STUDY GUIDE .............................................

Unit
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• Differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction in terms of the number of individuals involved
and the similarities of offspring to parents.

Heredity is the process of passing on traits from parents to their offspring through the process of
reproduction. Reproduction is one of the important life processes which is responsible for producing
a new generation of individuals (offspring) from pre-existing ones (parents). Through the process of
reproduction, the continuity of a population and the preservation of characteristics are ensured.

In this unit, the various methods on which organisms reproduce is explored. There are a series of
observations to prove that no individual organism lives forever and that, to carry on their species,
organisms must pass their genetic instruction on to the next generation. The method of reproduction
of organisms can either be asexual or sexual.

In addition, this unit details the process of how organisms produce offspring through either asexual or
sexual means. The two modes of reproduction are compared based on their method, benefits and
disadvantages, number of offspring produced and whether the offspring is genetically identical to the
parent or not. Moreover, to understand that for sexual reproduction to occur, gametes must unite to
form a new cell called a zygote, and this process is called fertilization.

Reproduction is the process by which new organisms are produced from a parent organism. All living
organisms should be capable of undergoing reproduction to produce new individuals and pass on the
genetic materials from one generation to another. Reproduction is necessary for the continuity of
species and of life in general.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

• Asexual reproduction - produce individuals that are highly identical to the parent plant.
• Sexual Reproduction - Two individuals produce haploid gametes to form a diploid cell or
zygote. It involves courtship activity.

FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction in PLANTS

In asexual reproduction, plants produce individuals that are highly identical to the parent plant.
There is no mixing of traits from two parents since reproduction can still proceed with one individual
plant.

Plant parts such as roots, stem tubers, rhizomes, and stolon undergo vegetative propagation.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

• It involves one parent plant to produce offspring. The new individual plants grow from parts of
the parent plant. There are different methods where plants can perform vegetative
propagation. Most plants use specialized structures for vegetative reproduction. Plants can
undergo either natural or artificial vegetative propagation.

Natural Vegetative Propagation

Natural vegetative propagation involves bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, and runners.

• Bulbs occur when parts of the roots split and each part develops into a new bulb.
• Tubers are formed when an underground stem forms a bulb.
• Runners occur when a horizontal stem develops from the vertical stem of
a grown plant and extends above and along the ground.
• Rhizomes are thick, underground stems which produce upright stems with leaves, each of
which becomes an independent plant.
Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Artificial vegetative propagation involves cutting, layering, and grafting.

• Cutting is a method when a piece of the stem is cut from a plant. When placed in moist soil,
the piece of the stem can develop new roots, which will grow in a new similar plant. Some
plants that can undergo cutting are roses and pineapple.

• Layering is a method wherein a low branch of the plant is bent down close to the ground and
covered in moist soil in such a way that its growing tip is above the soil. Layering can be done
in roses and magnolia.
 • Grafting is a method where two different plants are joined together to grow into a new plant.
During this method, the upper part, which is usually used for its flowers and leaves, is called
the scion. On the other hand, the lower part, which is usually used for its roots, is called the
stock or rootstock.

Asexual Reproduction in ANIMALS

Animals have different forms of asexual reproduction techniques compared with plants. This mode is
also achieved without the combination of reproductive cells
from two individuals. Asexual reproduction in animals includes fragmentation and parthenogenesis.
These different mechanisms of reproduction produce
individuals that are highly identical to the preexisting ones.
FRAGMENTATION

• Fragmentation is a process that forms new organisms from a fragment of the parent individual.
Each fragment has the capability to develop into a mature individual.
• Fragmentation in the Animal Kingdom is observed among planarians, annelids, sea stars, and
sponges.

PARTHENOGENESIS

• Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction that does not require fertilization. The
unfertilized egg cell can still form the new individual even without the presence of a sperm cell.
• Parthenogenesis is often observed in some animals like ants, bees, reptiles, and rare birds.

FISSION

• The cell divides to form two daughter cells. each daughter cells continues to grow until
becomes as large as the parent cell.
• Prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria reproduce by the process of binary fission.
BUDDING

• Yeast, hydra and sponges reproduce through budding. In budding a new individual may form
as an outgrowth of the parent. The outgrowth separates from the parent and becomes a new
individual.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction in PLANTS

In flowering plants, the female and male gametes can be both present in one individual. They have
both male and female components needed for reproduction. One good example of this is the flower of
Hibiscus or gumamela plant.
The carpel consists of the stigma, style and ovary, the female components of the plant.
A pistil can be the same with a single carpel or a group of carpels fused together.
Additionally, the flower also possesses the stamen, which is the male portion that includes the
anther and filament.
The Pollen grain serves as the primary protection and vehicle of male gametes into the stigma
during pollination.
During pollination, the pollen grains from the anther are being carried to the pistil of the flower. Right
after pollination, the pollen grain starts to fertilize the ovule inside the ovary of the flower that leads to
the production of a diploid zygote in the form of seeds. The seed eventually forms the entire plant and
the cycle repeats itself as shown below.

Sexual Reproduction in ANIMALS

For animals, sexual reproduction starts with the production of haploid sex cells through a process of
cell division called meiosis. Once the sex cells are produced, adult animals usually mate.
Fertilization happens between the sperm and the egg cell to produce a fertilized egg cell. The
fertilized egg will undergo a series of mitosis turning into a zygote. Mitosis is needed to increase the
number of cells in the zygote that further divides and differentiates to form the new individual.
The new individual grows into a juvenile and matures into an adult who is capable of reproduction.
In lower forms of animals like invertebrates, sexual reproduction happens through self-
fertilization, in which an animal's sperm fertilizes its own eggs. The organisms are considered
as hermaphroditic animals that can produce both types of sex cells for fertilization.

Hermaphroditism is a different form of sexual reproduction. Like most organisms who can reproduce
asexually, hermaphrodites also involve only one parent to be able to reproduce. However, the reason
why hermaphroditism is still considered as sexual reproduction is because it involves the fusion of the
gametes of an individual parent.
See it!
Differences Between Asexual Reproduction and
Sexual Reproduction
• Reproduction is the process by which new organisms are produced from a parent organism.
• Asexual reproduction in plants produce individuals that are highly identical to the parent
plant.
• Vegetative reproduction involves one parent plant to produce offspring.
• The new individual plants grow from parts of the parent plant. This can either be natural and
artificial.
• Sexual reproduction starts with the production of haploid sex cells through
meiosis.

• Once the sex cells are produced, adult animals usually mate.

• Fertilization happens between the sperm and the egg cell to produce a fertilized egg cell.

• In lower forms of animals like invertebrates, sexual reproduction happens through self-
fertilization, in which an animal's sperm fertilizes its own eggs.

• Hermaphrodites are animals that can produce both types of sex cells for
fertilization and produce an offspring of their own.
 • Hermaphroditism is sometimes considered as an asexual form of reproduction as it involves a
single individual to reproduce.

• Animals have different forms of asexual reproduction techniques compared with plants. This is
also achieved without the combination of reproductive or sex cells from two individuals.

• Pollination is the process when the pollen grains from the anther is being carried to the pistil
of the flower.

• Fragmentation is a process that forms a new organism from a fragment or section of the
parent individual.

• Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction that does not require

fertilization.

STUDY GUIDE .............................................

Unit
ECOSYSTEM

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• Differentiate biotic from abiotic components of an ecosystem.

• Describe the different ecological relationships found in an ecosystem.
• Predict the effect of changes in abiotic factors on the ecosystem.

Earth may itself be thought of as one giant

ecosystem. The ecosystem includes all the
living organisms and nonliving things in an
area that are linked together through the flow
of nutrients and energy. The existence of life
greatly depends on the interactions happening
in an ecosystem. These interactions are
responsible for keeping the planet as a whole in
balance.

In this unit, the role of each component of an

ecosystem is determined, and how each
component affects the stability of an ecosystem
is also explored. Interconnectedness is one
characteristic of a stable ecosystem, and in this lesson. An indicator of interconnectedness, the feeding
relationships among organisms, is studied. This unit also covers factors that affect a population or an
ecosystem which results in changes in a particular ecosystem.

Though ecosystems can exist as distinct systems, they are still connected with each other. Failure of one
ecosystem to exist and support life will have a great effect on other ecosystems in the world. It is crucial
to nourish all the ecosystems and to find ways on how human impacts can be reduced.

Biotic and Abiotic Components of the Ecosystem

All organisms communicate with other organisms and their environment. They need this interaction
for their growth and survival. The different communities of organisms, together with their
environment, form an ecosystem. What makes a plant or animal survive in a certain
habitat?

An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms living together and interacting with the nonliving
components. Ecosystems vary in size, components, and processes that make life sustainable.
An ecosystem consists of two main components: the biotic and abiotic components.

• Biotic components are the living components of an ecosystem.

• Abiotic components are the nonliving components of an ecosystem.

These components together with the interactions between them maintain stability in an ecosystem.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS

The biotic component of an ecosystem refers to all the living organisms in a habitat. This includes
organisms such as plants and animals. These organisms interact with one another in many ways.
These interactions among living things are important for their survival. Most organisms depend on
other organisms for their food, shelter, and protection.

The biotic components in the ecosystem can be classified into three groups: producers,
consumers, and decomposers.
Producers

• Producers are organisms that are capable of producing their own food through photosynthesis
or chemosynthesis (as in the case of bacterial species in hydrothermal vents where light cannot
reach).
• Examples are plants, algae, and some pigmented microorganisms.

Consumers

• Consumers are organisms that cannot produce their own food. Instead, they depend on
producers or other consumers for food.
• Examples are herbivorous insects and carnivorous mammals.

Decomposers

• Decomposers are organisms that decompose dead components of living organisms. They
depend on the decaying organic matter as a source of their food.
• Examples of these are fungi, bacteria, other microorganisms, and earthworms. In the case of
microscopic decomposers, they do not ingest decaying organic matter. Rather, decomposition
occurs extracellularly by secreting enzymes.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

The abiotic components of an ecosystem refer to its nonliving or physical environment. These affect
the types of organisms that live in a particular habitat. The physical environment is influenced by
different factors such as air, light, mineral salts and salinity, pH, temperature, and water.

Air

• Air is a mixture of different gases. This includes gases that are needed for the growth and
development of organisms.
• For example, carbon dioxide is needed by plants for food production through photosynthesis.
The process of photosynthesis also produces oxygen, which is a gas needed by most organisms
for respiration. Aquatic organisms take in oxygen that is dissolved in water. Land animals, on
the other hand, take in oxygen from the air.

Light

• Almost all plants are adapted to receive as much sunlight as possible. This is because light is
needed by plants for photosynthesis.
• The kinds of plants growing in a habitat depend on the amount of light available in a habitat.
The abundance of sunlight in a certain region affects the types of animals that will be found in
a habitat.

Mineral Salts and Salinity

• Plants and animals need a variety of essential substances such as chlorophyll, proteins, and
vitamins. They need these substances for their growth.
• These essential substances are produced from different mineral salts.
• Mineral salts are obtained by plants through absorption from the soil.
• For animals, mineral salt snare obtained from the food they eat.
 • The salinity of an environment is influenced by the number of mineral salts dissolved in water.
Some organisms live well in environments with high salinity such as seawater.
• Other organisms live well in environments with low salinity such as streams and freshwater
ponds.

pH level (potential of hydrogen)

• The pH level of a habitat refers to the acidity and alkalinity of the substrate.
• Organisms are responsive to the pH of their habitats. Most of them could not survive in
environments that are very acidic or very alkaline.
• Some plants, for example, are only able to tolerate a narrow range of pH levels in the soil.

Temperature

• The activities performed by organisms are affected by temperature.

• When the temperature is low, the rate of photosynthesis is slowed down. This results in stunted
growth of plants.
• Low temperatures also slow down the blood circulation
of most animals. This results in the inactivity and sluggish behavior of animals.

• Although some organisms have adapted to survive in extreme temperatures, most plants and
animals can survive in temperatures between 0°C and 45°C.

Water

• Water is vital for the survival of all organisms. The amount of water in any environment is
influenced by the amount of rainfall it receives in a year.
• More organisms are found in habitats where water is available.
• Some organisms, however, have adapted to live in habitats with a limited water supply such as
the desert.

Learn About It
Ecological Relationships
If you take a closer look at your surroundings, what interactions do you observe? Are these
interactions necessary to all living organisms? Interactions among biotic factors are essential to the
survival of an ecosystem. Why do bees need flowers? Do flowers need bees as well? Why
do organisms need each other?

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

• The biotic environment consists of all the organisms present in an ecosystem.

• These organisms interact with each other through symbiotic and non-
symbiotic relationships.

SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS

• This relationship involves organisms living in close nutritional relationships.

• In this type of ecological relationship, one or both organisms obtain a benefit.
 • Examples of symbiotic relationships include mutualism, commensalism, parasitism,
competition, and predation.

Mutualism

• Mutualism is a type of relationship in which both organisms benefit from each other.
• One example is the relationship between ants and aphids.
• The aphids provide ants with sugary juice. In return, the ants protect the aphids by attacking
the predators of aphids.
• Other examples are the bees and flowering plants. The flowering plants provide food (nectar)
to the bees, while the bees become agents of pollination.

Commensalism

• Commensalism is a type of relationship in which one organism benefits while the other
is neither harmed nor benefited.
• An example of this would be orchids growing on trees.
• Orchids need trees for support. They do not obtain nutrients from the tree. As the tree provides
support, it is neither benefited or harmed by the orchid.
• Other examples are whales and barnacles. Barnacles attach to the body of the whale. When
whales swim to areas with a high number of plankton, barnacles are able to filter feed the
plankton. Also, the whale provides protection for the barnacles. With the benefits that the
barnacles from the whale, the whale is not harmed or helped.

Parasitism

• Parasitism is a relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of the other.
• The organism that benefits is the parasite, and
the organism that is harmed is the host.
 • Parasites are of two types.
● Ectoparasites live on the surface of the host. These include ticks and fleas.
● Endoparasites live inside the body of the host. This includes intestinal worms that live
inside the body of humans and some mammals.

Competition

• Competition pertains to populations or individual organisms, which*** compete for the same
resource***.
• This can occur between different species, like lions and hyenas competing for prey.
• This can also occur within species of the same kind, like a group of guinea pigs competing over
a food resource.
• Another example is the different trees in the forest competing for light energy to be used for
photosynthesis.

Predation

• Predation is a symbiotic relationship where one organism kills and eats another
organism to obtain nutrients. The organism that is killed and eaten is the prey.
• The organism that kills and eats the prey is the predator.
• Examples of this relationship include a bear getting salmon fish from the river or a wolf
hunting for a rabbit.

NON-SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP
Nonsymbiotic relationships involve organisms that are free-living. These relationships are not
required for survival.

• Nonsymbiotic relationships can be classified as synergism and antagonism.

• Most of these relationships involve microorganisms such as bacteria.
 • In synergism, organisms cooperate and share nutrients and resources. The
microbes Azotobacter and Cellulomonas cooperate to form and break down ammonium and
glucose.
• In antagonism, some organisms are inhibited or harmed by others. Antibiotic production is
an example of this.

The figure shows the interaction that is happening between abiotic and biotic factors. The solar
energy coming from the sun, the gases in the atmosphere, and nutrients from the soil will be used by
the plants for the process of photosynthesis.

In this process, food in the form of simple sugars will be produced. This will then be used by the
herbivores and carnivores for consumption and energy source.

Detritivores are responsible for the decaying of matter (dead plants and animals) and reabsorption
the nutrients back to the soil and release gases into the atmosphere. Unlike microscopic decomposers,
detritivores are larger organisms (e.g., earthworms, millipedes, termites) that ingest decaying matter
to help speed up the decomposition process in ecosystems.

Learn about It!

Effects of Changes in Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Biotic and abiotic conditions both greatly influence the conditions of an ecosystem. Both factors
dictate whether a species will flourish in a certain habitat or not. How do the biotic and abiotic
components of an ecosystem affect each other?

Limiting Factor

• A limiting factor is any factor that controls and restricts the size of a population.
• Limiting factors may be abiotic, such as water availability. It can also be biotic. Such as
availability of organisms as food.
• An example of a limiting factor is the sunlight in an ecosystem, where growth is limited to all
plants in the understory unless more light becomes available.
• Or perhaps, in a deciduous forest, there are not enough rabbits to support the growth of more
foxes.
• All species within an ecosystem will experience some kind of limiting factors to prevent
continuous and exponential growth.
• Environmental changes (i.e., drought, famine, human destruction) results in decreased rates of
physiological processes, lowering the potential for survival, growth, or
reproduction. Species will undergo acclimatization to adjust to the new limiting factors
through changing their behavior or physiology.

• Examples of limiting factors are light, heat, mechanical support, organic matter, nutrients,
availability of water and air, geographical area and predation, competition.

EFFECTS OF ABIOTIC FACTORS

• The ability of an
organism to survive
depends on abiotic
factors such as
temperature, light, and
soil.
• Organisms have a
tolerance range by
which they are able to
survive. They can be
successful over a range
of abiotic conditions.
• When conditions
exceed their tolerance
limits, organisms will
become stressed, a
decrease in number or
worst case is to
eventually die out.

• Each group of organisms has a tolerance range for each abiotic factor.
• Organisms that have a broad tolerance range tend to be more widely distributed. These
organisms can also easily invade other ecosystems.
• Organisms have adapted and developed structures to allow them to survive in certain abiotic
conditions.

• Changes in the environment of the habitat of an organism also allow organisms to exhibit
adaptive behavior.
 • Many animals migrate or travel to a different place to avoid the cold season in their habitat.
Birds fly off to a place with a warmer climate and then return home when the cold season has
passed.

• Aside from temperature changes, migration is also a response to food shortage in the
ecosystem.

EFFECTS OF BIOTIC FACTORS

• Biotic factors mainly depend on the

different ecological relationships in
an ecosystem such as competition,
predation, and mutualism.
• The carrying capacity refers to the
maximum population size of a
species that an ecosystem can
sustain. An increase in population
size results in the increase of demand
for resources such as food, water, and
shelter.

• In the long run, the available

resources will not be enough for each
member of the population and this
will lead to the decrease on its
population size. Some organisms may
become weak and acquire diseases.

Certain human activities interfere with the carrying capacities of

organisms.
• The hunting of wolves by humans can result in the increase moose population in an area.
• Destruction of habitat also results in a lowered carrying capacity of an ecosystem because no
food and shelter remain.
• Terrestrial biomes such as grasslands and tropical rainforests are also changed due
to agricultural development and logging.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO THE ABIOTIC FACTORS

Farming methods

• It can increase or decrease the nutrients levels in the soil.

Burning of fossil fuels

• It can result to global warming due to increase in temperature. This can result to affecting the
habitat sustainability of many species which may kill aquatic and terrestrial organisms. This
can also make the soil and the precipitate acidic.

Irrigation

• It may decrease the water availability.

Pollution

• It may decrease the quality of the basic abiotic factors that lead to it having a lesser habitat
sustainability for organisms.

• An ecosystem consists of two main components – the biotic and the abiotic components.

• The biotic component is the living component of an ecosystem. This includes producers,
consumers and decomposers.
• The abiotic component is the nonliving component. This includes air, light, salinity, mineral
salts, pH, temperature, and water.
• The biotic environment consists of all the organisms present in an ecosystem. These
organisms interact with each other through symbiotic and non-symbiotic relationships.
• Symbiotic relationship is a relationship that involves organisms living in close nutritional
relationships. In this type of ecological relationship, one or both organisms obtain a benefit.
Examples of symbiotic relationships include mutualism, commensalism, parasitism,
competition, and predation.
• Non-symbiotic relationships involve organisms that are free-living. These relationships are
not required for survival. Non-symbiotic relationships can be classified as synergism and
antagonism. Most of these relationships involve microorganisms such as bacteria.
• Organisms have a tolerance range by which they are able to survive. They can be successful
over a range of abiotic conditions. When conditions exceed their tolerance limits, organisms will
become stressed, a decrease in number or worst case is to eventually die out.
• Changes in the environment of the habitat of an organism also allow organisms to exhibit
adaptive behavior. Many animals migrate or travel to a different place to avoid the cold season
in their habitat.
• The carrying capacity refers to the maximum population size of a species that an ecosystem
can sustain. An increase in population size results in the increase of demand for resources such
as food, water, and shelter.