cp = 2.2 kJ/kg K) is cooled at a rate of 720 kg/h from 150°C to
40°C in the tube side of a double-pipe counter-flow heat exchanger. Water (cp = 4.18 kJ/ kg K)
enters the heat exchanger at 10°C at a rate of 540 kg/h. The outside diameter of the inner tube is
2.5 cm, and its length is 6.0 m. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient.

4. Acounterflow double-pipe heat exchanger is used to heat water from 20°C to 40°C by cooling
an oil from 90°C to 55°C. The exchanger is designed for a total heat transfer of 59 kW with an
overall heat-transfer coefficient of 340 W/m2 · °C. Calculate the surface area of the exchanger.

5.A shell-and-tube exchanger with one shell pass and two tube passes is used as a water-to-water
heat-transfer system with the hot fluid in the shell side. The hot water is cooled from 90°C to 70°C,
and the cool fluid is heated from 5°C to 60°C. Calculate the surface area for a heat transfer of 60
kW and a heat-transfer coefficient of 1100 W/m2 · °C.
 121

6.A shell-and-tube heat exchanger is used for heating 10 kg/s of oil (cp = 2.0 kJ/kg K) from 25°C
to 46°C. The heat exchanger has 1-shell pass and 6-tube passes. Water enters the shell side at 80°C
and leaves at 60°C. The overall heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be 1000 W/m2 K. Calculate
the rate of heat transfer and the heat transfer area.

7. A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with 2-shell passes and 12-tube passes is used to heat water
(cp = 4180 J/kg K) with ethylene glycol (cp = 2680 J/kg K). Water enters the tubes at 22°C at a rate
of 0.8 kg/s and leaves at 70°C. Ethylene glycol enters the shell at 110°C and leaves at 60°C. If the
overall heat transfer coefficient based on the tube side is 280 W/m2 K, determine the rate of heat
transfer and the heat transfer surface area on the tube side.
8. A single-pass cross-flow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed has water entering at 16°C
and exiting at 33°C, while oil (cp = 1.93 kJ/kg K and  = 870 kg/m3) flowing at 0.19 m3/min enters
at 38°C and exits at 29°C. If the surface area of the heat exchanger is 20 m2, determine the value
of the overall heat transfer coefficient.

Figure 15
Diagram for problem no. 8

9. A single-pass cross-flow heat exchanger is used to cool jacket water (cp = 1.0 Btu/lbm °F) of a
diesel engine from 190°F to 140°F, using air (cp = 0.245 Btu/lbm °F) with inlet temperature of
90°F. Both air flow and water flow are unmixed. If the water and air mass flow rates are 92,000
lbm/h and 400,000 lbm/h, respectively, determine the log mean temperature difference for this
heat exchanger.
Figure 16
Diagram for problem no. 9
 122

10. A cross-flow heat exchanger uses oil (cp =2.1 kJ/kg · °C) in the tube bank with an entering
temperature of 100°C. The flow rate of oil is 1.2 kg/s.Water flows across the unfinned tubes and
is heated from 20 to 50°C with a flow rate of 0.6 kg/s. If the overall heat-transfer coefficient is 250
W/m2 · °C, calculate the area required for the heat exchanger.
Rework the problem with the water flowing inside the tubes and the oil flowing across the tubes.

References:

Cengel, Y. A., & Ghajar, A. J. (2015). Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals &
Applications (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Holman, J. P. (Jack Philip) (2010). Heat Transfer (10th ed). McGraw Hill Higher Education

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/18220814.pdf

https://www3.nd.edu/~sst/teaching/AME60634/lectures/AME60634_F13_lecture23.pdf
 123

LEARNING GUIDE

Week No. : 11

Topic : Heat Exchangers III – EFFECTIVENESS-NTU METHOD

Expected Competencies:

At the end of the lesson you should have

1. used the concept of effectiveness-NTU method to heat exchangers when outlet temperatures or
area are not known ;
2. applied the effectiveness-NTU method in determining the rate of heat transfer in heat exchanger

Content/Technical Information:

The Effectiveness-NTU Method

Another kind of problem encountered in heat exchanger analysis is the determination of the heat
transfer rate and the outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids for prescribed fluid mass flow
rates and inlet temperatures when the type and size of the heat exchanger are specified.

The heat transfer surface area of the heat exchanger in this case is known, but the outlet
temperatures are not. Here the task is to determine the heat transfer performance of a specified
heat exchanger or to determine if a heat exchanger available in storage will do the job.

The LMTD method could still be used for this alternative problem, but the procedure would require
tedious iterations (trial and error solutions), and thus it is not practical.

In an attempt to eliminate the iterations from the solution of such problems, Kays and London
came up with a method in 1955 called the effectiveness–NTU method, which greatly simplified
heat exchanger analysis.

This method is based on a dimensionless parameter called the heat transfer effectiveness ,
defined as

 =

The actual heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger can be determined from an energy balance on the
hot or cold fluids and can be expressed as

Q̇ = Cc(Tc, out – Tc, in) = Ch(Th, in – Th, out)

where Cc = ṁc cpc and Ch = ṁhcph are the heat capacity rates of the cold and hot fluids, respectively.
 124

To determine the maximum possible heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger, we first recognize that
the maximum temperature difference in a heat exchanger is the difference between the inlet
temperatures of the hot and cold fluids. That is,

Tmax = Th, in – Tc, in

The maximum possible heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger

Q̇max = Cmin(Th, in – Tc, in)

where Cmin is the smaller of Ch and Cc

Figure 1
The figure shows how to determine the maximum rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger

The determination of Q̇max requires the availability of the inlet temperature of the hot and cold
fluids and their mass flow rates, which are usually specified. Then, once the effectiveness of the
heat exchanger is known, the actual heat transfer rate Q̇ can be determined from

Q̇ = Q̇max = Cmin (Th, in – Tc, in)

( , ) ( , )
If Cc = Cmin = = ,
= ,
( , , ) ( , , )

( ) ( )
If Ch = Cmin = = , ,
= , ,
( , , ) ( , , )

Therefore, the effectiveness of a heat exchanger enables us to determine the heat transfer rate
without knowing the outlet temperatures of the fluids.
 125

The effectiveness of a heat exchanger depends on the geometry of the heat exchanger as well as
the flow arrangement. Therefore, different types of heat exchangers have different effectiveness
relations.

Effectiveness relations of the heat exchangers typically involve the dimensionless group UAs/Cmin.
This quantity is called the number of transfer units NTU and is expressed as

NTU = =

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and As is the heat transfer surface area of the heat
exchanger.

The value of NTU is a measure of the heat transfer surface area As. Thus, the larger the NTU, the
larger the heat exchanger.

In heat exchanger analysis, it is also convenient to define another dimensionless quantity called
the capacity ratio c as

=
 126

Table 1
Effectiveness relations for heat exchangers: NTU = and =

Cengel,2015
 127

Figure 2
Effectiveness for heat exchangers a) parallel flow b) counterflow c)one shell pass, 2,4,6,…tube
passes d) two shell pass, 4,8,12,…tube passes e) crossflow –both fluids unmixed f) crossflow – one
fluid mixed and the other unmixed
128
129
130
 131

Table 2
NTU relations for heat exchangers: NTU = and =
 132

Procedure for effectiveness-NTU method:

1. Calculate c = Cmin/Cmax, NTU = UA/Cmin
2. Determine from appropriate figure/equations
3. Compute the heat transfer rate using :
Q̇ = Cmin(Th,in – Tc,in)
4. Calculate the outlet temperature :

, = , − , = , +
, ,

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Example:
1. A heat exchanger is used to heat oil with mass flowrate of 0.73 kg/s entering the tubes at 15°C
(c for oil = 1.9 kJ/kg·°C). Blowing across the outside of the tubes is steam that enters at 130°C
with a mass flow of 5.2 kg/sec. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is 275 W/m2 · °C and c for
steam is 1.86 kJ/kg · °C. The surface area of the heat exchanger is 10.82 m2. Calculate the rate of
heat transfer.

Solution: Crossflow with one fluid unmixed(oil), the other fluid mixed (steam)

U = 275 W/m2 · °C As = 10.82 m2 Q̇ = ?

cold fluid – oil : ṁc = 0.73 kg/s cpc = 1900 J/kg°C Tc,in = 15°C

hot fluid – steam : ṁh = 5.2 kg/s cph = 1860 J/kg°C Th,in = 130°C

solving for Cc = ṁc cpc and Ch = ṁhcph

oil Cc = ṁc cpc = 0.73 kg/s(1900 J/kg°C) = 1387 J/s°C = 1387 W/°C = Cmin (unmixed)

steam Ch = ṁhcph = 5.2 kg/s(1860 J/kg°C) = 9672 J/s°C = 9672 W/°C = Cmax (mixed)

Solving for c = Cmin/Cmax = 1387/9672 = 0.1434

Solving for NTU = UAs/Cmin = 275 W/m2°C (10.82 m2)/ 1387 W/°C = 2.145

From table, for Cmin unmixed, Cmax mixed

= (1 − exp − 1 − exp(− ) )

substitute values, = (1 − exp − 0.1434 1 − exp(− 2.145) )

.

= 0.8293
 133

Solving for the heat transfer rate Q̇ = Cmin(Th,in – Tc,in)

Q̇ = 0.8293(1387 W/°C)(130 – 15)°C = 132,277 W

2. Water at the rate of 40 kg/min (cp = 4180 J/kg °C) is heated from 35°C by an oil with flowrate
of 170 kg/min having a specific heat of 1.9 kJ/kg · °C. The fluids are used in a counterflow double-
pipe heat exchanger, and the oil enters the exchanger at 110°C. The overall heat-transfer
coefficient is 320 W/m2 · °C. The heat-exchanger area is 16.10 m2. Calculate the exit temperature
of water.

Solution: Counterflow double-pipe HE

U = 320 W/m2 °C As = 16.10 m2 Twater,exit = Tc,out = ?

cold fluid – water : ṁc = 40 kg/min cpc = 4180 J/kg°C Tc,in = 35°C

hot fluid – oil : ṁh = 170 kg/min cph = 1900 J/kg°C Th,in = 110°C

solving for Cc = ṁccpc and Ch = ṁhcph

water Cc = ṁc cpc = (40/60 kg/s)(4180 J/kg°C) = 2787 J/s°C = 2787 W/°C = Cmin

oil Ch = ṁhcph = (170/60 kg/s)(1900 J/kg°C) = 5383 J/s°C = 5383 W/°C = Cmax

Solving for c = Cmin/Cmax = 2787/5383 = 0.5177

Solving for NTU = UAs/Cmin = 320 W/m2°C (16.10 m2)/ 2787 W/°C = 1.849

From table, for counterflow double pipe

( )
For c < 1 =
( )

( . )( . )
substitute values, =
( . ) . ( . )

= 0.7490

Solving for the heat transfer rate Q̇ = Cmin(Th,in – Tc,in)

Q̇ = 0.7490(2787 W/°C)(110 – 35)°C = 156560 W

 134

Solving for the exit temperature of water,

, = , +
,

, = 35 + 156560 2787 = 91.2 °C

3. Hot oil at 100°C is used to heat air in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. The oil makes six tube
passes and the air makes one shell pass; 2.0 kg/s of air are to be heated from 20°C to 80°C. The
specific heat of the oil is 2100 J/kg · °C, and its flow rate is 3.0 kg/s. Calculate the area required
for the heat exchanger for U =200 W/m2 · °C.

Solution: one shell(air) pass, six-tube (oil) passes heat exchanger

U = 200 W/m2 °C As = ?

cold fluid – air : ṁc = 2.0 kg/s cpc = 1007 J/kg°C Tc,in = 20°C Tc,out = 80°C

hot fluid – oil : ṁh = 3.0 kg/s cph = 2100 J/kg°C Th,in = 100°C

Q̇ = ṁccpc(Tc,out – Tc,in) = (2)(1007)(80 – 20) = 120840 W

solving for Cc = ṁccpc and Ch = ṁhcph

(shell) air Cc = ṁc cpc = (2.0 kg/s)(1007 J/kg°C) = 2014 J/s°C = 2014 W/°C = Cmin

(tubes) oil Ch = ṁh cph = (3.0 kg/s)(2100 J/kg°C) = 6300 J/s°C = 6300 W/°C = Cmax

Solving for c = Cmin/Cmax = 2014/6300 = 0.3197

Solving for ε (effectiveness)

( , ) ( )
Since Cc = Cmin = ,
= = 0.75
( , , ) ( )

For one-shell pass, 2,4,6…tube passes

1 (2⁄ ) − 1 − − √1 +
= − ln
√1 + (2⁄ ) − 1 − + √1 +

( ⁄ . ) . ( . ) .
= − ln = − ln
( . ) ( ⁄ . ) . ( . ) ( . ) .

= 1.989
 135

Solving for 1.989 = (UA)/Cmin = [(200 W/m2°C) (As)]/ 2014 W/°C

As = 20.0 m2

Solving for the exit temperature of oil,

, = , −
,

, = 100 − 120840 2100 = 42.5 °C

Alternative solution: consider c = 0.3197 and = 0.75

Figure 3
Graphical solution to problem no. 3

From the figure, NTU = 2

 136

4.A counter-flow double-pipe heat exchanger is to heat water from 20°C to 80°C at a rate of 1.2
kg/s . The heating is to be accomplished by geothermal water (specific heat = 4310 J/kg°C)
available at 160°C at a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s. The inner tube is thin-walled and has a diameter
of 1.5 cm. The overall heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger is 640 W/m2K. Using the
effectiveness-NTU method determine the length of the heat exchanger required to achieve the
desired heating.

Figure 4
Diagram for problem no. 4

Solution: Counterflow double-pipe

U = 640 W/m2 K D = 1.5 cm L=?

cold fluid – cold water : ṁc = 1.2 kg/s cpc = 4181 J/kg°C Tc,in = 20°C Tc,out = 80°C

hot fluid – geothermal water : ṁh = 2 kg/s cph = 4310 J/kg°C Th,in = 160°C

solving for Cc = ṁccpc and Ch = ṁhcph

cold water Cc = ṁccpc = (1.2 kg/s)(4181 J/kg°C) = 5017 J/s°C = 5017 W/°C = Cmin

hot water Ch = ṁhcph = (2 kg/s)(4310 J/kg°C) = 8620 J/s°C = 8620 W/°C = Cmax

Solving for c = Cmin/Cmax = 5017/8620 = 0.5820

Solving for ε (effectiveness)

( , ) ( )
Since Cc = Cmin = ,
= = 0.4286
( , , ) ( )
 137

From table, for counterflow double pipe

For c < 1 NTU = ln

.
substitute values, NTU = ln
. . ( . )

= 0.6524 =

0.6524 = 640(As)/5017

As = 5.114 m2 = π(Di)L = π(0.015)L

L = 109 m

Another solution, = 0.4286 and c = 0.5820

Figure 5
Graphical solution to problem no. 4

From the figure NTU = 0.65

 138

PROGRESS CHECK:

1.The radiator in an automobile is a cross-flow heat exchanger (UAs = 10 kW/K) that uses air
(cp = 1.00 kJ/kgK) to cool the engine-coolant fluid (cp = 4.00 kJ/kg K). The engine fan draws
30°C air through this radiator at a rate of 10 kg/s while the coolant pump circulates the engine
coolant at a rate of 5 kg/s. The coolant enters this radiator at 80°C. Under these conditions, the
effectiveness of the radiator is 0.4. Determine (a) the outlet temperature of the air and (b) the rate
of heat transfer between the two fluids.

2.Water (cp = 4180 J/kg K) is to be heated by solar heated hot air (cp = 1010 J/kg K) in a double-
pipe counterflow heat exchanger. Air enters the heat exchanger at 90°C at a rate of 0.3 kg/s, while
water enters at 22°C at a rate of 0.1 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inner
side of the tube is given to be 80 W/m2 K. The length of the tube is 12 m and the internal diameter
of the tube is 1.2 cm. Determine the outlet temperatures of the water and the air.

3.A thin-walled double-pipe, counter-flow heat exchanger is to be used to cool oil (cp = 0.525
Btu/lbm°F) from 300°F to 105°F at a rate of 5 lbm/s by water (cp = 1.0 Btu/lbm°F) that enters at
70°F at a rate of 3 lbm/s. The diameter of the tube is 5 in and its length is 200 ft. Determine the
overall heat transfer coefficient of this heat exchanger using the LMTD method and (b) the ε-NTU
method.

4.In a 1-shell and 2-tube heat exchanger, cold water with inlet temperature of 20°C is heated by
hot water supplied at the inlet at 80°C. The cold and hot water flow rates are 5000 kg/h and 10,000
kg/h, respectively. If the shell and tube heat exchanger has a UAs value of 11,600 W/K, determine
the cold water and hot water outlet temperatures. Assume cpc = 4178 J/kg K and cph = 4188 J/kg
K.

5.Hot oil (cp = 2200 J/kg K) is to be cooled by water (cp = 4180 J/kg K) in a 2-shell-passes and
12-tube-passes heat exchanger. The tubes are thin-walled and are made of copper with a diameter
of 1.8 cm. The length of each tube pass in the heat exchanger is 3 m, and the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 340 W/m2 K. Water flows through the tubes at a total rate of 0.1 kg/s, and the oil
through the shell at a rate of 0.2 kg/s. The water and the oil enter at temperatures 18°C and 160°C,
respectively. Determine the rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger and the outlet temperatures
of the water and the oil. Answers: 36.2 kW, 104.6°C, 77.7°C

Figure 6
Diagram for problem no. 5
 139

6.Oil in an engine is being cooled by air in a cross-flow heat exchanger, where both fluids are
unmixed. Oil (cph = 2047 J/kg K) flowing with a flow rate of 0.026 kg/s enters the heat exchanger
at 758C, while air (cpc = 1007 J/kg K) enters at 30°C with a flow rate of 0.21 kg/s. The overall heat
transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger is 53 W/m2 K and the total surface area is 1 m2. Determine
(a) the heat transfer effectiveness and (b) the outlet temperature of the oil.

Figure 7
Diagram for problem no. 6

7.Air at 18°C (cp = 1006 J/kg K) is to be heated to 58°C by hot oil at 80°C (cp = 2150 J/kg K) in
a cross-flow heat exchanger with air mixed and oil unmixed. The product of heat transfer surface
area and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 750 W/K and the mass flow rate of air is twice
that of oil. Determine (a) the effectiveness of the heat exchanger, (b) the mass flow rate of air,
and (c) the rate of heat transfer.

References:

Cengel, Y. A., & Ghajar, A. J. (2015). Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals &
Applications (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Holman, J. P. (Jack Philip) (2010). Heat Transfer (10th ed). McGraw Hill Higher Education

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 140

LEARNING GUIDE

Week No. : 12-13

Topic : Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation

Expected Competencies:
At the end of the lesson you should have:
1.Defined and described the nature of thermal radiation
2. Recalled the electromagnetic spectrum;
3. Known the concepts and terms involving blackbody emissions;
4.Familiarized with the radiation properties;
5. Known the Kirchoff’s identity;
6. Solved problems involving the blackbody radiation function.

Content/Technical Information:

Recall:

While an object at absolute temperature Ts is radiating, its surroundings at temperature Tsurr

are also radiating, and the object absorbs some of this radiation.

A briefly discussed radiative heat transfer in the introduction presented the following equation for
the net rate of heat transfer by radiation from the surface of the object at temperature Ts to a large
surrounding enclosure at Tsurr:

Q̇ = εσ ( − )

where
ε is the emissivity of the surface
As is the area of the surface
 is the Stefan - Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10−8 W/m2 K4
= 0.1714 x 10−8 Btu/h ft2 R4

Temperatures Ts and Tsurr must be in absolute temperature units (Kelvin or Rankine). A

positive value of Q̇ means a net heat flow out of the object. This will be the case if Ts > Tsurr.

Introduction

Consider a hot object that is suspended in an evacuated chamber whose walls are at room
temperature. The hot object will eventually cool down and reach thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings. That is, it will lose heat until its temperature reaches the temperature of the walls of
the chamber.
 141

Heat transfer between the object and the chamber could not have taken place by conduction or
convection, because these two mechanisms cannot occur in a vacuum. Therefore, heat transfer
must have occurred through another mechanism that involves the emission of the internal energy
of the object. This mechanism is radiation.

Thermal radiation is that electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body as a result of its temperature.

Some familiar examples of thermal radiation are the heat dissipation from the filament of a light
bulb or the heat leakage through the evacuated walls of a thermos flask. Thermal radiation also
finds applications in many energy-conversion systems like powers plants that involve combustion
and solar radiation. It is also of use in several industrial heating, cooling and drying processes,
laser cutting and welding, climate control of buildings, automobiles, combustion chambers,
cryogenic containers, high-performance thermal insulation, solar collectors, spacecraft, etc.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The surfaces of all objects emit thermal radiation by virtue of their temperature being above
absolute zero. This radiation is emitted as electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of
about 0.1-100 m. Some other areas of the electromagnetic spectrum are visible light (about 0.4-
0.8 m), X-rays (about 10−11m to 2 x 10−8 m), microwaves (about 1 mm -10 m), and radio waves
(about 10 m - 30 km).

Figure 1
Electromagnetic spectrum

We are primarily concerned with the thermal radiation which is that portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum which includes the entire visible and infrared (IR) radiation as well as a part of the
ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Thermal radiation, like the other forms of electromagnetic radiation,
can often be considered to travel in straight lines in a uniform medium. Consequently, opaque
 142

bodies cast shadows when placed in the path of thermal radiation and one body cannot receive
radiation directly from another unless it can see it.

The visible part of the spectrum (radiation to which the human eye is sensitive) falls in the thermal
range. Light is nothing but the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum lying between 0.40
and 0.76 m. The visible spectrum, consists of narrow bands of colour from violet (0.40 to 0.44
m) to red (0.63 to 0.76 m).

The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun is solar radiation, with a wavelength range of
0.3–3m. Almost half of solar radiation is light and the rest is ultraviolet and infrared radiation.
Also radiation emitted by earth is in the IR region and has a peak at around 10 mm.

The radiation emitted by bodies at the room temperature is in the infrared region of the spectrum,
which ranges from 0.76 to 100 m. Bodies start emitting visible radiation at temperatures above
500°C. The tungsten filament of a light bulb is to be heated to temperatures above 1700°C before
it emits some radiation in the visible range.

The ultraviolet radiation is in the wavelength band of 0.01 to 0.40 m. Ultraviolet rays can destroy
microorganisms and are very harmful to human beings and other living creatures. About 12.5
percent of solar radiation lies in the ultraviolet range. The ozone (O3) layer in the stratosphere acts
as a protective umbrella and absorbs most of it.

Max Planck’s Quantum Theory

According to the quantum theory, when a solid body is heated, its atoms and molecules are raised
to excited states of higher energy. These atoms tend to return spontaneously to lower energy states.
The energy which is released is not continuous but is in the form of a collection of successive and
separate discrete packets or quanta of energy called photons. The photons are propagated through
space as rays, the movement of swarm of photons is known as electromagnetic waves. These
electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light in a straight path with unchanged frequency.
The particle model, in which radiation energy is carried by photons, helps in understanding
emission and absorption.

Unlike conduction and convection, which require a medium for their transport, radiation is
transported through a vacuum.

Electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the speed of light, 3 x 108 m/s. This speed is equal to
the product of the wavelength and frequency of the radiation,
c =λν where
c = speed of light, m/s = 2.9979 x 108 m/s in a vacuum.
λ= wavelength, m
ν= frequency,Hz or cycle/s
 143

All bodies radiate energy in the form of photons or quanta moving in a random direction. The
propagation of thermal radiation takes place in the form of discrete quanta, each quantum having
an energy of

E=hν

where h is Planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10−34 J.s

ν = frequency,Hz or cycle/s

The energy of a photon is, therefore, inversely proportional to its wavelength. The shorter the
wavelength of radiation, the larger the energy of the photon. Gamma rays and X-rays with their
very short wavelengths are considered highly destructive and must be avoided. This particle model
is used to predict the magnitude of energy emitted by a body at a given temperature under ideal
conditions.

Prevost’s Principle of Exchange

If a body is placed in the surroundings at the same temperature as itself, its temperature does not
change. Nevertheless, it continues to radiate energy and, simultaneously, receive energy at the
same rate from its surroundings.

Volumetric vs Surface phenomenon

Radiation is constantly emitted, as well as absorbed or transmitted throughout the whole volume
of matter above absolute zero temperature. Radiation can, therefore, be viewed as a volumetric
phenomenon especially at high temperatures, for gases and semi-transparent solids like glass.

For opaque (non transparent) solids and liquids, radiation is essentially a surface phenomenon,
because the radiation emitted by the inner regions hardly reaches the surface, and the radiation
incident on such bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns from the surface.

Mostly the surface finish rather than the material itself governs the radiation properties. Thin layers
of coatings on the surfaces can significantly change the radiation characteristics.

Terms:

Emissive power (E)

It is defined as the radiant energy leaving the surface, in all directions, due only to the absolute
temperature of the surface. The quantity E or Q̇rad /A is the total energy summed up over all
wavelengths. The monochromatic or spectral (at a particular wavelength) emissive power E
(W/m2 m) is the energy contained in an infinitesimally small wavelength band centred about the
particular wavelength being considered. It follows that the total emissive power is

= (W/m2)

The term total means the quantity in question is the summation of radiation over all wavelengths.
 144

Blackbody emissive power

A body at a thermodynamic (or absolute) temperature above zero emits radiation in all directions
over a wide range of wavelengths. The amount of radiation energy emitted from a surface at a
given wavelength depends on the material of the body and the condition of its surface as well as
the surface temperature. Therefore, different bodies may emit different amounts of radiation per
unit surface area, even when they are at the same temperature.

A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. At a specified temperature

and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody. A blackbody absorbs all
incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction. Also, a blackbody emits radiation
energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal to direction of emission. A blackbody is a
diffuse emitter. The term diffuse means “independent of direction.”

A “blackbody” has a surface that emits radiation at the maximum possible rate.

The total radiation emitted by a black body at all wavelengths from  = 0 to  = ∞ per unit time
and per unit area is called black body emissive power and denoted by Eb.

= (W/m2)

where Eb is the monochromatic or spectral black-body emissive power (W/m2 m). Since the
emissive power depends on the fourth power of the absolute temperature, high-temperature
bodies emit much more than the low temperature ones.

Emissivity

Emissivity, of a surface is defined as

,
=
,

The value of emissivity ranges between zero and unity. For a black surface,  = 1. In general,
emissivity depends on temperature, wavelength, and direction of emission.

Irradiation

Irradiation (G) is defined as the combination, from all sources and directions, of radiant energy
that strikes the surface per unit time and per unit area. Note that G does not depend on the
temperature of the surface concerned. For instance, the radiation received by a surface is partly its
only reflected radiation. Irradiation is not a surface property and may not be constant unless the
surface is receiving radiation from a very distant source. The solar radiation flux incident on the
earth’s surface can therefore be taken as uniform. Total irradiation G is expressed as
 145

= (W/m2)

where G(W/m2 m) denotes spectral irradiation

Radiosity

Radiosity (J) is defined as the rate at which the total is radiant energy leaves the surface per unit
time and per unit area in all directions. Surfaces both emit as well as reflect radiation. The radiation
leaving a surface thus has two separating components: one which is reflected by the surface, and
the other which is emitted by the surface by virtue of its temperature.

Figure 2
Radiosity concept (sum of the emitted energy and reflected energy)

If the spectral radiation J (W/m m) represents the radiation flux at wavelength 

The emissive power E and radiosity J will be equal only when there is no reflection from the
surface. This is possible when either the irradiation G is zero, or when the surface absorbs (or
transmits) all the energy incident on it (i.e., when the surface is a black body or is completely
transparent). Radiosity is constant only when there is uniform irradiation.
 146

Radiation properties (Absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity)

When radiation strikes a surface, part of it is absorbed, part of it is reflected, and the remaining
part, if any, is transmitted.

Figure 3
Incident and the reflected, absorbed and transmitted radiation

The behavior of a surface with radiation incident upon it can be described by the following
quantities:

α = fraction of incident radiation absorbed (absorptivity)

ρ = fraction of incident radiation reflected (reflectivity)

τ = fraction of incident radiation transmitted (transmissivity)

Figure 4
Irradiation, reflected radiation, absorbed radiation, transmitted radiation
 147

Absorptivity

= = 0 ≤ ≤1

Reflectivity

= = 0 ≤ ≤1

Transmissivity

= = 0 ≤ ≤1

If G is the radiation flux (irradiation) incident on the surface (solid, liquid or gas) and Gabs, Gref,
and Gtrans are the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted components of it, respectively, the sum total
of the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted radiation is equal to incident radiation. That is,

Gabs + Gref + Gtrans = G

Dividing each term by G gives


 = 1

and  are the average properties of a medium for all directions and all wavelengths.

In terms of explanation, it can be said that Radiation is the number of photons that are being
emitted by a single source. Irradiation, on the other hand, is one where the radiation is falling
on the surface is being calculated.

Opaque body

A material with a transmissivity of zero is opaque ( = 0). Most solids are opaque in the visible
wavelength range. Even glass and water, which transmit visible light, are opaque to infrared
radiation.

For an opaque body, the transmissivity, = 0 and  = 1. Glass and rock salt and other inorganic
crystals are some exceptions among the solids, because, unless very thick, they are to a certain
degree transparent to radiation of certain wavelengths. Many surfaces of engineering importance
are opaque.
 148

For opaque surfaces ( = 0):  +  = 1

For surfaces with no reflectance ( = 0):  +  = 1

Black Body or blackbody

When a body is such that no incident radiation is reflected or transmitted, all the radiant energy
must be absorbed. For a black body, therefore,

ρ = 0, τ = 0 and α = 1

Black surfaces are perfect absorbers as well as perfect emitters, emitting the maximum possible
energy that any surface can emit at a given temperature.

In practice, there is no perfectly black body but many surfaces can be made to approach it. For
example, a body may be coated with carbon black to produce a near black surface from the point
of view of thermal radiation.

White Body

It reflects all the incident thermal radiation and neither transmits nor absorbs any part of it.For a
white body,  = 0, = 0, and = 1.

Gray Body

A gray body is one whose absorptivity of a surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength
of the incident radiation. For a gray body,

= =

A surface whose  is independent of would absorb equal fraction of each wavelength.

Absorptivity of a gray body is independent of the spectrum of the irradiation.

Coloured Body

A coloured body is one whose absorptivity of a surface varies with the wavelength of radiation,

≠

It is important to recognize that the dependence of surface-radiation properties on the wavelength
and direction, makes the analysis more complicated. Hence, very often gray and diffuse
approximations are used in radiation calculations.

A surface is called diffuse if its properties are independent of direction, and gray if its properties
are independent of wavelength.
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Specular and diffuse reflection

Two types of reflection phenomena may be observed when radiation strikes a surface. If the angle
of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, the reflection is called specular. On the other hand,
when an incident beam is distributed uniformly in all directions after reflection, the reflection is
called diffuse.

Figure 5
Specular and diffuse reflection

https://www.shimadzu.com/an/sites/default/files/ckeditor/an/molecular_spectro/uv/accessory/solidsample/qn5042000000hqww-
img/qn5042000000hqze.gif

Reflection from smooth and polished surfaces approximates specular reflection, whereas reflection
from rough surfaces approximates diffuse reflection.

Blackbody radiation

A blackbody is defined as a perfect absorber and a perfect emitter. All real (non-ideal) surfaces
emit less than a black surface. Real surfaces are characterized by how closely they resemble black
surfaces.

By definition:
1.A blackbody absorbs all the radiation incident upon it.
2.The blackbody is a diffuse emitter. The radiation emitted by a black body irrespective of
wavelength and directon is independent of direction, though it does depend on the wave length
and temperature.
3.For a given wavelength and temperature, no surface can emit more energy as thermal radiation
than a blackbody.
4.A blackbody does not reflect or transmit any incident radiation.

Materials such as carbon black, carborundum, and platinum black are good approximations of
black surfaces in their ability to absorb incident radiation.

We must recognize that surfaces which are nearly black, for radiation purposes, are not necessarily
black to visible light, because the visible-light wavelength range is only a small part of the overall
thermal radiation range. White paper, for example, is nearly radiation black with an absorptivity
of 0.97.
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Construction of a Blackbody

The concept of a blackbody is an idealization; that is, a perfect blackbody does not exist—
all surfaces reflect radiation to some extent, however slight. A blackbody may be approximated
very accurately, however, in the following way. A cavity is constructed so that it is very large
compared with the size of the opening in the side. An incident ray of energy is reflected many
times on the inside before finally escaping from the side opening. With each reflection there is a
fraction of the energy absorbed corresponding to the absorptivity of the inside of the cavity. After
the many absorptions, practically all the incident radiation at the side opening is absorbed. It should
be noted that the cavity of behaves approximately as a blackbody emitter as well as an absorber.

Figure 6
A cavity with a small hole (approximates a black body)

Figure 7
A small black body inside a cavity
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Laws of blackbody radiation

The emission is over all wavelengths and is given by Planck’s law, which is

2 ℎ
( , = =
ℎ ( ⁄ −1
−1

Where C1 = 3.7417 x 108 (W/m2).(m)4

C2 = 1.4388 x 104 m.K
h = Planck’s constant = 6.62607 x 10−34 J.s
k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38065 x 10−23 J/K
Eb = spectral emissive power of a blackbody

The spectral blackbody emissive power is the rate of thermal emission per unit surface area per
unit wavelength.

This relation is valid for a surface in a vacuum or a gas. For other mediums, it needs to be modified
by replacing C by C1/n2, where n is the index of refraction of the medium. Note that the term
spectral indicates dependence on wavelength.

If the wavelength of the radiation is in m, then the units of the spectral emissive power are W/(m2
m).

The spectral emissive power of a blackbody given in the equation is a function of both the
wavelength of the radiation and the absolute temperature of the blackbody. The blackbody emits
over all wavelengths. If we integrate spectral emissive power Eb over all wavelengths, we get the
total emissive power Eb which is a function of only the temperature T of the blackbody.

Eb = the energy radiated per unit time per unit area by the ideal radiator (W/m2)
= total blackbody emissive power
= the sum of the radiation emitted over all wavelengths.

σ = the Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.669 x 10−8 W/m2 K4

The total energy emitted is proportional to absolute temperature to the fourth power. This is called
the Stefan - Boltzmann law.

The subscript b denotes that this is radiation from a blackbody. This is called blackbody radiation
because materials that obey this law appear black to the eye because they do not reflect any
radiation. Thus a blackbody is also considered as one that absorbs all radiation incident upon it.
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At any specified temperature, the spectral blackbody emissive power Eb increases with
wavelength, reaches a peak, and then decreases with increasing wavelength. The wavelength at
which the peak occurs for a specified temperature is given by Wien’s displacement law as

( = 2897.8 ⋅

Figure 8
Blackbody emissive power as a function of wavelength and temperature

Assume that a perfectly black enclosure is available, i.e., one that absorbs all the incident radiation
falling upon it. This enclosure will also emit radiation according to the T4 law. Let the radiant flux
arriving at some area in the enclosure be q̇i (W/m2).

Figure 5
Black enclosure
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Now suppose that a body is placed inside the enclosure and allowed to come into temperature
equilibrium with it. At equilibrium the energy absorbed by the body, q̇iAα, must be equal to the
energy emitted, EA, At equilibrium we may write

EA = q̇ iAα equation 1

If we now replace the body in the enclosure with a blackbody of the same size and shape and allow
it to come to equilibrium with the enclosure at the same temperature, since the absorptivity of a
blackbody is unity.

EbA = q̇ iA(1) equation 2

Dividing equation 1 by 2

The ratio of the emissive power of a body to the emissive power of a blackbody at the same
temperature is equal to the absorptivity of the body. This ratio is defined as the emissivity ε
of the body,
ε=

so that
α=ε

is called Kirchhoff’s identity. It implies that good radiators are good absorbers Note that the
emissivities and absorptivities are the total properties of the particular material; that is, they
represent the integrated behavior of the material over all wavelengths.

Values of emissivity vary greatly for different materials. They are near unity for rough surfaces
such as ceramics or oxidized metals, and roughly 0.02 for polished metals or silvered reflectors.

Real substances emit less radiation than ideal black surfaces as measured by the emissivity of the
material. In reality, the emissivity of a material varies with temperature and the wavelength of the
radiation.
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The Gray Body

A gray body is defined such that the monochromatic emissivity of the body is independent of
wavelength. The monochromatic emissivity is defined as the ratio of the monochromatic emissive
power of the body to the monochromatic emissive power of a blackbody at the same wavelength
and temperature. Thus

where Ebλ is the emissive power of a blackbody per unit wavelength.

The total emissivity of the body,ε, may be related to the monochromatic emissivity,

= =

If the gray-body condition is imposed, that is, = constant, then =

Determining the amount of energy radiated from a blackbody in a certain specified wavelength
range:

If the radiant energy emitted between wavelengths λ1 and λ2 is desired, then

= −

Where is the total radiation emitted over all wavelengths

Black-body Radiation Functions

The blackbody radiation function f represents the fraction of radiation emitted by a blackbody at
temperature T in the wavelength band from  = 0 to l. The fraction of radiation energy emitted by
a blackbody at temperature T over a finite wavelength band from  = 1 to  = 2 is determined
from
( = ( − (

where ( and ( are the blackbody radiation functions corresponding to 1T and 2T

The radiant energy emitted between wavelengths λ1 and λ2:

=
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Table 1
Blackbody radiation functions, f

Example:

A glass plate 30 cm square is used to view radiation from a furnace. The transmissivity of the glass
is 0.5 from 0.2 to 3.5 μm. The emissivity may be assumed to be 0.3 up to 3.5 μm and 0.9 above
that. The transmissivity of the glass is zero, except in the range from 0.2 to 3.5 μm. Assuming that
the furnace is a blackbody at 2000°C, calculate the energy absorbed in the glass and the energy
transmitted.

Solution:

Glass plate with As = 0.30m (0.30m) = 0.090 m2

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Transmissivity  = 0.5 from 1 = 0.2 μm to 2 = 3.5 μm

=0 except from 1 = 0.2 μm to 2 = 3.5 μm

Emissivity = 0.3 up to 3.5 μm

= 0.9 above 3.5 μm

Solving for the total transmitted radiant energy, Q̇τ

Assume furnace is a blackbody

T = 2000°C = 2273 K

for 1 = 0.2 μm λ1T = 0.2(2273) = 454.6 μm K

for  = 3.5 μm λ2T = 3.5(2273) = 7955.5 μm K

determining the fraction of radiation energy emitted at temperature 2273K from 1 = 0.2 µm to
2 = 3.5 µm

From Table 1

λ1T = 454.6 μm K fλ1 = 0

λ2T = 7955.5 μm K fλ2 = 0.854445 by interpolation

( = ( − (

( = 0.854445 – 0 = 0.854445

Solving for the radiant energy emitted by the furnace per unit time per unit area over a
wavelength from 0.2 µm to 3.5 µm
=

= 5.669 10 (2273 (0.854445 = 1.293 10 ⁄

Solving for the incident radiant energy (Q̇i) over a wavelength of 0.2 to 3.5 µm

Q̇i = (Ebλ1−λ2 )A = 1.293 x 106 W/m2 (0.09 m2) = 1.164 x 105 W

Solving for the total transmitted radiant energy, Q̇τ

Q̇τ = transmitted radiant energy at less than 0.2 µm + transmitted radiant energy from
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0.2 to 3.5 µm + transmitted radiant energy above 3.5 µm

Q̇τ = 0 + 0.5(1.164 x 105) + 0 = 58,185 W

Solving for the total radiant energy absorbed (Q̇α) by the glass,

Up to wavelength of 3.5 µm, ε = 0.3

Q̇α = ε Q̇i = 0.3(1.164 x 105) = 34,920 W

Above 3.5 µm, ε = 0.9

The fraction of radiation energy emitted at temperature 2273K above 3.5 µm

f3.5-∞ = 1 – 0.854445 = 0.145555

= ( . = 5.669 10 (2273 (0.145555 = 220,258 ⁄

Solving for the incident radiant energy (Q̇i) above 3.5 µm

Q̇i = (Ebλ1−λ2 )A = 220,258 W/m2 (0.09 m2) = 19,823 W

Solving for the total radiant energy absorbed, Q̇by the glass

Q̇ = radiant energy absorbed up to 3.5 µm + radiant energy absorbed above 3.5 µm

Q̇τ = 34,920 + 17841 = 52,761 W

Progress Check:

1.Explain the nature of thermal radiation.

2. What is an electromagnetic wave?
3.What is the range of wavelength for visible radiation?
4.What are the wavelength bands covering ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) radiation?
5.What is thermal radiation? In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum is it concentrated?
6. When a body is said to be black, what is the range of wavelengths which it will absorb?
7. What is the black-body radiation function? What does it represent? For what is it used?
8.Differentiate between specular and diffuse surfaces.
9.What is the Stefan–Boltzmann law?
10.Distinguish between black-body radiation and gray-body radiation.
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Problems:

1. Fused quartz transmits 90 percent of the incident thermal radiation between 0.2 and 4 μm.
Suppose a certain heat source is viewed through a quartz window. What heat flux in watts will be
transmitted through the material from blackbody radiation sources at (a) 800°C, (b) 550°C, (c)
250°C, and (d ) 70°C?

2. Repeat Problem 1 for synthetic sapphire, which has a transmissivity of 0.85 between 0.2 and 5.5
μm.

3. Repeat Problem 1 for cesium iodide, which has a transmissivity of approximately 0.92 between
0.3 and 52 μm.

4. Calculate the energy emitted between 4 and 15 μm by a gray body at 100°F with ε = 0.6.

References:

Cengel, Y. A., & Ghajar, A. J. (2015). Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals &
Applications (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Dixit, D. K. (2016). Heat and Mass Transfer (1st ed.). McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited.

Forsberg, C. H. (2020). Radiation heat transfer. In Heat Transfer Principles and

Applications (pp. 343-380). Academic Press.

Holman, J. P. (Jack Philip) (2010). Heat Transfer (10th ed). McGraw Hill Higher Education

https://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/SPRING/thermodynamics/notes/
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