STUDY GUIDE .............................................

Unit
Introduction to the Cell

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the different levels of biological organization from cell to biosphere.

All living things are composed of cells. Cells are the basic units of all organisms that can perform all life’s
functions. In this unit, the levels of biological organization, from the simplest to the most complex units of life,
are discussed.

The biological organization is presented as a hierarchical system in which each successive level is more
complex than the lower level.

Also, included in this unit is the presentation of the importance of the cell and what makes them the basic
units of life. The parts and functions of the cells are also presented to understand how a simple cell is able to
perform all the characteristics of life.

Furthermore, the two types of cells, namely, plant cell and animal cell, are compared and studied to determine
the similarities and differences between their parts and functions.

In your previous years of school, have you voted for your class president? How about your class vice president
and secretary? These officers are important to keep the class organized. The structures of living things are also
highly organized into different levels. How are the structures of living things organized?
Composition of an Organism
Classification and organization are important to maintain the structure of a certain system. Similar to the
world of organisms, classification and organization is vital. The structures of living things are also highly
organized into different levels.
Let us discover how these levels are organized.

ATOM

• Matter is made up of atoms.

• An atom is the fundamental unit of matter.
• Atoms combine to form molecules.
• Different molecules can combine to form a macromolecule.
• Different macromolecules can aggregate to form an organelle, which makes up a cell.

CELL

• The cell is the fundamental unit of living organisms. The structures of these organisms can be
examined hierarchically, from the smallest to the largest level, wherein the complexity increases as the
level increases.
• Since the cell is the basic unit of life, it is the lowest level of biological organization.
Some organisms consist of a single cell, like various bacterial species. Some organisms like humans are
multicellular. Each cell may have a specific function in an organism.
• For example, red blood cells in humans carry oxygen and carbon dioxide, while nerve cells transmit
messages.

TISSUE

• In larger organisms, cells combine to make

up tissues.
• A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together
to carry out a specific function. For example, nerve
cells form nerve tissues, which transmit messages
to and from the brain to the different parts of the
body.
• A nerve tissue is a collection of nerve cells.
ORGAN

• A collection of different tissues is called an organ.

• An organ is a system of tissues grouped together to perform a common function.
• Some examples of organs in animals are the lungs, brain, and heart. Organs are also present in plants.
Roots, stems, and leaves are organs found in plants.

ORGAN SYSTEM

• An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of different organs that work together
to perform related bodily functions.
• For example, the nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord, and nerve fibers. These organs
work together as the control center of the body.

• ORGANISM
• Multiple organ systems with different functions work together to form an organism.
• An organism is a living thing that performs all basic life processes.
• It can take in food, get rid of wastes, respond to the environment, and reproduce.
 • Keep in mind that some organisms can be single-celled, such as bacteria and amoebae. They are
typically referred to as microorganisms. Many organisms that we are
familiar with are complex multicellular organisms having organs and organ systems.
• For example, a human being is a multicellular
organism. Insects, fish, and many animals are
also multicellular organisms.

POPULATION

• The biological organization does not end on the organism level. As you know, many organisms live
together.
• A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in a particular area.
• For example, a forest may be a habitat for monkeys. All the monkeys in that forest represent a
population of monkeys.

COMMUNITY

• It is possible for different populations to live in the same area.

• A community is the sum of populations living within a certain area.
• The population of coconut trees together with the populations of guava trees, acacia trees, and all
other species in the forest area are part of the community.

ECOSYSTEM

• Adding up the nonliving components of the environment such as the rocks, water, air, and soil to living
things make up an ecosystem.
• Nonliving components are called abiotic factors, while living components of the ecosystem are
called biotic factors. For example, a pond ecosystem may include a population of fish, tadpoles,
bacteria, rocks, water, and air. Fish, tadpoles, and bacteria are the biotic components, while rock,
water, and air are the abiotic components.

BIOSPHERE

• At the highest level of organization, and thus, with the highest complexity is the biosphere.
• Biosphere is the sum of all ecosystems.
• It includes every plant, animal, human, microorganism, and nonliving things such as land, water, and
atmosphere on Earth.
Fig. 5 shows a representation of the level of biological organization. From the basic unit of life which is
the cell, it will form tissues. Tissues with the common function will form the organ, which will be part of a
particular organ system. In this case, bone cells form bone tissues, which consequently form bones. Bones
are further organized to form the skeletal system, which gives support to animals. Along with the skeletal
system, different organ systems will make up an organism. Organisms that belong to the same species living
in a particular area create a population. A population of deer interacting with another population, let’s say of
seagull, forms a community. An ecosystem is formed when the living community interacts with abiotic
factors, such as wind, water, and stones. Combining all the ecosystems will now form the biosphere.

The level of biological organization is arranged from the simplest level to the most complex. The hierarchy is
as follows:

• The cell is the fundamental unit of living organisms.

• Tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to carry out a specific function.
• Organ is a system of tissues grouped together to perform a common function.
• Organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of different organs that work together to
perform related bodily functions.
• Organism is a living thing that, by using its organs, performs all basic life processes.
• Population is a group of organisms of the same species living in a particular area.
• Community is the sum of populations living within a certain area.
• Ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with one another and with its abiotic (non-living
elements, e.g., light, air, rocks) environment.
• Biosphere is the sum of all ecosystems. It includes every plant, animal, human, microorganism, and
nonliving things such as land, water, and atmosphere on Earth.
 STUDY GUIDE .............................................
Unit
Lesson 2. Introduction to the Cell

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

• Differentiate plant and animal cells according to presence or absence of certain organelles.
• Explain why the cell is considered the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms

Why does cell considered as the basic unit of life?

Living things are organized at different levels of complexity. The most complex is the biosphere, which
encompasses all levels.

The simplest level is the cell, which makes up all living things. Cells carry out all life functions.

The cell is the smallest and the most basic form of life. It is where living organisms conduct self-sustaining
biological processes, such as obtaining nutrition from food, absorbing essential nutrients, excreting waste
materials, responding to the environment, and reproduction.

Brief History of the Cell and Cell Theory

• In 1665, Robert Hooke first discovered a cell by observing very thin slices of cork under a microscope.
He saw closely-packed little compartments with thick walls.
• He named these compartments ‘cells’ from the Latin word cellula, which means small rooms.
• However, without his knowledge, he is simply looking at the remnants of dead plant cells. He drew and
documented his findings in his published book called
Micrographia (1665).
• In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, one of the founding fathers of cell theory, studied a sample of plant
tissue and discovered that plants are also made up of cells. He showed that the development of plant
tissues is because of the activities of the cell.
• In 1839, Theodore Schwann concluded similarly that all animals are made up of cells. Together, he
and Schleiden theorized that all living things are made up of cells. This laid the foundation to the first
two statements of the cell theory.
• In 1855, Rudolph Virchow observed cells dividing into new cells. He theorized that cells come from
existing living cells (“Omnis cellula e cellula”). With all the findings and contributions of these scientists,
the cell theory was formulated.
The cell theory states that:

1. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
2. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
3. All living cells come from other living cells through cell division.

What are cells made up of to be able to perform all life processes?

Parts of a Cell
There are many kinds of cells, but they all have some parts in common. These include the cell membrane,
cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus.

Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane is a thin coat of lipids that encloses the cell. It is also called the plasma membrane. It
serves as the boundary between the inside of the cell and the outside environment.
• As a selectively-permeable membrane, it only allows certain materials to go in and out of the cell. It also
gives the cell its form and shape.
Cytoplasm

• The cell membrane encloses the inside of a cell, which is a jelly like material called the cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is made up of a viscous, watery substance that protects the organelles.

Organelles

• The organelles or “little organs” are tiny cellular structures that are membrane-bound and serve specific
functions within a cell.
• Common organelles found in cells are the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, vacuoles,
and lysosomes.
• Other structures in the cell which are, by contrast, not membrane-bound, include the ribosomes,
centrosomes, centrioles, and cytoskeleton.

Nucleus

• The nucleus is the largest and is the most commonly observed organelle in cells.
• It has a spherical structure.
• It is surrounded by a double-layered membrane called the nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope.
• The nucleus is located near the center of a cell.
• It controls most cellular processes and determines the characteristics of the cell through the genetic
material it stores and protects.
• Located at its center is the largest structure inside the nucleus known as the nucleolus.

Nucleolus

• The nucleolus is directly involved in the production of proteins by producing subunits of ribosomes.
• It is also involved in RNA synthesis.

Nucleoplasm

• The nucleoplasm is similar to the cytoplasm.

• It contains dissolved nucleotides and enzymes.

Nuclear Pore

• The nuclear pore regulates the movement of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Classifications of Cell
• There are two classifications of cells based on the presence of a well-defined nucleus or a nucleus with
a nuclear membrane.
• The nuclear membrane creates a boundary between the nucleus and the other parts of the cell.

PROKARYOTES

• Prokaryotes are types of cells that have no well-defined nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles.
• Bacteria and Archaea are examples of prokaryotes.

EUKARYOTES

• Eukaryotes have a well-defined nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound

organelles.
• Plants and animals are examples of eukaryotic organisms.

ORGANELLES INSIDE THE CELL

The following are the organelles that are basically present in both animal and plant cells.
The mitochondrion (mitochondria, plural) is a rod-shaped organelle. It functions primarily in producing
energy for the cell. With this, it is commonly known as the “powerhouse of the cell.”

The endoplasmic reticulum (abbreviated as E.R.) is an organelle that looks like a network of tiny canals
extending from the nucleus.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: the rough ER and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
The Rough E.R. has a shape similar to sheets, while the Smooth E.R is similar to tubes. They also differ in
function.

• The rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site for protein synthesis because they contain the molecule
called ribosomes.
• Ribosomes are complex molecules found in all living cells. They are responsible for the production of
proteins.
• Meanwhile, the Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the site of lipid synthesis.

The Golgi apparatus function in the packaging of proteins and lipids, and they are also known as Golgi bodies.
They form tiny membrane-bound spheres called vesicles for the packaging and transport of materials.
Vacuoles are fluid-filled cavities that function in the storage of various dissolved substances.

Lysosomes are small sac-like organelles that contain strong digestive enzymes. They function in breaking
down worn-out organelles, in digesting food, or in destroying harmful foreign bodies taken by the cell.

The following is an example of an animal cell that contains the main parts of a cell: the cell membrane,
cytoplasm, and the nucleus. It also contains the organelles in the cytoplasm including the vacuole, rough and
smooth ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, ribosomes, and mitochondria.
 PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

All living things are made up of cells. However, there are many kinds of cells. Each type of cell would be
different depending on their function. Animal cells usually appear to be round or irregularly shaped, while
plant cells appear to be square or rectangular. How are plant cells different from animal cells?

Are there any similarities between an animal cell and a plant cell? What are these similarities?
Are there any differences between an animal cell and a plant cell? What are these differences?

PLANT CELLS

• Plant and animal cells both contain the main parts of a cell: the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and the
nucleus.
• The plant cell, however, has more specialized structures.
• Plant cells have a cell wall. The cell wall is a rigid lining outside the cell membrane.
• For plants, it is composed mainly of cellulose. This makes the plant cells appear to be more
rectangular, while animal cells appear to be round.
 • Plant cells also contain plastids. Plastids are double layered membrane organelles that function in the
manufacture and storage of important compounds
used by the cell.
• Colored plastids are called chromoplasts.
• An example of a chromoplast is the chloroplast which contains the green pigment in plants called
chlorophyll. These structures are important in manufacturing food by green plants.
• Leucoplasts are colorless plastids, which function
in storing food. Starch-filled leucoplasts are common in the cells of roots and stems of a potato root
crop.

ANIMAL CELLS
Animal cells also have specialized structures, as shown below.
• Animal cells have centrioles. Centrioles are microtubules that assist animal cells during cell division.

• Some animal cells may have either flagella or cilia. These are cellular appendages that animal cells
may use for mobility.

• Another major difference between plant cells and animal cells is the size of the vacuole. Vacuoles of
animal cells are smaller compared to the vacuoles of plant cells.
• Vacuoles of plant cells are more utilized in storing food and water for the plant cell, while those of
animal cells are more for the storage of wastes.
• Lastly, lysosomes are mostly found on animal cells rather than in plant cells. The diagram below
compares an animal cell and a plant cell.
 Comparison of the Structures of Prokaryotic, Animal, and Plant Cells

• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living things. It is made up of organelles. It is
the smallest unit that can perform life functions.
• The cell theory states that:
Cells are the basic units of all living things.
All living organisms are composed of cells.
New cells are produced from pre-existing cells.
• The cell has four basic parts, which include:
• The cell membrane is a thin coat of lipids that encloses the cell. It is also called the plasma membrane.
It serves as the boundary between the inside of the cell and the outside environment.
• The cytoplasm is a jelly-like material that encloses and protects the organelles.
• The organelles, or “little organs”, which are tiny cellular structures that serve specific functions within a
cell.
• Common organelles found in cells are the mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,
vacuoles, lysosomes, and plastids.
• Other important parts and components of the cell that are not bound by membranes include
the centrosomes and centrioles, cytoskeleton, and cell wall.
• The nucleus is surrounded by a double-layered membrane called the nuclear membrane or nuclear
envelope. It is located close to the center of the cell where it controls various cellular processes
through the genetic material it stores and protects.