University of Quebec

Superior Technology School

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMATED PRODUCTION

GPA-210
manufacturing mechanical elements

COURSE NOTES

Luke Trottierchargé courses

Written by Paul Gely Modified Winter

1992
Summer
 1

PREFACE

The field of mechanical engineering, one of the pillars of the

current industrial world has undergone profound changes since the
advent of the industrial age. Even today, the automated production
proves to be a new step in this transformation.
Manufacturing principles normally operate while the surrounding
environment becomes automated, robotized is by using the computer. This
calls for a renewal of equipment, but also the creation of new training
tools.
The School of Higher Technology adapts his teaching to this new
requirement by offering a tuition preparing Bachelor of automated
production technology.

These notes were written precisely in order to bring students

and electrical and electronic training professionals the fundamentals
of critical manufacturing launch of a production. They include eleven
chapters, the order of presentation will be respected during the
course. After reviewing standards quotes dimensional, geometric and
surface condition, are introduced two steps useful to the
understanding of mechanical drawings: analysis and scoring function

nelle. Then are presented and analyzed the different methods of

obtaining raw parts and machining processes. For all of them are exposed
to the principle of work, the specificities and the various conditions
of use. The isostatism and transfer dimensions are the latest steps that
allow discussion in detail the preparation of a launch production called
range of machining. Finally the last chapter presents a graphic science,
descriptive geometry.

These notes are the result of a literature review and personal

experience. The chapters include examples solved while the collection of
separate exercises of these notes, allows the student to check and go deeper
knowledge.

Good session.

Paul Gely
 ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface i....................................................................
vi reference volumes......................................................

I Tolerances dimensionnelleset ajustements1

1.1 Setting a rating of 1.........................................

1.2 Introduction and terminology 2................................
1.3 The ISO system 3..............................................
1.4 adjustments 8.................................................
1.5 The ANSI 13 standard..........................................
1.6 Choosing an adjustment 18.....................................

II The states of surface24

2.1 Need for the study of surface 24 étatsde......................

2.2 terminology 25................................................

2.3 Analysis of a surface 26......................................
2.4 The surface finish of 28 criteria.............................
2.5 Specifications of a state of surfacesurle drawing 30..........

2.6 The measuring devices of surface states 33....................

2.7 manufacturing processes and states desurface 39...............

III The tolerances géométriques40

3.1 Introduction 40...............................................

3.2 terminology 41................................................
3.3 Indication elements 42 on ledessin ............................
3.4 shape tolerances 44...........................................
3.5 The tolerances associated 48..................................
3.6 functional analysis and allocation of tolerances
geometric 56....................... ........ ..............
3.7 functional analysis and calculation intervals
 iii

IV The quotation fonctionnelle69

4.1 Introduction 69...............................................

4.2 Terminology and conventions .., .. ,,, .. 70..................
4.3 Of actual dimension chains 71.................................
4.4 Fundamentals cotationfonctionnelle 78 .....................
4.5 Interdependence of tolérancesdes odds 83......................

4.6 Applications of functional dimensioning 85....................

4.7 Listing on functional lessurfacesinclinées100.................

V Scoring the most of matière103

5.1 Définition103.................................................
5.2 The criterion perpendicularité105.............................
5.3 The criterion coaxialité110...................................
5.4 The criterion localisation.'113............................
5.5 The criterion symétrie117.....................................
5.6 the contrôles119..............................................

VI Obtaining bruts121

6.1 Introduction121...............................................
6.2 the moulage.121...............................................
6.3 Forming the plastique129......................................
6.4 the frittage136...............................................

VII Methods of usinage137

7.1 Introduction137...............................................
7.2 the découpage138..............................................
7.3 Machining by coupe139.........................................
- Cutting principle 140...............................
- Leperçage and alésage147............................

- Letournage158.......................................

- Lefraisage167.......................................
 iv

7.4t Work by abrasion188............................................

- Grinding and rectification188........................
- the rodage196........................................
- Polishing ... 197....................................
7.5 The physicochemical processes chimiques198.....................
- Machining électroérosion198..........................
- électrochimique202 machining.........................
- The laser découper203................................
7.6 Machining processes and étatsde surface204.....................

VIII L1 isostatisme206

8.1 Définition206..................................................
8.2 The degrees of freedom and liaisons207.........................
8.3 The isostatic geometric shapes simples210......................
8.4 Symbolization and physical configuration of connections and
set of rages220................................................
8.5 the serrage225.................................................
8.6 Isostatic positioning and clamping systems
courants226....................................................
8.7 Application of isostatisme230..................................

IX Transfer of coteset orientations237

9.1 Introduction237................................................
9.2 Odds fabrication238............................................
9.3 Transfer dimensionnelles243 ratings............................
9.4 Transferring orientations252...................................

X Range usinage257

10.1 Introduction 257...............................................

10.2 terminology 258................................................
10.3 Elaboration of the machining: générales260 data.............

10.4 Reading définition273 drawing..................................

10.5 Analysis of antériorités275....................................
 V

XI The geometry descriptive288

11.1 Introduction288...............................................
11.2 fondamentales289 notions......................................
- Projections of a point290...........................
- Projecting an droite294.............................
- Projecting a plan301................................
- The lines of greater pente310.......................
11.3 Processing methods ..314......................................
- Changing plans314...................................
- the rotation317.....................................
- the rabattement320..................................
11.4 Applications325...............................................
 VOLUMES OF REFERENCE

1- R. Quatremer and JP Trotignon, "engineering Accurate: 1.

drawing, design and standardization", 5 edition,
AFNOR (Nathan, Paris, 1978).

2- A. Knight, "Guide draftsman"

(Hachette Edition 1983 -. 1984).

3- Ruper Legrand (éditor), "The American Machinist's Handbook"

(McGraw - Hill, 1968).

4- Paul B. Schubert (éditor). "Machinery's Handbook" (Industrial

Press, New York, 1982).

5- Francis T. Farago, "Handbook of Dimensional Measurement",

(Industrial Press, New York, 1968).

6- Lowel W. Foster, "Geo-metrics, The Metric Application" (Addison

- Wesley Publishing Co., 1974).

7- R. Pasquet et al., "Functional dimensioning in the drawing

definition" (Dunod, 1967).

8- P. and A. Padilla Thely, "Guide mechanical fabrications"

(Dunod, 1978).

9- Heine - Loper - Rosenthal, "Principles of Metal Casting",

second edition, (McGraw - Hill, 1967).

10- R. Dietrich et al, "Accurate engineering. 2. manufacturing

methods and standardization), 4- edition, AFNOR (Nathan, Paris, 1979).

11- John R. Walker, "Machining Fundamentals" (The Goodheart -

Willcox Co., Inc., 1977).

12- John L. Feirer, "Metalworking Machine Tool," second edition,

(McGraw - Hill, 1973).

13- F. H "Hallet and AE Mills," Technology for Industrial

Manufacturing "(Macmillan of Canada, 1972).

14- Krar - Oswald - St-Amand, "Technology of Machine Tools" (McGraw

Hill, 1969).
 ■ LS-; Amitabha Bhattacharya and Inyong Ham, "Design of Cutting Tools"
(Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Michigan, 1969).

16- J. Vergnas, "Processing: Technology and Practice" (Dunod, 1982)

17- Roland Weill, "Machining Techniques" (Dunod, 1971).

18- Camya and Rollet, "general occupational technology for

mechanics", Volume II, (the Foucher Publishing, Paris, 1971)

19- Technical staff of the raachinability data center, "Machinery

Data Handbook", Third Edition, Volume II (Metcut Research Associates Inc.,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1980).

20- Tolerance Chart Service Co (Olivies R. Wade), "Tolerance Control

in Design and Manufacturing" (Industrial Press, New York, 1967).

21- Jack Karr, "Methods and analysis of mechanical manufacturing"

(Dunod, 1979).

22- M. Paoletti, "Logical Study of machining sequences," Desforges,

Paris, 1975).
 1

CHAPTER I
DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCE ADJUSTMENTS

1.1 Definition of a dimension

A dimension can represent the distance between (Figure 1.1):

-two parallel planar surfaces (Aj odds and A2).
-a flat surface and an axis (Bj odds and B2) •
-two parallel axes (Grade C).
-two diametrically opposed generatrices of a tree (Grade D).
a bore (Document E).

A rating may also designate an angle between:

-two plane surfaces (dimension F).
-two axes.

Figure 1.1: The different types of odds on a machine part

 2

1.2 Introduction and terminology

Either document 25.0000 millimeters (mm.) In which no

deviation is tolerated on either side of the dimension of 25 mm., A
shelf with such dimensional rigor can not be obtained by conventional
machining methods to because of their inevitable imprecision. We must
therefore tolerate the actually realized dimension is between two
permissible limits near net shape and compatible with the proper
functioning of the room with this rating. The difference between
these two permissible limits will be called 1'INTERVALLE TOLERANCE
(IT).

So syears affect the desired function of the roomThe rating

of 25.0000 mentioned above can be tolérancée within two permissible
limits, for example:
-Limit maximum allowable = 25.010 mm.
-Limit minimum allowable = 24 970 mm.

The tolerance interval will be: 25010-24970 = 0.040 ram.

or 40 Mw (*). This new dimension with tolerance will be written as follows:
+ 10 25
-30
* 25 which is usually a whole is called the NOMINAL RATING
* Permissible deviations from nominal dimension (25)
are in pm

Graphical representation of this example

reference

Figure 1.2: Graphical representation of a dimension with tolerance interval.

--3
(*) =
10 m - 10 mm 25.4 Ot ^ m - - t h u m b *
1000^
 3

_r Figure 1.2 shows the nominal dimension (25.0000) from which are
located the upper and lower gaps which define the minimum and maximum
allowable dimensions of this dimension with tolerance range.

The machining method chosen must be capable of performing a work

size within this tolerance range as located around the nominal dimension.
24,980 manufacturing dimensions, 24,990, 24,995 and 25,008 will therefore
acceptable manufacturing dimensions for this example

1.3 The ISO system- (International Organization System)

the "3 .a) Dé_fini t ion

The ISO system defines a set of tolerances to be applied

to the dimensions of the smooth parts. These tolerances allow to
standardize ADJUSTMENTS (male parts in female parts).

To simplify the terminology, we explicitly address that

adjustments between parts? circular cylindrical section and
SHAFT BORE. What is said
these parts are fully apply to all other forms of adjustments;
such adjustments between two parallel faces: groove width,
thickness
key ...
 (ES) = max. - na
1 [SD superior D D me
BORE (El) = min. - na
[SD inferior D D me
féca max. - na
superior (S) = d me
TREE rt d
.
[SD inferior (Ei) = min. - na
d d me

where capital letters symbolize the bore and lowercase letters

tree.
 Quality 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 14 * * 16
1 0 1 2 3 ' 15
0 0 0 1 3 4 6 1 1 2 4 6 1 1 25 40
*3 . . . . 2 0 4 600
0 4 5 0 0 0 0
3
0 5
0 8 2
1 2 4 5 8 1 1 t 4 7 0
1 0
1 30 48
> 3-6 . . 1 . . h 2 8 750
2 8 8 5 0 0
4
0 6
0 5
1 5
2 4 6 9 1 2 i
3 5 9 0
1 0
2 36 58
> 6-10 . . 1 . . 6 8 0 5 2 0 0 900
5 2
Fundamental Tolerances in microns

4
0 6
0 1 5 5 5 8 1 1 2 4 7 1 0
1 0
2 43 70
> 10-18 . . . 2 3 3 0 1 8 7 0 0 1100
1 8 7
5
0 8 2
1 2 6 9 1 2 3 5 8 0
1 0
2 0
3 52 84
> 18-30 1 4 1300
. . . 3 1 3 2 4 3 1 3 0 0
0 1 2 7 1 1 2 3 6 1 1 2 3 62 10
> 30 to 50 . 1 . . 4 0 6 5 9 1600
1 6 5 9 2 0 00
6
0 1 5 5 8 1 1 t 4 7 0
1 0
1 0
3 0
4 74 12
> 50-80 2 3 5 1900
. . 3 9 h 6 4 2 9 0 6 0 00
> 80 to 1 2 1 1 2 3 5 8 1 2 3 5 87 14
t . . 4 6 4 2 5 4 2200
120 0 5 2 5 4 7 0 00
> 120 to 1 5 5
3 1 1 2 4 6 1 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
6 10 16
180 . 2 . 5 8 0 6 5 0 3 00 00 2500
2 8 5 0 3
> 180 to 2 5
4 1 1 2 2 4 7 0
1 0
1 0
2 •0 0
7 11 18
250 2 3 . 7 0 1 8 9 4 2 50 50 2900
4 0 9 6 2
2 5 1 1 2 3 5 8 5
1 5
2 0
3 6
5 0
8 13 21
> 250-315 . 4 6 8 3 1 2 2 1 3200
2 6 3 2 2 1 00 00
> 315-400 5
3 5 7 9 1 1 2 3 5 8 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
5 0
8 14 23 3600
3 8 5 6 7 9 4 3 6 7 9 00 00
1 1 2 2 4 6 $ 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
5 0
9 15 25
> 400-500 4 6 8 5 5 0 3 7 4000
0 5 0 7 0 3 50 00
5 0 0 0 0

Table 1.1: Fundamental tolerances intervals (quality).

The nominal dimensions are given in mm. and qualities
pm.
 6

Comments on Table 1.1

1- At equal quality, tolerance intervals increase with the

nominal size.

2- At an index of low quality is a low tolerance

range. More quality index will be more low
production costs will be high because to achieve
a rating within a small tolerance range will
require a precision machine tool and die more
care and precautions will be taken.

The data in Table 1.1 are not sufficient to completely

describe a dimension with tolerances. Nothing yet indicates the
position of the tolerance intervals over the zero line.

1.3. d) Position_des_tolérances

The position of the tolerance intervals with respect to

the zero line is symbolized by one or two letters:
-from A to Z for the bores (CAPS)
-from alphabetically for trees (lowercase)
Figures 1.4 and 1.5 show schematically the different possible
positions of the tolerance intervals.

U
AT

Figure 1.4: Diagram Positions Figure 1.5: Positions diagrammed

tisées tolerances with respect to tolerances with respect to the zero
the zero line (nominal size) of a line (nominal size) of a tree.
bore.
 7

Comentaires_au_sujet_des_schémas_dépositions (figure 1.4

and 1.5)

1- The first letters of the alphabet (A and a) correspond

to the minimum state material to the bore / shaft
adjustment, that is to say the dimension of the bore is:
maximum and that of the shaft is minimum.

2- The letter H a bore corresponds to the case where the

minimum allowable dimension of the bore corresponds to
the nominal dimension. The tangent tolerance interval
superiorly the zero line.
The lower gap is zero.

3- The letter h of a tree corresponds to the case where the

maximum allowable size of the tree corresponds to the
nominal dimension. The tangent tolerance range from
below the zero line. The upper gap is zero.

4- The letter J with a bore corresponds to the case where

the range of tolerance inferiorly tangent the zero line.

5- The letter j of a tree corresponds to the case where the

range of tolerance tangent superiorly the zero line.

6- JS and js letters mean that the tolerance intervals J

and j are positioned symmetrically relative to the zero
line.

7- The most common of tolerance intervals positions are

quantified in table form
at the end of this chapter (Table 1.3, page 20)

l. 3. e) D | 5isnitiae dljjjpê = = = £ GXE fys £ xsl =§ £ §ëSâË

A bore tolérancée side is written 24 H 7, or:

24 represents the nominal size (mm.)
H (uppercase) symbolizes that:
1- and is assigned to a bore
2- the tolerance interval tangent superiorly
the zero line.
 8

] _symbolizes the value of the tolerance range. Table

1.1 gives IT 21 pm for this nominal size.

Identically to a shaft; in24 f 6.

24 represents the nominal dimension f (lowercase)
symbolizes that:
1- The rating is assigned to a tree
2- the position of the tolerance range
_6_ it symbolizes a 13 pm from Table 1.1.

1.4 adjustments

1.4. a) Type dRajustements

An adjustment is made by assembling two parts same
nominal dimension. It is designated by the nominal dimension
followed by the symbols corresponding to each piece,starting
with the bore, example:

50 H8 / m7
\ tolerance symbol to the
common nominal tree
dimension
Symbol tolerance forbore A designated
adjustment can be:
-with thu
-uncertain, That is to say can sometimes present a
game, sometimes a clamping.
-with Tightening.
Example : Adjusting 50 H8 / M7 he will be with the game, in
some or clamping?

Solution -39
+ 0
According to the table on H8 50 denotes a bore 50
page 23: + 34
M.7 50 denotes a shaft 50 1-9
diff o sid max = D max - d mi
eren f e n
diff o sid RA
eren Min Min = D - d
f e AX
ce

where the letters D and d respectively symbolize the bore and

1'arbre.
 10

A difference of positive rating means the game while a

negative gap means tightening.

deviation score

►> 0 / GAME

O - ■

<0 TIGHTENING

Figure 1.7 algebraic representation of dimension differences.

The sign indicates if the difference is in the
game or field. Tightening.

From a fixed bore tolerance interval, Figure 1.8

diagrammatically five adjustments differentiated by the
position and quality of the tolerance range of the shaft.
Adjustment # 1 is set with the adjustmentsyew 2, 3 and 4 are
uncertain adjustment yew 5 is with ser
rage.
 11

nominal dimension

Figure 1.8Mapping of adjustments with game, uncertain and

tightening. Note that all five adjustments are
associated with the bore.

1.4.b) Related adjustments

sSnsrrarjsains & Bicassrar:

To reduce the number d1 ajustem.ents possible, reducing

thereby the number of tools to machine (eg reamers), the ISO
system allows you to choose
adjustments associated with the shaft or the bore.
 12

ATjustements associates at larber (Figure 1.9): the

position of the tolerance interval of every tree is given by
the lower case letter h (tangency below the zero line). The
desired adjustment is obtained by varying the position of the
tolerance range of the bore.

Figure 1.9 Mapping of adjustments associated with the tree

Adjustments associated with the tree are reserved for

well-defined applications such as mounting the outer rings of
ball bearings. The adjustments associated with the bore are
most frequently used.

Adjustments associated with the bore (Figure 1.10). The

position of the tolerance range of all bores is now given by
the capital letter H (above the zero line tangency). The
desired adjustment is obtained by varying the position of the
tolerance interval of 1 're arb.

Figure 1.10 Mapping of adjustments associated with the bore

 13

- * ■ The adjustments associated with the bore should be

Employees in all cases where this is possible because it is
easier to perform different tolerance positions on a shaft in
a bore. The bore is generally terminated by a sharp tool
(reamer) while the shaft is directly carried out on a machine
having more flexibility as to the cutting tool adjustment.

Remar <jue_l:

42 H7 / f6 is an adjustment associated with the

bore 42 K8 / h7 is an adjustment associated with
the shaft.

Remarque_2: Both adjustments 16 "H8 / f6 and

16 F6 / h8 respectively associated with the bore and shaft
will give the same rating adjustments.

Remar <jue_3: Because a tree is easier to

realize that a bore, usually associated quality given bore
with a top quality neighboring shaft.
Examples 42 H7 / f6 and 32 H8 / g6 are suggested instead
of 12 H6 / n8

1.5 The ANSI standard (American National Standard Institute).

Although the International System (SI) is being implemented in

North America, it is inevitable that pieces of planes using the North
American ANSI standard are still in circulation. The goal of this section
is to present the ANSI standard and giving the correspondence between the
two systems, ISO and ANSI.

1.5. a) Presenntatione of Standard YEARS ^

In this system, all adjustments are related
adjustmentsatthe bore. The nominal size is given in usual
fractions of an inch. The values of tolerance intervals are
given in mils, but still equivalent to the ISO system of values.
The appointment of an adjustment includes two capital letters
followed by a number from the following nomenclature:
R 1 a R 9 aj
C t C : ustements
L 1
1 a L adjustment
C t C 1 s
L a L :
6 aj
T 1 t T : ustement
ment
L 1 a L 6 adjustment
N t N :
F a F 5
N 1 t N : adjustment
Clu * CU14
CUM RC 1 R 2 Claee RC 3 RC 4
Nominal
NANS Rango
J
Standard
Tolerance n Standard
Tolernnc *
Standard
Tolerant"
• sliding and rotating free
Standard
Tolerance
with
o
loach * limita limita Limit Limit
Hol H s Shait Hole Shait Hole Shait positioning
Hole Shait
GAME
0 (4 0 H6 85 U H7 . '6 C HS * 7
over TB Value * ehown below are in thousaadthj oi year iflch
0- 0.23 0. 1
0. 45
4-0.3 *
O
-ox
-0.35
OX
0. 55
+0.55
0
-ox
-0.3
0
-
0
+ 0-4
C
-0.3
-0.55
O3
1
intermediate
■f06
3
-0.3 positioning
0 -0.7 ) UNCERT
)
o.xa- 0.34 o.xs
0-S
+0.3
O
-O.xs
-0.3
o.xs
0.65
+0.3 -0.15
-0.35
9
0
.
I.
+0.5 -0.4
-0.7
0.
. I
4 +0.7 -0.4
-0.9
AIN
0.24- 0.40 0. 3 0 55 -0.3 0.3 +0.4
0
-0.2
I0
+0.6
0
-bone 0
tight0 9 positioning
6 5
0
-bone
of forced
0.6 O -0.35 0.8s 0 -0.45 5
1 0 -0.9 2. 0 0 - XI
0.40- 0.71 O.as +0.3 -0.35 0.35 +0.4 -0.35
-
0 07 -0.6 0. 6or shrunk
+10 with -0.6
.1
0.7
S
O -0.4S 0. 95 0 -0.S5
-
0 -1.0 23
1 TIGHTE
0 -x.3
0 bon
0.71- 1.19 0.3
0. 95
+0.4
O
-0.3
-0.55
0.3
1. 2
+0.5
0
-0.3
-0.7 .
2
+0.8
0
-0.8
-1.3
+ 12
0
-0.3
e
2
- 1.6 8 NING
.1
-0.4 The ANSI 1.
xi '- I 97 0.4 + 0-4 -0.4 0. 4 +0.4 1.
0
standard
+ 1.0 - 1.0 reduces+ 1 the
61 choice
- 1.0 of
. 3
adjustments
0
xx 0 -0.7 Z.4 0 -0.8 3 0 -1.6 0 - 3.0
1 97- 3.15 0.4 +0.5 -0.4 +0.7 -0.4 +1.216 - 1.2 + T.8 - 1.2 1
. 2
X. 3 0 -0.7
0. 4
1. 6 0 because
-0.9 the 3
. chosen nomenclature imposes a position and value
0 -X.9 0 - 2.4 4. 2
3.I5- 4-73 O. J + O. " -bone 0.3 +0.9 -0.5 1. + 3.4 -X.4 r. J +2.3 -1.4
.M
is 0 -0.9 2.0 0 of the-IX tolerance interval
0 - 33 both the oh tree-2.8that bore. Table 1.2,
S a
4. 73- J ul y 09 0.6 + ". 7 -0.6 0.6 +1.0 -0.6
a 1 +16 - 1.6 1 06 +2.5 -x.6
x.8 0 -XX 3. 3 0 -1.3 4. 0 -3.6 .S 7 0 -32
7 09- 9-85 0.6 +0.8 -0.6 0.6 IJ +
taken -0.6
from "Machinery's
+ 1.8
22
-3.0
Handbook"
2 0 +2.8
shows-2.0the presentation for
3.0 -ia 2.6 -1.4 .S - 33 J. un 0 -3.8
0 0 0
9- 85- 15. 41 0.8 +0.9 -0.8 0.8 + 1.3 some RC
-0.8 adjustments.
o
2 +2.0 -2. S
e 6 5
2- + 3-0 -2.5
3.3 0 -1.4 3. 9 0 -1.75 5 O -3-7 7 S 0 -4.S
X2.4X- -t 3
xo XO + -xo 1.0 +1.4 - XO +2.2 -3.0 35 -3.0
IJ7S 37 0 -X.7 A pr 0 - 2.0 6h 0 -4.4 -8 0 -5.2
il 3 . ? 0
1S7S- I Ç69 xa + 1.0 -x 1.3 + 1.8 -1.2 4 2-5 + -4.0 4 4 0 -40
thirt 0 -3.0 38 - 3.2 .
8 -5.6 1 5 0 -6.5
0 0
y .1 0
Table 3 American Nation *! Statnotdard Runniag Sudin and Fit * * (ANSI 34.1-1967, R1974)
* ToJatanc confined jiven in booy oi tabla gold macaw added to aubtrmctad bnaic aisa (aa Indicated by + or - $ fi a) to have minimum obtenir mâlimum jmd ata 0 /
matinf parta.

Table 1.2- Standard ANSI - Table tolerances RC 1 to RC 4

Either 0.750 RC adjustment2"Table 1.2 shows:

+.000s
bore = 0.750 +
O
- .OOOÎ
tree = 0.750 - -
"oo?
Differences rating that can be calculated are given in the
table in column "clearance" in this case: Max gap = 1 . 2 mil gap
mini = 0 . 3 " " "

Table 1.2 also shows the correspondence with the ISO
system. This adjustment is an adjustment G5 H6 in the ISO
system. Note the superior quality of the shaft relative to
the bore.
In practice, these types of adjustments are selected
in the following cases of assembly:
RC1 gliuaof adjustment just serves <fajuste
"tr.ent precise position of the assembled parts
without noticeable play, for the assembly of high
precision gauges for example.
RC2 sliding adjustment intended for précia'on
adjustments, but with a great game PLUJ as the
RC1. Parts machined with this précia'on turn
easily, but are not intended to rotate freely. For
larger diameters, they can tighten as a result of a
slight change in temperature.
[Note: LCl and LC2, free position adjustments
can also be selected as adjustments slippery
PLUJ with large tolerances.)
RC3 Adjustment turning very accurate, designed
for oiled bearings more specific, at low speed and
under light loads, but it is not appropriate under
varying temperature conditions.
RC4 precise turning adjustment ,, intended
primarily for oiled or greased bearings, subjected
to moderate effort and turn to medium peripheral
speeds, while having a minimal play.
RC5 "t RC6 adjustment? rotating inte ^
intermediaries, for mechanisms digging rant at
higher speeds and / or smiled s to temperature
variations.
KC7 free turning adjustment, for mechanisms that
do not require high accuracy and / or subjected at
large variations da temperature.
RCS and RC9 very free rotary adjustments, for at
manufactured parts Has tolerated.'Strictly these
utilities, such as trees, tubes and other parts rolled
at cold, etc.
ADJUSTMENTS POSITION
positioa of adjustments used single is lying locate
two pieces accurately a assembly Moon against
the other. Bonecan serve for a set Place
preprecise and rigid, as in tight adjustments or
allow some play in the position, as in the free
adjustments. That's why we divided them into
three categories: free adjustments, interim
adjustments and tight adjustments.
15
ADJUSTMENTS POSITION OPEN
We use free adjustments for usually immobile
parts, but one must easily mount or dismount.
These adjustments vary between tight fits
precisely position and intermediate adjustments
for certain parts such as pins, for example, to
adjustments where ease of assembly is
paramount
They are classified as follows:
LCl to LC4. Theoretically, these adjustments
have a zero game, but in practice there is still
one game. This series of adjustments is
particularly suitable for determining the position
of moving part and pins, although LCl
adjustments and LC2 can also serve 'slippery
adjustments.
Eit CHA CHA. The minimum reduced set of
these adjustments is designated for the precise
assembly of two fixed parts. LCI can also
replace RC2 as a free sliding fit, and LC6 is
used as an intermediate running fit whose
tolerances are larger than those of the
adjustmentsRCI and RC6.
LC7 A LC11. These adjustments, the tolerances
are pleased "and larger, are used for various
adjustments with kit for the assembly of bolted
and other pieces of the same kind pieces.
INTERIM POSITION ADJUSTMENTS
Intermediate adjustments of position are a
compromise between free adjustments and
adjustments just slippery used for assemblies
where the precise location of the parts is important
and require minimal game or a slight tightening.
They are classified as follows:
LTI nt LT2. These adjustments A game usually
low sorts, which allow asset " blaga without
deterioration of parts, are used in cases where
the maximum clearance must be less than for
LCI adjustmentsat LC3. The parts can be
assembled under low pressure or using light
hammer blows.

LT3 and LT4. These adjustments have almost
no play and are used in cases where a slight
interference is acceptable to eliminate vibration.
They are also calledadjustments for keysand
used for this type of shaft mounting, as well as
for ball bearings. The assembly is usually in the
press or hammer.
LT5 and LT6. These adjustments generally have
a mild tightening, hard enough in cases of
extreme adjustment, which sometimes requires
to match the parts for assembly. They are
designed for heavy keyed mounting, the ball
bearing rings subjected to strong vibrations and
great efforts, as well as the slightly hard
erection of steel parts.
TIGHT ADJUSTMENTS POSITION
Adjustments tight position are used for high
precision assemblies in which the position and
alignment are essential, regardless of the
pressure on the bore. However, they are not
designed for the transmission of loads by
friction effect between rooms, this function is
that of interference fits.
They are classified as follows:
LN1 and LN2. These adjustments offer a slight
minimum clamping, each designated for the
ankles for example, which is mounted by means
of a press mandrel into the steel, cast iron or
brass. Can usually disassemble and reassemble,
the metal does not undergo permanent
deformation. These adjustments are however
too little tight for elastic materials or light
alloys.
LN3. This adjustment is suitable for mounting
under high pressure in steel and brass, and used
for low pressure assembly in more elastic
materials and light alloys.
LN-J to I.N6. Eien that can serve LN4 A
permanent assembly of parts I a-
16
cer. these adjustments are designed for assembly
to the press more elastic or softer materials, such
as light metals and rigid plastics.
ADJUSTMENTS FORCED or shrunk
Forced or shrunk adjustments represent an
adjustment formed at high pressure,
characterized by maintaining a constant j pres-
sion into the bore over the entire range of
dimensions. The friction therefore lie almost
augi according to the diameter and the margin
"of tolerance are very fai * wheat to maintain
pressures and" result within reasonable limits, j *
i
We can describe these adjustments as
follows:
FN1 push fit which requires only a light pressure
to the assembly and which gives a more or less
permanent connection. It is perfect for use with
reduced sections of rooms, for joints A large
areas or for outdoor parties castings.
FN2 hard adjustment for the assembly of
common steel components or assembly by
expanding the reduced sections of parts. This
adjustment is the tightest we can use in the outer
parts of cast iron pieces of high quality.
FN3 very hard adjustment, specifically designed
for the assembly of heavy steel or for
assembhgB by expansion parts in medium
thickness parts.
FN4 and FN5 hooped Adjustments for the
assembly of parts that can withstand
considerable efforts and / or jmur assembly by
expansion, when it can appeal to large pressure
forces.
 - PN1 PN2 FN3 FN4 F
N
5

É TREES

d m m m
s6 16

17

SIDE
bm II p1 * 5.b)
Or BORES ANSI
NOMINAL * H7Correspo H7 H7 H
ndence 8

between
the ISO
system
and
- tournantset sliding
Adjustments

1X1 LC2 LC3

LCi LC5 ICS LC7
LC8 LC9 LC10
LC11

- Adjustments
avecjeu positioning
CO
"5NCV.INALS

LT2 LT4 LT5 LT6

HP
H8 H8
f t: <y-
^ - Adjustments uncertain
COAST
NOMINAL n6r "7
JS6
157
BORE TREE

- positioning adjustments
with clamping

SIDE
NOMINAL

- forcésfrettés
Adjustment
s (*)

(*) No equivalent ISO

 13

1.6 Choosing an adjustment

Adjusting it with game or clamp has a specific function in a

mechanical system. So that the desired or proper operation, the
designer must fix games or limits called tighteningsgames or
functional tightenings,, It is only when these limit values the
adjustment may be selected as follows:

1- Avoid unnecessary excess precision which will increase the

production cost without necessarily improving the functioning
of the system. Figure 1.11 shows the correspondence curve
between the relative cost and quality of the tolerance rangeat
achieve.

Figure 1.11 Approximate relative price of a machine based

on the quality of the range of tolerance.

According to this graph, a quality index de8 passage 5

doubles the cost of production. This cost is triplépour an 8-
index passage 4. Table 1.1 (page 5) gives the intervals
corresponding to the tolerances in-Flowerpecker quality and
nominal dimensions.

2- Choose in standards and preferably in values

3-
the most commonly used ISO adjustment COMPOR-you games or as
close as possible tightening desvaleurs determined by the
designer.
 19

Exercise : A designer wants to make a sliding fit with

the nominal dimension is 65 mm and extreme games 10 and 60 microns.
What adjustment associated with the bore would you suggest?

Soreadion: Adjustment associated with the bore means that D = 65.000 min

Deviation = minimum dimension D min -

max 10 d p = 65.000 - d max d max = 64
990 or 65 "10
On page 22, g5 and g6 give a max gap - Loy
Let the two solutions in the group H6 and H7
+ 19-10
H6 / g5alésage65 0
etarbre OS - "3
mini game = 10 y
max set = 23 + 19 = 42 microns

This adjustment has an excess of unnecessary precision

because the maximum allowed is 60 microns
• S-30-10
H7 / g6alésage65 ^ etarbre65
+ 29

mini game = 10 y
max set = 30 + 29 y = 59 y

This adjustment provides very close games desired extreme

games.
Reply: 65 H7 / g6

In mechanical design, many adjustments are chosen by experience.

Table 1.3 is adjustments to suit their applications described briefly.
It is suggested that current adjustments indicated in shaded areas.
 20

14 * 25 ADJUSTMENT KEY (FD R 910-1 U * Trees

Parts whose operation requires a great game (expansion, misalignment,

worn very long, etc.).

ordinary case of rotating parts or sliding in a bushing or bearing (good

lubrication insured)

Parts with precise guidance for low amplitude movements

Implementation possible
Disassembly and The fitting can not by hand
reassembly can transmit effort
without deterioration
of parts Setting up the mallet

E5
Setting up the press__________
______________P
Setting up the ^
press or dilatation _____________ 7
possible removal E m manchement can tion (check that the
without deterioration transmit forces constraints __________________ 7
of parts. the metal does not
exceed the 7
limiteélastiquel

Table 1.3 The main adjustments used according to mechanical applications.

Shaded areas are most commonly used.
 21

_A high quality score, that is to say with a low tolerance range, can
not be achieved with all manufacturing processes. For this reason, there
is a relationship between the quality of the range of tolerance and
manufacturing processes. This is graphically represented in Table 1.4. It
will select the manufacturing process to be able to give the desired
quality.

Qualities

Table 1.4 Relationship between the quality of the tolerance and

manufacturing processes.
 22

usual manufacturing tolerance! Jm for adjustments associated with

bore
table 1

Note_: For each bearing diameters, the lower rating is excluded and
superior ratings included.
 □ A
+ 120

ES □ Ü BY?
* 80

7 u + 40
23
x H

a r-PCS OL R H - 7-VI Approval

BtM
5 1 7 " - nominal
• ___
H
c / ha

!
- - td ;
Usual manufacturing tolerances pm for adjustments
ye associated with
Ie

U y __ i
- 40 d
b
S exampl H1ihi | "H7
ar
ftcomm
__ di bore u
_

- 1
fl - 80-120

h
4
t / M4 9mm
/
Pi 4 table 2 b

L1 --
/ " ir - 160-200

H
H n
- '* - o
1

Y
t t
d
1 H bd i

7
0 T

ll
| 1 - 240
S

! -
H 0 M

| e 7
y

- 1s
H
H o r
at u c
n - 280

*
" n o
7 - t

S E
*
H_ GROUPS " Hu GROUPS
n

lh
L

Arkrea Arbr + "

*
n 1 .1 _) nv "i.
1 jn * * * *n b
at !
d H
H
3 0 * 9 î f3 S h '7 7 *
?
p
7 T 7 "7 7 u ot DIAMETER

+ — — 2ol- 10 + - 13 j- | 4- 20 4- 24 4- + + + 7 - - [- 30 j- J ■TU
oj 0 - 18 + I
18 t — 3U | 16 3 27 oj of "3 • S
h 9- - Ij-l 27 4- 8 4- 12 4- 3 5 4 4 5 0 1 70 | -105 | - mi
0 - 28 | - 12
ir 3 t- 15 + 0 7- + 4 - 75 n.
22 - "o | - - 1 oj O - + + U + 21 4- "j lo + 54 | + :+"I + + +
-
-2S0j- - 60 | - 4oj 0 - CZ
5J 3 4 M d <6 has
1 4- 1 4 * 5 C 1Q
+ -Mj- <1 22j- 15 For " 4- 4. 30 38 4 19 | 9 150 - 170; -I3oi - 90 Z.
— 3
0 5 0- | 4- 15 + 23 t58i + 7 9 3701 to mi
27 - 30-32 - 0 0 1 + + Ltj LLJ 4- 3 <> | 4 4- j 41 4- 4 "23j + + - - - -205 - i R
+0j 2 1 AA 11) i U
+ -120 to - - + 4 36 "l | 4- 7j + 12j + 4- 4- 28 6 9 5 160 9sj- 0 X.
16 2 11 I1
0 0 (-0
0 75 - 7 12 18 4 C
+ - SO! mi
o
+ - so- J2j- ie | oj oj + 12 4- 4- 2l | 30d 4- 4 61 j 4 + 51 + S7Î + tt + -J50 | - "SJ-50
11 2 & 14 i 11
2? -l2oj - 7Sj- 4Sj- 27 - iaj- t 1 4- 36 + 7f + 12 7 0 9 -2G0" -205j- - x.
46 * 2?) + O + "i + 45 n
0 * | 4- 18 0

1
+ 0 4- 2 * 1 8 0
+ - 160 o mi
- 4i | - 401 - 20 4- oj 13- 4- 2l | 4- 2 * | 4- 361 4- + 84i + -I6o | - 1 Io | - mi
n + "J + 6JL + 66 + 73 + 33! + 13 3 1S 24
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0 3 "| + 47 + U 0 j
(4- 22 + 73

1
3 | oj + 13
— 4 — 201 0 9 Cl J-195 - 0
+" - 4- + 3 "l + 431 + <» | ISJ + 62j + + + + 13 -300! - -. cn
0 — 53i- 33 j - 21J - 8 11 ejz of 24 K X
4 2 + J6 + 4 or + DD | + 69 + 41 j 8 9 1 0 160 - 0 3 -
0 — 9 13 .
5 33 48 4- 6 0 + ooj-290 1

1
+ 2 — 2 9 5 + -- 0
- - 0 0 - 19 4- 4- 4 * 42 4 51 j 4 •• + + 7d | LLJ -f + 1 IJ 1 - T
w 5 1 12 - 601 0 -2401-
nuix. da 30 40 é
8 3 15 2 59 4 "17 4- 2i | 93 + 43 + 4f | 4- 60+ 0 1 7 6 31 "- 0
0 — 6 to 23 160
68 5 9 + 0 0

--
+ 0 0 4
— 2 - 7 4- 34 -
17
- -
- mu.
- - 0 4- 4- 3 "| 4 42 | 5LJ 4- 4- 4- 5 * + 79 | 4- 95) + + + 1 - Floor 0
39 5 32 1 13 mi 40 ± 50
8 3 -M 2 j + 9 68 | + 17 | + 2 * | 4. 34 | +106 4. 541 + 1 1 1 6 0 8 0 -24o | -
0 — 6 n
0

:
0 0 -4 " 0 0 7 4- 43 70 | + 81 2 3 8 0
+ -- - -160 0
4G -100 | - + 32 + 41 + 50 4- + + 2 -1901-
+ + 71 4 83 4 9 j j # 4-117 132 1 0 1
- - - 15 1 140 - - mi 50 i 55
60 -220 4- 2 + 11 4- 20 6 + 4! | + 53 + 661 + 87) +102 0 9 4 0
(J 7 4 th 0 0 0 19 n.
2 7 38nj-
-| -134 - 2 2
0 +
- 6 6 ir
0 4- + + - - - - 0
4. 4- 4- 4- + I05f + + + I76j
46 1 4 2 1 36 2 15 so SS 30
0 6 - 1 3 1 5 6 7 132 + 73 1 +204 + 4 9 0 0 0 ol
- mi
0 0 - t th 0 0 0 19 n.
0- 8- 2 0 2 3 | + t02 5 1461 +
0
ir
0 4- + + - - 0 m
+54 -120 | - + 20 + Ml + <6 + + 293 + 22
M 10 I26 + | 1391 111! 213 + dail
y except I24j -l "oj-Z20i.-170 -6001 -" + o! - * -120 - -341 0) - u 30 to 100
72 - - 1- 13 + 3] + - 13 72
M
6 249j j + 0+ -
0 + +H"| +17s! 391) 220
3 + If j+
71 mi
2fi0l- 5i 2 4 2l "l 258 0 n.
- l20j - 4- 4- 72 4- 11 Ijij + 4-1791 + 2C7J 2 + + OF.
*54 36] Oj o | + 2o | '+38+ 48
— 5 3 2 -Iioi-240| -180 -120 0
100 to 120
72 2W | - 90 | - SI- jsj- S |! S 19 + 37 4 j 10 + 245j + 144 9 4 2 -6301-4601 -400 -340 -2 " mi
0 +J+ 13
| 5j 0 n.

Y
-I59 — 431 0 4- S + 54 1
+ 7 4 + (+ | * 7îj îloj + - - - 0 mj
+83 -1451- 0 + 22 | + 43 _ 4- 4- 1 R ! '+ + | + + 2UJ 34oj

1
S , 2 4 2 2 ix. 120 e 140
85 - "if - — 106 * sj 67 1 j 0 ® + 2l 2 +405 +2481 5 6 6 0 -
not
- 63 40-8! | +3 | 2 mi
iis ! 4- 8 3 + 6 +3001 +365 0 0 0 0
- i û 4 2 5
0 n.
- 143'- + | + L74 | + 230i 2681 320 | + S8o | -520 | -28o | -2 | 0 | -

1
52 - 0! oj! - 0 | + A + 43! 67j + 35 * + a 5
86 -303 1- sj + 16 + 13 + 27 (+ 431 455 j + I34 | +1901 4- 228 (2801 145 | -7701-5301 -460 - tni 140 i 160
- 1 0

+
to "j -" aj 2
4 + a.
to 185 34q + (415 | -J95i

M M
0 0 5
*
52
-1451- -
4
+
4
j * 1 ! + + 4EJ; ui + i ! - .. 301 +
-
-
5
- tau
.
831 - oj o | + jij 4 25oj! 106; 1461 + 2 3
| - 2 "j - I4S | 0 j- 160 i 180
d S 67 15 303 465 2 8 mi
48oJ-393 | - 250
*-
303'- | - 63'- <01 - 1 If J
4-
j - 2LO | 7 0i + 360i 5 0 1 n.
ma
"2 - 17ol - Looi - se o | 0 -15V- 25 4 * 63l + 4 96 | + 1231 4-1681 212j * 282! v330j 4- 47lj + + - +
- <> 60i- 340 | - 240j -170 (-530 0 - y.
50
396 | 4- 501 * 77 | 122! - I64I 284 2361 | * de 180.200
77 4- 17 |
fl Jtsj -122'- 72 '- 46 +j
-
j
4 * 31 35o |
568
425! +520
+ 20
OÏ
950Î-4301 '- "8oj - IO0 mi
n.

No_te: For each bearing diameter, the lower rating is precluded and
superior ratings included.
 24

CHAPTER II
SURFACE STATES

2.1 Need for the study of surface states

The ability of a workpiece to perform a particular function
depends on a set of factors, including the characteristics of its
surface conditions (eg, roughness). The measurement of the surface
condition is part of metrology controls just like those odds and
surface shapes.
In many mechanical systems, rub surfaces on each other. Their
surface quality has a great effect on the friction coefficient, if it
increases due to rough surfaces, friction forces increase, the surfaces
heat up and wear is accelerated.
The surface condition is also to be considered when seals are
installed between two surfaces. In FIG ring 2.1.a a seal is mounted on
the piston of a hydraulic cylinder. The detail of the contact ring /
bore is taken in Figure 2.1.b. The desired sealing and life of the seal
depend on the surface state of the cylinder bore.

Detail

Figure 2.1: (a) O-ring installed in a hydraulic cylinder

(b) Detail of the contact between the O-ring and the
inner rough surface of the cylinder.
 25

2.2 Terminology
Before addressing the definition of surface quality
criteria, certain terms should be clarified:

§yï £ â £ Ê_§â25}! ££ iS! Ee (Figu e ^ 2.2). It's a perfect

surface which is geometrically defined
by nominal dimensions.

Surface_spêc± FIEE (Figure 2.2). It is the surface Geome

stick affected manufacturing tolerances. For
example, in the case of surface conditions for
a flat surface of the specified area is the
area that has the maximum acceptable roughness
with respect to the perfect flat surface. This
is the maximum surface roughness permitted.

real surface (Figure 2.2). This is the surface that RESUL-

you manufacture.

Surface area measured (Figure 2.2). Is the area detected

by measuring instruments from the real surface.
IMPORTANT The degree of knowledge
the surface finish is related to the measuring
method selected. The geometry of the measuring
probe of Figure 2.2 does not detect all the
actual profile of irregularities

surface area measured by

the s? dull probe.

Figure 2.2The four surfaces associated with the evaluation of a state of

area. The geometric surface can be outside the actual profile.
 26

2.3 Analysis of a surface

A surface is considered from its profile, that is to say, as
viewed in a sectional plane perpendicular to the geometrical surface.
The detected defects are classified into four levels which are
schematized in Figure 2.3.

1st order: FORM AWAY

1- ^^ ^ order Deviation form. These defects affect the rolling

resistance and the static and dynamic seals. Also called straightness,
flatness, roundness, taper ... these defects will be developed in the next
chapter.

2— _order_: Ripple. These defects generally arise

the tool feed footsteps and create accelerated wear and
galling. There are identified by tracing the upper line through the
majority of projections. The following defects of 3 and 4- ^ order,
representROUGHNESS SURFACE:

3 ^ _order: Streaking - Furrow. They come from tearing

normal to the material and affect the flow of fluids as well as the
sealing surfaces in contact.
0 ^
4-_order: Slot - Sting. This type of aperiodic defects
comes from cutaways spoken material. It has a great effect on the strength
of the part fatigue.
2SO ____ - "-Tr" Uorgtur of
cntoilit
M
l "

4
s- E4 = 8 m^ x -| -

Figure 2.4: Profile which form deviations (first order) were filtered.

Figure 2.5 shows the mime profile where now the

third and fourth order of defects were filtered. Only the
second order profile remains.

Figure 2.5: Defects corrugation or macrogéométriques faults are isolated

from an actual profile.
 28

- * ■ This figure shows two periods W amplitude ripple and not Aw. A
profile of n waves, two physical criteria are measured such that:
1 ln
average ripple amplitude, W = - 2 W,
not
1-1
1 "-"
No way ripple, Aw = - Y. (Aw),
not

1. ROUGHNESS (third and fourth-order faults).

Figure 2.6 represents a surface profile where defects in

first and second orders are removed. Only defects of the last two
orders for roughness remain.

Figure 2.6 Measuring defects roughness or defects microgeometric

The three physical criteria of the most significant roughness

are :
■ J ln
average roughness amplitude, R = - 2 Fl, not
1-1
1 ln
No way roughness, Ar = - (A )
r

Maximum roughness amplitude, R max

Of these three physical criteria, R is most frequently used in

industry, it is the average depth between two consecutive ridges.

1.4. b) Les_ critèrej ^ ^ xi sjaj.cjues

In reality the statistical criteria are five in number. Most of the
measuring devices is however equipped to express
surface roughness:

the arithmetical mean

deviation
 29

- "- - This criterion is obtained with respect to the average line L

in Figure 2.6 which evenly distributes the profile peaks of material
surfaces and surfaces carved by the grooves.
The terms component expression Ra are indicated on the roughness profile
of Fig 2.6.
Finally, R and R are the two most widely used industry standards.
Both are roughness indices.

2.4 Specifications of a surface state on the drawing

On a mechanical part, the surface condition specifications only
appear on the surfaces play a functional role, eg friction surfaces,
sliding and rolling
ment, surfaces to receive an electroplating or a paint coating. The
surfaces of the parts subject to cyclical forces must also meet the
roughness requirements as the play of life is directly related to the
surface condition.
The surface finish specifications include several information
which are grouped around a radical sign affixed to the surface as
plotted in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 (a) only shows the locations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 around
the radical sign, the allocation of each of these maps is defined in the
text. An example of a complete specification of surface finish is taken
in Figure 2.7 (b).

Figure 2.7: (a) radical sign surface state with five

maps information
(b) Example of a complete specification of surface
finish stamped on a dimension line.
 thirty

Functions of maps referred to Figure 2.7

• Zi ^

Localisation_l (Figure 2.7.a). Symbolizing (s) or criteria (s)

Application surface condition (s), example: Ra and W at the
end
Figure 2.7.b.

Location 2: (Figure 2.7.a). Value (s) Digital (s) or res critè- (s) required
(s), eg 1.6 and 12 pm or po * following the system adopted in
the drawing. The minimum and maximum values of the criteria
can be specified instead of the maximum value just as in
Figure 2.7.b.

Location 3: (Figure 2.7.a). Management and the type of machining streaks

relative to the surface. This information is specified in
Figure 2.8. The direction of machining streaks must for
example be in the direction of travel of the surfaces for the
case of friction surfaces.

Figure 2.8 Six symbols direction and type of machining streaks described
as follows:

(a) -parallèle to the projection line of the radical sign on

the surface.
(b) -perpendiculaire to the projection line of the sign radi
callus on the surface.
(c) -croisé, each direction being at 45 degrees relative
to the projection line of the radical sign.
(d) -multidirectionnel.
(e) -circulaire relative to the center of the surface.
(f) -Approximately radial from the center of the
area.

(*) 1 = 40 pm ppo; 1mm = 39/1000 inch

not not

-
Direction Direction

streaks striesdes

(A) (b)

Figure 2.9 Representation of the direction of the ridges directly by

arrows on the surface of the illustrated part
(a) -the arrow indicates parallel streaks.
(b) -the arrows indicate cross streaks.

Ll2 ii2â ££ ^ £ i2ïî_: (Figure 2.7.a). the surface feature. The Your
ble 2.1 shows the symbols for different surface functions
as well as the arithmetic mean deviation (Ra) and the
average amplitude (R) suggestions for these functions.
Area Function Symb
ol
Conditio
n
- Application examples
V R
*
Average Worn bearings-tree 0.8 2
sliding friction ; FS 01
Difficult Slide machine tools 0.4 1
Average rollers 0.4
With relative displacements

1
FR ^
rolling friction 2) Difficult ball raceway
0.02 0.06
Resistance to Average Cam automatic lathes 0.4 1
hammering RM
Difficult Ends of push rods 0.10 025
Friction Average supply ducts 6.3 1
fluid 6
. FF 0
Difficult sprinklers 0.2 .
sealing (3) 5
Average Litters for V. Ring seals (see 5 44-242) 0.8 2
dynamic ED
Difficult Worn seals for 4 lobes (see 5 44-26) 0.4 1
sealing f ES, Average sealing gasket surfaces 1.6 4
static 3>
Difficult icy sealing surfaces - without seal 0.25
txs 0.1
9
cq Average Litters centering removable fixed pieces 3.2 1
-Q stationary assembly 0
1 ' AF (4)
S
25 (low stress)
co Difficult Litters and precise centering 1.6 4
C
O
at" Average Worn bushings 1.6 4
" Fixed adjustment with
< CA
constraints Difficult Worn bearings 0.8
Adhesion (bonding) AD Fixing with glue Loctite i Pad Press> 0.8 3.2 2 nd
10
electrodeposition OF Enter the roughness required by the function, after deposition 0.1 è 025è
3.2 10
Without
conuainte

Measured ME Average Faces of workshop gauges 0.25

0.1
Coating (paint) RE > 3.2 > 10

Resistance to Average Bore cylinder clevis 1.6 4

alternating forces
constraints

Difficult Torsion bars 0.8 2

With

Average speed steel tools 0.4

1
Cutting tools (edge) ; oc Difficult Carbide tools 0.2
0
.
5

(1) gear teeth see § 47-5. (5) approximate relations: Rp 0.4 R SS:R ~ 5-10 Rt
(2) See also Chapter 40 on bearings. (6) Oans dns most cases the relative values of criteria meet
(3) See also Chapter 44 on the seals.
the following relationships: Rmsx <2R; W <2R,
(4) no standard symbol, remember its meaning on each plane. (7) The IT tolerance interval must be greater than 10 R.

Table 2.1 Symbolizing surface functions with their

application examples and their suggested roughness.

Two interesting points are indicated at the bottom of

Table 2.1, namely:
- R = 5-10 R
- Meanwhile tolerant (IT) a dimension where the surface
under consideration is involved must be greater than
ten times the desired Ra.
example: If Ra = 3.2 microns, IT mini = 32 microns
 /
STANDARD SYMBOLS OF DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES - v molding sand o
a U u
p
bore l Milling wheelchair t drilling e
Broaching b forging f honing pi
r o
o g p
Cutting f burnishing a Polishing o
d 5 r
dressage r Scraping f planing b
é g rc
EDM ée grit blasting n cylindrical grinding c
g r
Electroforming f spherical blasting n Surface grinding C
e f r
Electropolishing p countersink m lapping d
a l s
stamping c hot rolling a wet blasting a
h l s
Étincelagi a é cold rolling a Dry sanding a
va f
m s
Drawing n Punching y Sawing c
m
Thread " grinding y superfinishing sf
Milling f Die casting m shooting to
r o
b c

Table 2.2 Symbols for various machining processes.

2.5 The measuring devices of surface states

The technological developments of the past two decades have had a
great impact on the devices for measuring surface finish. This section does
not address in detail all existing devices, but rather presents the most
used devices in the industry as well as some new principles applied to this
field of metrology.

NO CRITERIA PROFILE MEANING HAS NOT THE SPECIFICATION

MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 2.2.
 34

2.6. at) The viso-tactile samples

Figure 2.10 booklet Figure 2.11Mapping the original machining

samples streaks. Samples viso-
viso-tactile tactile s: also obtained.

Figure 2.10 shows a wafer tactile viso- samples obtained by

machining controlled (Figure 2.11). The samples were clearly identified
gradual roughness (usually Ra) according to the machining method:
fraisa
age, turning, grinding.
These samples enable a visual comparison or touch with the
workpiece. The operator considers the sample closest to the
machined surface.
This method is inexpensive and fast, is very flexible in its
application although it does not provide a rigorous measure. The
surfaces to be compared may also be studied using a microscope if
the machined surface is accessible.

2.6. b) appaREILS_eleçtronithates__ài palpeur

Figure 2.12 shows the measurement principle of these
devices. An arm moves parallel to the surface to be measured. The
arm has either a pad and a probe (Figure 2.12.a), or only a probe,
in this case the movement is guided out of the piece to be measured
(Figure 2.12.b).

Figure 2.12 Movements of the feeler arm on a surface at measure.

 35

Figure 2.13 details the measuring principle of the type

shown in Figure arm 2.12.a. Skating large radius of curvature
allows the filter of second order faults (ripple), only the
roughness is performed by the sensor. The probe transducer ESII
incorporated in the housing; he can be :

- (Figure 2.13.a) -A mini inductive converter

(LVDT)
- (Figure 2.13.b) -A piezoelectric beam
subject to bending.

(a) (B)

Figure 2.13 Details of devices tonearm at probe

for roughness measurement
(a) with inductive sensor
(b) with piezoelectric sensor

These devices are widely used in industry. Although the

geometry of the probe does not always allow to detect faults of
fourth order, they provide more information than the viso-
tactile samples. The rough profile can be saved. The sensors are
very sensitive, easily adapt to electronic instrumentation.
Usually the data is provided directly under a criterion (R or R)
or as a pie chart as shownat Figure 2.14
 36

Figure 2.14: Circular roughness Charter where the same profile

is drawn three times with different filtering
frequency.

2.6. c) optical apparatus

Optical devices used to detect especially the third and
fourth order of defects. They are rarely used in production
industries as they require a lot of care and caution. This
section briefly describes their principle:

The microscope illumination oblithate

Figure 2.15: The microscope oblique illumination.

 Rucosrrt
OC DEVIATION FORM
3 1 * Order 2 * Order
STRIE. SILLON 3 »Order TEARING, etc. 4 • Order
<
s
i Branch orofil general direction General Action Branch of profî1
ripple \ of Drofil ^ Ilïïôns \ Profile tool mark m 7TV tear *
" \\

3
Ï U WVY 8
V y. V y / profile \
profile anamorphosis ^ -------anamorohost 'anamorohosé

conventional equipment
Measuring Machine
2.6 . <£ L Ex £ loration_des_raéthodes_de_mesure
As mentioned at the beginning of this section:
Apparatus i Induc sensor • probe-
electromagnetic tion
key
.U
i
"No standard profile is meaningless without specifying
r™ the measurement technology."
Comparison Sample v ao-tactlle

optical apparatus
Table 2.3 shows schematically the classification of
defects by serial number and exploration methods listed above.
RECTILIGN

Apparatus to undue sensor * •

probe needle L ^ electromagnetic ction 00 mm

Apparatus é è undue
sensor • probe-shunted
L> electromagnetic ction 00 mm

piôzo-électhqoe

Appliance copier • Sensor-algullie

y
o * Camera sensor mducti one electromagnetic measuring
u laa deviations from a reference circumference
S
C
• Pelœur-key

3
3
O
• Probe Needle

otr

Table 2.3: Classification of surface defects and methods

measure presented in the text.
 Two oblique lights of different colors illuminate the
surface of the workpiece increasing the quality of image details.
The image is observed using a microscope where dimension scales
are incorporated on the lens.

Le_microscope interference

Figure 2.16: Image obtained with an interference microscope.

light interference fringes of light a thin portion of the

workpiece which is observed under a microscope with Agran
dissement (500 X).

The reflectometer:

Figure 2.17Principle reflectometer

This method is based on the relationship between the

surface roughness and the amount of diffracted incident light.
This principle can only give an average value (eg Ra)
 Roughness Ra in micrometers (. *)
1
.
50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0025
MM
stamping ^ |M
-
Forgeagi

blasting MM MM M IUU
C/ 3
UJ UM
1 " lamination
spinning - melt extrusion M-. M
39 1/2
ID
2.7 Manufacturing
\ ////
THIS drawing - cold drawing there MM -f FF

processes and surface

§2 72 </) Punching hot _L, - V/.

X
s-

Z.
Cold
states Table 2.4 shows the roughness ranges of raw and machined
MM MM

D cr. in the sand II mm

Molding
lost wax - Shaw method.
surfaces based manufacturing
MMI M^
| processes. The roughness is expressed
at
casting, gravity . V/i
" w
- ^c
shell, pressurized as the arithmetical
-PI
mean deviation Ra yra.
'
sandblasting
When choosing
speed steel tool
machine tools,
'***y
we ~
r
This
will painting.
refer to
§
ouitl carbide or dtiamam - a LZ
bore

i_m
the alésotr -■-m •) Ear
■
Broaching GOTO

burnishing g -H H-
Mes
Cutting out the press) srs.
N fi ~30a
OT
Fine blanking press here Ta) ii i
EDM S

[Irëisam speed steel tool

.
" _________
-

'M11
carbide tool -mm ■■■ ■■ ■ H • G
- ■■ ■■■ • O
HH I

2
T
_________ 1 IUU F 5
speed steel tool 1UL F
11
■- ■ - Ja nua r
weeling carbide tool y 1

burnishing ~~ T
~
ROUGHNESS IDE SURIACES MANUFACTURED

Scraping
The image (crossed or parallel lines) W-
- __________
- __________
-
by hand m
- - -

Meulaje
disk MM MM
électroiytique "
i

_________ _________ __________

1 _____
slotting "J
■
Oxycut MM
Drilling to drill
-

mechanical W
__________

J polishing électroiytique 2nd MM IU

I Planing

cylindrical
plane
"1

"-
p
iMM
-M
■
MM
MM -
Mess
rs.

Rectificaiiorn |
V..
1__ MTC K
diamond
! the piarra V//// ■ M /// ;.
lapping S//S HH
y/s/
to hone M MM .
_

Sawing

Superfimtion
strawberry modulates
m-m W,

HMM ■ H
W

MM
trimming M '///AT
m
fraisa mother mM MM

speed steel tool '■*r *** Wh

JaurnaoS carburetor or diamond tool ; u
' ____ _____ __________
_ 0.25
Ft roughness in micrometres
160 80 16 10
4
2 } 0.5 ^ | 0.12 j 0.06 1

Common values eitepuunnelles values

Table 2.4: Manufacturing processes and surface finish.

(*) 1 pm - 40 ppo
 39 2/2

For the same machining process, surface conditions to be

obtained could be more or less expensive because of the care they
require. Figure 2.18 below shows the change in the relative price
depending on the roughness Ra to get milling with carbide tool.

relative cost

Figure 2.18: Approximate relative costs of a machining function

Ra roughness requested milling with carbide tool.
Roughness (1.6 <Ra <3.2 pm) is the economic roughness
because the machine can get it in normal operation.

Table 2.4 contains a lot of information that will be useful for

the selection of machining processes. At this stage of the course, it is
interesting to focus attention on certain remarks:

1. With conventional machining processes such

the drilling and the shootingIt is possible to directly
obtain average roughness of Ra = 3.2 to 1.6 microns
depending on the chosen tool.

2. If a roughness Ra = 0.8 to 0.4 microns is obtained, it will

appeal to the rectificationafter machining turning or
milling for grinding does not remove a lot of material.
These turning or milling will not have to give a good
surface because this surface condition is not final. For
this reason, it is suggested to work ECONOMICALLY

when a machining process is not final.

 Defaults
Drawings defects Tolerances to fix

40
T
h Dimensional tolerance
The deviation. c rating e (Chapter # 1)

1
CHAPTER III TOLERANCE
GEOETRIQUES

C
Criteria roughness Ra,
Absence of surface condition
Rmax (Chapter 2)

3.1 Introduction

The operation of a mechanical part can be affected by four major

form tolerance
Deformity defects that can not be totally avoided but at
(Chapter 3) least tolerances. These
1 ^ 1
defects applied to a particular case are presented in Table 3.1.

default position relative

to the surface A
! Position tolerance
(Chapterrequirements:
functional 3) The surface B must
be flat, smooth and parallel at A reference
surface respecting odds c.

Table 3.1: The four major defects that may include the surface of a
mechanical part, by the side B.
 41

Geometric tolerances limit the permissible deviations of form,

orientation, position and flapping of a mechanical element. This chapter
discusses each of them in separate paragraphs,

3.2 Terminology

Before describing in detail each geometric defect, some definitions

need to be made. Figure 3.1 shows the part of Table 3.1 with its
geometrical defectsat from which can be defined: *

Figure 3.1: Presentation of the area required in the definition of

geometrical tolerances.

* The reference surface is the surface A of FIG against which

is based the dimensional and geometric quotes surface atto
study. Note that the reference surface is denoted by a
darkened triangle.

* The surface_réelle is the fabrication surface with its

dimensional and geometrical defects.
 42

* La_surface_spëcifxêe is pla.ne the area shown on the part

definition of drawing. It is theoretical and of course flawless. In
this case, it is parallel to the reference A respecting the
dimension c tolerances.

* The surfathisauxiliary, that is the flat surface parallel to

the fixed surface and touching the first peak on the free side
of material from the actual surface. It will Useful â defining
positional tolerances.

Is the pla.ne surface which touches the

c

actual surface, without cutting, the free side material. This is

also the perfect plan that would rest on the protruding ridges of
the real surface. It will be useful in defining the shape
tolerances.

This terminology applied here has surfaces, also works well to

lines, shafts, cylinders and cones that will be called in the textELEMENTS.

3.3 Indication on drawing elements

Whatever type of elements (surface, cylinder, ...), there is the

reference elements and tolerances of elements that must be clearly identified
on a definition of drawing.

1- The reference elements

The reference elements as on the surface A of Figure 3.1 are
indicated by a black triangle. Figure 3.2.a shows the designation of a
surface of a cylinder and a reference axis.

Figure 3.2Surface Notice, cylinder and reference axis (a) and

to tolerancing (b).
 43

Obviously defects in form of reference to be negligible

compared to the fault monitor on the second element. This is why it is
necessary:

- specify a form of tolerance on the reference surface. Example of

FIG 3.3.a: a tolerance
Flatness 0.05 mm is required on the reference surface A.

- to indicate the position of the points that define the

geometric reference. Example of FIG 3.3.b three localized
points Al, A2 and A3 define the reference surface A
reproducible from one room to another.

0 - <

A1

A2.

A3.

Figure 3.3: Deformity Control of a reference item:

(a) Indicating a form of tolerance
(b) Location three points.

2- The toleranced elements

The toleranced elements are indicated by an arrow as shown in

Figure 3,2.b.

3- applications
A drawn mechanical part comprises functional elements which are
geometrically toleranced in relation to reference elements. Both of these
elements and their correspondence must be clearly marked on the drawing.
Figures 3.4 and 3.5 illustrate two simple examples of notation. Figure 3.4
shows two ways to record the squareness of a face relative to a second, A.
 44

Figure 3.5 shows the notation adopted on a body of revolution, the

central roll must be concentric at the reference axis defined by the two
extreme diameters A and B. The criteria for squareness and concentricity
are better defined in the coming sections.

Figure 3.4: Notations perpendicularity between two faces. Surface A

is the reference face.

. <.

Figure 3.5: Concentricity rating. The reference is the axis defined by

the two end diameters A and B.

3.4 The form tolerances

These form tolerances considering only the form of the elements, no
reference will be involved in their interpretation. This interpretation will
be betweenthe actual element and the shell member. The table below details
the six form tolerances as in all cases,t max is the maximum allowable
tolerance, Tmax is expressed in millimeters in the international system and
inches in the English system.
/ -7 0.05
t
L-J 0.03 / 100

max

(a) t = 0.05 mm allowed.

max

(b) t = 0.03 allowed on any square area

UlaX_ ^
100 mm side
(c) tolerances both a and b are grouped.

This criterion applies to a straight

. st
1 ^ - = Ridge case between two
surfaces

éôTôn
The edge of the two
surfaces must be
within a cylinder of
diameter
t = 0.05 max

straightness

2- = Generator case of a cylinder

The actual generator of

the cylinder must not
stray more than 0.06 mm
in its envelope. This
control is not total
control of the cylinder
46
47
 48

3.5 The tolerances associated: orientation, position and beat.

. Unlike shape tolerances that are strictly for tolerancing one
element (surface, cylinder, associated tolerances are used to locate an
element relative to a second element called, reference Two elements will
thus be involved, either.:

- thereference
- theauxiliary element which is a fictional element that fills
exactly the direction or the desired positioning in touch
from the real surface.

Like the shape tolerances associated tolerances are detailed in

the following tables; where Tmax is toudays the maximum allowable
tolerance in millimeters or inches.
49
 TOLERANCE POSITION

50

TOLERANCE
POLICY

criteria symbols Applications

and meanings

auxiliary surface
at 45 degrees of the
surface A ettouchant

real

actual surface

tilt At any point, the actual surface should not move

away more than t max of the auxiliary surface
inclined in the value of the framed angular
dimension.
rating:

oi

The axis of the hole

should be included in a
band of 0.1 mm. centered
on the nominal dimension
4 framed.
■ tmax = Q.l

Location Example if 2:

<J> 16
* <T> 0.1
H7
The axis of the hole <p 16
must be within a cylinder
of <j> 0.1 centered at the
theoretical position given
by the framed nominal
dimensions.
<T> 0.1
 51

TOLERANCE POSITION

criteria symbols applications and meanings

Example # 3:

Location
(after)

The axis of each of the three holes <j> 14 should

be within a cylindrical region of <j> 0.1 whose
axis is the position specified by the framed
nominal dimensions.

± 0. 1
Note : cf> 50 toleranced = cf> 50

(A) and (b), two possible notations.

The cylinder axis <j> 55 g6 must be included in

the cylinder in dotted <J> 0.04 coaxial with the
reference cylinder <J> 20 8 h.
The reference axis may also be defined by two
cylinders A and B away as shown in Figure 3.5.
52
53
 , i- £/ 0.06 A
b
l.____1____ f'.JL
-P ^ Ax

L/

£
A displacement sensor which moves between a and
b must be no more 0.06 mm radially. when the
room. revolution rotates relative to the
reference surface A.
Ta
bl
e
3
"2
:
Su
mm
ar
y
ta
bl
e
of
to
le
ra
nc
es
an
d
fo
rm
 56

3.6 functional analysis and assignment of geometrical

tolerances
The preceding paragraphs have presented different form
tolerances, position and orientation available. These tolerances, as
dimensional tolerances must be applied judiciously on mechanical parts
that provide a specific function. The type and value of the tolerances
will result from the functional study of the mechanical system or these
parts are involved. Three examples of functional analysis are detailed
below:

EXAMPLE if 1: Adjustable stops

Description sytem (Figure 3.6).

A set of the adjustable stop design is reported in Figure
3.6. The stop is composed of the body 1 which is locked on the base 2 by the
nut 3. Within the body 1, the stop part 4 can only slide axially as the pin
5 prevents any rotation. Always on the body 1, is installed the screw 6
which is freely rotatable but can not move axially due to its geometry and
the nut 7 mounted at the rear of the screw. The screw 6 is screwed into the
abutment piece 4, any rotation of the screw 6 will therefore create an axial
movement of the abutment piece 4 since these two parts are screwed one
inside the other.

Figure 3.6: Assembly drawing of the adjustable stop

 57

Questionot; -Indicate on the detail drawing of the body 1 dimensional and

geometric tolerances required for proper operation of the mechanical
system.

Solut ± on_: The solution is given in Figure 3.7, it is interpreted as

follows:

* AA blow

Figure 3.7: detail drawing with dimensional and geometric quotes

the body 1 of the mechanical system shown in Figure 3.6.

a) Quotation didimensional (Figure 3.7)

* The thread of the lower rod must be specified (M16) so that it
can enter the slot of the base 2.

* The bores <f> 30 H7 and <j> 16 H8 must be rigorous enough so

that a slight gap exists between the parts 4 and 6.

* The axis of the bore 30 H7 which is the axis of the stop must
be located at a distance from the base A. Note here that the
dimension of this tolerance interval is wide (30 ± 1).

* Of the dimensions could also have been specified for mounting

the pin 5.
 58

"^ The screw 6 should have little axial play. The 8-0.1 rating will
block the nut 7 respecting endplay tolerated.

b) Cotation_géométrique (Figure 3.7)

* The rod must be threaded ML 6 perpendicular to the support surface A
so that the washer and the nut 3 are seated correctly on the C face
of the base 2 (see figure 3.6).

* The two bores <j> 30 H7 and <j> 16 H8 must be coaxial because the
screw 6 centered in the $ 16 H8 must be coaxial with the abutment
piece 4 centered in the <j> 30 H7.

* The common axis of the two bores <f> 30 16 H7 and H8 must be

paralthe the to the support face A if desired, a movement of the
stop parallel to the base 4.

* Exercise: Show on Figure 3.7 squareness of

side B with respect to the bore <f 16 with a tolerance of H8
0. 03 mm.
 59

EXB4PLE // 2: combustion engine Shirt

-Q
/
L
PJ

(at) (B)

Figure 3.8: (A) Drawing of manufacturing an engine explosion shirt,

(b) The surfaces to be machined are drawn in solid line.

Description: (Figure 3.8)

The liner is positioned in the engine block. The piston slides
in its bore A. The positioning of the liner in the engine is on the one hand by
a centering (diameter B) and secondly a support (bearing face c), see Figure
3.8.A . The cylinder head or head blocks the liner in place by pressing the
upper face D.
The blank is obtained by centrifugal molding and only the solid
line surfaces are to be machined.

Question ^ Show on the detail drawing of the shirt dimensional and geometric
tolerances required for proper operation.

^ Solution The solution presented in Figure 3.8 is interpreted broadly as

follows:
 60

a) dimensional -Cotation (Figure 3.8)

* The bore A, B diameter and the distance between the plane C and D
are the three dimensions where a low tolerance range is respect
for the corresponding side of the engine block will also have a
low tolerance range.

* Note that for other dimensions, tolerance ranges are much wider.

b) Geometric Dimensioning (Figure 3.8)

* The central bore must be concentric to the unmachined outer rough
surface. Of course, we need the shirt has the same thickness over
its entire circumference.

* The diameters $ 113.5, 101.3 $, $ 102 and $ 112.6 should be

concentric relative to the interior bore A.

* The bearing face C must be perpendicular to the centering

diameter B, note that B and C are associated surfaces for the
positioning of the liner. Ask squareness of C from A would have
been a mistake.

* C and D surfaces should be parallel because the engine block will

also parallel the corresponding faces.

* Exercise: Decode registration following tolerance and juice

tify reason.

O 0.03
 61

Example # 3: Rear wheel truck (pickup)

Figure 3.9: Wheel truck back. The wheel is driving and

brakes are drum.

descriptiwe of sytem (Figure 3.9)

The drive shaft 1, driven by the right and supported by two
bearings 2 and 3, is rotatably connected to the drum 4 by the splines,
the wheel rim is fixed to the drum 4. This is the hydraulic cylinder 5
which provides braking.

The two bearings 2 and 3 are mounted greased and two seals 6 and
7 avoid one hand grease leakage and also the entry of foreign matter.

Question: Please indicate on the detail drawing of the shaft 1 only

the main geometric tolerances required for proper operation.
 62

solution:

Figure 3.10Retail Drawing of the shaft 1 with tolerances Geome

essential cudgels.

The shaft 1 is aligned in the wheel with the two bearings 2 and 3,
the two bearing regions determine the reference axis of the workpiece.
This axis will be designated AB, reference letters assigned to each of
the support diameter bearings. Most other machining axis AB will take as
a reference as shown in Figure 3.10.

The lateral support face of the bearing 2 must be flat and

perpendicular to the reference axis. On the other hand, the friction
surface of the seal 6 must be concentric with the axis for sealing and
seal life would be quickly affected if the concentricity was bad.

The bearing face on the far right of the shaft 1 must also be E-
perpendicular to the axis if it is desired that the part which mates in
this location also rotates in the extension of the axis AB
 Note that the indications of geometric tolerances can be written
out of the drawing such as the concentricity diameters A and B in
Figure 3.10 where A and B are both reference surfaces.
 64

3.7 functional analysis and calculation intervals geometric

tolerances
The preceding paragraph presented through its three examples An
important aspect of functional analysis is the allocation of geometric
tolerances. This section covers the following aspect: the calculation of
tolerances intervals to include the selected geometric criteria. Against
a fixed-tip is analyzed in this way.

Against the fixed-point system has three parts as shown in Figure

3.11. On the part 1 of plane P is blocked bracket 2 which receives the
tip 3 in its bore. Nominal overall dimensions are shown in the drawing.

Functional Donnée_: Functional analysis or employability requires the

summit S of the tip is 50 ± ° "° ~ the plane P.

Question: What geometric tolerances and with what intervals

tolerance are to be applied to mounting of the parts to meet the
dimensional requirement 50 ± 0'05? Consider all perfectly flat planar
surfaces and the cylinders without any defect of cyclic lindricité.
 Solution: The dispersion or the tolerance range of the dimension
functional to be satisfied is 0.1 mm. This dispersion symmetrical with
respect to the nominal dimension is the sum of:

£ Pièce_2 Dispersion 1: the dispersion of the position

(Score) of the bore relative to the
base bearing on the face P, this
position which is dimensionally will
nominal dimension 50.

of the dispersion parallelism of the

Dispersion 2: bore relative to the plane P.

of the dispersion concentricity of

the cone relative to the shaft coming
Part 3: Dispersion 3:
to fit into the part 2.

of the dispersion 1 'adjustment

Part 2 and 3: between parts 2 and 3. Thus if the

Dispersion 4:
fit has the game, the functional
rating of 50 will be directly
affected (Figure 3.12).

Figure 3.12: dispersion 4. An adjustment game affects the dark side

tional to satisfy.

In practice, the dispersion 4 can easily be eliminated,

is:
-in providing for. tight fit
-en providing a slightly tapered fit (sheath) with a clamping
device which eliminates any possible play.
 66

The choice of these two solutions eliminates the dispersion 4.

Let's study the other three dispersions:

Calcul_des say £ ersions_lz_2_et_3

The dispersion (Dp) of the functional dimension at the point S is

0.1 mm (5O ± 0 * 05); it must be allocated among the dispersion 1,
2 and 3 following Equation 3.1:

Dp = 0.1 (position) + Dp (parallelism) + Dp (coaxiality) (3.1)

We must balance the three dispersions to 0.1 mm.

This swing is a choicewhich is usually facilitated by the experience,
especially in manufacturing. For example, in this case, the coaxiality can
be obtained with a low tolerance while obtaining parallelism is more
difficult to obtain. Consider the following choices:

0.1 = 0.03 + 0.06 + 0.01 (3.2)

or after 3.1,0.03 equation Dp = (position)

Dp = 0.06 (parallelism)
Dp = 0.01 (coaxiality)

Dispersion 1 of position (Figure 3.13)

Figure 3.13Dispersion (Dp) due to the positional tolerance (IT).

This position is independent of dispersion of parallelism. Dp at S

due to the position will be equal to the IT tolerance range of the nominal
dimension as shown in Figure 3.13. This tolerance range is located
symmetrically to the nominal dimension as that of the functional shelf 50
~ 0 * 05,
 67

Dispersion 2, parallelism (Figure 3.14)

Figure 3.14: Dispersions (Dp / 2) due to the tolerance t of parallelism.

max

According to the definition of parallelism tolerances (see

paragraph 3.5), the axis of the bore should be in a band delimited by
two parallel tmax. The axis can therefore take two extreme positions
which create S two dispersions,
Dp / 2, equal and located symmetrically to the line of the nominal dimension.

Dp, the total dispersion tolerated S, due to the parallelism is 0 * 06

(Equation 3.2) therefore dp / 2 = 0.03. From the similar triangles in Figure
3.14:

Dp _ t max (70 + 30/2). "

-sy = ----------------= 2.83 "t max

, _DP 0.06 "

So t max = , Y, = T ~? ~ - 0.01
5.665.66

t max is the parallelism tolerance to impose at Part 2.

 Dispersion_3, _of coaxiality (Figure 3.15)

tmax = DP

; Ure 3.15Dispersion (Dp) DUEA coaxiality tolerance (t ^ y).

In accordance with the definition of coaxiality tolerances, the

axis of the cone is to be understood in a cylinder of diameter TMAV
centered on the reference cylinder axis. Figure 3.15 shows that tma3C
Dp is directly in point S due to concentricity. The concentricity
tolerance is 0.01 as chosen and presented in Equation 3.2.

Conclusion:

It is certain that there is no single solution to this problem

for it depends on a choice, Equation 3.2 can be reformulated with
another choice. The solution thus provides:

part 2 = Position rating: 5O * 015

i0

parallelism tolerance of 30 = 0.01 mm.

0035 or 100 mm.

part 3 = Tolerance coaxiality = 0.01 mm.

Trading up material which will be the subject of Chapter # 5 will

present another approach to the calculation of geometric tolerances
and perpendicularity, coaxiality, positioning and symmetry.
/
 CHAPTER IV
LISTING FUNCTIONAL

4.1 Introduction
Any mechanical assembly requires a complete analysis to
highlight the conditions for its operation. An important step in this
analysis is the functional dimension which allows:

- to make an informed choice between the various geometric

dimensions involved in the operation *, these dimensions are
calledfunctional dimensions.

- to dimension and tolerancing functional dimensions of each

piece always respecting the intended use of the words
functional requirements. Once listed and tolerated rancées,
the parts can be manufactured.

The functional dimension is therefore a necessary step between

the product design and implementation. It plays a vital role when
series partsinterchangeable are to be produced.

The functional requirements may be both conditions of

resistance, deformation, size, weight, assembly or operation. This
chapter examines in particular the conditions of installation and
operation consisting in respect of the positive distances (GAME) or
negative (CLAMP).
 70
4.2 Terminology and conventions

Chapter 1 (dimensional tolerances and adjustments) dealt with

the adjustments set, uncertain and tightening. Drawing ensenble Figure
4.1 gives no indication of the type of adjustment. The game serrabe or
do not appear, the surfaces of the parts are in contact at a distance
equal to thenominal ratinge. The nominal size is calculated so that the
parts meet the requirements of strength of materials and tolerable
deformation. The nominal size is selected from standard dimensions (eg
18, 25 mm).

Figure 4.1: General drawing of a key inserted into a nut, No

game is not represented although it exists.

In functional dimensioning, J games and clamping S are shown

magnified way of drawings. Figure 4.2 shows the functional representation
of Figure 4.1 where the clearance J between the nut and the key is
exaggerated.
 71

Although Figure 4.2 shows an assembly with clearance J, functional

dimensioning applies both clamping fixtures with S.

J or clamping set SThey are between two surfaces ter

minaleswhich are of course two different
rooms. They are obtained by
creatingcontact between all other bearing
surfaces of the parts involved.

contained and contenantes parts (eg, Figure 4.2); J is

the difference between the sum of the
dimensions ofcontenantes parts and the sum of
the dimensions of parts included.

By convention, J or S are shown perpendicular to the end surfaces.

J is a positive vector while S is negative. The positive direction is from
left to right for horizontal dimensions and upwards for vertical
dimensions. The following diagrams summarize the convention.

Clearance J (positive) S tightening (negative)

4.3 Plotting of dimension chains

Draw a dimension string is to establish a circuit that

connects the two end surfaces through dimensions between the
supporting surfaces of all parts affecting the status vector J
(match) and S (clamping) .
 72

4.3.aJ R | _g rule |! N riles_du_traçé_des_chaînes_de_çotes!

Figure 4.3. (A) Plot of functional vector game J. Rate the original surface

(b) plot of the chain of dimensions from the original surface.

1- Ask the functional vector J or S double line between the two end
surfaces which are positioned on two different parts. Adopt
Vector convention presented in section 4.2.

2- Identify the end surface origin J ®.

3- From this surface origin, the circuit is closed up to the second

end surface by a chain of dimensions through all bonding
surfaces of the parts involved (Example 4.2.b FIG contenante
where A is the dimension, the key, and the dimension B
contained, the nut).
 73

4.3. b) Exgression_v§çtorielle_du_vecteur_fonctionnel_J_ou_S

The functional vector J of Figure 4.3.b is in the direction

of the x axis because it represents the game This vector J is
expressed vectorially.:

J = A - B (4.1)

wherein (A) and (-B) are vector values xdes on both sides forming
the chain of dimensions.

In equation 4.1, A is the positive side and the negative B

rating. 4.1 The equation is generalized as follows:

J or S = E (positive scores) - Z (negative ratings)] (4.2)

The expression 4.2 is formulated as follows: "The vector

functional condition J or S is equal to the sum of the vectors in
the positive direction, less the sum of the vectors in the negative
direction. "

4.3. c) Exem2les_et_exercices:
 74
Examples exercises: Draw chains Symbols
following functional games.

JG = G 3 - (Gt * * + G + G 2)

Note: The montages of, e and f are identical; the clearance J may
be created between any two adjacent rooms as long as
the other pieces are in contact.

Exercise "Highlight contenantes ratings of dimension chains.

• Write the vector expressions games.
 75
Exercise: * Draw dimensions chains for three functional games JA, JB and JC
following mechanical assemblies.

* Highlight contenantes ratings chains.

* Write the vector expressions games.

 76

4.3. d). Le_serrage_fonctionnel

The interference fits generally include two parts,

1'assemblage is done by impact or pressure, cold or hot. The
chain of dimensions complies with the convention where now
the clamping provided S vector is negative, such as in Figure
4.4.

Figure 4.4: Channel odds of an adjustment with clamping S.

SA is placed negatively
Aj is contained in document although it is higher at AT2
contenante the rating.

The equation of the functional clamping is written:

- S A = A2 - A i (4 .3 )

For comparison, the following diagram operably two adjustments

shaft / bore, with one set and the other with tightening. Vector
expressions are mentioned.
 77

ThuJA = A 1-AT2 Tightening- SA = A | -A 2

The examples in this chapter and the corresponding exercises

will be cases where only functional condition J is processed. These
cases very common design, are more general than the case where only
two clamping parts are usually involved.

4.3._______________e) RI§umé2 Çomment_établir_une_chaîne_de_cotes?

1. - Analyze function that requires a game or

i'
functional clamping.

2. - "Compress" all the pieces so that the game appa

Raisse than one point between two end surfaces.
Note : The contained parts are loose or ser
rabies within contenantes parts.

3. - Place the functional dimension (D or S) between the

two end surfaces for positively or negatively J S.

4. - Identify the terminal original surface.

5. - Setting the dimension string; one starts from the

surface
Original terminal to reach the other end surface by
passing through the bearing surfaces of the parts
involved.
 78

6. - Check the dimensions of string is minimum,

that is to say it should exist ONLY ONE SIDE BY PIECE. This
is very important.

4.4 Fundamentals of functional dimensioning

4.4. at) Çhaîne_mininale_de_cotes

A chain of dimensions must be minimal, that is to say
that for the same operating condition, there must be thatone
rating per piece. For example, the dimension string on the JA
playing Figure 4.5 is not least because the part 3 has two
dimensions.

Figure 4.5JA Game ratings The chain is not insignificant; Part 3

has two dimensions. This chain of dimensions is false.

Exercise: Leading the chain minimum odds on

JA and JB games mounting Figure 4.6 same as in Figure
4.5.
 79

Figure 4.6: Leading the minimum strings games on ratings

functional JA and JB.

4.4. b) Çotation_fonçtionnelle_des_2ièçes_im2leagued

For each room, the functional side to register is one

that belongs to the dimension string "The three years following
pages illustrate the functional dimensioning of a part. In
these exercises, the axis 1 is identical in all three cases but
its assembly differs, it successively fills the roles:

- of hinge axis
- adjusted bolt
- floating axle

Noted that the functional dimensioning of axis 1 will

depend on the function performed by the part and not of its
geometry.
 AXLE JOINT 80

Exercise: From the four channels on ratings JA, JB, JC and JD,
include the corresponding functional dimensioning of axis 1.

JC
 81
BOLT ADJUSTED

Exercise : From the four channels on ratings JA, JB, JC and JD,
"Register the corresponding functional dimensioning on axis 1.
 82
FLOATING AX

Exercise : From the four dimensions chains on Games JA, JB

JC and JD, enter the corresponding functional trading on
axis 1.

JC
 83

4.5 interdependence tolerances odds

Returning to the example of the nut and the key with JA play.
The corresponding odds JA chain is traced in Figure
4.7.

Figure 4.7: Nut dimensions chain introduced with play in the key.

Apart JA, this chain of dimensions comprises two dimensions,

Aj, content ratings and A2, Side of the container. These dimensions or
dimensions may be fixed values; each one must have a tolerance range
for manufacturing reasons. Figure 4.8 shows the patterns of these two
parts to their maximum and minimum dimensions.

Because the dimensions Aj and A2are variables within their

tolerance range, the functional clearance JA will in turn variable.
The two extreme cases are schematicallyatFigure 4.9. The maximum value
JA (JA max) is achieved with the
 84

cote_A.2 maximum (A2 max) and the minimum score Ai (Aj mini). JA can
then write,

JA max = A2 Max - Ai Min (4.4)

The same way, the minimum value JA (JA min) is obtained

with the symbol A2 minimum (A2min), and the maximum dimension Ai (Ai
max). JA min is expressed,

JA min = A2min - A; max (4.5)

where A2 is contenante rating and Ai contained the rating.

Figure 4.9 : Extreme values JA "(a) JA max" (b) JA min

For a functional dimensioning with clearance JThe expressions

4.4 and 4.5 generalize as follows:

J max = 2 (cotescontenantesmaxi) -2 (cotescontenues mini) (4.6)

J min = 2 (cotescontenantesmini) -2 (cotescontenues max) (4.7)

Let us return to the equations 4.4 and 4.5 and express their difference:
 85

. Each term in parenthesis is the range of tolerance (IT) in the

corresponding dimension, the equation becomes 4.8

IT IT JA = A2 + IT Aj. (4.9)

Equation 4.9 is formulated as follows:

The IT tolerance range of the operational condition dimension J is

equal to the sum of the tolerance intervals for the odds Odds component
chain.

The J tolerance interval will therefore be divided betweenthe

dimensions constituting the chain of dimensions. Therefore, if Lachaîne
ratings is minimal, each side is affected the most grandintervalle
possible tolerance.

4.6 Applications
Data: Back of functional dimensioning
4.6. a) recherc ^ e ^ d ^ a ^ co ^ te = avec_to llunce Example.

the example of the nut and key where desdes

±0.02
standard nuts are per cotedeâ from a drawn bar.
Linen-

The functional clearance J between the key and the nut

should be between 0.03 and 0.15 mm. Note that this game
isbilimite. These two limits obtained by testing meet specific
functional requirements. J 0.03 min correspondsat the minimum
allowable value for easily insert the keyin the nut. J max of
0.15 corresponds to the maximum allowable value for thatthe key
does not damage the nut when the maximum torque or loosening is
applied to the nut.

Question: Calculate the key tolérancée dimension of 18 mm to

produce so they are interchangeable with nuts 18 mm standards.
 86

Solution:

Expression of J max: J max = max - B min

A max = 0.15 - 17.9 8
A max = 17.98 +0.15 = 18.13 mm

J expression min: J min = min A - B max

0.03 min A = - 18.02
A min = 18.02 + 0.03 = 18.05 mm

The key must have produced a rating to- ♦ 0 . 1 3

lérancée 18 * 0.05 so that they normally operate with all
standard nuts. This is called 1'INTERCHANGEABILITE.

Note: Checking the equation 4.9:

IT IT J = A + CT B
(0.15 - 0.03) = (0.13 - 0.05) + 0.04
0.12 + 0.08 = 0.04 (OK).
J max B max A min = 0.07 (
= - i 1
J min B min A max = 0.02 (
= - 2
IT J = 0.0 IT = B + IT A
(
5 3

These three equations are not independent because the

latter was obtained at from the first two.
Must begin by spreading the J tolerance between the
dimensions A and B (equation 3).

(3) 0.05 = CT + B CT A
= 0.03 + 0.02

This distribution is a choice. Since at equal

tolerances, manufacturing a container is more expensive than a
content, containing B is chosen tolerance interval wider than
dq A. This view will be developed at the end the present
example.
 88

Side B (bore) (1) 0.07 = B max - A min

(2) 0.02 = B min - max

The tolerance intervals are already selected,

these two equations are not independent. We must set a
first functional side choices (starting point).
Choose adjustment associated with the bore or the
bore B, the container will have a rating 30 M? .
associateat the bore means that B min = 30.00 (see 1.4.b)

The B tolerance range is fixed, it will be easy to

find B max

B max B min = B = IT +
30.00 + 0.03
B max = 30.030 (IT 30 pm)

Table 1.1 gives 33pm for quality 8 (Acceptable with

respect to 30pm).
• 33 +
B = 30 30 H8 = 0

Dimension A (tree) Equations (1) and (2) give the two will
their end of the dimension A.

(1) J max = B max - A min

A max B min = - J max
= 30 033 - 29 963 = 0.07

(2) J min = B min - max A

max B min = - J min

= 30,000 - 29,980 = 0.02

-20

A = 30-37 with IT 17pm. Table 1.1 gives 21pm to 7

quality and the best choice in the tables1 and 2 (End of
chapter #1) Is a rating 30 f7
-20
A = 30 = f7 30-41
 89

The proposed adjustment is a 30 M8 f7 with the

following graphic representation:

The maximum and minimum games can be easily deducted

from this figure.

Set min = D min - d max = 30 000 - ". 29. 9 80 = 0.020 or 20ym

* i
Game max = D max - d min = 30033-29959 = 0074 or 74pm

The adjustment 30 H8 f7 provides a range j J was

very close to that desired, which is between 20 and 70pm.

ConclusionThis solution expressed in the ISO system

however, is not unique in that it includes two choices,
either:
- swaying tolerance intervals between dimensions A
and B (equation 3).

- an adjustment associated with the bore (B min =

30,000)

Other solutions are acceptable on the condition to

always respect the game bilimite J.
 90

Textual choices: The result of the example above depends

two choices that may seem arbitrary at first but
nevertheless certain rules must be followed:

a) Distribution of the tolerance interval of

clearance J between the sides of the chain of
dimensions.
IT J = IT IT A + B + ... + N II

* If the parts have the same nominal size, the IT

parts of contenantes (bore) must be greater than
the IT contained pieces (tree) because a tree is
easier to achieve a bore.

* If the parts have different nominal dimensions,

the tolerance increases when the value of the
nominal dimension increases. Figure 4.10 shows
shows for the same quality 10, the growth curve
of IT as a function of the nominal dimension.

Figure 4.10:Variation
IT tolerance interval
according phrase nominal
dimension for the same
quality10.

nominal dimensions
 91

b) Choice of the first functional rating

This choice must be made as much as possible on a
containing side (bore); Adjustment can then be
selectedassociated with the bore. This gives D min =
nominal rating. In production, co-
i
your contenantes (bore or groove) are generally
obtained by sharp tools directly to a rating
associated with the bore (H-type).

4.6.c
Le_jeu_fonetionnel_J jgeut_être_une_cote ^ Exemp1e.
Data:

Is the dimension chain functional clearance J above, in

this case the desired game is a shelf, 15H8. The nominal
dimensions
i
tions of A and B are respectively 6 and 14 mm.
Question:

Calculate the dimensions A, B and C with tolerances so

that the ratings game 15 H8 is respected.
Solution:

Table 2 (end of chapter # 1) provides:

+ 27
15 H8 = 15 0 with CT J = 27pm

The nominal rating of C will be: 15 + 6 + 14 = 35 mm *

Distribution of tolerances
IT J = IT IT A + B + C IT (1)
 92

Note that A and B are odds contained pieces (easy to do) while C
is an exhibit number contenante (more difficult to achieve).
Therefore, the quality dimensions A and B will be higherat that
of C.

Referring to Table 1.1 gives the values of basic

tolerances depending on nominal dimensions, the following
breakdown can be justified:

IT IT J = A + CT + B CT C (1)

27 = S + 8 16
Or-. .................. J \ -------------------/
quality 5 quality 6

This choice is acceptable documents A and B (easy to do)

are superior to C and secondly the sum of IT is 29pm, very close
to the desired 27ym.

The dimension C, of nominal size 35 mm, is a containing

Grade C
shelf (bore) will be chosen to form aadjustment associated with
the bore (H). Its quality (6) Is selected, the designation of C
is known:
fJ. 6
C = 35 M6 = 35 0

Dimensions
and B From the equation (1) above: IT A = 5pm (grade 5)
IT B = 8pm (grade 5)

Equations J min and J max:

J min = C min - max - B max (2)
J max = C max - A min - B min (3)

These two equations are not independent, it is necessary to set a

first-functional dimension (starting point).

Let A = 6 g5 = 6-9 (Table 1, end of chapter # 1)

The equations (2) and (3) will now limits the dimension B.

(2) becomes, B max = C min - max - I min

= 35,000 - 5,996 to 15,000
= 14,004 ram
 93

Equation (3) can give B min, even simpler:

B min = B max - B = CT 14004-0008

i
= 13,996
± 4

So, B = 14
Note that the CT B is positioned symmetrically to the
nominal dimension, its description will therefore be 14 JS5 (see
comment 6 paragraph 1.3.d)

Dimension B = 14 JS5

Conclusion: As in previous applications, the result

in this example depends on choice. The choice of the dimension C
is logical. By cons of solutions A and B are directly related to
document A asked. Asking A =6 h5 or 6 K5 always as .5 was as
acceptable 6 g5

4.6.d) ionn | Miss =unilimite

The foregoing examples included bilimites functional

clearances, that is to say, for operational reasons, J condition
were to be between D max and D min, two known values. This paragraph
deals with cases where only a limit of J (J max or min J) is
required for operation of the assembly. For example, bolting shown
in Figure 4.11 shows three unilimites functional requirements.

Figure 4.11: Bolting with three unilimites functional requirements.

 94

The functional clearance JA must always exist even in the

worst case because it is necessary that the washer 3 is based on
part 2 and not on axis 1 min JA is the only functional limit while
JA max is functionally indifferent. The dimension string trace as
follows:

A2

The prices of the shaft 1 on JA min is Aj ^ ax (code

contained).

The functional play JBmust always exist so that the nut 4 is

screwed over its entire thickness. JB min is the only functional
limitation. The dimension string trace:

The prices of the shaft 1 on JB min is min (contenante rating)

 95

The functional clearance JC must also always exist because

it must be kept a threaded margin to ensure that the nut 4 can
always be screwed, especially during its tightening. JC min is
the only functional limitation.

The prices of the shaft 1 on JC min is C ^ max (shelf

contained). Overall the three coordinates of the axis 1 that
contribute to these three unilimites conditions are plotted on
the drawing definition below.
 The values of A ^ in C ^ min and Bjmax (second limit) are
determined by the planning department that chooses odds with
fairly wide tolerance range not to increase the cost of
production (eg ± 1 mm).

4.6.e) Une_cotation_fonçtionnelle_peut_néçessiter_des_modifiçations
dy_de§sin_de_conçegtioiK Example

Figure 4.12 shows a shaft - gear 2 mounted on two ball

bearings 3a and 3b. The retaining ring8retains all set up. To
mount the ring8 in the groove on the shaft, there must be a
functional clearance between the ring and JA bearing 3a. This
game bilimite J is as follows:

0 <JA <0.2 mm

Figure 4.12: Mounting of bearings with axial retaining by the ring 8.

 97

Leading the chain of dimensions related to JA play.

How many pieces of thickness dimensions includes the chain?

data: The parts involved in the chain are in production costs

reasonable, their thicknesses are:
0
AT3 = 11"0 . 1 2 (Deviations in mm).

+0.1
AT2 = 59 '
± 0- 05
AT7 = 19
± 0 -0 5
AT5 =
± 0 .0 5
13A

= =A 83 = l h l l 1- 0. 0G
4

Question: Check the JA functional clearance can be met with the data
layers, if not, propose another design solution.

Solution: J max = A2 max - (A 23 + A4 . + A5 + A7 + A8) min

= 59.1 - (21.76 + 2.95 + 12.95 + 18.95 + 0.94)

1

= 1.55 mm

J min = A2 min - (2 A3 + Have,. + A5 + A7 + Ag) max

= 58.9 - (22 + 3.05 + 13.05 + 19 .05 + 1)

= 0.75 mm
0.75 <J Real <1.55
 98

With these tolerances data on seven pieces involved ^it is

impossibleJA reaching the game as desired. Three alternatives are
presented.

Alternative # 1: Create a thickness of shim E between AD

neau retaining 8 and bearing 3a as shown in Figure 4.13. This wedge
will reduce JA excessive.

Figure 4.13: Thickness Shim E chosen to achieve the game

JA (0 <JA <0.2)

Several thicknesses of shims will êtredisponibles mounting,

0.75 thicknesses, 0.95, 1.15, 1.35 mm.The assembler installs the
shim thickness suitable for the re-rédui game to values between

0 and 0 . 2 mm such quedésiré.

This alternative is acceptable for prototypesou very small

series. In series production, a tellealternative is not recommended
because the assembly time seraaccru by choosing the right hold. On
the other hand, the raiseaudu after-sales service of the product
will distribute the game shifted thick available.
Alternative # 2:
 99

To achieve desired JA, this alternative offers bearing

manufacturers, gears, rings and rings reduce parts tolerance
intervals. This will have a direct effect on the cost of production
of these parts, see Figure1 . 1 1 (Page 18) where the curve of the
relative cost of machining is plotted as a function of the desired
range of tolerance ,,,

3 ^ Edit the design drawing.

alternative yew The amendment will aim to reduce the number of parts involved
in JA odds chain end play of the shaft 2. JA can thus be achieved
without reducing the tolerance intervals already given dimensions.
The proposed amendment is designed in Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14: Alternative # 3. A clamping nut 11 is installed on the

shaft. Now the end play JA no longer involves three parts
instead of September

The right end of the shaft has been changed. The

retaining ring8 was replaced by the tightening nut 1 1 axially
blocking all the parts about the axis. Now the end play JA is
created between the bearing 3 and the cover 10. The chain
dimensions relative to the new JA game no longer involves
three parts: the
 bearing 3, the cover 10 and the support 9. From this new
channel simplified odds, the odds of these three parts
can be calculated to achieve
0. <JA <0.2.

Conclusion: The first two alternatives proposed creating

•>
increased production costs. Strictly speaking, both may be
acceptable for single fixtures or very small series (1at10
pieces). For cons, the alternative # 3 proves to be the best
solution, it is suitable for mass production without asking
for clarification or additional settings.

4.7 functional dimensioning of the inclined surfaces

4.7. a) Adjustment dovetail

Adjustments dovetail are used for guiding a slide 2 with

respect to a fixed part, the slide 1 (Figure 4.15). This type of
assembly is among others used on machine tools. Figure 4.15 shows
the two functional clearances JA and JBatrespect to the guide is
correct. JA ensures sufficiently precise guidance while JB
prevents the bearing suràondances the bottom of the dovetail.

Figure 4.15: Adjusting dovetail with two games fonctionnelsJA and JB.
 101

The representation of JA adopted in Figure 4.15 is not

practical because the chain of dimensions is inclined with respect
to the two parts slide plane. It is easier, especially for
manufacturing and control, to adopt the representation of Figure
4.16 where in there I chain documents A2 and A {are directly machine
odds. It is certain that the angle has to be tolerance.

Figure 4.16: Adjusting dovetail with the adopted functional dimensioning.

Odds On2 and A {can not be measured directly because it is

Note: very difficult to position the two sharp edges. These ratings are
obtained indirectly through a custom rods of diameter d (Figure
4.17). A simple calculation to know the indirect C rating

AT
'

Figure 4.17Measurement rods on the width of a male dovetail.

 102

4.7 .b) My§î§5ëS _§yï_ £ £ ± 2ïl§_dl§2Ey

In functional dimensioning the conical surfaces are

defined by the angle, the theoretical diameter of a cross
section and the positioning of this section along the axis. This
theoretical section is calledMAP GAUGE. Figure 4.18 shows a male
cone (a) and female (b) where the same gauge plane (diameter <j>
20) is positioned. The gauge plans are always located near the
large diameter of the cone so that the quotations are reference
a maximum range plan.

level gauge

Figure 4.18: (A) gauge Shot of male cone

(b) measurement diagram of a female cone
(c) functional dimensioning gauge between two plans.

Both male and female cones are assembled with a clearance

J in FIG 4.18.c; both end surfaces of the chain of dimensions
are the respective gauge planes of the two cones as defined in
the drawings definition of each part.
 103

CHAPTER V

RATING THE FIELD OF HIGH

The purpose of this chapter is to show ^ for parts to assemble

^ 1 Interdependence between the value of the functional clearances and
value of positional tolerances (perpendicularity, coaxiali- tee,
location, symmetry).

5.1. Definition; maximum and minimum states of matter.

Trading up material is used for parts to assemble. Adjustments

are usually with play.
Conditions at the maximum and minimum material conditions are
respectively the maximum and minimum games. Figure 5.1
schematically these extreme conditions for an adjustment 30 H7 / f7
+ 21 -20
which bore 30 H7 means 300 and the shaft 30 f7 30-L1.
 104

Mini Game - 20 pJeu max = 62 p

Figure 5.1 (a) Schematic representation of the adjustment 30 H7 / f7, with play.
(b) Adjusting to the state Maximum material. The
container is mini while the content is max.
(c) The adjustment at the state minimal material. The
container is maximum while the content is mini.

As shown in Figure 5.1, an adjustment is in the form Maximum

materialwhen the container (the bore) is at its minimum allowable dimension
while the content (the shaft) is at its maximum allowable dimension. Both
parts contain the maximum amount of material while remaining within their
tolerances. The dimension difference is minimal, in the case of Figure
5.1.b is a minimum play.

Rather, an adjustment to the state minimal materialis at the

opposite extreme conditions, the content is minimum and the container
is maximal. The maximum for license is removed from both parts to
give maximum play.

The condition of maximum material condition will be used to

calculate geometric tolerances maximum material because it offers a minimum
of play and thereby minimal latitude location of a part with respect to the
other is permitted.
 The condition of maximum material is applied to four
geometric criteria is: squareness, concentricity,
the location and symmetry. Each of these criteria will be presented
independently.

5.2 The criterion of perpendicularity

5 ,. 2. a) £ ° sditions_de_montage

tree (1 )

AT

bore (2 )

Either join the two parts of the drawing above. Sides A

and B of the shaft of the bore must bear one on the
other.Determine the per tolerances
pendicularité respect to each of the parts if 1'ajusment 30 is
H7 / f7.
 106

D max
D min

Figure 5.2: Extreme joining conditions

(A) maximum provided material (b)
minimum requirement of material

Figure 5.2 shows the two extreme cases of assembly, maximum

and minimum terms of material, or two different perpendicularities
are allowed on parts. Failure acceptable squareness is the maximum
material condition (Figure 5.2) because with this default, all
possible diameters within the tolerances of shaft and bore fit. In
contrast to lack of perpendicularity corresponding to the minimum
requirement of material (Figure 5.2.b), the two pieces fit together
and only if they remain in this condition. STATUS IN RESPECT OF HIGH
is the conditionat from which the greatest defects of squareness
permits can be calculated so that the installation is always
possible.

The minimum set of this adjustment is 20 pm (Figure 5.1). This

value being negligible with respect to the nominal dimensions (30 and
28 mm), has the angle of-true perpendicularity is negligible, so J
min can be measured parallel to the two support faces (FIG 502.a).

As shown in Figure 5.2, x is the perpendicularity of the fault

tree and that of the bore, they are expressed as follows:
 107

J min = x + y

and formulates

"The sum perpendicularity tolerance is equal to J min of

adjustment. "

If the same value fault t squareness is posed to both

parts:
J min Dmin - d max 20 f
x = y = - = -----------2 ------ = - = LOPM = t <•

where t is the same lack of squareness of deuxpièces defined adjustment

Figure 5.3.

5.2.b) Cotâtion_and_SYmbothe

Figure 5.3; Drawing definition of parts. The symbol means

that the squareness is tolerated I MATTER OF HIGH condition.

The two parts of the example are defined in Figure 5.3. The
diameters are rated as the adjustment requires. The defects of
squareness, 4> t obtained Equation 5.1, are also mentioned. The
symbolat Following t max means that the squareness tolerance was
determined by considering the parts in their maximum state of
matter.
 108

5.2.c)? Ïinçige_du_maximum_de_matière

What will happen if the dimensions of the parts are not

in their highest state of matter while remaining within
tolerances? The actual game is then greater than the minimum
clearance J min.

Real D> D min

Figure 5.4: The diameters are no longer in their maximum state

material. The rooms have their default license squareness. A
beat j exists.

In this case, shown atFigure 5.4, the diameters are no

longer in their maximum state of matter: real D> D min and real
<d max. If each piece has the defects of squareness quoted in
Figure 5.3, the set will be a backlash j equal to:

j = (d max ~ real d) + (real D - D min) (5.2)

The principle of maximum materialmeans that the assembly

of the two parts is still possible with perpendicularity
tolerances greater than t calculated maximum state of matter.
The sum of these two increases tolerated squareness must be
greater than j. 5.1 The equation is:

x + y = J Real (5.3)

Trading in Figure 5.3 is however not changed.

 109

5.2.d) ReSUMed

1- The condition of maximum material means that the odds of

the container is minimal and that the maximum content.
The game is minimal.

2- The condition maximum material is provided from which the

minimum defects permit position can be calculated in order
to always mount the two parts.

3- The symbol, maximum material shown in geometric

dimensioning means;

- that the mentioned positional tolerance was

determined when the parts are in their maximum
state of matter.

- that it allows a limited excess of the tolerance

of perpendicularity if the parts are not in the
maximum state of matter.

NoteSuppose an adjustment 30 H7 / H8, the sheet intervals

rance of the shaft and the bore tangential to lower and upper nominal
dimension. The minimum clearance is zero. In this case, the permissible
squareness tolerance is zero.
The permitted tolerance value of perpendicularity, calculated
maximum material condition, depends on the minimum clearance (J min.).
 110

5,3 The criterion of coaxiality

5.3. a) Q2SÜ! i2m âi = = £ S2Q §§i

Either both parts 1 and 2 of Figure 5.5 comprising
concentric diameters must be fitted into each other while
critically arrangement shown in Figure 5.5. Adjustments ^ /
R2 and r ^ / r2 is <j> respectively 45 H8 / f7 and <j> 20
H8 / g6.

Figure 5.5; Two concentric parts to be assembled. The pieces are at their
highest state of matter.

Calculation of them j min and max(Table 1 and 2, end of chapter #

1) Adjustment R / R? = <I> 45 H8 / f7,
+ 39
<J> 45 H8 = 450
- 25
<F> 45 f7 = 4 5 - 5 0 game max
= 89Y = 0.089 mm mini game
= = 25p 0.025mm
Adjusting ri / r? =({> 20 H8 / g6
------------------------------- + 3 3
<{> 20 H8 = 20 0
-7
4> 20 g6 = 20-20

Max game 53tf = = 0.053 mm

mini game 7 = p = 0.007mm

 111

The two parts 1 and 2 are shown in the most adverse conditions
still allowing their assembly. These conditions are:

- adjustments are in their maximum state of matter

(mini and maxi content containers that give the
minimum games)

- defects in coaxiality tj and t2 are the greatest.

Consider the critical assembly where generators (Ai, A2 ) And

(Bi, B2) are in contact in pairs. Since these generators are combined,
the X dimension is expressed differently in the two rooms:

Pi | çe_l_: X = R + ri + (Tx / 2)

pieece 2: X = R 2 + R2 - (t2 / 2)

These two expressions are equal to give:

~ Rq) + (r2 - r ^

ti + t2 = (2R - 2R) + (2R - 2r)

2 1 2 1

ti + t2 JR Jr = min + min (5.4)

where JR Jr min and min are respectively the minimal sets of

large and small adjustments.

Equation 5.4 is expressed as follows:

®The sum of the concentricity tolerance is equal to the sum

//
minimal games 1'assenblage component adjustments.

In the example of Figure 5.5, tj + t2 = 0.025 + 0.007 = 0.032

mm.
Each 1 (shaft) being easier at realize that the part 2, the
latter will be given a dual tolerance:

t1 = 0.011 mm (male part) and

t2 = 0 "021 mm (female part)
 112

5.3.b) olisation

The two listed items are drawn in Figure 5.6.

The s y m b o l e t o u t as for the perpendicularity criterion means:

- the concentricity tolerances were determined assuming the

parts in their maximum state of matter.

- limited overtaking concentricity tolerance is allowed if

the parts are not in peak condition material. In that
case,

t + t2 Real = Real + JR Jr

Figure 5.6: Drawing definition of parts. The goose SYNB means

the coaxiality tolerances were calculated to the maximum state of
matter.
5.4 The location criterion

5.4. a) R§2Egl

The following diagram summarizes the application of

location tolerances in Chapter # 3.

The axes of both holes $ 13 must be included in two

cylinders of <j> t = 0.1 centered at the theoretical
positions given by the nominal dimensions 20 and 50 framed.
 114

5.4 .b) Çonditions_de_montâge

Either both parts 1 and 2 of Figure 5.7, which must fit into
one another despite their critical provision where the holes are
close and distant trees.

Figure 5.7; These two parts are to follow suit. The diameters
and trees have the same rating Location c. The pieces areat
their maximum state of matter.

The piece 1 has two alésages4> 16 remote H8 axis axis of the

framed shelf c with tolerance tj location. The part 2 comprises two
diameters <j> 16 remote e9 axisat axis c with the same rating
tolerance location t2 -
 115

The two parts are shown in the most adverse

conditions still allowing their assembly. These conditions
are:

- the adjustments are in their maximum state of

matter, which gives the minimum J min games

+ 27
16 as H8 = 160
J min = D min - d max = 16.0 -
-32 15 968 = 0.032 mm = 32 microns
and 16 e9 = 16-75

- the pieces are in default maximum localization,

t ^ and t2 / ayec the bores close and distant trees.

Under these adverse conditions, Figure

5.7 shows the parts after assembly or extreme generatrices (Have ,) And
(A2, B2) coming respectively when
confused. Dimension X separating these generators can be
expressed separately on both parts.

Pièce_l X ^ c = - tx + 2RJ

Pièce_2 £ X = c + t2 + 2R2

These two expressions are equal to give:

t + t2 = 2RJ - 2R2 = J min = 32 ym (5.5)

"The sum of the tolerances of LOCAtion of two ele-

conjugated elements (tree bore "groove) is equal to the game •
minimum of the basic adjustment. "
 116

In the example in Figure 5.7, t = tj2 = 16 ym. This

tolerance location is indicated on the drawing definition of
each of the two parts; as shown in Figure 5.8.

Figuratively. 5.8: Drawing definition of parts. The symbol means Qy

trust that the location specified tolerances o.nt was
calculated as the maximum state of matter.

As with other position criteria, the maximum material

principle allows an overflow location of tolerance if the
holes and bore no longer the conditions of maximum material.

5.4. c) Autres_agglieations; Three equidistant adjustments

+ 0.2

Figure 5.9: Location of three equidistant adjustments.

The male part (b) must be mounted in the female
part (a).
 Figure 5.9 shows two listed parts to be assembled. Note
that the sum of the tolerances of location is equal to the
minimum set of basic adjustment, or 0.2 mm. The boxes can also
be quoted angles.

* Advantage employment déboulons instead of screws

In Figure 5.10, a screw (a) and a bolt (b) perform the

same function of intersections taking.

Figure 5.10: An assembly of two plates by (a) screws and (b) bolt,
j is the radial play.

The radial clearance j in Figure 5.10.a between the

screw and only the part 1. Equation 5.5 is written:

l + c 2 = J min = 2 j = diametrical clearance (

t
1)

The radial clearance j of FIG 5.10.b between the bolt

and the two pieces at a time. The equation becomes 5.5

t + t2 J = 2 min = 4 j (2)

Comparison of equations (1) and (2) shows that the bolt

connection instead of screws makes it possible to have a
tolerance for each plate of double localization. Note also that
a bolt connection does not require a thread in one of the
plates.

5.5 The symmetry criterion

The study of symmetry criterion is the same as the coaxiality

criterion. The example in Figure 5.5 gives identical results if
treated under the symmetry approach.
 118

These results are formulated:

t + t2 Min = Ji + J2 min (5.6)

} where J min and J2 min are the minimum adjustments games respectively 1 and 2
to be symmetrical.

Equation 5.6 is formulated as follows:

The sum of symmetry tolerance is equal to the sum of the

minimum sets of adjustments.

The same way, if the elements concerned are not in their

maximum state of matter, the symmetry of tolerances may be exceeded a
certain value depending on the actual game. In that case,

t + t2 = Jj, real + J2 real

Example: Fitting a key to transmit torque

Figure: 5.11: Study of the symmetry of a shaft and its associated hub
rotated by a key.
(a) assembly to the maximum state of matter
(b) drawing definition of the key
(c) drawing tree definition
(d) hub design drawing
 This assembly includes two adjustments 0.015 0.065 mm and
minimal sets. From Equation 5.6, these values are used to distribute the
tolerances of symmetry between the shaft and hub.

tx + t2 = 0,015 + 0,065 = 0,080

Let tolerances equitably distributed.

tj = t2 = 0.040 mm as listed on the definition of drawings.

. 6Controls
Whatever position criterion considered, the parts to be checked
include dimensional dimensions (20H8, 45 g7, ...) and geometric
dimensions (coaxiality, ...). In metrology, these two types of quotes
require two separate checks or dimensional control and the geometric
control that willimperatively take place in the order presented at Figure
5.12.

accepted PIECE

piece refused piece matched

refuséeou

Figure 5.12: parts control sequence comprising a quotation

maximum material.

5.6 .a) L§_contrôle_dimensionnel

In the study of trading at maximum material size of rooms

have always been considered within their tolerance range. The
first check to make metrology is thedimensional controlas shown
in sequence in Figure 5.12. If the part does not respond
positively to this control, it must be rejected. Serial control
templates or buffers "eutre-no-go" are used to check the
toleranced dimensions. (See Figure 5.13)
 1201/6

(at) (B)

Figure 5.13: Dimensional Control "between - does not"

a) the caliber Jaw checks trees.
b) the buffer checks bores.

5.6 .b) Le_contrôle_gé ornétri £ ue

This second test is performed only if the first inspection,

dimensional, proved positive. Templates "between - does not come"
are also manufactured for geometric series of checks.

ATOC ± ± on_des_ca.l geometric control fibers

FIG 5.14.a shows the diagram of perpendicularity criterion
of FIG 5.2.a. control templates, the male and female parts are both
made the same nominal diameter Dc which is the common reference
position to both defects x and y. The line L which establishes the
diameter Dc determines'

-dc, contained a rating that will check the fault of the bore.
-dc, a containing side that will check the fault of the tree.

The sets of parts to be mounted are thus verified either side of

the same line L. A whole batch of male pieces So assemble accepted
with a whole lot of parts FEMEL

accepted.
 1202/6

D min

(B)

(C)

Figure 5.14: a) The perpendicularity criterion. Each piece is * *

verified geometrically with respect to the diameter De

which separates faults x and y of the two parts.
b) Caliber of the tree with default squareness almost zero.
c) Caliber bore with fault perpendicular virtually zero.

From Figure 5.14.a, Pc = d max + D min = x - y

"Templates are manufactured with very narrow
dimensional and geometric tolerances on the order
of micrometer (pm).
Geometric default is almost zero. Companies
with machine tools high-precision specialize in
the manufacture of such caliber.
* The principle of maximum material means
limited exceeding the positional tolerance is
allowed if the parts are not in the maximum state
of matter, Figure 5.15 shows thattemplates as
take into account the above
presented Maximum material principle.
 1203/6

check room
Depièce check

(at) (B)

Figure 5.15: The gauge manufactured in diameter De checks the piece from
the principle of maximum material.

In Figure 5.15.a, the room to check is in its maximum

state of matter (d = d max). The default maximum squareness
permit is x ©, defect calculated in the maximum state of
matter.

Figure 5.15.b illustrates the maximum principle of

matter. The part to check is no longer in its maximum state of
matter while in its dimensional tolerances (d min <d <d max).
Compared to the diameter De of the caliber, the new default
squareness maximum allowed will now t greater than x (t ^.

* 5.12 FIG mentions the parts control sequence. A room

classified defective when the geometric control may be refused
or matched. Indeed a male part that exceeds the diameter De can
be assembled with a female part that does not exceed From and
vice versa.
 1201 * / 6

Generally, the size "between - not between" for

geometric control will:

- the reciprocal shape of the part to be checked.

- failure to almost zero position.
- dimensions corresponding to the maximum workpiece
material â check amplified of the listed geometric
tolerance on the same part (Equation 5.7).

The above listed rule is illustrated through an example

involving symmetry criterion. The two comic parts below are
assembled.

Question # 1: What tolerances of symmetry must be

imposed on the two pieces presented above?

Solutiwe: From equation 5.6 (page 118)

ti + ta = min Ji + J2 min = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2 mm.

where t] and t2 are parts symmetry tolerances respectively 1

and 2 .

For production reasons, the maximum tolerance

intervals of matter, tj and t2 Are divided between the two
parts as follows:

t = 0.08 mm t2 = 0.12 mm
 1205/6

Trading in symmetry will therefore:

Question # 2: Draw and rate control gauges

geometric each of the two parts thus listed. The manufacturer
of the caliber is able to meet the following tolerances:

e; dimensional tolerance range (-1 pm)

X; geometric tolerance of symmetry = {0.2 pm)

Solution: Three class solutions are presented

a table â next page. Note that the odds templates correspond to
maximum workpiece material to checkamplifiedof the range of
tolerance of symmetry of the same room. Tolerance of symmetry
can be distributed either on one or both sides of the gauge.

Also note that the intervals templates, and tenth,

are placed in the sense of always amplify the maximum state
of matter of the play check.
As for the tolerance of symmetry of the class, it is
obtained from equation 5.6 where now the two parts to be
assembled are the caliber and the room at check in their maximum
state of matter.
 1206/6

C
O
N
P O
I T
E AT T
C R
E O
T
h

3
S
== - X CM)
0
L
U
T
1
-A / 2 + (X /2 + O
16.1- (X / 2 + e) 40.12 + A / 2
N
e)
S

D
E

C
A
• Sl * © T
T
h
e
I
B
-X / 2 + (A / 2 e) R
15.98- (X / 2 + + E
e) 1 - - 40 + A /
S

D
E

C
O
N
O
© X T
T
X CM)
R

-A / 2 ~ + (X / 2 + c)
40.07 + X / 2 + (A72 + -X / 2
16.05- (X / 2 e) 16.04 + 40 06- (X / 2
A / 2 + e)
+ e)1 -
 121

CHAPTER VI TAKING
OF GROSS

6.1 Introduction
Mechanical parts may be required to be produced

in:
- unit production or some pieces (prototypes, special assemblies)
- production series comprising:
small series (5 to 200 parts) Average
series (200 at 1000 parts) mass (1000 to
5000 pieces) very large series (more
than 5000 pieces)
- batch production (eg 50 pieces every two months)
- continuous production chain (eg auto production).

The vast majority of mechanical parts are machined from a blank

called gross. This crude will be more or less complex depending on its
production process.
This chapter outlines the principles of the most common raw obtaining
processes without going into the technical and metallurgical details. Useful
for machining data will be provided, such as surface conditions, the
dimensional and geometric tolerances of the crude prior to machining.
Obtaining raw can be classified into three broad categories:
- molding
- the plastic deformation
- sintering or powder metallurgy.

6.2 Molding

The molding is made from liquid metal which is cast in a mold

cavity having known mutual form crude to obtain.
 122

6.2. a) ^ Ë = ?? 2yl§E§_§_322i2§_B22_E215i§522ls
Figure 6.1 shows schematically the two main molding
principles to non-permanent molds.

Ingot

G I © - drive rolls

G D Form opposite
the workpiece
of

bucking

(at) (B)

Figure 6.1: The two main principles molding at non-permanent molds

Figure_6_Llj_a2 The liquid metal is poured into a fixed mold called

mold. The cast metal is in bar form called ingot. The
ingot is cooled by water jets and taken from the
crystalliser at constant speed. The ingot is sawed for
machining or further forging.

Figure 6.1.b: Sand casting: The mold, made in sand,

comprises two parts in order to permit demoulding.
The liquid metal pours into the inner cavity. The
parts obtained are virtually in their final form,
only one of the surfaces to remain

machined.
 123

AT - Sand casting

Sand, 5 to 7% moisture, is mainly composed of silica.

The sand casting process adapts to almost all forms of possible
parts200 gr. at4 tons. The sketches of Figure 6.2 describes the
principle:

tube Impression sprue

JT%?K
The part to be obtained.
0 Q
A wooden model is made.

The upper mold cavity is formed

around the model.
The lower mold is carried out in
the same way.
The two cavities are separated and
the model is removed.
Both footprint are reinstalled.
Rate casting conduits and air
outlet (vent). The counterweight
blowhole flyweight
final impression has a role to compensate for
changes in volume during cooling
of the metal.
The mold is ready casting.
The molded part is released.
Traces ducts are ground. The final
part comprises ajoint plane: O
the two mold cavities.

O O

Figure 6.2: Sand casting Principle.

 124

Hollow parts can also be obtained by sand casting,

Figure 6.3 shows the principle. A sand core, cured by additives,
remains in the mold during casting. Once the casting removed
from the mold, the core is removed; the final part is hollow.

free space

core

Figure 6.3: Molding a hollow member by insertion of a core.

The sand casting process allows to obtain the following

dimensions with tolerance intervals:

empirical formulas: IT = 1 + (mm.) For steel

IT = 1.5 + J ^ Q " (Mm.) For alloys

light

The average surface roughness is Ra ^ lZ.Spm. The

surfaces may retain silica grains that may blunt the sharp edges
of the tools. The surfaces can be ground before machining or
robust roughing tools should be selected.
 125

B - The shell molding (Shell molding)

Silica sand is mixed with ether-modurcissables resins.
Figure 6.4 shows schematically the principle of ceprocédé.

ModèleBrûleurs

o. ■ o O

Figure 6.4: Principle of shell molding.

Obtention_de_la_carapace (a) The model of the part is fixed

on the cover of the vessel that can rotate about an
axis.
(B) The lid is heated at 300 ° C
about.

(c) The vessel is turned over 180

degrees. The thermosetting sand comes polymerize in
contact with the hot model.
(d) The tank is opened.
(e) The ejectors help clear the
hardened shell of the model. Several shells of
various shapes and can be obtained following the
same process.
 126

Molding la_piece ^ (f) Two shells A and B form the two opposing
portions of the part to be produced.
(g) The two shells are glued.
(h) The two shells are placed in bonded sand
to receive casting.

Choosing a sandy allows for precision work, low roughness

and high dimensional accuracy. The part obtained will also feature a
joint plane.
The mounting shell is used inter alia for parts with thin
and smooth walls (ribs), Ra * 6.3pm. The tolerance range of a
dimension d is in the order of:

IT = 0 * 4 + G ™ -)

C - The plaster cast

This method is similar to the shell molding. Of
end plaster poured into the model gives the shell. The surface
quality and fineness of detail reproduction are excellent.
Roughness average Ra = 3.2pm. Casting can be done simply by
gravity or under pressure.

D - The investment casting (Lost to model)

This process is mainly used for medium size parts of complex
shapes in poor LYING lability alloys. Figure 6.5 describes the
preparation of models.

Part to be
produced

Figure 6.5: Preparation of wax patterns.

 127

(a) The parts to be produced are not clear form * very

difficult to obtain by molding sand.
(b) Several parts of the model are made by injection of
wax or polystyrene in a simple mold.
(c) These parts are assembled as a cluster comprising a
plurality of the workpiece models.

FT'Fl ^
Fïïjq ww
f HPN-Lx j
Ld
® 0

Figure 6.6: Manufacturing the mold

(d) Mounting cluster is coated with refractory products

by dipping, soupoudrages and successive drying. A shell of a few
millimeters is created around the wax patterns. The coated array
was then placed in a frame filled with fine sand.
(e) The back frame is placed in an oven where the wax
patterns melt and flow. It is important to provide that any
point of the model has a flow slope.
This heating also hardens the refractory product.
(f) The liquid metal is poured into the hot mold which
increases the flowability of the alloy.
(g) The chassis is open and the broken shell.
(h) Finished parts are detached from the cluster.

* A non unobscured shape means that the shape of the part peutpas
not directly be obtained by molding with two fingerprints.
 128

The rooms have no parting

The results of this process are excellent but

require a lot of handling:

IT = 0.25 + - £ -QQQ (Mm.) And Ra = 6.3pm

E - The centrifugal casting

This process is used for long rotating parts (eg pipes,

bearings, engine shirts explo
if we) . The two molding principles are shown in Figure
6.7.

Figure 6.7: The centrifugal casting. The axis of rotation is

(.at) vertical or (b) horizontal.

The frame of the mold is stuck on the tray of a

centrifuge that can give a centrifugal acceleration of several
tens of g (where g is the earth gravity).
The metal is compacted outwardly. Avoid axial core of
employment.
The metal frame must be sturdy. surface
conditions and dimensional tolerances are similar to
sand casting.

6.2. b) Le_moulage_à_moules_permanents (shell)

In this process, the mold comprises two parts

called all-metal shells. The shells obtained by casting,
machining or plastic deformation are cast or
 129

copper alloys. Because of the high cost of shells, this process

can be used advantageouslyat from a minimum set of 2000 rooms.
The metal may be introduced into the shell by gravity or
pressure. The roughness and tolerances for light alloys are:
O i
IT = 0.3 + YQQQ (Mm.) And Ra = 6.3 to 3.2pm

Important note: The molded parts to be machined

are provided with a thickness of 4 to 6 mm on each surface to be
machined.

6.3 The plastic forming

6 .3.a) The Estam £ §ge_3 _matricage

Figure 6.8: Principle of stamping

A metal part of a simple shape (billet) is interposed

between two engraved steel blocks called matrices.
The dies are brought together by impact or sustained pressure.
The shocks have a superficial effect on the room as the press
extends its action to the heart of the play.
Matrices plastically deform the billet which fills their
fingerprints. The dies must provide for lateral drainage of
excess metal in the form of burrs.
 130

The stamping operation often includes several successive

stages of forming. In Figure 6.9, a crank is stamped into three
steps: bending, blank and
finish.

Figure 6.9: The three-step stamping: bending, roughing, finishing

(A) The lower die - (b) The workpiece after each step.

The successive steps of forging have the advantages:

- better distribute the metal ^ especially if the piece is
curved
- avoid repliures and creeks
- to avoid premature wear of the dies
- to create a better distribution of fibers.
 131

The stamping principles

The figure 6 .10.a shows an engine crank head obtained

by successive embossings. The crude bore possess a central
wall thickness e as the metal can not be completely discharged
during stamping.

Figure 6.10: stamping products (a) engine connecting rod

(B) 1 Stamping by rolling

The figure 6 .10.b shows another principle where the

embossing matrices are rolling rollers with circumferential
etching of the part profile. Railway rails are obtained. This
principle removes the negative effects of the shock.
 132

Stamping and recrystallization grain

The annealed steel, that is to say cooled slowly (to

ambient air) to the microscopic structure of Figure 6 .11 .a where
uniform grain size does not have a preferred orientation
direction. The material is said "isotropic "; its mechanical
properties (elastic orat break) are identical in all directions.

-------there
(ABC)

Figure 6.11; microscopic views of a (a) annealing steel, (b) wrought steel,
(c) cold-forged bolt head.

If the steel is forged below its recrystallization

temperature 0 c (cold), the grain is elongated in a preferred
direction similar to those of Figure6 .11.b. The material is then
said"anisotropic"" Its mechanical properties are increased in the
direction of x grain and reduced in the y direction. If the load
applied to the workpiece is oriented in x, the forged material
will be stronger than the annealed material. For against, the
material is weakened the y direction. If the forged steel is now
above its recrystallization temperature0 c (hot) and cooled slowly,
the forging deformed grains regain their initial shape of the
figure6 .11 .at.
 133

In stamping, the concept of hot and cold is no longer

with respect to the room temperature but in relation to the
recrystallization temperature 0 c which is around 760 ° C for
steel. A stamped piece400 ° C (Cold), however, require lower
forging forces than at room temperature.
The embossing temperature is an important parameter
when:
- cold (hardening), the resistance increases in a
direction;
- hot (wrought), the resistance remains unchanged.
For example, the bolt of FIG ô.ll.ca its grains
deformed oriented parallel to the axis of the bolt as the tensile
load that will resume this bolt.

Note: Stamping lead at room temperature

is a hot stamping because the recrystallization temperature is below
20 ° C.

6 .3.b) L ^ estamgage - refoulement_ou_forgeage

Figure 6.12Principle of stamping by upsetting

(a) the dies and punches
(b) the successive deformations of the piece

In figure 6.12, a simple form of cylindrical bar is

pinched strongly between two dies to be securely retained. The
punch 1 diminishes the length
 134

of the bar by creating an expansion of its diameter. The deformed

bar is then moved to another cavity of the dies for receiving the
impact of the punch 2. The punch 3 gives the final shape.
This forging is at constant volume, no burrs are created.

The forging processes presented above are applicable from

medium series of parts because of manufacturing cost matrices. The
roughness and tolerances obtained are:

IT medium = 1 + (mm.) And Ra = 12.5pm

important Note: The stamped parts to be

machined are provided with an extra thickness 2 to 3 mm on each
surface to be machined.

6.3.c) Le_filage

Under a compression force often shock, between a punch and

a die, the metal flows by producing a shaped piece defined by that
of the tool (punch and die). Spinning is usually hot. Figure 6.13
shows different spinning principles.

Figure 6.13: Some principles of spinning, (p = punch, m = matrix)

(a) The metal flows along and around the punch.
(b) The metal also flows inside the punch.
(c) The final piece is tubular by metal flow around a fixed
cylindrical stop.
(d) The shape of the punch can also create a tubular part.
(e) side setting; the metal flows laterally.
 135

The aluminum profiles are made by extrusion.

In a method similar to that of FIG 6.13.e, the metal flows
through a die ( "die") imposes a profile.
Most tubular parts with bottom are obtained by impact
extrusion as shown in Figure 6.14. A preform is deformed by
the impact of the punch.

piston

Figure 6.14: Principle

impact extrusion.

The surface finishes and tolerances obtained by spinning are

excellent:
O j
IT = + 0.5 (mm.) And Ra = 3.2ym

6.3. d) / ed draw

The stretching comprises shoota rod through a die to reduce

its diameter, Figure 6.15. Several successive stretching stages
allow to obtain son of very small diameter. The operation is usually
cold.

jaws

Figure 6.15: Principle drawing. A metal rod is drawn cold

through a tapered die.
 136

The tolerance intervals and spun parts surface finish

are remarkable:

IT = HLO at. h9 and Ra = 3.2 to 1.6ym

6.4 Sintering or powder metallurgy

Metal and / or refractory powders of diameters - 100 ym are
molded by pressing and sintering. Figure 6.16 shows the two stages.

Figure 6.16: Powder metallurgy: (a) pressing, (b) sintering

Figure lô ^^ ^ a) pressing. The particles are compressed by a piston to be placed

therebetween. Little deformation occurs to their contacts.

Figure_6.16 _; _ b)sintering. The assembled particles are heated. BydiffusionThe

contact areas between the particles are increased. It can even
happen welding. The mechanical properties of the set are obtained
during this step.

The sintered parts are simple geometry of parts that do not require
surface machining; the dimensional characteristics are generally of high
quality. The finished sintered parts still remain porous and their
mechanical properties are inferior to those of the same material that is
homogeneous. This porosity however, has the advantage of storing the
lubricant (oil) in the case of bearing pads.
6.5 Other examples of obtaining parts

6.5.1 Production of a standard bolt

For manufacturing a cold bolt, starting from a coil of wire

(1). This thread unwinds, passes between the rectifiers and then
through a die which reduces the diameter desired; the wire is then cut
into sections of equal length (2). These sections pass into a machine
three steps of stamping. The first step blank form, the second creates
chaufreinée bolt head while the third size by punching the hexagon
(3).
 137

A chamfer is factory ,at the end (4) then the bolt is taken
between two combs (one fixed and the other mobile) to work harden the
form of thread (5).

BOLT
© COMPLE
 137 ///

6.5.2 Forming sheet metal (Roll forming)

The figures below show the workstations of a forming machine -

ametal roll sheet. At each position, a punching or forming operation
is gradually brought to the sheet.

a>
4 ~>
b
 137mt

The figure below shows examples of profiles obtained by forming.

The new "2 x 4" metal, very common in building construction, are
obtained from this method.
 137

CHAPTER VII
PROCESSES MACHINING

7.1 Introduction
Machining processes denote metalworking processes by removing
material. That the kidnapping is done by the formation of a cut chip,
or microchips, or EDM ^ in any case it is a machining operation.
In the USA, expenditure on machining work amounted to about 5% of
gross national product. The field of machining that has always been the
basis of mechanical manufacturing is an area in constant movement because:

- the development of new alloys which creates machining problems.

- a constant search for better productivity: reduced machining time
and idle time.
- the application of new technologies: command
Digital ^ ...
- the implementation of new cutting materials.

This chapter presents a review of machining processes used LYING •

row. It aims to introduce the possibilities of each machining process in
order to choose when writing a machining range covered in Chapter 10. #
machining processes are as follows:

CUTTING: Punching

CUTTING OR CUTTING: Working with sharp tools

by drilling, planing, turning, milling.
MACHINING
by 4 WORK ABRASIVE: Grinding, grinding,
lapping, polishing
removing material
PHYSICAL PROCESSES - CHEMICAL : Removal of
material using a non-mechanical action:
spark erosion, chemical milling ...
V.
 138

7.2 The cutting

Figure 7.1; cutting principle

Figures 7.1.a and b describe the principle of cutting a cold-

rolled metal sheet which is in the form of constant width strip or coil
form. The sheet based on the matrix. Cutting occurs when all of the
punch down; the stripper is based on the sheet while the punch is
shearing the sheet as shear blades. The role of the stripper is to
prevent lift of the sheet. The slider back and the sheet can be moved
to another slice.
Figure 7.1.c shows a shearing section where play must exist
between the die and the punch. This play must be equal to 0.03 and 0.05
times the thickness of the sheet for mild steel and aluminum
respectively.
Figure 7.2 shows schematically the various common cutting
operations.
 139

rooms

Figure 7.2: The cutting operations

(a) Punching. Waste is separated from the room
(b) Cutting. Waste can be recovered for other uses.
(c) Lancing. The division is partial.
(d) Notching. One waste taken from the edge
(e) Nibbling. The final form is obtained by successive
punching.
(f) Shaving. The piece undergoes two cutouts; the final rating
is more accurate.
(g) Clipping - cutting and plastic deformation of the workpiece

Metal cutting should not be hard and brittle, but have a very good
cold formability. Parts from cutting are rarely machined, rather they are
assembled by riveting or welding (for example, spot welding, "spot
welding").
The cutting is a very interesting machining process when a number
of constant thickness parts are to be produced (example: ron
Dellys). CNC cutters control the displacement of the sheet on the table and
the change of the punch.

7.3 Machining by cutting

Machining by cutting is to remove the metal in the form of

shavingssize that the cutting tool on the workpiece. The cutting tool and
the workpiece are installed on theMachine tool. There are four main
cutting operations either:
 140

- the bore and the bore

- shooting
- milling
- planing and broaching

Before presenting each of these cutting operations, it is

useful to define some basics about cutting principle.

7.3. a) le_princi2 e_de_couge

The cutting theory has been the subject of much research,

the books on the subject are very accurate. While in itself this
could be the subject of several sessions of course, this
paragraph has just the basics of cut, useful concepts for the
selection of tools.

The cutting parameters

Whatever the machining process, achieving a surface

results from the combination of two movements and a dimension:
- rapid movement specified by the cutting speed, Vc is the speed
at which the tool enters the room or vice versa.

- a slow movement specified by the feed rate, Va, it is this

speed that gives the thickness of the removed chip.

- depth referred to simply pass past, P, is the thickness of the

removed part of the material layer.

Figure 7.3 shows the movements and cutting ahead and

passes for all four cutting operations.
 141

Figure 7.3: cutting motions (Vc) and advance (Va) and password (p)
in the four cutting operations. The planing operation can
be as well a displacement of the tool on the fixture the
workpiece on the fixed tool.

In all four cases of FIG ^ 7.3 the depth of cut, p, is shown. It

is defined as follows:

in drilling p = radius of the forest or enlargement

radius if a pilot hole is previously drilled.

P = change in radius of the part.

en_fraisage p = thickness of the removed material layer of the
workpiece.

by planing p = thickness of the material layer retiréede

the room.

Chip formation
The cutting speeds and feed are important cutting parameters,
they depend mainly on materials of the workpiece and the cutting tool.
Cutting tools, whatever their form, create acompression the metal which
rupture shearto form a chip, which slides on the cutting face of the
tool. From a pure orthogo'nale view Figure 7.4 shows schematically the
chip formation as the stack of cards.
 142

chip thickness

Figure 7.4Formation of a chip. The tool compresses the material

that shears to form the chip that mounts on the tool.

The chip can be released as batchor fragmented. In this

case, the shearing is total and continuity breaks through to the
shear plane. This kind of chip occurs when machining brittle
materials like cast iron.
The chip can also be released as keep on going, Shear is
incomplete and the fragments are still integral. Most steels produce
this kind of chip.

The cutting tool

On the orthogonal sectional view in Figure 7.5 are drawn
sharpening angles of a cutting tool.
 143

advance depth or
past

Figure 7.5: Simplified model of sharpening angles of a cutting tool.

Y cutting angle
а, draft angle
б , Edge angle
r, rounded edge

The cutting angle, y,is the angle of the cutting surface with a
normal to the machined surface. It has a direct effect on the cutting
forces. It can be positive (Figure 7.5) or negative (Figure 7.6).
 144

Although the cutting angle there, negative increases cutting

forces, it has the following advantages:

- improve the strength of the cutting edge due to the increase

of the cutting angle, 0 .
- increase the shear stress on the chip formation and thereby
promote the formation of discontinuous chips. This
insurance is particularly interesting with fragile milling
tools such as metal carbides and ceramics.
- improve the resulting surface finish.
- promote machining hard materials.

The relief angle, a, ensures that the rear of the tool does
not heels on the machined surface.

The rounded edge, r, must be made at.sharpening as a sharp edge

will never live in machining. The rounded edge that the tool refuses
to cut the metal when the thickness of the material is smaller than a
certain value called the minimum chip.

The minimum chip: Because of the rounded edge, r, a cutting

tool can not be removed if the thickness of material to be removed is
less than a certain value. While the tool hardens the surface and no
material is removed. Suggested values of minimum chip are:

draft = 0.5mm.- - -
half finition- = 0 . 3 mm.
cutting tool
finish =--------- 0 . 2 mm.

bore =----------- 0 . 1 mm.

Abrasive tool (grinding, grinding) = 0 . 0 1 mm.

Materials cutting tools

The materials of cutting tools will be discussed in each
cutting operation (milling, turning, ...). This section presents only
a review of cutting materials available on the market.
 145

Thees atthisers to carbwene (0.7 to 1.4% carbon) are the

least expensive. An increase in carbon content
increases the hardness but makes the brittle tool.
These steels can not tolerate temperatures above 280 ° C
working at low cutting speeds and are used for machining
of "soft" and non ferrous materials.
Speed steels - The word "fast" means high cutting speed
compared to carbon steels.
These are carbon steels containing tungsten (1-20%),
molybdenum (= 4%), chromium (= 4%), and vanadium (- 2%).
They retain their hardnessat hot (700 ° C), the latter may
be increased by the addition of cobalt. A lubricant is
still advised.
Cemented carbides are obtained by sintering to be
marketed as platelets (Figure 7.7.a), mountable turning
tool holders (Figure
7.7. b) and milling (Figure 7.7.c). Carbides contain
tungsten carbide powder

(at)

Figure 7.7. (A) Various forms of machining chips installed on a turning tool
holder (b) and milling (c).
 Material Tool cutting speed in m / min (ft / min)

carbon steels 18 (60)

speed steels 30 (100)

carbides 90 (300)
ceramics 150 (500)
Ceramics with surface 210 (700)
coating

table 7.1- Cutting speed, Vc, different cutting tool materials. In all
cases, the values given in the table correspond to the
machining of a medium hard steel.
 147

7.3. b) =2 st £ | ge_et = l ^

al ge |||The principle

of drilling

Legend : ^ Cutting movement (Vc)

-------► Feed movement (Va)

Colum

Vc
D r

tool
Movement of
The forest The room the spindle
based

(B) (C) (D) (E)

Figure 7.8: Principle of the bore

a) The machine: The feed movement (Va) may be given
to the spindle or to the table.
b) the method; The cutting tool (the forest) enters
item in turn.
c) The tool: The forest, two-lipped cutter.
d) workpiece movement : The part is fixed on the table.
e) Tool movement: The cutting speed (Vc) and
feed rate (Va) are both placed on the tool.
 148

Machine tools

Based on the principle of Figure 7.8 .a, there are

several models of drills that meet special needs. The most
common drills are presented below.

Figure 7.9: The drill press

This machine tool is courantedans

small and medium manufacturing
ateliersde. It is suitable for
totalementmanuelle and petitsdiamètres
(max 20 mm). The perceusesensitive has
no automatic mouvemen'd'avance.

Figure 7.10:The peradial rceuse

The locations of the tool ainsique its
advances are automatisées.Cette
machine can receive degrosses parts
and drill grandsdiamètres.
column
 149

Figure 7.11: P erceuises_sens ± tives_en

series. This provision becomes désuéeavec
the advent centers usinage.Elle lets you
run multiple pierced-ges in series on the
same piece; it cin'ayant slip on the table
unposte hole to another.

Figure 7.12: The multi-pin gerceuse

This machine tool, used in produc-tion of
mass production, allows travailsimultané
several tools. Spindle Chaqueaxe is
previously régléà its desired position. The
machine estmonopolisée depièces throughout
the series.

eight pins with

different tools
 150

Figure 7.13: the

perchadhimself
à_commande_numérique, CNC.La
machine table peutse move in
the plane andthe head
descends. Remarquerla spindle
turret huitoutils course the
outilstravaillent in
sequence.

The achievable machining

The drilling tools, high speed steel for most, machine
inside diameters. Figure 7.14 shows les six most common
operations performed in drilling. The tools will be presented
individually.

ALESAGE'A'E 'ALESOIR

Figure 7.14: Les six most common drilling operations.

 151

The drilling operation with the drill aims to remove a lot

to the room. On the contrary, during the reaming operation, a thin
chip is removed to complete the hole with odds and tight surface
finish. The tool alé- evening ends holesat conventional standard
dimensions, eg 20 H8 . If the rating is not usual, the boring bar
with adjusted grain holed out to the desired dimensions.

The tools
Forests (drill)

Figure 7.15: The drill - (a) Side view. The dark area is the heart
around which are carved the helical grooves of chip
clearance.
(b) View of the active end. The soul is not a
cutting part.

The twist drill of high speed steel, has two

diametrically opposed cutting edges or lips. The central
end of the drill called soul (dead center) is not sharp.
The length of the core increases the diameter of the drill.
Because of the soul, it is not advisable to drill a hole at
top = 12 mm without first drilling a smaller diameter pilot
hole.
The soul has another disadvantage. If there is no pilot
hole, the drill begins its drilling by the soul, it can not
ensure proper positioning
 152

starting because it hardens the metal; the drill may therefore

deviate from the intended axis. To remedy this problem, another
tool le_foret_à_centrer of Figure 7.16, the primer hole in
accordance with the location of the axis of the hole.

(B)

Figure 7.16(A) the forest center

(b) machining center drill
(c) the trace of the center drill also allows positioning a
workpiece on a conical tip (turning between centers).

The great majority of forests are of constant diameter.

There is however the drillattwo diameters foret_étagé called (step
drill) as shown in Figure 7.17. This type of drill that is the
subject of special orders brings a machining time savings.

Figure 7.17: (A) the step drill

(B) internal machining step drills
 153

L ^ reamer (reamer)
As mentioned above, the reamer is a tool that bores
terminates in dimensions and surfaces rigorous conditions. The
radial passes suggested for a reamer is 0.07 to 0.15 mm, that is
to say that for example, a hole 20 H8 should be 19.8 mm drilled
before receiving alésoâr 20 H8 .

Figure 7.18(A) The reamer - (b) End of the reamer. The throats
clearance of chips are parallel to the axis. There are also
tapered reamer.

For reasons of cost and standardization, there can not be a

reamer for all diameters, tolerances and possible qualities.
Reamers commonly distributed correspond to the usual nominal
dimensions (all 1/16 inch and all1 at 2 mm) with 7 or qualities 8
associated with the bore. Out of these cases, the boring bar with
grain acts reamer, see Figure 7.14.

Le_taraud (tap)

not the tap

Figure 7.19: The tap. The pitch is the distance between two nets
consecutive.
 154

The tap conducts internal threads. This tool rotates slowly

and feed per revolution is not imposed by, the very characteristic of
the tap.
Note: In the ISO system, a thread is designated by its
not, The distance between two consecutive threads. For cons,
the English system usesnumber of threads per inch. There is no
correspondence between standard threads of both systems.

The chamfering tool

Figure 7.20(A) The chamfering tool - (b) An application:

conical screw head housing.

The chamfering tool has two main applications:

- deburring the edges of a hole drilled or reamed
— machining the conical seat to receive a screw head
(Figure 7.20.b).

Theortil to countersink and boss

A hole through a workpiece may have the function of

allowing the passage of a screw whose head must be supported on
the workpiece. Three types of support are possible:
- countersink: Surfacing of a room to provide good
support for a bolt. The machined depth is low
(FIG 7.21.a)

- chambering Machining of a housing to conceal the

head of a bolt still offering good support as in
the case of the countersink.

- the boss(Figure 7.21.b). A molding of the piece, an

overthickness of material called boss, was provided
around the hole. The surface of the boss is
machined.
Work material Cutting speed m / min (ft / min)

Aluminum 90 (300)
Bronze thirty (90)
Melting 20 (60)
Copper 25 (80)
Soft steel 45 (150)
semi-hardened steel thirty (1 0 0 )
hard steel (60)
20

Table 7.2: medium cutting speeds suggested by drilling

for HSS tools.
 156

Rotation speed

For drilling tools, cutting speed, Vc, is defined common tangential

speed at which the drill strikes the material, the basis of this information
and of the diameter D of the tool, the rotational speed N in revolutions per
minute can be calculated. Is:

Vc, the cutting speed in meters per minute (m / min).

D, the diameter of the drilling tool in millimeters (mm).

tangential velocity, Vt = Vc = '£ QQQ* W ^ (m / min) (D

where co is the angular velocity in radians per minute expressed:

CD Î 2 = N (2)

I express from the equations (1) and (2)

2000 Vc
co = = 2is
D

so, N = 1000 with N, rev / (7.1)

Vc min Vc,
m / min D,
mm
The same development in the English system gives:

12 Vc
N = with N, rev / min (7.2)
7T D
(RPM) Vc, ft /
min D, po
 157

Avance_de_coupe

The piercing cutting feed is the thickness of material that takes

the bit at each turn, it is also the axial feed of the tool into the
workpiece. It is suggested to choose:

0.05mm / tourpourundiamètrede4mm
0.2mm / tourpourundiamètrede12mm
0.3mm / tourpourundiamètrede20mm
0.5mm / tourpourundiamètrede30mm

For tapped holes, feed per revolution is not the tap.

 158

7.3. c) Recording

The principle of shooting.Légende: forward movement (Va)

mm cutting movement (Vc)

outilpièce machined rotatable spindle

/ L vc________
Vc

S
3 V-
Go

advanced
movable against
carr (C) (D) (E)
(B)
iage
Figure 7.22: Principle of Recording

(a) The machine - the piece is installed on the spindle which

rotates
imposing the cutting speed Vc. The tool is mounted
on the carriage or two orthogonal feed movements
imposed upon him.
(b) The process: the part rotates and the tool advances in the
(c) The tool installed on the carriage.
(d) workpiece movement, Vc is imposed.
(e) Tool movements two orthogonal directions.

Machine tools
All tours are based on the principle described in Figure
7.22.a from which many options to improve the performance of the
machine.
 159

carriage and turret

spindle
equipped with a advanced against
chuck

Figure 7.23: Le_tour_parallèle

universal. A tool is Montesur

turret. Automatic avancessont but
manual enclen-mation. This type of
current tourest andmeans in small
machine shops.

lathe bed

Figure 7.24: horizontal lathe for big jobs. This tour can machine
long pieces of large diameters. Automation is similar to
that of the universal round.
 160
swiveling turret at
pxece machined eight tools

Figure 7.25: Le_tour_semi-boo 2 ue.

The turret has six or huitpostes tools, thereby
exécuterun many operations without démonterla
room. For each tool operation, the

are adjustable stopscoursedes control the

movements of the carriage. This round-mande the

Le_tour_automatique: This tower, similar to the semi-automatic lathe, is

fully automated (selection of tools, speed change and advance control of tool
movements). It works without operator. It exists in several versions, Figure
7.26:

Figure 7.26.a :

Positions of etarrière before

tools are added to those beyond
gun turret. Metallu-strokes can
occur simul-taneously.

swiveling turret
©
 161

rear
toolholder

brooch tournelle
swivel

Figure 7.26.b and c :

Part exchange is automatique.Une rough bar is

installed in the

dark portion in the rear of tower lafigure

c. Clamping and avancementde the room are
automatically Ensequence.

O
Figure 7.26.d :

The tour includes four pins with quatrepièces.

Many tools are disposésautour pin. The pins
MOVE percent before the tools. This type of
highly productive tourest.

Figure 7.26: Le_tour_automatique - (a), (b, c), (d) the different versions
automatic turn. This trick is used for mass production; its setting
requires skilled labor.
 162

The NC lathe; This tour may include some or all of the automatic lathe
options. The tool movements are controlled digitally; non-rectilinear shapes can
be programmed.
The CNC lathe is better suited to batch jobs that the semi-automatic
lathe. Any form of programming is recorded on tape and can be easily reused
without lengthy adjustments.

The achievable machining and tools

The machining achievable turn whether external or in-térieurs in

the room are many and each correspondun appropriate tool. Figure 7.27
shows the profile tools couram-ment used and the forms they to machining,

internally threaded tool

chamfering tool

tool Knurling tool boring bar

throat tool at
\
Swiss type
(TT

tool tools turning

tool at draw left

dressing tool right

tool tools turning at left

tool machines for the right

tool to bleed
Tool filetageexterne

tool externally threaded

Figure 7.27: Common machining achievable shooting and presentation tools.

 profiling

CSDPN POS.

Turnlng

Ptenn-W NEG. MTENN-W

NEG.

Turnlng, T - Profiling X *

PVJNR / LW
NEG. cMVJNR / L NEG.

N profiling

O
MOPNN NEG.

3 profiling

_____. MOJNR / L NEG.

profiling Turnlng.
Facing

MTYOR / L
OD Thraadlng and
Groovlng

MCRNR / L NEG.

Turnlng ^

CSSPR; THE POS.

MSSNR / L NEG.

Turnlng.
Ficing

CSKPR / L POS.
MSKNR / L NEG.

BB Strias Small said

Borlng

TOOL SELECTION GUIDE

 163

Concentric drilling work atthe axis of the spindle can also be

performed on the tour. At the 7.28 figure, the workpiece is rotated on
the spindle while the drill or the reamer extends into the room without
turning.

Figure 7.28: drilling work executed on a turn.

Occasional holes from turning operations are acceptable lap

especially if the room does not have to be disassembled. By cons, it is
not logical to realize that drilling on a lathe, this machine is more
expensive than a drill.

All Comic tools Figure 7.27 are available high-speed steel or

platelet form carbides or ceramics. In production, the wafers are
widespread, they are clamped or referred to the tool holder. Their
cutting speeds are nearly ten times the speed steels. Figure 7.29 shows
some doors tools and turning inserts.

Figure 7.29: Turning tools at wafer.

 164

The fixing and the workpiece support systems

The workpiece can be fixed to the spindle by:

- a mandrel three concentric jaws (Figure 7.30.a)
- a mandrel four independent jaws (FIG 7.30.b)
- a concentric collet called collar (FIG 7.30.c)

The chuck three concentric jaws - This systèmede

quick release is mostly manual. Please note, a
removed part and remounted on the back mandrinne not
perfectly in the axis of the bro-che (non means
coaxiality =

The four independent jaw chuck allows defixer

eccentric parts or carréou rectangular contour. This
clamping system existeque do manual and adapts poorly
to production.

0.0 O
The collets cwecentric. rapid loosening system that
retains high con- '' jW centricity. It is widely used on lathes
| automatic. One type of clamp is available "for each profile
bar to be machined.

profilprofil
round Square

(C)

Figure 7.30: The workpiece clamping systems on the spindle.

 165

The mounting entre_pointes

The positioning system and clamping between centers has major

advantages. The first part receives two center points at each of its ends
with a center drill, see Figure 7.16. These center points will be based on
the tips. One of these ends is rotated with the spindle and the other acts
against-tip. The drive in the piece of rotation is provided by a toc blocked
thereon, as shown in Figure 7.31.

Figure 7.31: Mounting between centers. OCD provides training

rotation of the workpiece. The axis of rotation of the
workpiece is the axis defined between the two points.

This clamping system is quickly installed and can find a

perfect axial positioning of the part after disassembly. It is not
suitable on automatic lathes.
 166

Le_mont age_en_lunette
long pieces filming a problem especially when the room flexes
under the cutting forces, machining is then totally distorted. The
mounting bezel concentrically supports the workpiece near the points of
application of cutting forces and thus avoids any possible deflection of
the workpiece.

Figure 7.32:Lemon tage in theaehead.

The telescope provides three-concen tric
near support surfaces
at machined; while the workpiece bending
is thus
 167

7.3. d) Le_frâisage

The principle of milling

Le_ | £ aisage_horizontal "legend: cutting motion (Vc) feed

movement (Va)

Go
t

there

(A) (b) (C) (d) (e)

Figure 7.33: Principle of horizontal milling. The spindle axis is hori

zontal.
(a) The machine: The tool is mounted on the axis of the spindle
where it turns. The workpiece is clamped on
the table, three orthogonal movements can be
imposed on him.
(b) the method: The tool (tool) is running and the room beforehand.
(c) The tool: The cutter has several teeth.
(d) workpiece movement: The feed rate (Va) is impo
See at one of three orthogonal axes.
(e) Rotation tool: The strawberry speed
must not exceed the speed (Vc) desired.

In any programming CNC machine, the three feed axes are

identified as follows:

z, the axis parallel to the spindle

x_, the other axis, the race is the greatest there, the last axis
(short-stroke)

This agreement is respected in Figures 7.33 and 7.34.

 168

£ Le_f a. Sage_ve £ ± t ± çal legend;

cutting motion (Vc) of
forward motion (Va)
strawberry

strawberry
table
(at) (C) (d) (e)

Figure 7.34Principle of the vertical milling. The axis of the pin is

vertical.
(a) The machine - The tool is mounted on the axis of the
spindle
and the workpiece mounted on the table can
move along three axes.
(b) the method - The cutter rotates and the workpiece moves.
(c) The tool - See the next section about it.
(d) workpiece movement - The feed rate (Va) is
.imposée on one of three orthogonal axes.
(e) Tool movement - The cutting speed (Vc) is
followed by the speed of rotation of the
tool.
 169

Machine tools

The horizontal milling machine

Figure 7.35(A) The horizontal milling machine. The axis of the spindle
receiving the tool is horizontal. The above machine is
semi-automatic because advances in all three axes are
automatic; these movements can be controlled digitally.
(B) horizontal Usinage_sur_fraiseuse. Two strawberries three
sizes cuts the mounted-3ans spare a rotating mandrel
divider.
 170

vertical spindle

Figure 7.36: Vertical La_fraiseuse. The axis of the spindle

is vertical. The advances are automated or
controlled digitally. On the table of the
machine are shown a vise and a divider plate
(also called a fourth axis).
 171

Figure 7.37: Le_centre_d ^ machining. This type of machine now supplants

classical vertical milling machine Figure 7.36. The three forward
movements are fully controlled digitally, note here the Z displacement
is given to the same pin.
machining centers are equipped with an automatic
tool change. Each of the tools 24 from the store to the left of the
spindle can be selected and automatically installed in the spindle.
 172

The tools and opportunities

The milling tools called strawberriesare rotary cutters as shown in

FIG 7.38.a. The notion of milling in advance is the advancement of the piece
corresponding to the passage ofa toothstrawberry (Figure 7.38.b). Rather,
shooting advance was the advancement of the toola lap of the room.

bur 12 teeth

advanced

piece
(at)

Figure 7.38: (A) A milling cutter is a multitude of rotary hillsides.

(B) The advance is granted for a tooth.

Les_fraises_deux_tailles (or end mill or flute)

Strawberries two sizes of small diameter (2 <d <4 mm) only has two
cutting teeth. The number of teeth increases with the cutter diameter. The
term "two sizes" means that the cutter has two cutting surfaces. The
following figures show two common sizes of strawberries.

Figure 7.39Strawberry two sizes

four teeth (3 <diameter <25 mm).
It is not advisable to make grossesébauches
with these strawberries.
 173

Figure 7.40Strawberry two teeth

spherical end. These cutters are enacier
fast.

Figure 7.41Strawberry two sizes

"Ruffer." This steel strawberry-rapi of
cobalt is used for tra-dale draft.
Latéralesfiletées the edges break chips into
narrow petitsmorceaux.

Figure 7.42: Works with possible

strawberries two sizes.
 174

Strawberries two sizes presented above are not suitable for

heavy drafts because the cutter body can not take big efforts. For
these large drafts, theStrawberry purpose is recommended (Figure
7.43)

(a) (B) (c)

Figure 7.43(A) The purpose cutter with carbide tool bits.

This strawberry called "cake " is facing and has an
excellent yield.
(b) The strawberry-purpose high speed steel.
(c) Work on horizontal milling machine.
 The face mill

These cutters, used mainly horizontal milling, are

very robust and work in better conditions than the cake.
The cutting edges helically have the effect of reducing
shock: a plurality of ridges are working at the same time
and the cutting force moves along the cutting edge.

Figure 7.44(A) The face mill.

(B) Work on horizontal milling machine.
 176

The groove cutter T

Figure 7.45(A) The groove cutter T

(B) Working the cutter in a T-groove

The body of the strawberry is fragile, in large drafts, it is

advisable to draft the groove with another strawberry, preferably
three sizes.

Strawberries three sizes

These circular cutters 25 to 70 mm diameter have three

cutting surfaces. They work mainly in horizontal drilling and can
take large drafts. Strawberries are high-speed steel or carbide
platelets are reported on a circular base as shown in Figure 7.46.
 177

(at) (B) (C)

Figure 7.46: The strawberry three sizes (a) HSS - (b) with
carbide platelets. Note the teeth working atlernativement
both sides .Figure (c).

Strawberries three sizes can simply work as in Figure 7.47.

They also have the advantage of beingmounted in the processas shown
in Figure 7.48; a ring interposed between the two cutters provides
quality tool odds8.

Vc

Figure 7.47: Grooving to three strawberry

sizes.
 178

Train two troistailles

strawberries allowing
obtenirune quality rating tool

For machining of precision grooves already outlined, there are

three sizes strawberry stretch. This cutter comprises two symmetrical
crenellated strawberries which fit into one another. An intermediate
ring (interlock) to adjust the cutting width of the extendable
cutter.

15 H8

Figure 7.49: The strawberry three sizes extensible.

The cutting width is ajustableà using an

intermediate wedge.

intermediate ring
 The saw milling

The saw mill is a strawberry thin three sizes.

The thinner saw cutters do not have the side cutting edges.
These cutters allow sawing or machining of deep and narrow
grooves.

- ii

(H)

Figure 7.50: (a) Strawberry saw width greater than 2 mm

section.
(b) Saw cutter, cutting width less than 2 mm up to
0.5 ram (20/1000 inches)
(c) Work a saw cutter.
 MILLS
Work material Speed steel carbides

Aluminum 210 (700) (1600)

-C "
00
O
Melting 20
(70) 55 (180)
semi-hardened steel 27 (90) 65 (220) 180
hard steel 15 (50) 50 (160)

Form cutters

Figure 7.51: The shape of strawberries - (a) a dovetail - (b) convex

(C) concave • The concave and convex term is due to the
shape of the fraisa.

The cutting parameters

The cutting speed
Table 7.3 shows the dice medium cutting speeds suggested by milling
with strawberries speed steel and carbide inserts for different materials.

table 7.3: Medium cutting speeds suggested by milling. The

speeds are given in m / min (ft / min). Note that the
carbides have cutting speeds nearly three times higher than
those of high speed steels.

The 7.1 and 7.2 equations developed in the hole section are valid
to calculate the milling cutters speeds where D is now the cutter
diameter.
 Cutter type Material at machine
semi-
Aluminum Melting hardened hard steel
steel
Strawberry 0.6 (0.5) 0.3 (0.4) Q.3 (0.4) 0.2 (0.35)
purpose

0.3 0.17
End mill 0.15 (0.2) 0.1 (0.17)
(0.25) (0.2)

Strawberry three 0.17

s 0.3 (0.3) 0.17 (0.22) 0.12 (0.2)
size (0.25)

0.17
Strawberry shape (0.17) 0.1 (0.1) 0.1 (0.1) 0.07 (0.1)

0.07
strawberry saw 0.12 (0.12) 0.07 (0.1) 0.05 (0.1)
(0.1)

table 7.4: Advances milled tooth in millimeters per tooth.

The first values correspond to high speed steel cutters while
those in brackets refer strawberry carbides. Note that the
carbides tolerate close advances those high speed steels.

Calculating the feed rate

From the above table by giving the tooth material feed, the feed rate can be
calculated as follows:

feed rate = (speed) x (number of teeth of the cutter)

x (feed per tooth)

On machine tools, the advance is programmed in millimeters per minute.

 182

The numerical control milling

Digital control is a way to program the movements of the workpiece

relative to the tool. These movements can be controlled in sequence or
simultaneously on the feed axes. Curved profiles are easily obtained;
previously this required millingatto copy. Figure 7.52.a shows a profile to
be obtained. From the desired profile, programming precise movement of the
axis of the cutter.

Figure 7.52: The CNC milling - (a) to obtain Profile

and path of the cutter - (b) piece made of CNC milling.
 183

7.3. e) Le_rabotage

There are two planing principles differentiated by the

machine kinematics.
Legend: ^ Cup (Vc)

Figure 7.53: Planing Principle

(a) The piece is mounted on the table and the tool, on the
slide, comes and goes. The machine tool is called
shaper.
(b) The forward movement (Va) is taxed at the table and
therefore the room. The ram pushes the tool into the
workpiece cutting speed (Vc).
(B) and (c). The cutting speed (Vc) is now imposed on the
workpiece mounted on the table. This is the tool that
receives the feed movement (Va).
(E) The tool, very similar to dressing tools location, is
more robust.
 184

At the 7.54 figure, a planing tool removes a chip of a room.

The profile of the chip has the following dimensions:

- advance
- the depth of cut, p (layer of material removed)

Figure 7.54: Machining by planing.

Nowadays, planing became a désué machining process. New

technologies were unsuitableatthe shaper of FIG 7.53.a. Only large
industrial planers on the principle of figure7.53.c are useful in
industry for machining long surfaces.
 185

7.3. f) brochage

The pin is a method that allows machining quickly,at Using

pin, The inner and outer surfaces. A pin is a multiple-tooth cutting
tool. As shown in Figure 7.55, each tooth offset from the previous
by a quantity equalat the thickness of the chip, is involved in
machining.

brooch

chip

Figure 7.55
The machining of a pin. Chaquedent
is shifted by the amount equal to
the précédented'une épaisseurdu
chip.

The stitching is done on a machine

stitch (Figure 7.56) where the workpiece is supported on the table while
the slide pushes or pulls the pin that factory part.

Figure 7.56Principle for broaching machines. The spindle is (a) thrust

or (b) drawn through the room.
 186

The cost of the pins being high broaching economically

applies only medium and large series. However, for common profiles
(eg clave grooves
floor, flutes, square drive), broaching single part is cost
effective because pins standards available Des obtained by
broaching common profiles are shown in Figure 7.57.

(at) (B)

Figure 7.57: Current profiles obtained by broaching.

(A) Chemin_de_clé. The groove is stitched once the
finished bore - (b) A centering guide the guide pin in
the bore.
(C) ^ Carré_d drive. An aperture hole must first be
drilled in order to insert the end of the spindle.
(F) ^ o ^ _grof ils_de ËËIHÎË-LËEËË stitched from the bore.
(D), (e)
 187

The dimensional tolerances are obtained by broaching

quality 6 at 9. The pin is only applicable to profiles:

- prefillable open (aperture)

- the through. The play must not interfere with the
spindle stroke.
 188

7.4 Labor abrasion

7.4. a) Le_meulage_et_la_rectifiçation

In industry, the correction is widespread because it

offers the opportunity to achieve at a reasonable cost,
excellent surface states (Ra - 0.2 pm) And close tolerances
in shape and dimension (quality from 5 to 8).

Principle of rectification
The abrasive machining for correction involves removing
the metal in the form of microchips. These microchips are created
by a multitude of harsh tools calledabrasive grouped together by a
shape by agglomerating millstone.

Figure 7.58: (A) The grinding wheel turns and just scratch the surface
with its
abrasives.
(B) Each edge abrasive raises microcopeau.

The wheel contains many abrasive coming scratch the

surface of the part. This is the mmo multitudes - flures that
give excellent surface. The abrasives have the following
characteristics:

- they are harder than the metal to be corrected;

- Overall, they are sturdy enough to withstand the
cutting forces;
- they are also brittle so that smooth edges are
automatically replaced with new sharp edges.
 189

The cutting speed is very high, it can vary from 2000 to

7000 m / min at the periphery of the wheel. It's the bond that
sets the critical speed, because the danger of a grinding wheel
and risk of bursting due to internal centrifugal forces. Never
operate an unprotected wheelat fragments.

Figure 7.59 shows the two main principles abrasive

machining flat and cylindrical corrections called.

Figure 7.59 (A) - (b) - Surface grinding. The wheel rotates and
imposes the cutting speed (Vc). The part fixed
on the table back and forth under the wheel.
The speed of advance (Va) may be imposed on
'the workpiece or the grinding wheel.

The cylindrical grinding

(c) - The piece installed between centers rotates len
ment and reciprocates in front of the grinding
wheel which rotates (Vc).
(d) - The wheel grinds a circular shape.

The following section will present the different types of

abrasives and binders marketed.
 190

The types of abrasives

Abrasive can be divided into two classes: natural

abrasives and artificial materials.

abrasivesnatural, such as emery, quartz, corundum were

commonly used in the early twentieth century. The problem was to
get these materials in pure form. The corundum is extracted in
Greece.

the abrasifsrtificiels suffered a great essort nowadays

because possible control over the size, shape and purity of grain.
Three materials are used as artificial abrasive:

- aluminum oxide, HAVE2 O3Represents 75% of marketed

wheels, its hardness and friability increases with its
purity. The purest aluminum oxide, white in color, is
used in the grinding of hardened steels and high speed
steel cutting tools.

- silicon carbide is rather used for grinding rocks,

marble, ceramics and cast iron.

- boron carbide, Harder than carbide sili

cium, has mechanical properties very similar to those of
diamonds. Very little used in grinding wheels, it is
included in the agglomerates have to withstand wear (eg
jet tip to sand).

Whatever type of abrasive, grain size is a very important

selection criterion depending on the applications. Roughing wheels
have a large grain finish while the wheels have a very fine grain.
A number is chosen to designate the grain size: 10, coarse - 50
grain
average - 100, fine grain - 200, 500 and fine grain powder.
 191

the caking

the agglomérants or binders have the function of

retaining the abrasive grains together in the form of wheel.
These are binders which dictate the maximum circumferential speed
of the wheel. They are either:

- vitrified. Vitrification is widely used in

the manufacture of grinding wheels. The clay
binder was first melted to form a glassy film
around the grains during refroisissement. This
binder provides a linear velocity of2000 m /
min.

- resinous. Synthetic resins form the agglomé

rant which allows line speeds of 3000 to 7000 m
/ min.
- rubbery. This type of binder used for plates-
saw (cut-off wheel) provides best surface
finishes because of its flexibility the other
hand the wheel is less vulnerable to shocks.

Machine tools and opportunities

the rectifieuse_plane
The surface grinding machine grinds flat surfaces. The axis of the
grinding wheel is both horizontal (Figure 7.60.a) vertically. Most often,
the wheel only when turning the piece back and forth on the wheel. Figure
7.60.a shows a conventional flat grinding, these machines are semi-
automatic. Table movements are controlled hydraulically. Digital control
is hardly appropriate for such simple movements. Figures 7.60 b, c and d
represent three planar rectification modes that can receive the machine
tool.
 192

Figure 7.60 (A) The surface grinder

(B) (c) (d) Three surface grinding modes

When a large number of identical parts is to rectify the

surface grinding machine can be equipped to work in batches.
Several pieces are ground as a large area. Figure 7.61 shows three
possible arrangements of such rectification. All parts of the lot
will have the same rating.

Figure 7.61: Surface grinding batch. The shape of the wheel or

the movement of the table may change, (b) - (c) a cup
wheel is used.
 193
cylindrical La_reçtification

Figure 7.62As described in the

Figure 7.59.C, the wheel turns ASA
speed required while lapièce
slowly rotates allantet from front
wheel. Cylindrical Desformes of
excellentecylindricité are
obtained.

To ensure excellent roundness, it is advisable to

position the rotating part between centers as well as it will
keep its axis while rotating. On the contrary, if the part is
cup-shaped, it can be mounted on a turntable similar to that of
FIGS 7.61.a and c.
Cylindrical grinding work may be external (Figure 7.63.a) or
interior (Figure 7.63.b). Proper wheel is available for each of these
works; notice the small millstones for internal adjustments.

Figure 7.63 (A) external grinding work (b) internal

grinding work
 194

Rectification cylindrique_centerless The principle of

centerless cylindrical grinding is shown schematically in Figure
7.64. The room is not maintained between the two center points as
shown in Figure 7.62. She
is based on a narrow stop positioned between the two wheels.

V
t

Figure 7.64Principle of the cylindrical centerless grinding. The

piece advance between the wheel and the drive wheel.

The larger wheel is the active grinding wheel machines the workpiece
by turning rather quickly. The smaller wheel turns in the same
direction as the first but more slowly. This wheel called drive wheel
rotates the workpiece at a constant speed in addition to giving him a
second support. The drive wheel made of rubber binder, do not plant
the room. The room only has to move between the two wheels to be
corrected over its entire length.
The centerless cylindrical grinding with excellent results
cylindricity. This principle is especially interesting in greater
production of cylindrical parts. As shown in Figure 7.65, the parts
are brought into a gutter one following the other. The advance of the
parts between the two wheels is automatic due to the low angle of the
wheel to 'dragging.
 195

arrival and advance inclined

drive piècesroue

Figure 7.65: Rectification, cylindric.

drique centerless used in produc-tion.

The rotating parts circu-lant between
the two wheels. The avanceest imposed by

The grinding wheels are listed according to their

constituent characteristics and shape. The identified
characteristics are:

- the type of abrasive (aluminum oxide or carbure de

silicium ...)
- the size of the abrasive grain (10, Large - 600, end)
- the degree (index indicating the strength of the
binder (A, soft - Z, hard)
- the structure (the distribution and density of the grains
abrasive inside the wheel: index 1 at 12)

- the type of bond, and its production process (the index is a

single or double letter).

Depending forms to obtain, several wheels geometries are

available. Some common forms are given in Figure 7.66.
 196

77 ;. - V.

flat recessed
flat

cylindrical hollow flat

conical 1cuvette

Figure 7.66: The standard wheels geometries. The cup wheel

as is used to plane the wheel plate (see FIGS 7.61.b
and c).

7.4. b) The running

Lapping is a grinding process precision which eliminates
some of the defects of third and fourth order roughness: trace
tool, material tearing, ... Machining
above lapping must be quality, without major defects (eg grinding).
Very little material is removed during
the running-dimensional rating is largely unaffected (max = 000
1/10 inch). The surface finishes are more excellent. (Mini Ra = 0.1
microns).
The running increases lifetime to wear:
- friction surfaces;
- seals to rub on the lapped surfaces.

The abrasives are used in grinding mimes as those presented

for rectification. A fine grinding requires an abrasive powder
grains from 400 to 600. According to the method ro
dage chosen, the abrasive can be as follows:
 197

- abrasive powder mixed with the water (for glass lapping)

or oil or fat (for lapping metals). This mixed powder is
used for lapping at lap (lapping).
- abrasive powder mixed with a binder to form solid stones
of different shapes.
This break-in principle is also called honing (honing).

The vehicle can be applied by hand to individual parts or

with the help of specially designed for this purpose machines.
Figure 7.67 shows a ring lapping principle used on the machine. All
surfaces are bathed in oiled abrasive powder. The circular base
rotates. A fixed upper part (not shown in the figure) support rings
on the rotating base. The rings also turning on themselves.

7.4. c) Le_ £ olissage

The polisage is an abrasive method that provides beautiful
appearance of surface finish. Very similar to running on principle,
it is generally practiced on the same machine- tool, eg polishing
lap. A strip of fabric
soaked with fine abrasive powder on the stretched surface of the
workpiece which rotates very fast, approximately twice the cutting
speed. The manual polishing is a process much longer and very rare
in production.
 198

7.5 The physicochemical processes

7.5. a) Theusinagepar electroërosion (electrlcal discharge machining, EDM)

(at)

Figure 7.68: Principle machining by electroerosion

(a) - The electrode tool enters the room by the disintegrant.
(b) - A multitude of arcs between the electrode and the workpiece
create
melting and erosion of the metal of the anode piece.

principle machining by electroerosion

The workpiece (anode) and the tool electrode (cathode), not in
contact, are immersed in a bath which circulates a liquid dielectric
(non-conductive). When the electric energy applied to the terminals of
the two parts is sufficient, the dielectric becomes gaseous and
promotes the formation of short, strong current arcs. The heat
generated creates a partial melting of the room.
Small metal particles detach and are removed by the circulating
dielectric.
Arcing occurs 20 000 to 30 000 times per second. This frequency
depends on the space (gap) between the two parts and the current that
can provide the power supply system.
 199

The circulation of the dielectric fluid serves to remove

particulate material and cool the surfaces of the workpiece and the
electrode.

The tool electrode advances into the workpiece at a rate of

machining in order to keep a constant clearance (gap- 1/1000° in). It
should never be touch-piece tool.

The electrode is also subject to spark erosion, wear thereof

is difficult to control. The average piece electrode wear ratio is 3
with electrodes made of copper and brass and10with graphite
electrodes. The power supply with frequent inversion of polarity
greatly reduced wear of the electrode.

applications
The tool electrode has the shape of the image to be obtained
and moves into the room. EDM is performed in the event:

- the amount of material to be removed is small because the

feed rates of the electrode is low. Maximum flow of
materialat the blank 5 cc / min and finishing 0.05 cm3/ Min.
- shapes or profiles to perform are complex.
Such forms should be of course "demountable forms" unless
the electrode is rotated in the workpiece as shown in Figure
7.69.d.
- erode the materials are conductive.

The EDM machines are reasonably priced compared to machine

tools lathe and milling. Figure 7.69 shows the machining forms when
EDM (EDM) becomes very interesting. Although the machining times are
long, these machining are still profitable compared to cutting
processes such as milling.
 200

Figure 7.69: Profiles complexes obtained by electroerosion electrode

(a) Dies or extrusion dies are obtained
(b) closed forms. EDMa t Wireless also provides these closed
forms
(c) Machining only possible at the electrode.
(d) The electrode enters the room and describes a circle to
machine this form not removable ".
(e) titanium turbine. The electrode lead between the bladesat
speed 6 mm / min. This would be very expensive machining on
milling machine to be controlled digitally.
 201

The wire EDM has grown significantly in recent years. The

process is simple and adapts to many applications. Figure 7.70 shows
the principle of wire EDM; the tool electrode is replaced by

Figure 7.70Principle of EDM

wire

I
a copper wire that flows slowly. The electrode is thus regenerated. This
thread of 0.12 mm plant a 0.2 mm wide slot.

This method allows for the extrusion dies profileshardened steelas

shown in FIG 7.69.b. A hole is predrilled to introduce the wire
electrode. The finished surface that depend ahead are good, Ra - 3.2 pm
as normal milling.

Digital control is well suited to machining by wire EDM. The piece

can only be moved in the xy plane (two axes) for the straight lines of
the figure 7.69.b; or the inclination of the wire can also be controlled
(third and fourth axes) for producing, for example the part of Figure
7.71.

Figure 7.71: Room surfaces curves Fayon feasible variable

by wire EDM a t numerical control.
 202

7.5. b) ^ usinage_électrochimi £ eu (Electrochemical Machining, ECM)

In electrochemical machining, a graphite electrode tool enters

the room as in machining by electro erosion,.£ eql the principle of
material removal differs. A continuous electrical current passes
between two electrodes (anode and room- tool-dathode) immersed in an
electrolyte (sodium chloride or sodium nitrate). The metal removed at
the anode is discharged through the electrolyte flowing under
pressure.

protection

(at) (C)

Figure 7.72: The electrochemical machining

(a) A direct current applied between the workpiece and the
electrode accelerates the corrosion of the part.
(b) - (c) electrodes insulated by a varnish allows to obtain
non-tapered cylindrical diameters.

The electrode in the shape of the footprint to achieve. Because

the etching is continuous, the electrode may have to be covered with
varnish or plastic to meet the desired profile (FIG 7.72.b and c).

This machining method has the following advantages:

- no metal heating
- machining of hard materials, refractory and course
conductors.
- no wear of the electrode
- states good surface Ra - 3.2 pra
- material flow five to ten times that of the electroerosion
electrode
 203

Although this method does not offer the flexibility of the

wire EDM and the reaction is difficult to control, it is very suitable
internal cutting leaves. Figure 7.73 shows a two foil by 1.5 meters
electrochemically machined.

Figure 7.73: Coating Sheet

flight electro-chemically machined
aluminum. Dimensions of the film-2 X 1.5
m.

7.5. c) The laser cuttingr or at souder

laser applications, under development, are further reduced

despite much progress has been made in welding. The division based on
the same principle requires a higher intensity than welding.
This process carried out under vacuum using an electron beam
whose impact on the metal causes melting. The principle is shown
schematically in FIG 7.74.a. The transmitter is a system

(at) (B)

Figure 7.74 (A) Principle of the electron beam (b)

division by laser.
 204

anode - cathode vacuum brought to a very high potential. A

thermionic effect is created on the surface of the hot cathode.
The dome, negatively biased, form a field electron accelerating
until the passage of the anode. Magnetic lens focusing and
deflection and focusing respectively directs the beam which
strikes the surface of the workpiece.
Although this method can cut steel 200 mm, it requires a
powerful vacuum source and a lead shielding protection at because
of the emitted X-rays.

7.5. d) Cutting with water or "water knife"

The water cutting effect is created by a high speed water jet (at
least twice the speed of sound). Water is pressurized to 440 MPa and
led through a base of 0.1 to 0.4 mm in diameter.

This method has advantages over conventional processes because:

- it creates little waste material,
- cutting it without heating the material and thus cause no
deformation of the plate or sheet,
- it does not create dust.

Cutting water is used for many non-metallic materials; Kevlar,

epoxy, graphite reinforced plastic, leather. Brittle materials such
as glass are not recommended because violence creates the jet burst.

7.6 Machining processes and surface states

Chapter // 2 which processes the surface condition provided a table

of roughness ranges obtained on rough surfaces and machined according to the

machining processes and obtaining rough, Table 2.4. This table is an

important factor in the choice of a machining process because the parts

definition drawings specify roughness. The same table concludes this chapter

on machining processes.
 ■ 205

Common values !WMTïmïïmyft exceptional values

surface roughnesses different from machining processes and obtaining

rough. Ra and R are expressed in microns.
 206

CHAPTER VIII

The isostatism

8.1 Definition
The functional requirements of the mechanical parts are transcribed by
the quotation of the definition of drawing from which these parts are
manufactured. For this, the fixtures with accurate positioning, stable and
without uncertainty are to conceive.

In making continuous or renewable series, the parts are disassembled,

lifts, blocked very often based machining difficulties. These times require
regain identically, from one room to another, the positioning of machine tools
to maintain the machining precision dictated in the quotation of the definition
of drawing.

To help ensure these unique positions Parts of machines, methods office

preparer uses 1 'isostatism.

The isostatism meaning even static state is a theory to master before

tackling the preparation of a unit machining or series. It allows to study the
positioning of a part of his job. This positioning is the synthesis of several
factors:

- dimensional quotation and shape of the design definition

- the workpiece geometry
- the part rigidity
- already made machining
- machining to achieve
- the workpiece clamping
This chapter presents the fundamentals of isostatism. Due to the
particularity of each piece and each machining, general advice and suggestions
will be given instead of a logical path including the above six factors.
8.2 The degrees of freedom and links
Any free rigid body in space, for example the plane of FIG 8 .1 ,
Six possible movements or six degrees of freedom:

- three translations along the three orthogonal axes drawn from a

point 0 secured to the rigid body
Ox axis, the
advance axis Oy, Oz
axis drift, ascent

- three rotations around the same three axes

Ox axis, the roll
axis Oy, the axis
Oz pitch, yaw.

Figure 8.1: Les six degrees of freedom of a body in the area reported
an airplane.
 208

all point contact is called link that removes a degree of freedom. To

totally immobilize a rigid body in space, it will therefore six bonds;but
bewareThese links should not be randomly arranged. The isostatism is the
theory that can judiciously locating links so that each link removes a
degree of freedom.

The location of a link (point contact) is determined so that the

degree of freedom it prevents is not already prohibited by other contacts.

Exercise: The following exercise is to gradually lay les six links

necessary to totally immobilize the plane of Figure
8,1, The sequence of degrees of freedom is dictated prevented throughout the year.

Immobilizing the translationen Z

(ascent).

It remains 5 possible moves.

Immobilizing the rotation autourde

y (pitch).

It remains possible movements 4

x
 209

Immobilizing the rotation

autourde x (roll).

The plane lies on a plane (3

points
)
Three movements

Immobilizing the rotation Z (yaw)

The plane rests on a plane and
rests on a lateral line One
movement remains:
 210

Totally immobilize the aircraft

SIX DEGREES OF FREEDOM =
SIXLIAISONS

TOTAL CAPITAL

8.3 The isostatism simple geometric shapes

8.3. a) Nymbolisation of theiaisons

To start isostatism applied we will adopt a simple

symbolization links. The basic symbol
(^) Will be normal to the workpiece surface while
its orthogonal projection will be represented as follows:
Figure 8.2 shows an example of a plan requiring support three
connections applied to a prismatic piece.

Figure 8.2: Symbolizing a

suivantdeux bearing plane orthogonal
views.

There is no difference a t symbolization links on views or hidden

projections.
 211

8.3. b) iJ ^ isostatisme_d un_cylindre_court

A short cylinder is a room of which the ratio of the diameter

by the thickness thereof is greater than unity. The unit is an order
of magnitude and not a free boundary. Depending on the geometry of
the part having the cylinder, the latter can also be regarded as a
short or long cylinder if its diameter is equal to its thickness.

Either the short cylinder of Figure 8.3. The y-axis is the

axis of the cylinder. The x and z axes, orthogonal and placed on a
flat end surface, there are concurrent with the point0 .

Figure 8.3:
A cylinder
courtavec his
repèreorthogonal.

The isostatic is the rationalization of bonds of locations so

that each link removes one degree of freedom. In the case of a short
cylinderaloneThe isostatism is as follows:
1- Bear (s) on the surface (plane or curved) with the best
stability in the short cylinder.
This area is one of the two planar faces. Support will be
on a MAP with THREE LINKS.
 212

Indicate theSUPPORT PLAN lasurface

on the lower planar etnuméroter
by1 bonds, 2 and 3.

Now the short cylinder has only three possible movements: rotation
around there and translations
along the x and z axes.
2- Bear (s) on the curved lateral surface perpendiculara t the
first surface selected to prevent the two possible
translations in x and z.

Enter both liaisonsqui prevent

translationsen x and z. This is a

CENTRAGECOURT
identified by liaisons4 and 5.
 213

The two links 4 and 5 short centering are 90 degrees

relative to each other. Physically, this is equivalent to
placing the cylinder in a shortshort vee a t 90 degrees.

3- The five links presented above leave only a single degree

of freedom is the rotation about the y axis. Depending on
the machininga t realize the selected machine tool, the
latter degree of freedom can be conserved or eliminated:
- If the short cylincre is installed on a lathe for
machining, the sixth degree of freedom is free
because the room is spinning, but still needs to be
blocked. This blockage is in opposition to the supports
4 and 5 as shown in Figure 8.4. Theclamping is not a
bond because the piece can be tightened following any
possible direction around the y axis.

- By cons if a total immobilization a t a given orientation

around is desired, a sixth link 6 is required,
connection perpendicular to a surface of indexing the
rotation of the short cylinder.
In Figure 8.5, a groove allows to index the cylinder
position around it. The link6 which may be affixed to one
of the two faces of the groove, isostatically
immobilizes the cylinder. The groove may also be
replaced by an off-axis hole.
 4- summary

Figure 8.4: Isostatism a short cylinder free to rotate.

Five more bonds tightening. The cylinder is not located
around the y axis.A clamping is not a link.

Figure 8.5: total isostatism a short cylinder. 1 .2 ,

3-SUPPORT BACKGROUND
4,5-CENTER COURT
6 -RENTAL (locating)

The cylinder can be locked in this position, it will not be a

new bond *
 215

8.3. c) ^ isqstatisme_du_cylindre_long

A long cylinder is a piece whose ratio of its diameter by a

length lower at unit. TheNote made for the short cylinder is also
valid for long cylinder "unit is an order of magnitude and not a
frank limit. "Figure 8 . 6 shows a long cylinder which is its
axis.

Figure 8.6: A long cylinder with its orthogonal coordinate system x, y, z.

To note
a long cylinder may as well be a bore.

For a long cylinder aloneThe isostatism is as follows:

1- Bear (s) on the surface (plane or curved) with the best
stability throughout the cylinder.
This surface is that of the cylinder; four bonds
equivalent to two distant Vs ensure aCENTER LONG.
Indicate long cylinder below, the four links 1, 2, 3 and
4 that provide this CENTERING LONG on the roll surface.
 216

Along centering allows the location of the y axis of the

cylinder. It is obvious that this location will be better if
the supports are close to the ends of the cylinder.
Along centering eliminated four degrees of freedom.
Two degrees of freedom remain. Compared to the y axis, the
cylinder can still turn and slide.

2- Simply pressing one of the two extreme flat sides eliminates

the translation along it. This type of support is called STOP
AXIALE. Indicate the axial stop 5 of the long cylinder above.

Five routes have been laid, the cylinder can still turn it
around. This sixth degree of freedom can be conserved or
eliminated:
- If the long cylinder is rotated to be machined, the
sixth degree of freedom is maintained. Blocking is
necessary but it is not a link. Figure 8.7 shows that
marking five connections with clamping. Note that the
clamp is located and oriented so as to increase the
contact and thereby the cylinder stability on its links
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
 217

Figure 8.7: Isostatism long cylinder.

1, 2, 3, 4 - CENTERING LONG
5 - AXIAL THRUST

The tightening is not a bond, it does not index the

cylinder position about the y axis.

The clamping function is to ensure ^ ^ during machining

contact between the workpiece and the questions bonds.

During the choice of nipsThe following principles should be

respected:
- the clamping forces should maintain contact piece / bonds;
- the clamping forces are acting in an area as close as possible to
machine surfaces;
- the clamping forces should be moderate and does not generate to
the workpiece deformation greater than half of the tolerance range
to be met;
- tightening efforts are not to deform the part both before and after

machining.
 218

- If a total immobilization of the long cylinder is

required, create an indexing surface on the
cylinder; a plate welded (Figure8 .8 ) Or a radial
hole can receive the connecting rental 6 .

Figure 8.8: Total isostatism a long cylinder

1, 2, 3, 4 - CENTERING LONG
5 - STOP AXIALE
6 - RENTAL (locating).

The tightening will be an additional contact, but not a new

connection.

Note : 1. If on a workpiece regardless of its form, more than six

connections are applied, bonds oppose same degree of freedom.
The assembly will not be isostatic but indeterminate.

2- In case less than six links are required, attention to links

that provide the same function restraint.
 219

8.3. d) The ISOSTAtisme ^ d ^ une_forme i jrismatthate

The prismatic shape or rectangular parallelepiped is

positioned isostatically by six links as spaced as possible
and disposed as follows in the OXYZ coordinate system (figure
8.9).

Figure 8.9: Isostatism the rectangular parallelepiped.

These six routes are divided into three functional groups:

l

1, 2, 3 (SUPPORT PLAN) Preferably over the major surface.

4, 5 (ONLINE SUPPORT) over a long surface perpendicular to
the surface of the support plane.
6 (AXIAL THRUST) Applied to the center of one of two
surfaces perpendicular to the two preceding line
forming the plane and supports.

While respecting the locations listed above and to give better

stability parallelepiped, the links should be spaced on their
respective surface.
 side view front view
(hidden or
otherwise)

bonds on
-----------► ©
machined surface

bonds on rough
► ©
surface

8.4. b) Configurâtign_physigu | _of liaisons_et = = = s ofgr* rages

Unfinished surfaces

On a rough surface, it is suggested to employ connections

convex contacts, striated or claws. The contact area is small.
Streaks and scratches reduce the possibility of sliding or lifting
the workpiece. links to rough surfaces are drawn in Figure 8.10.
 221

Figure 8.10: The single bonds for rough surfaces. The contact
is (a) rounded, (b) and striated (c) claws.

* the spreader
The supports can be mounted on a lifter that increases the
surface of the support polygon of a supporting plane as shown in
Figure 8.11.

The lifter possessed two contacts 3a and 3b represent only a

single link 3 because it can pivot freely about the axis A.

* The clamping support

clamping supports have the same shapes as the corresponding
links. Figure 8.12 shows the isostatic positioning and clamping of
a prismatic piece milling. The angle returned to the axis of the
clamping screw ensures better contact between the workpiece and
five links (1, 2, 3 and support plane 4, 5 support line).
 222

Figure 8.12: A milling clamping. The angle gave to th e screw

clamping ensures contact between the workpiece and the
links during the clamping and machining, (a max =1 0 °)

* The machined surfaces

On the machined surfaces, the contact links should be
important enough area not to mark the surface of the part
subjected to cutting forces and tightening. Contacts can be plane
or line as shown in Figure 8.13.

Figure 8.13: The single bonds for machined surfaces.

(a) the surface is circular
(b) and (c) it is based on the generatrix of a cylinder.
 223

* A system of symmetrical location and clamping

The symmetrical location system and clamping the figure
8.14 is very useful in production. He rocks:

- the symmetrical positioning of the workpiece relative

to a fixed axis irrespective of its width.

- clamping the positioned part.

Figure 8.14. a) A symmetrical positioning and clamping system.

b) feasible position Dimensioning with this system.

The operating time of the system is very short because the

control piston is often pneumatically.
It should be noted that the symmetry tolerances achieved with this
system depends on the quality of the system. The average
tolerances are of the order of0 . 2 mm. *

* The rental (or locating)

The binding site was used in the isostatism cylinders
short and long. It is recognized as a single link. Physically such
rental is presented in two ways depending on its bearing surface
as shown in Figure 8.15.
 224

Figure 8.15; Two types of rentals (locating)

(a) in a groove. The locating is cylindrical
(b) in a hole. The locating is diamond shaped to always
ensure the installation and positioning of the same
room with a large tolerancedimension x.

* Realization of a isostatic tracking

FIG 8.16.a shows a marked circular part
isostatically to drill the holes A. This marking
comprises:

- a plan support: 1, 2, 3
- a short centering: 4, 5
- a location in a hole: 6

Figure 8.16(A) Locating isostatic selected for drilling the hole A

(B) machining the mounting ensuring isostatic tracking.
 225

This marking is materialized by the machining assembly

shown in FIG 8.16.b. Note the narrow short centering assembly.
Location6 in the hole is identical to that shown in FIG 8.15.b. A
drill bushing is installed on the assembly to guide the drill.

8.4 tightening

The clamp can sometimes seem easy to place on a piece already

positioned with five or six links. Indeed, a single location must ensure
as far as possible:
- clamping ensures contact between the workpiece and the connectionsboth
during tightening as machining. This function of the clamp
must be fulfilled in all cases irrespective of the workpiece and
machining.

- the tightening does not deform the piece before machining.

Figure 8.17 shows an example where the shape of the workpiece has
to be modified to ensure a direct clamping not compressing that
material and not the flexible structure of the part.

- tightening should also be located as much as possible to the

nearest possible effort application points
cut. When the walls of the room are thin,this precaution prevents
any deformation of the part under the cutting forces. The
hydraulic supports can also support the workpiece when the
clamping can not be located close to the surfaces to be machined.

The exercises on this chapter will verify and constantly

apply these three essential functions tightening. In most cases a
compromise will be necessary as a clamping location rarely fulfills
all three functions at once.
 226

BAD, the room

Figure 8.17: (A) thus localized clamping deforms the workpiece. The part
is machined in a deformed state. An adjustable support
in A can avoid this sagging.
(B) The part may be designed with a boss for receiving the
clamp. This is preferable but should be considered from
the foundry.

8.5 Isostatic positioning systems and current clamp

This section describes the isostatic appearance of the most common
positioning and clamping systems.

* The three-jaw chuck (See Figure 7.30.a) can assume two positions
depending on the isostatic length of the workpiece.

At the 8.18 figure, the positioning mandrel and clamps a short

circular piece between its three jaws. Because of the low grip diameter
centering length is short. It is considered that two jaws ensure
centering the short (4.5) while the third ensures tightening. In
section8 .3.b, short centering was presented as two links 90 degrees
relative to each other; in the case of three-jaw chuck, this angle of 90
degrees is not fulfilled, the jaws being a1 2 0 degrees from each other.

The planar support (1, 2, 3) is ensured by contacts of the

workpiece on the side faces of the three jaws.
 227

Figure 8.18: Clamping and positioning of a short cylindrical piece

on chuck three jaws. Support plane and with short centering
clamping.

The assembly of FIG 8.19 shows a long cylindrical piece. Two jaws
realize a long centering (1, 2, 3, 4)a t 120 degrees while the third ensures
clamping. The axial stop 5 is the connection between the piece and one of the
side faces of the three jaws.

Figure 8.19: Clamping and positioning of a long cylindrical piece

on chuck three jaws. axial abutment and
centering alongwith clamping.
 228

* The collet 7.30.c the figure, widely used in filming, is

designed to ensure a long rather than a short centering centering.

* The processing assembliescan also be designed to ensure long

or short centering and map support. The figure8 . 2 0 shows two assembly
designs.

(B)

Figure 8.20 .: (A) usiAage Restriction map and with short centering support
(B) Machining installation with long centering and axial
abutment. Notice the clearance between the links 1, 2
and 3, 4, which ensures the stability of long centering.

* A cone relatively long represents support for five bonds

provided that:

- the half-angle at the apex is less than 45 degrees.

- its mean diameter dm is equal to or less than its axial span

length L.

Figure 8.21 shows the isostatic identification of such a cone.

Extreme carried along guarantee centering 1, 2, 3, 4. The axial stop 5 is
placed on the measurement plane of the cone (gauge plane: see functional
dimensioning, paragraph 4.7.b).
 229

clearance

Figure 8.21: Isostatic Locating a long positioning cone. centering

long and axial stop.

* The mounting between centers, Fast and reliable location, provides

a long centering and axial abutment (5 bonds). As shown in Figure8 .2 2 Each of
the two points at the ends of the workpiece are short centering office 1, 2
and 3, 4 to achieve an excellent long centering. The fixed point of the
spindle assumes the role of the thrust bearing 5 because all the pieces will
come to rely on this point regardless of length.

fixed tip of the pin

Figure 8.22: Locating the isostatic mounting between centers. centering

long and axial stop.
 230

Clamping the piece mounted between centers is ensured by the

compression created by the two points on the workpiece. The sixth degree
of freedom, unrestrained, is the rotation of the workpiece about its axis.
This rotation is performed through the driver (Figure 7.31) or a feed dog.

A support window (Figure 7.32), used to avoid any weakening of the

room acts:

- the push but not binding if the against-tip remains installed.

- centering short if the coin is not supported on the right
by a cons-point. Tightening the attention that must be provided
to the left.

* The mounting between the mandrel and against-peak also provides

five links as mounting between centers with the only difference that the
location of the axis is less stringent the mandrel side (non-coaxiality:
<j> 0 . 1 at <J> 0.3 mm).

three-jaw chuck

Figure 8.23: Locating the isostatic mounting between mandrel and against-tip.

8.6 Application of isostatism

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the isostatism is the theory
that examines the positioning of a workpiece to be machined in accordance
with its listing of the definition of drawing. This listing includes of
course the dimensional and geometric dimensions.
 231

Links can only be placed when the following points have been
considered:

- the workpiece quotation

- different shapes of the part
- machining to achieve and realized.

The following three examples are an introduction to the exercises

related to this chapter.

EXAMPLE _ # _ lj.

Figure 8.24: The isostatism and respect a dimension definition.

Question: Figure 8.24.a shows a circular piece of profile

where a flat, solid line, is to be machined. This machining must be
performeda t the odds x ± 0 . 1 . Knowing that the cylinder diameter is y ± 0 . 5 ,
what isostatic locating choose to respect dimension tolérancée x for a large
series of parts?

Solution: The solution of Figure 8.24.b allows for

directly dimension definition x. The link 2 rests in Who is the starting
dimension x. It is very important to note that the dimension x thus
obtained is independent of the value of the diameter of the cylinder there.
In that case,Manufacturing rating is directly dimension x definition.
Nature of the workpiece surface Dispersion (mm.)

coarse rough surface "sand casting

4 stamping
0 . 2 at 1 . 2

Well Rough surface: mounting shell 0 . 1 at 0 . 6

machined surface 0005 at 0.05

Table 8.1: Ranges dispersions due to contact part / link.

 233

Example _ # _ 22

Is the part of FIG 8.25.a where the solid line surfaces are to be
machined. The framed dimensions are dimensions taken from a rough surface.

(B)

Figure 8.25; Machining and isostatic tracking

(a) The solid line surfaces are to be machined
(b) The solution of the proposed isostatism

Question: Indicate the isostatic locating and clamping for

perform machining in thick line.
 234

Solution(Figure 8.25.b) .The rear surface is already machined

and has a large area, it is retained as a support plane 1 , 2, 3
±0.2
thus giving the shelf 15. One of the two side faces raw re
ceived a support line 4, 5 (careful, it must be a surface
± 0 * 5
from which a rating 15). The other side surface from which the sec-
± 0 5
side of me 15 receives the stop 6 .
 235

Example = £ _3

Is the part of FIG 8.26.a where the groove 14 H9 (in solid

line) is to be machined. The framed 70 rating is caught between
two rough surfaces.

± 0.1
thirty 14 H9

Figure 8.26(A) The thick line groove is to be machined

(B) The isostatic locating and clamping proposed for this
machining.

Question: Indicate the isostatic identification and required

clamping
for machining the groove in thick line.
 236

Solution(Figure 8.26.b)
The bottom of the groove is next to the holes axis
+0 . 2
16 H8 ; this is the rating of 20 'must be obtained. The position laté
General for groove is listed with respect to one of the two bores 16 H8 .

The left bore may make long centering office 1, 2,

3, 4, has a length greater than its diameter. With a lease (locating) of 5
in the second bore, the manufacturing dimensions_ ± 0.2 ± 0.1
20 and 30 are directly obtained. The link6 On crude, retains the workpiece
laterally.

The clamping is applied near the surfaces to be machined and ensures

contact to the link 5. The room is robust and unlikely to deform under the
clamping forces.

NoteIf the room had been positioned on its surface

±0 . 2
based. The prices of 20 could not be obtained directly.
In this case, TRANSFER SIDE is needed. The next chapter deals with similar
cases.
 237

CHAPTER IX

TRANSFER AND RATINGS

D7 ORIENTAT ION

9.1 Introduction

The four main steps of obtaining a marketable product are

chronologically as follows:

1. Functional study and design. From a specific need, the

engineering designs an assembly drawing where different parts are
calculated and the materials are selected.
The functional rating the overall design allows each piece separately draw
with their functional dimensions of sizes, shapes and positions (chapter #
4).

2. The preparation of the realization. From the definition of each

piece of drawing, bureau_des_methodes prepares machining, that is to say,
he chooses the machining sequence, machine tools, tools, machining fixtures
with their trails isostatic and clamping. This preparation must allow to
obtain finished parts according to their drawing definition.

3. The makingparts in accordance with the methods of preparations

office. The dimensions realized on the workpiece are the manufacturing
dimensions that can be either equipment dimensions (or assembly), tools and
machines odds Odds.

4. Control. All or some parts, in the case of lots are controlled

metrology. These parts are checked against their drawing definition
including functional dimensions and not the manufacturing dimensions.

The purpose of this chapter is to clarify the difference between the

functional dimensions and manufacturing dimensions. This is the transfer of
dimensions that allow the passage of a kind of odds to another. Before
dealing with the transfer of dimensions and orientations, we will
J
first clarify the term "production size."
 238

9.2 The manufacturing dimensions

There are three categories of manufacturing dimensions: the

Odds machinery (Cm), odds tools (Co) and the switchgear ratings
(Ca).

9.2. has Les_cotes_machines JL_Cm

Définitionî Machines ratings are the ratings achieved by

controlling movement of tool holders and / or workpiece
carrier. These controls can be assured manually, by mechanical
stops or numerically (CNC). Quotes can be obtained absolutely
or incrementally.

* Absolute machinery Odds

Figure 9.1 shows a turning process where the part is positioned by a

support plane and a short centering. The manufacturing dimensions a,
b, c and d are machines all dimensions starting from the same
repository, the plane support. All movements of the different tools
are referenced to support this plan.

Figure 9.1: Work absolute. All machines have the same dimensions
repository, the support plane 1, 2, 3.
 239

Listed parts and made this way are rare, absolute

machining application odds transfers, and these are not always
possible. The absolute in labor is adopted in the case of very
large series.

* Incremental machinery Odds

Machining the same in Figure 9.1 is shown in Figure 9.2

according to an incremental dimensioning. All measurements are
also machines dimensions, they are obtained in a sequence. Once
the symbol cj obtained, C and C £3 will be realized. The prices
below * can only be obtained afterC 3 . Earlier machining acts as
repository.

Figure 9.2: Work incremental. All dimensions are dimensions

machines. Earlier machining acts as repository except for the
first grade C3 .

In the incremental work is closer to the dimension

defining the parts, the machine adjusts to each machining. This
type of work requires little transfer ratings.
 240

Figures 9.1 and 9.2 show an example of turning or

displacement of the tool holder is controlled; note that the
diameters (<|>) of the piece are also machines odds. Instead of
milling milling machine or machining center, machine dimensions
are obtained by controlling the movements of the workpiece.

9.2. b Les_cotes_outilsA_Co

Definition: The ratings are tools that ratings on

workpieces with tools replicating their dimensions own or
settled. A forest or a reamer to machining a hole by imposing
cutting diameteratthe room; the final hole diameter is a size
production of the tool: shelf tool.

Figure 9.3 describes various machining where tool

dimensions are obtained.
 241

- drilling
The diameters pierced oualésés
are tools dimensions

- Counterbore
The depth of the countersink
is a rating tool if a stop
down with the tool

- Strawberries three sizes

(a) one strawberry
(b) two cutters mounted in
the process of
strawberries.
Co is the thickness of
the ring interposed
between the two

(B)
coj C02

- shooting
Coi is the width of the tool
to bleed.
C0 2 is setting dimension
tools on the tool holder.

Figure 9.3Cotes drilling tools, milling and turning.

 242

The C rating tool0 2 obtained by shooting in Figure 9.3 comes

from setting both tools on the tool holder. In series production,
the use of such an assembly tool allows an appreciable gain of
machining time. The tooling department adjusts precisely the tools
on toolholders before making them operational on the machine tool.

9.2. c ap ratingsmeralages, Ca

Definition: The equipment ratings are the ratings obtained with

appliances, fixtures or devices reproducing their own dimensions of
the room.

Figure 9.4 is a drawing of a drilling assembly to drill two

holes A. During drilling, the forest is guided in the drill
bushings. The assembly is positioned in the large central bore of
the workpiece. Both Ca equipment dimensions are the distances
between the axis of the centering bore and the axis of the holes.

Figure 9.4: Drilling mounting Work

(a) isostatic identification necessary to drill two
holes A.
(b) assembly installed on the workpiece with the
apparatus odds Ca.
 243

A dimension It can also come from a fitting setting the

machine tool, for example:

- the distance between axes of the preset pin on a multi-

spindle drilling machine (see Figure 7.12).

- profiles and ratings made on a machine tool to copy.

9.3 Transfer dimensional ratings

A tool in position on a machine tool performs the piece a rating

compared to control repository. This rating is a manufacturing side, it
can be directly or indirectly functional rating. If this direct
connection does not exist, the transfer between the functional rating
and the work size is mandatory.

9.3. has Présentâtion_de_la_méthodg (Example # 1)

The research provides the drawing definition in Figure 9.5

with its functional dimensions A and B. The planning department
is studying machining two surfaces in solid line a and b.

Figure 9.5; Drawing

definition of
engineering with its
functional dimensions A
and B.

The office decides methods for practical and economic

reasons, to machine these surfaces in heavy lines in absolute
that is to say, from the same repository, the base of the piece
as shown in the sketch phase in Figure 9.6.
 244

Figure 9.6: Drawing

phase of the machining
of the surfaces a and
b. Both manufacturing
dimensions from the
same repository.

For machining the surface, making document A will be

directly functional rating. There will be no need for a transfer
rating. A contrary to machining the area b, the functional
dimension B is not the work size C (machine coordinates). A
transfer ratings will be required to calculate the production of C
rating

Method transfer odds

The transfer of ratings is to trace and solve a chain of

dimensions whose "functional game" J is the functional shelf to
replace. The desired manufacturing dimension must be included among
the other dimensions of the chain.

The general rules of drawing of dimension chains are those

introduced atSection 4.3 of Chapter 4 # (functional listing). It is
the same for the interdependence of tolerances odds (Equations 4.6,
4.7 and 4.9 of Section 4.5).
 245

In Figure 9.7, the above method is applied on the transfer of

dimensions required for calculation of the work size C.

Figure 9.7: Dimension Chain

Transfer rating. The
"jeufonctionnel" is the func-
tional dimension to replace.

The "functional play" in the ratings system is the dimension

3 ± 0 *
functional at replace B, 10. For the chain of fi
Figure 9.7, the equations * interdependence tolerances are written:

B = IT IT IT ofA + DEC (
1)

B max = max-Cmin (2)

B min = A min-Cmax (3)

Equation (1) calculates the tolerance that must possess the

odds C.

C = IT IT ofB-IT ofA = 0.6-0.4 = 0.2mm

Equation (2) or (3) donneraunedeslimitesde the dimension C.

Returning to the stage of drawing Figure 9.6. machining

0 ± 1 *
the area b to the manufacture of shelf C = 10 produce
a part in accordance with the drawing definition prescribes
-f o. 3
functional score B = 10 "(figure 9.5).
 246

In all transfers dimensions, tolerance of functional

dimension replaced is distributed between the string ratings.
The new production size therefore has a lower tolerance.

IMPORTANT : Any transfer of dimensions has the effect

of
reduce the tolerance range manufacturing dimension relative to
that of the functional dimension at replace.
The required quality will be better; the production cost will
be increased.
 247

9.3. b example # 2

Figure 9.8 below shows the drawing for defining a room of

which the solid line surfaces are to be machined by turning. The
listed dimensions are functional dimensions.

Figure 9.8; Drawing definition. The solid line surfaces are to be machined
by turning.

The planning department decided to make these machining on

two occasions that is to say that the piece will be installed in
two different isostatic trails. Each step is called SUB-PHASE.
 248

Sub-Phase # 1 (Figure 9.9)

The part is identified by a plane support and a short

centering; all surfaces accessible to the right can be
machined.

Figure 9.9: Sub-Phase # 1. Accessible surfaces are machined.

The work is incremental, all manufacturing dimensions are the

functional dimensions of the definition of drawing.
No transfer ratings are required.

Sub-phase # 2 (Figure 9.10)

The room is now returned to the machining of the

last face, b . The face, machined, made of board support plane
+0 . 1
while cj> 30 M6 receives a short centering. The prices of 32 0 can not
be the work size as it begins or on a support or on an already
machined surface in this phase. The manufacturing side, taking over
the support plan is the dimension C. C is not a definition of rating;
transfer dimensions is needed.
 249

Figure 9.10: Sub-stage // 2. The die manufacturing side C of the b-side

application
transfer ratings.

In Figure 9.10, the transfer of the dimension string is drawn.

The "functional" vector is the functional dimensionat replace. C is the
dimension to calculate.

Distribution of tolerance intervals:

A CT = CT + B CT C (4)
0.1 = 0.2 +? ( impossible)

IT C can not be negative. IT A can not be increased as it

is a functional dimension from the design office. Only one
solution remains: reduce IT B so that
IT A can be distributed between dimensions B and C.

At this point, two choices are to fix: The value of

B's tolerance interval and its position relative to the
nominal dimension of B, 18 mm.
 250

* IT Value B IT A is to be split between B and C.

The nominal values of B and C are respectively 18 and 50.
We saw in Chapter # 1, at equal quality tolerance intervals
increase with the nominal dimension (Table 1.1). It would be
natural to ask the same quality intervals B and C:
(IT C)> (IT B)
since (nominal = 50 C) and (B = nominal 18)

After quick study of Table 1.1, the tolerance ranges should

be in the ratio 2 to 3, is: Equation (4): IT A = B + IT IT C
0.1 = 0.04 + 0.06 (5)

* Position of the new (IT B) relative to the nominal dimension

To meet the functional requirements of the office and among other
dimension C, the following condition must be met:

The new intervalle- tolerance must be located in the former-

terieur.
[
We will have several options for the + 0 * * 040 + 0-1-0-06 + 0-09
new dimension B. 18 0, 18-0.04, 0.06 + 18, 18-0-1, 18 + 0.05 are
acceptable solutions.
+ 0.02
Choose B = 18. maintemant the phase pattern # 1
must be corrected because thanks to this new dimension B as the transfer
ratings possible.

Calculation of manufacturing grade C

From the chain of dimensions of Figure 9.10 where labor
±0- 02
taking B equals 18:
* A min = C min - C max
B min = A min + B max
= 32.0 + 18.02 = 50.02 mm
* A max = C max - C min
B max = max + B min
= 32.1 + 17.98 = 50.08 mm

* Verification: CT C = C max - C min = 50.08 -

52.2 = 0.06 (as put to the equation (5)).
 251

+0 . 08
Solution: C = 50 ° 0 '02

In this example, rating of the transfer was also the effect

of reducing the tolerance intervals odds involved. The dimension B
of tolerance interval was reduced to a fifth of its value posed by
the design office.

9.3. c = Résumé_et_conçlugion du_transfert_de dimensional odds

1. Transfer dimensional dimensions consists in tracing a

chain of dimensions vector whose "functional",
i -. is the functional side to replace. the dimension
sought to manufacturing should be included among the other
dimensions of the chain.

2. Solve the chain of dimensions as described in Chapter #

4 treating the functional dimensioning.

3. If during a distribution of intervals of tolerance, or a

functional dimensions of tolerance intervals must be reduced,
placing the new tolerance intervals within the bounds of the old.

4. Transfer odds dramatically reduces the tolerances of

manufacturing dimensions and has the effect of increasing production
costs.

5. In return, transfer ratings is interesting in many cases

because it can reduce part handling time by increasing production.

6. The dimensional ratings of transfers are the most common

trance fers although the listing guidelines may request transfers.
The following explains an example of transfer positions odds
(parallelism and perpendicularity).
 252

9.4 Transfer guidance

The listing guidelines (parallelism, concentricity,

squareness ...) is also a functional specification that the design office
mentions the drawing definition. The manufacture, guidance tolerances
must be respected; they can be directly or indirectly. This second case
requires a transfer condition of orientations. The following example
deals with a simple application.

Is the part of FIGS 9.11.a (perspective view) and 9.11.b (front

view), the sides A, B and C in solid line are to be machined according to
the functional dimensioning of FIG 9.11.b. Note that the B-side must be
perpendicular to the face C with a tolerance of 0.05 ram for functional
reasons.

Figure 9.11; Sides A, B and C are to be machined from the functional

dimensioning. B must be perpendicular to A with a tolerance of
0.05 mm.
 A
B ???? T

Figure 9.12: Under phase 1 ÿ. The A and B sides are erected. What
should be squareness of manufacturing tolerance between the
two sides?
C / ???? A
/ T

Figure 9.13: Sub-phase # 2. The third face C is machined by bearing on side A

already machined. What should the manufacturing tolerance of
parallelism?

Both tolerances above desired directions are very important because

they allow to obtain the squareness tolerance dictated in the drawing
definition: "
 255

The route of the chain guidance helps answer both questions. In

Figure 9.14, J, "functional" condition is the operating condition to be
replaced. Perpendicularity P is applied to the subphase # 1 while the
parallelism L is required for machining the subphase #2 .

Figure 9.14: The chain of geometric conditions. J is con

edition functional replacement.

The tolerances of interdependence equation also applies in this

case:

IT J = CT + P IT L ( 6)
(Figure 9.11.b) 0.05 =? +?

Tolerances can not be distributed as such because they are

addressed to surfaces of different lengths. They will if they are
comparativestandardized on the same length, e.g. 1 0 0 mm.

The drawing definition of the figure gives IT 9.11.b J = 0.05 as

the perpendicularity of the side B with respect to the face C.
If the B side was 100 mm, this tolerance become:

IT = 0.05 J or -'-5therethere -1-0-0- = 0.3 formulated 0.3 / 100

Returning at Equation (6 ). The tolerances are standardized, 0.3 /

100 shall be distributed between P and L:

IT J = CT + P IT L 0.3 / 100 =
0.15 / 100 + 0.15 / 100
B
± 0025 A
T

2
5
6

Note that the two new directions to follow are more demanding
than functional direction starting.

Now, the phases drawings # 1 and # 2 of Figures 9.12 and 9.13

can be completed with their standard manufacturing tolerance of
orientation or not as follows:

B _ 0
L .
1
5 O
/ R
1
0
0

Figure 9.15: Phase Sketch (a) # 1 and (b) # 2 with tolerances

orientation obtained by transfer guidelines.
 257

CHAPTER X

THE RANGE WORKING

10.1 Introduction

The previous chapter introduced the four main steps of obtaining a

product: the design (engineering), the prepa
ration realization (planning department), manufacturing and control. This
chapter will deal with one of the essential duties of the office or methods
drafting the range ^ osiaagèv

The methods Office preparer prepares the machining that is to say, it

establishes in detail the product machining sequence to produce. First, it
analyzes its data including:

- le_dessin_de_definition_du_produit_a_fabriquer. The preparer must

work with the engineering department to agree unambiguous
requirements. This analysis is very important because the functional
indications of the plan (dimensions, specifications, surface
conditions, ...) directly express the conditions for use of the
finished product.
" THE _ £ _CONTRACT MANUFACTURING: quantity, time, cadence pro
tion, maximum cost allocated to production.
- la_liste_des_moyens_disponibles_ou_envisageables: Park
machine tools, skilled labor.

From all these data, the preparer prepares the machining having the
different time stages of manufacture detailing isostatic locating, clamping,
machine tool, tools, rough cuts of the depths and finishing, cutting speeds
and advances, ...

Through an example, the steps of the establishment of the machining

process will be presented. The method of antecedent matrix will be introduced
to determine the logical sequence of the different machinings. Various remarks
will also be made but can not match the experience and common sense remaining
additional assets for the preparer known as process development engineer.
 258

10.2 Terminology

Some terms used throughout the development of the work plan, are
defined:

Range machining: Following ordinate the operations necessary for the

execution 'of a work, grouped in phases and sub-phases.

Machining pass: Thickness of material removed from the workpiece by the uni

that passage of a single cutting tool.

Phase: An ordered set of operations performed to a same post

jobor a single machine with or without disassembly of the part. For
example, all workconsecutive made on a milling machine will be part
of a mime phase if the isostatic locating the piece is changed.

Subphase: Fraction of phase (on the same machine) delimited

by a change in isostatic trails.

Surgery: A cycle of one or more tools working if grouped

multaneously or sequentially. Several room surfaces can be machined
in one operation.

Workplace: Place of work required at executing phase

work is generally the machine tool (milling, rectilinear
cylindrical fieuse, ...).

Through an example location, Figure 10.1 clarifies the terms defined

above. All machining are to turn. The workpiece is machined from twice that
is to say two different isostatic trails.
 259

Piece of départPièce get

vm
1
r///
AT

Figure 10.1: Distinction between the various terms used to rédactiond'une range of
machining.

* the sentence is on the same workstation, around here.

* The sub-phase. A change from sub-phase appears when the part is removed
on the inside of the same phase.
* The terms assists and operations are also explained.
 260

10.3 Elaboration of the machining: General data

The development of the work plan is to make the connection

between general data and manufacturing data of the workpiece to achieve.
The general data of the production are very large and often involve
compromises where experience and common sense of the system house are
required. This section only introduces essential background data.

10.3. has La_préçis ion_économicjue

The curve of variation of the relative cost of a machining

based on its tolerance (Figure 1 0 .2 ) Shows that from a Pe point
of this curve, the cost starts to increase rapidly for a quality
increase AIT. On the contrary, if the quality is less the same
AIT, the cost is much less affected.

relative costs

Figure 10.2: Relative costs of machining depending on the interval

tolerance and the desired quality. Pe The point is
economic.
 processes Draft Semi-finishing
and finishing
Milling - Turning 0.4 0.2

Reaming 0.2 0.1

Reamer grain 0.4 0.2

Drilling - Planing 0.4 0.2

Rectification 0.1 0.05

Table 10.1: Economic tolerance intervals means

millimeters for various machining processes. Recall
that the machine is able to obtain better tolerance
intervals, but at higher costs.

10.3. b ^ Les_outils_d

machining * The

minimum chip

Sections 7.3.a and 7.4.a respectively presented the principles of

sharp cutting tools and abrasive wheels. These tools are subject to
the phenomenon ofminimal chip, That is to say that the work-hardened
tool and refuses to cut when the material thickness is less than the
minimum thickness of the chip. Suggested values of minimum chip are:
Materials Ra (pm) Quality

Quick Steels 1.6 to 3.2 8-7

carbides 0 . 8 at 1 . 6 7

ceramics 0.4 to 0.8

6
Meules 0.2 to 0.4 6-4

Table 10.2: Achievable qualities and surface states with

different tool materials.

When the required tolerances are even lower than those given in
the table 1 0 .2 , Consider the superfinishing processes such as lapping
and polishing using abrasive purposes similar to those of wheels.

The process development engineer must consider the data in

Table 10.2 when choosing tools. It must also ensure that the chosen
machine tool can perform machining to the desired quality.
 263

* Tool wear
The three stages of wear of a cutting tool are shown in Figure
10.3.

wear

Figure 10.3: The progressive wear of a cutting tool comprises three

steps lapping, normal wear and accelerated wear
or bankruptcy of the tool.

- Le_rodage: very short step. The cutting edge of the or

til wanes, the radius r is formed.

- L ^ quasilinear normal wear: This step corresponds at
the working life of the tool. The thickness of the
minimum chip must be respected. The tool wear
affects the odds tools and / or machinery; the
diameter of a bore decreases and that of a shaft
increases.
- L ^ usure_accélérée: The tool flaking or breeze
comes out of use. The tool must be changed
before the bankruptcy occurs.

Figure 10.3 shows the per pass thickness effect on the curve
wear. Other parameters also have a direct effect on this curve:
cutting speed, feed rate,
the mechanical properties of the workpiece material and the use of a
 264

lubricant or not. Production study, the influence of these parameters

was analyzed and standard wear curves are available.

The system house may take account of wear standardized

curves of two ways:
1- Allow the tool change before the bankruptcy at time t2
shown in Figure 10.3. A safety time must be subtracted
to t2 to prevent the bankruptcy of the tool. CNC
machines have an option that records the total time
each cutting tool; the machine and request changes of
tools at the right time.

2- Catching wear. CNC machines have another option of

correcting the displacements of the tool or workpiece to
equal values for the gradual wear of the tool. These
corrections are interesting especially when the wearing
away of the tool is close to the tolerance interval of the
odds to get.

10.3.c The machine tool park

The preparer must have available the list of machine tools

available in the company with their dimensional capabilities,
accuracy and production. The machining should wherever possible be
adapted to the existing machine tool park. If the company does not
have the machinery or the relevant â machining, the planning
department can consider two alternatives: buy
or a new machines or subcontract the machining in question outside.
 265

* Breakeven a machine tool

Mechanical parts can be called to be produced:

- unit production or some pieces

(prototypes, special assemblies)
- production series comprising:
small series (5 to 200 parts) Average
series (200 to 1000 pieces) mass (1000
to 5000 pieces) very large series (more
than 5000 pieces)
- batch production (eg 50 pieces every two months)
- continuous production chain (eg auto production).
 266

Depending on the quantity of parts to be produced, the

system house will choose a machine more or less efficient. For
small batches, conventional machines, manual or stops then agree
that for medium and large series, automated machines are more
suitable. Figure 10.4 shows the profitability curve for turning
work. The tours range from fully manual lathe to turn a digital
control. X-axis are indicated profitability levels of each of
the machine tools.

Figure 10.4: Profitability curve different tricks for series

continuous. machine tool investments are not considered in
this graph.
 267

The production cost of the first component increases

with the automation of the machine. In the graph, all
machines are considered working on an ongoing series (eg, 150
or 2000 pieces in one batch).

Digital control is a flexible means of production, it

fits very well with batch production because of the
reusability of its programs. The first batch application
preparations identical to a continuous series as the
following lots are quickly launched. Finally, the CNC adapts
to both medium and large series as series batches.

For very large series (eg, automobile production),

transfer machines supplanting conventional CNC machines. The
transfer machine can be a milling machine with several heads
that factory Touj bear the same parts for several months or
even

years.
 268

* Choice of machine tools

To select a machine tool, the preparer must have in

mind the presence of the above mentioned points but also
know the quality tables (Table 10.3) and roughness (Table
10.4) processes or machine tools. These tables refer to
roughness and finishing qualities; the blank of the part
does not have to be performed on the same machine.

Table 10.3: Relationship between the quality of the tolerance interval

and manufacturing processes. The table does not detail the
type of machine tool.
 269

usual Valeuts Valeuts eicepuonnelles

Table 10.4: Relationship between surface roughness and manufacturing processes

A method for obtaining Roughness (Ra Oversize 1
dimensional IT (mm.)
crude pra) (mm)

12.5
? il + 1.5d / 100 (steel) 6.3 to 4-6 4-6
sand | + _1.5 5d / 1000 (aluminum) 12.5

carapace 0.4 + d / 100 6.3 4

Cast ^
lost wax 0.25 + 5d / 1000 6.3 2-4
0.3 + 3d / 1000 6.3 3.2 2-4
the shell
Punching - Stamping 1 + d / 100 12.5 2-3

Spinning 0.5 + 8d / 1000 3.2 1 to 2

lamination 0.7 + 2d / 10Q 12.5 3-6

Drawing qualities 10-9 3.2 1.6 1

Table 10.5: Average characteristics of blanks. The range of

tolerance (IT) dimensional is given according to the size
considered. This data is valid only for lower by 350 mm.
 271

Robust cutting tools are expected to outline the blanks

surfaces from mold because silica particles are included
surface.

* The swing crude

Any work on a blank begins with machining of rough

surfaces; the workpiece being positioned isostatique- ment
compared to other rough surfaces. The swaying of crude is
important because it means that the workpiece, completed, or
contained within the gross volume while keeping the minimum
machining allowances. Generally the design office gives the odds
and gross binding specifications to sway. These links to Gross
should be considered a priority at a manufacturing study because
they provide valuable clues for choosing the first isostatic
tracking. An example is given in Figure 10.5.

, ± 0-5- ...
4 vou 13.5 mmi

Ra '3.2

JL
\
The

Figure 10.5: Surfaces plotted solid line are to be machined from

a blank. The ratings and gross binding specifications are
surrounded.
 272

Machining to achieve are plotted in heavy lines,

other surfaces are rough. Both crude bonds quotes are
circled; they dictate the necessary isostatic identification
is: a plan support on the face
and a short centering on cylinder A. Note that the surface
bond rating may be given in two ways:
,, - ,,, ± 0-5,
- tolerancee shelf (14)
- unilimite rating (13.5 min), the office methods
meets this lower limit and then chooses
a tolerance range corresponding to the precision
+ 0-8
economic (eg: 13.5 0 )

10.3.e Draft _-_ Half finition_3_Finition

The blank (E) is an operation that removes the maximum in

terms of approaching the target position. Several
rough cuts may be needed.

The semi-finishing (F / 2) is the operation which provides the

geometric precision and the shape of the surface.

The finish (F) provides the tolérancée dimension of the

surface and the surface condition.

The special finish (SF) achieves tight tolerance ranges and

excellent running by surface conditions, honing or
scratching.

important Note: A multi-edge tool (strawberries) may

perform all the channels provided while the tool at a single edge must
be changed to the finishing pass, at least for Grades 8, 7, 6.
roughness Qualities machining steps
Ra ^ 6.3 ym
10 to 13
direct Finish
and above
Ra <6.3 ym
8-9 Roughing Finishing +
6-7 Roughing + Semi-finishing +
Finish

Table 10.6: Need of the blank, the semi-finishing and

finishing depending on roughness and qualities
dictated by the design office.

If a surface requires three successive machining stages:

blank (E), semi-finishing (F / 2) and finishing (F),
three machining will not necessarily be performed on the same
machine. This is the case of all rectification finishing
(planar or cylindrical) that are preceded by cutting 1'outils
to machining (turning or milling).

10.4 Reading the drawing definition

The reading and interpretation of the definition of design is

based on the functional indications that directly express the
conditions for use of the finished product. This analysis should not
exhibit any ambiguity. If the system house finds obscure or suggest
simplifications points, he must consult the design office. This section
outlines the main steps useful in interpreting the definition drawing
to writing the machining.
 274

1 - Discover the shape of the room carefully: on the

faces to be machined, the remaining raw surfaces, low-
rigid portions that may flex to the clamping or
machining.
2 - Discover dimensional position and quotes
the definition of drawing. Circle having dimensions closer
tolerance intervals (high quality); these dimensions
require special care.
3 - Identify surface roughness demanding a finished
tion or rectification (see Table 10.4).
4- From the connecting dimensions to the crude and the shape of the
part, or search the starting surfaces. The initial surface is the
surface to be machined in the first phase and will make a
reference for subsequent machining. This surface must wherever
possible have a large area; it selects the following isostatic
trails with good stability.
5- If more crude binding dimensions exist in the same direction,
hold the side with the smallest tolerance range.
6- Detecting the associated surfaces, are the surfaces that
it is generally useful to group in the same operation, or
the same sub-phase (notch, stepped hole, or a single tool
passageway draws more surfaces). •
Associations surfaces are required to meet more certain
specifications and / or to economically reduce the number
of sub-phases and thus the machining time.
7- Detect heavy drafts as they should as far as possible, be
made in the first place because of the large cutting forces
that may vibrate or destabilize the piece on its bonds.
8- Start studying the constraints of precedence that is to say, from
the listing, find the workings that need to be made before
others. The following section discusses these grandfathering
constraints using an array.
 275

10.5 Analysis of citations

Analysis of prior art documents allows the choice of the

sequence of machining operations. This choice is important because it
enables, through the range of machining, to make correct parts
minimizing operations to perform and machine tools to use. Two ways to
approach this sequence: the
method bounding polygon surfaces and the method of the antecedent
matrix. Only the latter method will be developed in this section
through an example.

Is the part of Figure 10.6, the surfaces are drawn in bold line
to be machined in accordance with the functional dimensioning. The
blank, cast iron ASTM 25, has foundry without opening the cavities of
the groove R and the bore D.

<J) 0.04

| Ra 3.1t '
Vs
unless otherwise stated
300 pieces in one batch

Figure 10.6: COPE - SUPPORT. Example of prior art analysis. The

dimensions in brackets are the gross dimensions.
0
1
6

© <PO. 04

V
Ra 3.2

except indicatior special

300 pieces in one lot

.Fj-.g.ure10-6: COPE - SUPPORT. Example of prior art analysis. The

dimensions in brackets are the gross dimensions.
27
5.
 276

a) Reading and j-nterP £ | £ gtiQn_du_dessin ^ ^ d || inition of (Figure

10.6)

We will resume the first seven basic steps outlined in the

previous section.

1- Playing drawing: The solid lines show enough

although what are the surfaces to be machined. In
this case, the shape of the room is simple.
2- Drawing Dimension:
requierrant quality of care:
---------------■ 5 + 0 - 0 --------------------
- width of the groove R: 16 0
- perpendicularity of the groove R with
A base surface: 0.05 / 100
- diameter bores D: <f> H7 16
- parallel bores with the surface D
A: 0.05 / 100.
- hole diameter T <j> 10H 8
economic qualities:
+ 0. 1
- axis D with the base A: 30 + 0.
5 D: 12 0
- bottom of the groove R with the
axis of 2 has the

- location of the hole T with respect to the bore D:

35 ± 1 0 *
3- The surface states: Unless otherwise stated,
the requested roughness is Ra = 3.2 microns. Such a
surface state can be easily obtained by milling or
turning with carbide tools, see Table 10.4.

The holes D and the hole T

require an Ra of 1.6 microns. This roughness is the
average velue a machining the reamer (Table 10.4).

Having no roughness required 0.8 and

0.4 microns, no amendment is required.
4- crude binding quotation: Starting area.
+ 1
- side A with the blank face K: 12 0
- the edge of the bore with the side face D H:
5 min
- R groove is symmetrical to t max = 0.6 mm. with
the width B.
 277

There is no ambiguity in this case by relying on

brute face K, the A side may be machined. The A side, large
surface area, may be starting area office; many dimensions
refer to it.
5- Conflict binding odds crude. Both sides laterally localize
the bore D relative to the crude:
+0. 8
5 min 35 levels and 0. This means that these two
dimensions should be observed together. It may be that
because of the dispersion of gross dimensions, both sides
can not be met on some of the same parts. For these cases,
discuss with the engineering side choose what priority. Here
it seems that the 5 min score has priority because it
determines the lateral position of the hole relative to the
gross score 30.
6- The mating surfaces: Recall that the surfaces have
sociées are the surfaces which can be machined in a single
tool pass. RL5 the surfaces R2 and R3 are associated when
performing (strawberry 3 sizes extensible, Figure 7.49) and
are part of the group A. The bores and are part of group D
(condition of concentricity, <{> 0.04). Dj and D2 will be
machined as a single bore.
7- Lourdes blanks : The cavities of the groove R and
the bore D are not open casting; it requires large blanks.
It would be better to draft R & D before turning their semi-
finishing and finishing, drafts still creating vibrations in
the room.

Because of the positioning of qualifications for R &

D (0.05 / 100, H7) and their heavy draft, draft, semi-
finishing and finishing is required.
 278

b) The matrix cT antecedence

Table 10.7 is a square matrix having as many rows and

columns of elementary operations. These operations are supported
by input and output. Start connecting Unfinished surfaces are
included in the table; The mating surfaces are represented by
their grouping, R and D.

* Introduction of data (Table 10.7)

The column refers to output machining considered
The input column refers to previous machining machining
considered

Enter the figure 1 where there is antecedent an input

operation with respect to another output operation. Comments
related to the example in Figure 10.6:
- Side A, completed is a antecedent for machining all the
other surfaces
- The hole T is antecedent to countersink L.
- The draft bore D is antecedent to the complete machining
of the groove A. In the table, this is registered by
three 1 in the column D (E) against R (E),
R (F / 2) and R (F).

* Playing machining levels (Table 10.7)

1- Total all lines and put the total in the "Total" column.
Total harmed correspond to rough surfaces K, B, H.
2- Retotaliser all rows ignoring entries of K columns, B, H
are the columns corresponding to the zeros of the
previous sum. Enter the new total in the column "Level
1". The zeros that appear in this column correspond to
the level of machining 1. (E), A (F / 2) and A (F) are
So the level of machining 1 because the corresponding zeros.
3- Repeat are along lines ignoring all columns machining
obtained having zero to previous sums. Thus six machining
levels are discovered.
 T levels
0 machining
T
INPUTS (previous machining) AT
A AT A D D D R R R T T T Th
T T ( ( ( A
K B H (F / ( (F / ( (F / ( (F / e The 1 2 3 5 6
E F F T
( 2) ( E 2) F 2) E 2) (EF)
) ) )
K 0
B 0
II 0
A (E) 1 1 0
A
(F / 1 1 0
A (F) 1 1 0
D (E) 1 1 2 1 0
D 3
(F / 1 1 1 2 1 1 0
D (F) 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 0
R (E) 1 1 1
3 2 1 0
R 3
(F / 1 1 1 2 1 0
R (F) 1 1 1 3 2 1 0
T (E) 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 0
T 3 3
(F / 1 1 1 2 2 1 0
T (F) 1 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 0
THE 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 0
F)

Table 10.7: MATRIX antecedence. The matrix is square, the inputs

(Columns) and the outputs (lines) correspond to the same
machining operations. A 1 means that the input operation must
precede the output operation.

NJ
-at
vo
 A A D D D R T T The AT
T AT T R ( T A
K B H (F / ( (F / ( R (F / ( (F / ( (E. The 1 2 3 3 b
E T
( 2) ( E 2) F (E) 2) F 2) F F)
E F ) ) ) ) )
K ! 0
li 0
he !------
0
i
A (E) 1 1 0 r
A (F / - -
2) 1 1 0 i
A (F) -i-
1 1 0
OF) 1 1 2 1 0 - -
D (F / 3 o:;
2) 1 1 1 2 1 1
D (F) 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 0
K (E)
1
3 I
1 1 1 i 2 1 0 i
R (F / 3 1 - -1
2) 1 1 1 2 1 0 1
R (F) 3 ---T- -
1 1 1 2 1 0
T (E) 1
î -
- 1
3 3 2 2 1 0
T (F / ^ l 3 3 J
2) 1 1? 1 2 2 1 L
T (F) 1
î 1
3 3 2 2 1 0'
THE F) 1 i 2 2 1 1 1 T 0
)

Table 10.7: MATRIX antecedence. The matrix is square, the inputs

(Columns) and the outputs (lines) correspond to the same
machining operations. A 1 means that the input operation must
precede the output operation.

-O
SU

I
 4 5 (gaps)
i i
i i
i i
i
AT 1A i
i
1 i
H
-| i
B 1 i
H i
1 i
R i
(F / l i
2) !R --i
LDU/-L_ !
____1
D (F) | T (E), T (F /
2)

T (F), L (F)

Figure 10.7: web graphic to the machining of the workpiece of Figure

10.6. The sequence of levels is deduced from the antecedent matrix
in Table 10.7.
 281

10.6 Drafting the machining

The machining sequence can now be written with any additional

details to machining machine tools, isostatic identifying the type of
connections, clamp, tools, odds transfers if necessary.

The range will include at least a phase diagram. The layers are
numbered by tens, 10, 20, 30 and sub-phases by even numbers (for example,
the two sub-phases of Phase 40 are numbered 42 and 44). The machining
range sheets include five columns:
- phase number or subphase
- machine tool chosen
- Description of the phase or subphase
- phase sketches with the machining paths in heavy lines *.
These sketches show the isostatic locating, clamping and
manufacturing dimensions (Cm, Co, Ca).
- need a transfer odds if manufacturing dimensions are not defined
ratings. The calculations of the transfer scores are reported at
the end of the range (attached).

Two different machining lines will be presented, one will be

adapted to machine tools (milling machines, lathes, drill) while the other
should rather a machining center with options for the fourth and fifth
axes.

10.6.a Gamme_d ^ machining with machine tools

282
L
J

l• if..
,t
1 // Ni '-1 T
-----1
J '
a 1
■î

i: ji
i
^2 6 -----"- -
-

cm no

Co
- Machining: • Co
Counterb
ore Hole
T L
isostatic Spotting:
A bearing plane on line cm ion
support on the face R2 of
the groove 6 Locating
Clamping opposite to the
supports 4 and 5 and
inclined for assured contact
A on its support.
Tool
Trou_T: Center drill
Drills tj> 6 and
((> 9.7 Reamer <}>
10 H8
The countersink:
Counterbore <j> no
16 with driver 4>
10.
■ V.
1 ___1 __
cm

50 DEBURRING

6Q CONTROL
 284

Calculating the transfer odds phase 30

Figure 10.8 shows the functional dimensioning of the

machining phase 30 as well as the chain of dimensions
necessary for transfer.

Figure 10.8 (A) Functional dimensioning provided with drawing

(B) Drawing the dimension string. X is the
production size 1 computing.

X is the manufacturing side to calculate. Let us study the

distribution of tolerance intervals.

IT IT A = B + IT X 0.5 = 0.2 +?

The distribution of tolerance intervals is easy,

IT X = 0.3. The calculation is similar to Example // 1, section
9.3.a.

A max = B max - X min X max min = B - At max

= 30.1- 12.5 = 17.6 mm

Therefore, X = max X min + X IT = 17.6 + 0.3 = 17.9 mm

-0.1
Solution X 17-0 = "**, work size to include the
stage 30 of the previous range
of machining.
 285

10.6.b Gamme_d usinage_sur__un_çentre_d ^ ^ usinage_aveç_02tions

Figure 10.9 shows schematically the same workpiece

installed on a machining center having:
- a conventional table with TROAS movement axes (Z, X,
Y)
- a vertical pin with automatic tool change (see Figure
7.37).
- a fourth-axis option, installed on the table, which
can rotate the part about the axis A. This allows the
tools to access to the room from above and laterally.

cb

Figure 10.9: The part is installed on a machining center spindle

Vertical option with a fourth axis.
286
287
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