As the need and requirement of fossil fuels is always high on the international markets in consequence

with badly increasing environment problems due to increased internal combustion engine vehicles has
resulted in rising interest in the research and development of batteries used in electric and hybrid
vehicles. These Electric and Hybrid vehicles are going to be the best advancement in nearby future in
both public and private road transport, this initiated in reducing greenhouse gas emissions besides air
and sound pollution. The major devastating effects of transportation is one of the predominant factors
of climate change effecting atmosphere nearly 23% with greenhouse gases, this keeps transportation in
second place following industrial sector. This led to a decision, in 2015 "Paris declaration on
ElectroMobility and Climate Change and Call to Action". The main objective of this declaration is to
reducing global warming by more than 2 degrees. This is pretty good achievable if this transition to
electric vehicles reaches 35 % out of total number of vehicles should be electric by 2030. To achieve this
target, a decrease in the acquisition price of the electric vehicles is a great strategy to get this level
similar to that of the internal combustion engine vehicles. These days, the most expensive component of
an electric vehicle is the battery, which stands 25 to 50 % alone of the total price of the vehicle,
depending on the technology used. Based on the market study, production costs of the Li-Ion batteries
decreased over 50 % from 2007 to 2014. This further decreases reaching a target price of 225
Euros/kWh is expected by 2025, which directly helps decrease in the acquisition price of the electric
vehicles.

The automobile industry is the one of the most important industry world-wide, economically besides
with research and development. There are vast range of emerging technological elements that are being
introduced in electronic vehicles towards the improvement of safety measures for both pedestrians and
passengers. There are a greater number of vehicles on the roads, which allows us to move quickly and
comfortably, this led to a dramatic increase in air pollution levels in urban environments (i.e., pollutants,
such as PM, nitrogen oxides (NOX), CO, sulphur dioxide (SO2), etc.). Based on the study report by
European Union, the transport sector accounts nearly 28% of the total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions,
in which the road transport shares over 70% of the transport sector emissions. To contribute a part to
the environment many developed countries are showing more interest in encouraging the use of Electric
Vehicles (EVs) to aid for the reduction of air pollution, CO2 emissions besides greenhouse gases. Most
significantly, all these countries are providing special incentives through different initiations such as tax
benefits, purchase aids, special permissions like free parking, free use of motorways to promote
pollution free sustainable and efficient way of transport using electric vehicles.

Generally, there are different types of EVs, based on their engine’s technology. There are five different
types:

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): There Vehicles are completely electric powered. These vehicles do not
contain any kind of liquid fuel or internal combustion engines. BEVs have a large pile of battery packs to
give the vehicle an exceptional power and pick-up. Basic BEV will last, its battery ranges from 160 to 250
km, besides some has the range of 500 km with a single charge. To quote an example there is a vehicle
Nissan Leaf which is totally electric provided with 62 kWh battery that has the range of 360 km.

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): Plug-In Hybrid vehicles runs with both combustible engine and
electric engine which can be charged by connecting to the pluggable external electric power grid. PHEVs
have the capacity to store enough electricity from the grid which gradually reduces the fuel
consumption in regular driving conditions. The best example for PHEV is the Mitsubishi Outlander
provided with 12 kWh battery, which has a range of 50 km with electric engine. It is noted by the steady
observation that PHEVs fuel consumption is a bit higher than its quoted by manufacturers.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): Hybrid vehicles have power source both internal combustion engine
and an electric engine. The only difference between PHEVs and HEVs is that PHEVs are plugged to an
external power source whereas HEVs need not to be plugged. The battery that charges electric engine is
charged by using the power generated from combustion engine. In addition, the latest models of HEVs
batteries can also be charged by the energy produced by braking, converting kinetic energy into electric
energy. For example, one of the best HEVs is the Toyota Prius, has the 4 th generation hybrid model
which provided with 1.3 kWh battery which has the range of 25 km with electric engine.

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs): These Fuel Cell Electric vehicles have an electric engine that is
powered with mixed with compressed hydrogen and oxygen obtained from air, which has the only
waste by product from this process is water. It can be proudly stated that these types of vehicles are
called as “zero emissions”, the hydrogen used in these vehicles is extracted from natural gas which is
knows as green hydrogen. The best example for FCEVs is the Hyundai Nexo FCEV which can run up to
650 km range without refuelling.

Extended-range EVs (ER-EVs): These ER-EVs are most similar to BEV category. Besides, these vehicles
are provided with a combustion engine that charges the batteries whenever in need, this gives that
additional support and increases range to the BEVs. This kind of vehicles the extra source is only used to
charge the batteries and is not connected to any propel that makes the vehicle to move, this makes ER-
EVs stand different from PHEVs and HEVs. The best example for ER-EVs is the BMW i3, which is provided
with a 42.2 kWh battery that has a range of 260 km in electric mode, and has an additional benefit of
130 km with the extended-range mode.

Lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ion): This Lithium-ion batteries used as electrolyte, a lithium salt gives the
required ions needed to the reversible electrochemical reaction that takes place between the cathode
and anode. There are number of advantages of Li-ion batteries light weight of the components, higher
loading capacity, higher internal resistance, along with their high loading and unloading cycles. They also
present a reduced memory effect. Li-ion batteries should be operated in specific area which must be
capable of withstanding temperature and voltage fluctuations. These limitations should be monitored
keenly as if the temperature or the voltage exceeds the prescribed range that shows direct effect on the
performance of the battery and can cause more damage like catching fire or they may even explode, if
the temperature goes beyond 150 ◦C the electrolytes start to destroy themselves. This kind of battery is
widely used today by the most of the EVs and PHEVs. The most important aspect comparing all these
different technologies in their operational temperature, that can be most deciding element for the
adoption of such technology. The two best batteries Lead-acid and Lithium ion are most preferred basis
on their performance in low temperatures, the can with stand up to -20 ◦C besides, in Li-ion batteries
low temperatures would result in the serious damage to capacity of the battery and might even causes
self-discharge. The standard optimum operating temperature is 40 ◦C for this kind of batteries. There are
more types of batteries that can operate on higher temperatures like sodium (Na-NiCl y Na-S). Lithium-
ion batteries are the most valuable and has the best energy capacity and energy density when compared
with lead-acid (Pb-PbO2) and Nickel (Ni-Cd, Ni-MH) Smart Cities 2021, 4 385 batteries which has more
negatives.