Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

Powder Metallurgy (P/M)

Definitions
Powder Metallurgy (P/M) is a processing technology in which parts are
produced by compacting and sintering metallic and /or nonmetallic
powders . P/M parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net
shape, eliminating or reducing the need for subsequent machining .
Figures below shows some types of P/M products .

Why Powder Metallurgy is Important?(advantages)

1. PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape

2. PM process wastes very little material - ~ 3%

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

3. PM parts can be made with a specified level of porosity, to

produce porous metal parts
– Filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears
4. Difficult to fabricate parts can be shaped by powder metallurgy
– Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp bulbs are made by PM
5. Certain alloy combinations and cermets can only be made by PM
6. PM production can be automated for economical production

Limitations and Disadvantages

• High tooling and equipment costs

• Metallic powders are expensive

• Problems in storing and handling metal powders

– Degradation over time, fire hazards with certain metals

• Limitations on part geometry because metal powders do not readily flow well

• Variations in density may be a problem, especially for complex geometries

Powder metallurgy process

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

Production of Metallic Powders

• Any metal can be made into powder form

Three principal methods by which metallic powders are commercially produced
1. Atomization
2. Chemical
3. Electrolytic
• In addition, mechanical milling is occasionally used to reduce powder sizes

Atomization.

Here the liquid metal stream is produced through a small orifice and the stream is
broken by
a jet of inert gas/water/air.
Finely divided particles are obtained. The size of the particle depends on the
temperature of the metal, flow rate, nozzle size & jet characteristics.
A continuous uniform production of metal powders can be obtained .
As the molten metal is entering the nozzle inert gas is forced through the annular
space of the nozzle. This will create a very fine spray of metal and fine particles
are collected in the
chamber.

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

Atomization Process

Characterization of Powders
• P/M materials
– Alloys of iron, steel, and aluminum, copper, nickel, and refractory
metals such as molybdenum and tungsten and metallic carbides
• Geometric feature
– Particle shape
– Particle size
– Particle distribution
– They affects surface area, packing density, porosity, interparticle
friction (Flow Characteristics), Green Strength:

 Particle
shape

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

• Particle Size (PS)

Mesh count refers to the number of openings per linear inch of screen. Thus, higher
mesh count means smaller particle size

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

 Surface area
For any particle shape, the shape factor , Ks , define the area –to- volume
ratio ,
KS = AD/V

Where A is the surface area , V is the volume , and D is the diameter of a

sphere of equivalent volume as the non- spherical particle.
• Packing Factor (PF)
• True density : density of the true volume of the sintered material
• Bulk density : density of the powders in the loose state after pouring
Bulk density less than true density because the effect of pores between particles .
Packing Factor = pulk density / true density
ρ bulk
Packing Factor = ρ true =≤ 1

• Typical PF for loose powders: 0.5 and 0.7

– Compaction Pressure increases packing factor
• Porosity (P) - Ratio of the volume of the empty spaces in the powder to the bulk
volume.

(P+PF=1 )

Powder Metallurgy steps

1. Blending and mixing of powders
2. Compaction - pressing into desired shape
3. Sintering - heating to temperature below melting point
to cause solid-state bonding of particles and strengthening of part

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

Powder Blending

A single powder may not fulfil all the requisite properties and hence, powders of
different materials with wide range of mechanical properties are blended to form a
final part. Blending is carried out for several purposes as follows:

1. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles,

2. Blending facilitates mixing of different powder particles to impart wide ranging
physical and mechanical properties,
3. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve the flow
characteristics of the powder particles reducing friction between particles and dies,
4. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to enhance the green
strength during the powder compaction process.

Powder Compaction

*In this step, the blended powders are pressed into shapes in dies using presses
activated by hydraulic & mechanical means. The pressure is around 70-800Mpa.
*By pressing, the required shape with the desired density, with good particle to
particle contact can be obtained.The pressed powder is referred to as green
compact.
Pressing is generally done at room temperature, but can also be carried out at

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

elevated temperature.*The density of the green compact depends on the pressure

applied.
*As the compacting pressure is increased, the density approaches that of the
theoretical density of the metal in the bulk form.*If the size of the particles are the
same then there will always be some open spaces between the particles.
This space is referred to as porosity.
*In general, the porosity will be around 24% by volume.*Introducing smaller
particles will fill the spaces between the larger particles and thus result in a higher
density of the compact.*Higher the density, higher will be the strength and elastic
modulus of the part.
Compaction is carried out by pouring a measured amount of metallic powder into
the die cavity and applying pressure by means of one or more plungers. To
improve uniformity of pressure and reduce porosity in the compacted part,
compressive forces from both the top and the bottom sides are necessary.
Figure 3.6.3 depicts a schematic view of the powder compaction process to
manufacture a typical bushing

pressing of

powder

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

Figure 3.6.3 Compaction of metal powder to form a bushing [3]

The effect of compaction pressure on density

Sintering

Sintering refers to the heating of the compacted powder perform to a specific

temperature (below the melting temperature of the principle powder particles while
well above the temperature that would allow diffusion between the neighbouring
particles). Sintering facilitates the bonding action between the individual powder
particles and increase in the strength of the final part. The heating process must be
carried out in a controlled, inert or reducing atmosphere or in vacuum for very
critical parts to prevent oxidation. Prior to the sintering process, the compacted

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

powder perform is brittle and confirm to very low green strength. The nature and
strength of the bond between the particles depends on the mechanism of diffusion
and plastic flow of the powder particles, and evaporation of volatile material from
the in the compacted preform. Bonding among the powder particles takes places in
three ways: (1) melting of minor constituents in the powder particles, (2) diffusion
between the powder particles, and (3) mechanical bonding. The time, temperature
and the furnace atmosphere are the three critical factors that control the sintering
process. Sintering process enhances the density of the final part by filling up the
incipient holes and increasing the area of contact among the powder particles in the
compact perform.

Sintering Sequence on a Microscopic Scale

• (1) Particle bonding is initiated at contact points; (2) contact points grow into
"necks"; (3) pores between particles are reduced in size; (4) grain boundaries
develop between particles in place of necked regions

Sintering Cycle and

Furnace
• (a) Typical heat
treatment cycle
in sintering; and
(b) schematic
cross section of
a continuous
sintering furnace

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

Densification and Sizing

• Secondary operations are performed on

sintered part to increase density, improve accuracy, or accomplish additional
shaping
– Repressing - pressing in closed die to increase density and improve properties
– Sizing - pressing to improve dimensional accuracy
– Coining - pressing details into its surface
– Machining - for geometric features that cannot be formed by pressing, such as
threads and side holes

Impregnation and Infiltration

• Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of PM technology

• It can be exploited to create special products by filling the available pore space
with oils, polymers, or metals
• Two categories:
1. Impregnation
2. Infiltration

Impregnation

The term used when oil or other fluid is permeated into the pores of a sintered PM
part
• Common products are oil-impregnated bearings, gears, and similar components
• Alternative application is when parts are impregnated with polymer resins that
seep into the pore spaces in liquid form and then solidify to create a pressure tight
part.

Infiltration
Operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled with a molten metal
• The melting point of the filler metal must be below that of the PM part
• Heating the filler metal in contact with the sintered part so capillary action draws
the filler into the pores
– Resulting structure is nonporous, and the infiltrated part has a more uniform
density, as well as improved toughness and strength

Design for Powder Metallurgy

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

Several design rules must be considered to make parts efficiently and economically
by the powder metallurgy process:
1. The design must be such that the part can be ejected from the mould or die. Parts
with straight wall are preferred. No draft should be required for the ejection of a
part from a lubricated die [as shown in Figure 3.6.6(a)].
2. In designing the part, consideration should be given to the need for the powder
particles to flow properly into all parts of the mould or die. Therefore, thin walls,
narrow splines, or sharp corner should be avoided (should be thicker than 0.762
mm).
3. The shape of the part should permit the construction of strong tooling. Dies
and punches should have no sharp edges. Reasonable clearance must be
provided between the top and the bottom dies during pressing.

6. Shape of the parts should be kept as simple as possible and should contain
with few levels and axial variation. Holes should not be designed in the
direction of pressing [as illustrated in Figure 3.6.6(b)]

10. As far as possible, abrupt changes in the section thickness should be avoided.
[as illustrate in Figure 3.6.6(c)]

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 Manufacturing Processes Powder Metallurgy P/M

P/M Products
• Gears, bearings, sprockets, fasteners, electrical contacts, cutting tools, and
various machinery parts .

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