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    Pipeline Design, Analysis and Methods Moussellie

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    Pipeline Design, Analysis and Methods Moussellie

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    Vishaka Thekkedath
    35 views103 pages

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    Pipeline Design, Analysis and Methods Moussellie

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    Vishaka Thekkedath

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    Pipeline aoe Qo eee, tuft and ee Methods By AH.Mousselli i Luillram .G. Boast — Apsl 2004 provide unique, consid ha the varus princes ae SEGHtslgeat ang coherent euenee STE Eatsedion abe key clement which wae pe tonadered forsale eft Uitgatpdlersensrwtngecbmariepe Weetteisers The in topwsincate tbe | Fotowene + An overview of ol nd ps production 1 ipyer sl bss pipelines 1 Ellpents of marine survey and hazard “ermine «posta eauntns ang parameters Piston {DPE Eih pincipe and methods } COfshore Pipeline Design, Asay, and Sleds tela nd these Ive eRe thal and dein of oeshore pe 4 theond tons nd wn important eter SESE SAC forall invlved i ethereal SEES" pedtion and reed acs Cony © 1981 engl Pay 12a Sout a Seoul 0. Box 1260 A cs ese No a shi ok may ‘he bSny cay, dectne ormechencal ela ‘Meninwoeopyine and recording without the wsten Fllson a eh pies Prine in he United Stats of Ameria Contents List of Tables List of Figures 1 introduction Ti General 12. Overview of Ol and Gas Produetions 21” Idenieation of Prospect Areas 122 Acquisitons of Rights and Pernits 123. Exploration Phase 124 Development and Production Phase 1.3. Types of Subsea Pipelines 131" Flow Lines erated Lines) 132 Gathering Lines nerfed Lines) 133 Truk Lines 134 Loading (Unloading Lines 2 Hazards ans Protection Concepts 211 Hazard Determination [Marne Survey 211” Purpose of Survey 2112 Elements of Susy 21 2 ans aie ans Oceanographic Data Sail Investigations Echo SounderiBathymetry Data Side Scan Sonar Method Subbotiom Profiling Method 22 Design and Protection Concepts PAI Route Selection 222 Pipeline Protection Methods enon evanatons and Pipe Parametars we General, ‘32 Internal Pressure 133. Buckle Analysis 331 General 332 Local Buckling 333, Buckle Propagation 334 Buckle Amestors 34 Hydrodynamic Forces 35. Voreerinduced Oscillations 136 Pipelie-oi Sablity Analysis 361 Settlement and Flotation $3.62 Soul Stength Deterioration 3,7 Elfct of Lage Soil Movements 3H Effects of Seabed inequities B81 stiesses Dac #0 Low Depressions 3.82. Stresses Doe t Elevated Obstructions 39 Scour and Erosion. nstaation Methods and Analysis “S General 22 Lay-Bange Method 21. Description of Method 422, Lap Analysis Methods 42201 Beam Method [Small Defecions) 44222, Nonlinear Beam Method 4228 Natural Catenary Method 4224. Sifened Catenary Method 41225 Finite Element Method {4226 Method for Thick Concrete Coating 4227 Dynamic fects 43 ReclBarge Method ‘44 Tow Method 441 Make-Up Area 4442, Types of Tow installations 2’ Surface and Below Surface Tow 2422. Offottam Tow $423 Bottom Tow 18 » a 35 % 3 53 6 e 5 Prpatioe trenching Metneds eT dene 5 Factors Alecting Bra Requirements S31” Hydrodynamis tees 522. Spanu abd Obscrucions 523. SoilStengh Deterioration Doe to ‘Wave Lating 5.24, hing Activites 525 Anchoring 52) Pipe Trench Methods ST feting Meta 32, Mechtaeal Cuing 533. Hudson Method 534. Plowing Meh 4 Toshi Easting end Limistions S41 Soll Patameters S42 Water Depth 542 Pipe Sze and Weight S44 Production Rate Sas Sea sute 546, Trench Sabiity 547_ Spoil apo! 5.5, Conceptual Eraustion 56 ‘Trenching Regulations and Expeienes S61" Gulf of Mesco (USA) 542 Nowh Sea Sta United King S22. Nowway Sia the Netherlands 563 Japan Sot Atala 5.7 Comments on Regulations and Experiences 6 rps conecten and Psitonng Systems pharen 62 ipine Conecton Sytem S21 Fane etd 22. Atmosphere Welding 623 ype Weng 62 Mehl Comets SE Ritch Mane Systems 106 107 100 108 108 109 09 0 0 ml us us us u3 16 us us us us uy m1 3 15 15 126 i a i ir re ba bt 1s 136 1 138 a 6242 Cameron 138 8.3 Riser-Pipeline Flexibility. 180, $26 Greer 19 i S50 nema Pewore 180 Gait Hysrtech 1 | 832 Water Temperate ist 4625 Comparsn ofCoanecton Methods 13 | $33 Gomente Temperature i 63. En ostnng Matos He 832 Rela Temon it 630" Gena sot Me £35. Sol acon tat $3) triton and Tension Med 33¢ Deen Options it 633. Staheln Tow Method a 84 Typed North ee tltons i $38. Deeaon wit Baoyeny Hy eyes oneee fe S42 BNO unin Ten 1s T sunses Pipeline Repair Systoms . 843 BNOC Thistle 183 oe oon 158 B22 ELrNone Pee Felt is 5 Repo Metts and Poctes iss 835 Brome is SH Seace Welton 155 6 Mb Bey and Stator te : 7.22. Hyperbaric Welding Sr 8.47 OXY Piper Field 136 355. Meckancs! Cooneeors i 346 Pie Ets Complex ies | 33 fall EneckmenSlceos Clams) ist 849 Shell Expo Brent Sem is 335 Reb hip Rese ist sibiogenby 186 | 73. Seeking Popa for Mechanical Repalr Tools 168 eae is | 73 Comparion Rea Metbole is Sar techneal eres tee 12. Bxpenence 16s | 5333 Weather Sensiiny 16s | 34 hralabny iss | 348 Tie ad Cons ss . | 8 pein risers | BT ener 168 82, Rc Stems iss | SDI" Hanged Connections 10 S22 Hypetane Welding ‘o 855. Mechanesl Commins 1o B24. Subsea Atmosmene Welding 1% 35. Sune Welling v0 | 836 ube Meth to { Ba Reve Tube re 226 ening She ve | 82> arcot Riser ve 80 Comgarton of Methods ve ‘82101 Technial Comparison 178 82101 Economies, 180, aa a a2 33 a 82 83 53 List of Tables Special ConsderationsPpeline & Riser Installation tn Unstable Areas buckle Popagton Pesute Recommend Coeficens or Pipe Design iEspoet Pie] pe ropertes Formulas Compan of ipelay Analy Methods Major Underwater Tenehing Machines Conceptual Evaluation of Trenching mets Othre Pipeline Bra eequremens PpcineTeoehing Experiences CCompraon of Pipe Emergency Rea Methods » a 8 6 m2. 120 Lo 6s in a 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2 31 32 33 34 35 35 37 38 39 310 au 31 313 34 315 List of Figures Schematic of Hydrocarbon Production Soil Piston Corer Piston Corer Operation Side Scan Sonat Fish Seafloor Mapping Reconder Sealoor Mapping Record ORE Subbottom Profiling System EG&G Boomer Sled Subboteom Praile Record Flow Diagram of Route and Weight Design “Typical Pipeline Buckle Modes ‘Types of Buckle Amestors -Hyerodynamic Fores on Pipe Definition of Linear Wave Parameters Repons of Validity of Wave Theories Summary-—Linear (Airy) Wave Characteristics ‘Wave Length and Height Variations with Depth Drag Corfficient vs. Reynolds Number Drag Coefficient fr Diferent ‘eulegan-Carpenter Values Lit Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number Vortex Induced Oscillations Variations of Srouhal Number ‘Suouhal Number vs. Diag Conlficient Pipe Stability in Sols Storm Indaced Bottom Pressures , 7 316 Sei Fore Coficien 0 55 Pipe Bending During Teenching uy Ay Stor Over et Pe ® 36 Sud Removal Panis uy 38 pe Congrton Due to tow Depression a ae vee tt Caanectr Be peer peep omer & G1 gla Marne End Cone 3 3.20 Sires at Midspan 8 | 63. Gripper Grip and Seal Connector iar 321 Deflection Midepen % | 64 HydroTech HydroCoupie Connectors Malas Induced Pipe Spans a ; 65 Pipeline Initiation a? Fre Due Hevated Obstruction & $$ Reelin kin ha Spun Due fo lead Obaraton é $6 Foe Temi a Marin Sues Dc Heated Obswucton « $7 Stabe Toy ie Moses of Gran Tensor p 69. Vera Deletion i Coen Velo far Sediment Transport 1 6, Mente Debten i SonvensonlLay Bare 3 71. Stes Reps by Hefone Mechanical Conecors 159 (Seated ig ots a 7 Subsea Repair by Ger Mechanical Connectors 160 Pipe Over Rump % 73 Sebi Retr by ljoach Mechonal Connccons 16) Stn Ran Soper * 81 Lockheed Riser Connection Sytem m Dring n $2 Pipe PckUp supe for Rer Sting tn Diving el nd Decompression Chamber > 83 RicrLowertitew (tute Tum Hey Scctoal Stinger Lge Seed pe ® 84 RherSettng cedure us Fone Sangre to Subbing Hy 85 Rner Serine Continues 8 Stinger Drawar Secon 2 Se RS amped Pestuoe Ms Stine inge s 8) Rnerclanp Me Stings Ras Sappors = 4 tlustn of ie Pull Though Take i Convento! Ly age Method & Spel Tension and Singer Yaitions & PRD ote Suing " Coated Pipe Boned Seiaes 7 Stites Bisbution 2 Mart Suen Asumed Soe = Retr Method ° {ow Stn MakeUp Yar 10 Sodas Toe in Blow srace Tow 101 Rat wet Off atom Tow totem Tow 51 ge Trenching Definitions 32. fetta tla it 33 Spot Rimoral by Compressed air ia $4 Sind nda bul tho nt Introduction 14 Goneral “The ever-increasing demand for oil and gas has resulted in substan tialincreaseoffshore projects for fndingand producinghydrocarbons Since the first offshore pipelines were laid in the Gull of Mexico thousands of miles of pipelines have been constructed offshore in ‘atlous area ofthe word ncoing the Nort Sea, the Gul of Mexico, the Mediertanean, Austalia Southeast Asi, and Latin America, Some Pipelines were installed in water depths of nearly 2,00 ft Pipelines a6 ets 36 nin diameter were ls installed A variety of construction fuipment was used fo intl these pipelines, incuing the conven ‘ina lay bang method, ee arg, and various pl and tow methods. "As theve installations were madein increasingly Jeep wate, special ized technical and desig problems had to be solved, An ofshore Pipeline install at any water depth must be designed such tha it Iainteins ies integrity during construction and during operating lifetime, During constrctan, the pipeline s expose to various ben ing stresses a it lad fom the surface vesel tothe seabed and due to Interal currents and vasious dynamic conditions. After te pipe ests on ‘the seabed sis exposed to several potential risks fdamage due twave land current conditions In the are, soil instability, anchor, fshing teas and other hazards, ‘Aer the pipeline size hasbeen determined based on the low cond sions and fietion characterises, the pipeline design work typically ‘avolves the evluation of wave current, and bottom conditions along the pipeline route fom which selection ofthe pipe parameters can be rade This involves dhe evaluation of soll strengths understate and 2 | Other Pipine Osan, Ansys, ana Meads storm conditions and identifiation of the bottom featerestodfine any $gpemovemene tendencies and limits of unstable aes. ‘Bec ute i selected to inimize forces of posible soil movements on the pipeline and to avoid sn obstruction or hazards which may GE. alan the pipeline rove, Spectiatons of pipe material and sei gates are made wo thatthe pipe can resist bydeodynamic FUSS intimin vera! stably during is lifetime, The design IMork also eypealy involves anaysi ofthe pipeline under pereting Te dbns Mntading pressure effects, thermal expansion, and storm ads on the pipe Sikes Contidertions include selection of the most feasible and cconomic method for installing the pipeline and connecting i 0 ‘Sitkor lacey, These also inclade protection methods meluding eetSing ofthe pipe below the seabed and ss installations. deep enshAn for relatively Lange dameter pipelines, the design work also IRS haypisa the bucklingcharatersticsof teppei under ‘ANbus conditions and speeilatons of buckle arestors sch that an ‘ndental buckle locally limite ‘This book provides anoverview ofthe varius principles and practices cof ofsore pipeline design and methods, This incids determination SoS Sttvation of the various hazards, protection methods including aching installation methods and analysis ofthe varios methods, eckting analysis and selection of the various pipeline parameter Senccton methods and analysis riser installation and analysis, opera {ions analysis and other speclalze problems, Design formulas are also [resented wherever applicable Example problems are given oillostrate halyts and calculations of common submarine pipeline design prob Jems ‘This provides the sic and various principle of offshore pipeline {Een in concise manner and canbe used a aeference book orbasc ‘Sesigs of ollebore pipelines. 4.2 Overview of Oll and Gas Production ifshore pipelines have an important role inthe overall tasks of cofshor oi anu gas production. A schematic dagram Figure 1.1) shows the warous aspects of his rom the iil stages of cqiing ries to ‘auch for i and gs tothe point where production ofthese hydrocar ions begins The serous phases can generally be divided into four Categories (i) entificaton of prospectareas, 2) obtainingtherghtsfor “xpioation, (3) exploration pase, 4) development phase, and [5 pro {Ruetion and transportation phase ‘eauliion of rights & permite > Marine survey + Geologie! & geophysical investigation + Rigssto survy r Dil exploratory wall Dail confirmation well) and test Thre teats favorable? ‘es Field development study a dosion| [Design submarine Including sizing, 0 methods, & operation ie, Design & abrea nal production oquipmont [Gaalposucton square] Tnatal pipeline, survey. and tat LE Schematic of bydocarbon production || otsneePisine sgn, Ass, ana Matos 1.21 Identitation of Prospect Areas “This pane defines the gener loi areas wee pte by ae ears rnay cust The sunl based onan ctalationat ean eS al gel aos he tess, wth pose x er ania ond nomic date of tea. 1.22 Aequitions of Rights and Permits ‘ter liminary erches odie potent of yen ea ort explora well nose sce come eR et fs een a A a sul aed hough oe Db ee ein far leeches Seed aes by te Bes at saowmed cra ie fealy ed ae ote Or Depa serch ean da be obtained rom pvr Gogineni can cotta aperments betwee he BL ra Eat owe german neg ra pve have pov tae ine POLal peed sey fund 1.28 Exploration Phase “The operating company conde various geological and gence suneysba the aes to asses the psn o finding and gs the {AERC ace he survey date iat that hydrocabons may be BES itapecltc wo then crloatory wellsaredilledinthe are raasavoe dling i usually doe by venous types of dling cca water dep the ae. ack upg whieh can Be Fee ed eo ste then wk onsite fox ding. canbe sed in some pablo wats Ines deep wats, oer typesot ling aaa tel ncluing the stipbaped dling and the sessubme Mga These vee cam be tooted in over to maintain saat song dling However ia very dep water, he mooeng aoe ite suplementd or replaced bya Synamic positioning Sfrcm for sation Reyne Ait he ning veel postions onsite, the easing pipe ven scl ine seabed and cemented place The blowout preventortckis vl din lace to mnimizrik of blowout, which myocar FE TeShtitns fo and gas dviag dling During te ding hse, varios dat can also be collected on the formations down the ‘we bole, Alter the exploratory wells drilled atheronfimation well ‘may also be dll and further data may be gathered to estimate and ‘Confirm the oll and gas reserves wich may be produced from the 4124 Development and Production Phase Afterall information relating to the geological and geotechnical data ofthe reservoir ir analyzed and conelated with information obtained ffom exploratory dali technical and economic stuie for develop ‘ng the field and producing the hydrocarbons begin, These include an {ralution of alternatives for buling an olshore Axed stuctue fr {ulling and producing, multiple structures for dailing and producing “subsea production systems wth anffshore terminal, and other dling for producing systems. kd development studies are done to evaluate the various develop- ment alteratives and the time schedules and costs associated with fete aleematives. Other development options include a defition of ‘he number of wells tobe died, selecion of the most feasible type of production facility oll and gas processing, power generation systems, nd other operatinal factors, Because ofthe cost and time involved in ‘onstructing an ofshore producing facility, itis generally destale to Srl and produce uring the same fait. Simultaneous delling and ‘production is sometimes undesirable for safety reasons and often there [he separate structures for delling and production, ‘Various types of production facilites exist, sncluding surface and subsea production systems, The surface production system typically Iade up ofa fixed offshore platorm equipped with both dailling and ‘Production equipment. O35, or both are wansported to shore via Fumarine pipelines. In other cases, the crude may be wansported by 2 Submarine pipeline to an offshore terminal then loaded to tanker ‘hich then transports che crude to shoe. "The sulbsea production system typically ismade up of Mloatng vessel which has both dling and production equipment. In the subsea Production system, al drilled wells re completed on the seabed. These ‘wells re conneetedto and supported aubses template The cries then transported bya submarine pipeline toan offshore terminal where Ieeam be loaded it «storage anda transportation fait. The main ‘vantages to subsea production facies are cat the produetion sy ‘emis ess costly than fixed platforms, tcanbeusedin very deepwater, 6 | Other Pipine Design, Ansys ana Memos soit provies cartier production than would have Ben obtained by Selat2 oduct acy The system alo destalen emote areas nd for marginal Held developments in can cnc whee servo fydcaion droits cama be alld and produced from the same sace producing iit, ston ofthe surface production system and the robsea poduction Pat, abc used this cate, ee remote wells are serviced by + leg sue man odson te then oe the es Stand to the sre production fait. ian apple ee oh vain ache re tect'propoved for lshore use of gpower generation, ammonia ised Ce ips is ascited with production, it most eicer Be aC aca leptin tng gues eve for poe ower ei are ertpcine! shore Deveonmentotn proceeds in pte: ve Stoduction/fate, [2 as tlneton, and [3 gs production and {tasinasion to shore 4.8 Types of Subsea Pipelines “There are four general classfeations offshore pipeline, depending com the line function Certain pipe sizes and operating pressure may also fe anociaed with each line clasifcation. These clasiieations are Movwlines or intafeld Lines, gathering lines or intefick Hines, trunk ines, and loading (unloading ines 1.31 Fowtnes (rivals Lines) ‘Aflowline connect wel pltorm or subsea mnie: Usually shelves mal diaper and ay bebanded wins of tmay sea high pressure, The Howline fase where reservoir pressure Sade wo ow the Mu though the line witout Bost pump ot compres) 1.32 Gathering Lines (htrted Lines) -A gathering ine eonects from oe tll lator to another plan ani uly 2 small to median ameter ine but can be Tie ameter wo, The line maybe a bundled ol gas, condensate cr ‘aE hae foe The ange of heating presmoe i usually between Sra anes. How inthe ines done booster pumps compres sors which are often nsalledon the platform. A gatheringline may aso ‘tanamit the product ftom a dilling platform 0 a separate production plator. 138 Trunk Lines ‘A trunk line handles the combined flow from one or many platforms toshore. Theline\s usually oflage diameter and eaneither boil orgs ‘Booster pumps ar compressors must be provided at intermediate plat forms for very long trunk lines, A tru Line is usally «comamon, carey, catyng product owned by many producers. 1.34 Loading (Unloading) Lines ‘These lines sully connect 4 production platform and loading {acy ons sabece manifold ands loading fait. The lines ean be Stall large ameter and cary lui only. Connection may befom 2 Shore tect toanofishoreladingor unloading termina, as nthe case ofthe Loutstna Oshre Oi Prt LOOM, Toading lines ae sully shor, angig form 1 go 3 mies long, although inthe case of LOOF, he unloading line abou 2 males ong ‘he Loading facty may be temporary, sich stan carly production facility prove ited produtsipmentant agatherngor unk line can be completed. The loading ine canbe use with ormanent ‘ooding felt for small eserois and in emote acs, Several considerations ae usally made to determine thei of the pipeline. These consideration snclde the «ype of hydrcatbon can fens being pumped int the pling, toghput inthe pipeline which $8 the volume of contents wo wanporel bythe pipeline, pump en Compressor capacity tthe pumping sation, presse lees al the Dictinleg nde ptt deta mall ott consi Eran, ealeulatios canbe made siete pein so the reued throughput is obesned with s isin loss ehengee Determining the siz of submarine pene hs many sinlar secs to szingan onshore pipeline. The an considerations involve iow and hyaileeslelatons to sccoune forthe fiction losses ‘es Content and serpin ado sure an ec deo ansorting the contents os given lcstion. Thought his Book, t wise hath pin ean en Str an i Sonsidetatins willbe analyzed regarding mechanical and struct design ofthe submarine viveline " Hazards and Protection Concepts ‘24 Hazard Determination (Marine Survey) Various hazatds with potential risks of damage ta submarine pipeline may exist along 2 proposed pipeline route. These azar ae [Buc wither natura causesorman-made activities and canbe clasified {imo thre eotegorie (I) hasazds which can occur during the constr: tion period, hasards which can occur ater the pipeline has been tnutalledon the seabed, an [a azards which ean oeeur both during he {onotruction peiad and during operations. ‘Natural hazard are those eusedby the ensizonment, ncn wave ann eurent forces which may eau pipeline instability atthe seabed, “tnsupported spans, soil movements, and earthquakes. Man-made Ihtcards include dagging anchors, doped anchors, fishing activities, fad discarded object left on the seabed suchas sunken veselsor debi lef by construction vessels ‘To minimise potential ks of damage to the pipeline, these hazards snus ist be enti in the specie st, then measures be taken £0 Drotect he pipeline from these hazard. The protection methods i- Thue trenching the pipeline below the seabed, anchoring of the pipeline, increased eontete coating and strengthening the pipeline, A Eommon way for protesting the pipeline i to trench it below the seafloor ‘To enti che hazards which may exist along proposed pipeline route, data rust be gathered regarding waves, surface and subsurface “nents, bottom cutens sll epndiionson the seabed, soil movement fendencie and othe data, fn ateas where active offshore installations ‘remade, environmental datacan usually be obtained from government saris and Proecton Concepts | @ sn pli esoures, Various operating companies often hae rosie {ay Gata for those res Invemotearess and wheredats is unnalal Ian survey fade tater sch dat 2:1 Purpose of Survey ‘The objective ofa marine survey isto 1 Extblish an understanding ofthe general geotechnical activities in| he area, including recent deposit, ‘Idea fals,vleanie activity gat vents, movement tendencis, ‘an depressions nd obstructions which may be present along the proposed pipe route a Ksew the stability ofthe area sediments, including continuous ‘roion and deposits ‘Determine water depth/bathymety along the proposed route 1 Determine subbottom features and stratigraphy along the route 1 Obtain dats on the environmental conditions n the sea, elding eaves, surface cuments and bottom currents 2:12 Elements of Survey (One principal element of a marine pipeline survey is continuous profling ofthe seabottom conditions along the pipeline route. Th done by [1] towing s device called a "Sahat some depth along ‘the proposed rte and continuously recording data on chars aboard the towing vessel, and [2) collecting discrete station surveys where datas {athered at local stations along he sute This includes the deployment ‘feurtent meer, sol sampling and collection of other pertinent data 2.121 Oceanographic Data ‘The oceanographic survey gathers data on wind, wave, and current ‘conditions existing along the proposed pipeline rout. Ths data rere Sent the environmental conditions duting the construction pesod of ‘he pipeline and during its operating lifetime. Duration ofthe construc tion eviod is affected by many factors, including the pipe parameters, she charred the pe cement ad ties installation, fect easinm Mimetios wed 10 | Ofer Pesine Dosign ays na Metros Generally, the most severe significant wave and steady-crrent com hinations which occur once per 100 year are used to define cea tgtaphie conditions on te pipeline daring its ifetime, Similaly, the ‘fost severe combination of wave and steady current which may occur ‘nce during the constuction sean ate sed to define the oceanos: taphic conditions on the pipeline during constroction. Tanothcr important aspect of the environmental data is that informa tion ean be obtained witch helps in determining operational limits of {he constructing vessel, optimm pesiods fr contruction, and selee {on of the most feauble constuction method ‘Characteristics the mont sever ocean waves whichmay occuronce per 100 years can usually be obtained from published data. Data to be Used in the hydrodynamle-tbiity analysis ofthe pipeline include the ‘dncction of the deepwetet wave, the significant peed and the sg ‘ifeant height othe wave, The significant wave height isthe average of the highest one-third of the observed wave heights in a given wave Population, The maximum obrerved wave height usually corresponds (the combined energy of several waves having diferent wave heights, tleections, phase anges, and periods. 2.422 Sol investigations “The pose of obtaining soil ample to tently the sil charac teristics along the pipeline ute. These characterises ae used inthe ‘esignof the submarine pipeline, including determination of resistance Of the soil to pipeline movement, sil-streng deterioration due to Sycliewave loadings, trenching requirements if the pipe isto be ‘Munched below the seabed and load-bearing capacity ofthe sll. ‘oil properties ned forthe pipsine design include the fllowing: + General classification of soils andthe gai-size distibutions of the soil samples. Speci gravity ofthe sis 1 Soil moisture content. 1 Consstancy of Aterberg limits 1 Undisturbed shear strength of clayey soil 1 Remolded disturbed) shear strength or sensitivity = Pexmeabity Various devices can be used for obtaining sil samples, including the following ‘errs an ProectonCancens | 11 1 Gravity corer, adevice that comsntsofa weighted coring ube which relics on gravity to penetrate the seabed. This method is not elle tive where gravel or ock material are encountered on the seabed Since the core penetrates very litle in these mates ‘Piston guviey corer (Modified Kullenbergl a device that consists ‘ofa soe barrel fosually 10 f long with s plastic tube ines, core ‘ecsiner and acotting bia the lower end Figure 2.1) The device ‘heged with Goving weuhts usually 400-500 Ib, The sample-core Tenge depends on the typeof soils and varies fom 10 fein soft clays sdaleto fein sand, and about I fein st ely. Lite penetration, ifany, can be obtained i the ease of rock sediments, The device's ‘operation i shown in Figure 22. 1 Drilled core samples adevie that wes adie piston o obtain soil ‘samples to large depth belo the seabed 1 Vibrocorer a device that sel powered and capable of obtaining 2 {Fi dlameter cove of upto 20 ft lng, The driving fore ithe ‘ibracorer is obtained lm 4 vibrator motor housed ina presse gang and oven hough etal cables supe fom the sur 22 Pon core operation ' Grab samples a device used in unconslidted-eabed settlements, The sumplris lowered to the sealoor where soil enters an enclo- sure inthe sampler. The samplers then closed and returned tothe surtace '*Uncriater cameras canals be used for visual examination ofthe seabed sediments, particularly clay outrops and boulders. 2.128 Echo Sounder/Bathymetry Data Echo sounders are soto measure depth ofthe eaflor water depth Several types of echo sounders are svalable. Some have high precision for increased accuracy of depth measurements. The principle of the cho-sounding instrument consists of tansmting a contoled high fRequeney acuste signal to che seabed fom an underwater transducer ‘As the sgnal sveflecte onthe ello and recived bythe tansduce, ‘he time dilerence between inital transmission and the receiving pened is measured accurtely. “After conectons an calrations have been accounted for regarding the speed of the acoustic signal in water, depth ofthe transducer, and other conditions he tase difeencecan then be calibrated to produce the water depth at particular station, This typically is provided by a ‘continuous dep potas the survey veel travels along the proposed route Water depthean be measured wi an accuracy of = 0.1% to 1% of ‘water depth, depending om precision ofthe specific astraments used, 2.124 Side-Scan Sonar Method ‘The principle ofthe side-scan sonar method (seafloor mapping] is ‘sed on serling a wie beam of discrete sonic pulses from 2 toveed transducer fish (Figure 23) above the seabed. The cowed tansducer ‘nits these acoustic pulses which scan the seabed on either side of the transducer. Reflections ofthese pulses from objects on the seabed sue eceved by the same wansducer Reflected signals are recorded continuously on a chart aboard the towing veel These signals represen elections from various objects tn the seabed, such as gravel, outeops and pipelines. The intensity of the reflected signal depends on the object tom which it has been teflected. For example, a signal representing a reflection from rocks ‘would be darker than reflection signal fom sand. By staying the intensity ofthe rellected signals and images on the secorded char, iis posible to intempet the sonat reflections in a {eological manner and to estimate the size and eight of various ob Jeet onthe seabed: The sonar fish is nommally cowed between 30 to 50 from the seabed. An EGAG seafloor mapping recorders showen in Figure 2.4, Valuable information for submarine pipelines ean be obtained fom the side-scan sonar records This information includes the following 14 | Ofshore Rosine Ds, Anyi and Maes Hazard andPrtcten Concepts | 18 «a Tdenifcaton of the various features on the seabed which may exis ren csuposed route, including depressions, obstructions, rock futerop, sand waves, and mua flows sesh of pipe nse the trench if the pipe has been tenched. 1 iRichor scouring mas otal marks which may have occured ‘ite wsinity ofthe pipeline route. An example ofthe side-scan ‘fast record showing snud-flow features and the pipe is shown in Figure 25, 2.125 Subbottom Profling Method The subbotiom profiling method isa continous reflection profling technique which provides dataon the geological structure and compos tion beneath the seabed. A controlled pulse of scousticenegy ised {nom a towed seismic wurce and diectd twa the seabed, Whenever ‘the emitted sigal strikes an acoustic imcrface,aportion othe signals reflected and detected by the wwed bydrophon, “The various interlaces usually indicate change in the acoustic ‘elociy, which, in urs, means chang in the geological properties of the sediments. Such changes ate detected by the relete signals and are recorded ona machine aboard the towing vessel. By approximating the Speed ofthe acoustic signal in these various geological seimnente and measuring the times of reflections, depts ofthese diferent gealope interlace canbe determine, The typeof sediments betwen the interlace boundaries can then be incerpreted based on a study of the continuous reflection profling in ‘onelation with sollcoring samples obtained inthe fed. An example of ‘the subbottom profiling sjstem is shown in Figute 2.6. This system 5 made by Ocean Reseach Equipment Ine. (ORE. and consist of ‘Towed wansducer vehicle and cable assembly Pape rape recorder Winch to accommodate faired cable. ‘An illustration of EG&G Boomer sedis shown in Figure 27. An ilustration of records obtained by the subbotim profling method is shown i Figure 8 27 EG0G boomer sled 18 | Ofer Apne Deson, Anal, rd Mets | ~100m4 28 Subboiom profile cmd 2.126 Magnetic Anomaly Detection “The magnetometer is used for anomaly detection along 2 proposed pipeline route. The method is based on detesting changes inthe ma ‘etic fed caused by metal objects. onthe seabed This instrument exh bused to detect meal objects sucha ther pipsines or wrecked shige which may existnearthe proposedpipe route A sensors owed nea the seafloor, and the unit i tuned to the loealeath magnetic field Level “Ambient earth magnetic field and changes due to loalsnomalis ate recorded ona continuous chart, 12.2 Design and Protection Concepts As stated cari, an offshore pipeline resting on the seabed ean be ‘exposed to various types hazards The pile hazards and seventy of azrds ana Prtscon Concepts | 18 ‘these hazards depend on the pipeline ste locaton. For example inthe {Gulf of Mexico, Missi Delta ares, the pipeline may be exposed to ‘mud shes and eurbidity currents ab well ast potential severe ston faction and other bottom insablites. In the nearshore aess, the pipeline is often exposed to high hydrodynamic forces if expored onthe bed nother areas ofthe world such a llhone Califor, pipelines fr designed considering earthquakes as well as faultings which may ‘ocur inthe are, 'A flow diagram ofthe main design considerations for selecting the pipe weight and route and maximising safety in potentially unstable Seabotioms is shown in Figue 2.9. Special considerations of pipeline Installations in useable seabotoms ar ited in Tele 221 Route Selection Based onthe above discussion fr identifying the various hazards longa proposed pipeline route, the basi criteria in selecting pipeline Toutes, particulary in unstable seaboroms, inched the following * Avoid bottom obstructions or posible pipe spans which may exist, slong the proposed route «Avot other pipeline crossings whenever possible, 1 Avoid anchoring areas if present. * Minimize pipe length in unstable ea floors and rte the pie in 8 relatively more stable area, f these ean be identi. ' Avoid any mounded obstructions and depressions which may cause spans tothe extent posible ‘ In modlow areas, minimize any sil movement risks of damage to ‘the pipe By routing the pipe in such away that i tne inthe same dlection asthe md flow This an be acomplished by having the Pipeline routed ina divecton perpendicular to the bottom depth Other actors may also have tobe considered in selecting the pipeline route, depending an the specific site ares, including bottorn faults, particularly in earthquake aes rock ovtcrop, ishing tam! activities, 8nd, in certain areas, posible floating ice, In addition, other consid ‘rations for selecting pipeline route may include astudy ofthe Bialogie activites inthe ares including oral recs environanental aspectsin the tres, and economic trade-off 20 | Ofstore Posine Design, Anais and Mahads [es mat <0 29 Flow diagram of route and weigh design azar an ProeconCoreots | 21 Tale 2.1 Special Conaderation or Piptne Riser instalation n Unstable ose Route Selection ‘Mud sige Solligutaction Spun patie Design am ayaa rive deny sais 1 Ric deg comments once ein recommendations 1 Sie omeonve commendations 2 Matta, nstlaon vate tematiee * Ppline rae designs {Tonalin mete {Busia ecommenations Cont tadet tna be 2.22 Pipeline Protection Methods Methods exist to protect the pipeline from sks of damage due cavironmental and other hazans, These include the following ‘ Tncrease pipeline weight coating, wall thicknes, ot both, "Anchor th pipeline by using gravity anchors, sew anchors, or other types of anchoring arrangements ‘Strengthen the pipe ' Bury the pipeline below the level ofthe seabed. ‘Provide engineered fling matenal over the pipeline, including gravel concrete mats, and sandbags. 22 | orebre Pine Design, Ana, and Matas In most cases, the pipeline is buried below the seabed to protect it ‘hom these hazards, However, some cases ural may advercyafect the at of the pipeline sb was discussed earlier i ares of age soil Iovements As wil be cussed in Chapter 5, ural of an oftore ‘ieline may alo be mandatory bythe regulatory autores certain Instr dept and areas offshore. In guntal, bral protects the pipe against wave and cure actions including ydtodynamic lift and drag and scour, Exponing the pipeline tay be preferred n certain areas where mul alles occur over the pipe Teng, where earthquakes may be presen producing high sl forces dong the pp lenat, an where fle maybe resent By increasing the weight coating of the pipeline, the pipe may resist hydrodyomie Fores due to ees and wave actin, an eit wba ton elects due to vortex shedding, The increased conret coating owner may complicate the insllaton operation snd inrese the Cont of inwalling the pipeline. A systematic and balneed desi proce She shuld be followed as outinel in Pgue 29 ose the most feanible method for protecting the pipeline pans existing hazards ina specie ae, "ih willbe lacus later, che pipeline may slob exposed to hazards of damage during construction, sch a Incest bending stresses nd ‘the potential threat of bucking Seletonf the installation parameters nd buckle desin consideration ae discussed in Chapter 3. Ppline protection by burial discussed in detail in Chapter 8 3:1 General ‘To ensure maximum safety to the pipeline the pipe parameters spouts canly erated andsceted The varius sin ake iscussed and analyzed in this chapter Sclection opie prams ov result ofthe various analyses is aso discussed. Ingenetal submarine ppline dei requires cael examination of tne tllwing design element Line sicng 2 Route seeton {Hydrodynamic stbiiey analysis Gnstallation and operating ime) rs Sols nuacton analysis range of pipe spect ravi Sls movement spay lads jst on pipeline ‘= lce movement and scour data, wei. 1 Pipe potion methods requirements, 2 Pipe Buckling analyte * Thermal ludeabiity analyse fxpansion loops, estas if A 7 1 Pipe lay analysis vessel motions tension, singe eguiremens ‘Route plans and profiles. a ' Rie dens onneeon tie-in safety joint designs Store con si 1 Femi leans dein ve * Specfeatos, materi station, 24 | Ofthee Ppeine Des, Aras and Mehade Although some of hes elements may not fit in certain instalation, snostapplication inlude evaluations flow proper, hydrodynamic {owes nema pressure, vortex induced pipe oul, pipeline sls stability, pipe Dckling tects of lage wl movement Eloi ats Bator obstruction, and depressions which may inde sans ofthe olin. Design paametrsaecartlly determined othe pipe can withstand forces applied to dung contraction, and ding the Opeceting Ite Because he pipeline file nd often bused below the mad line during operations t ean withstand more severe hydrodynamic {ores during operation than during constuction. ‘During operation ofthe pipeline other sade must be elated, ‘ncluing tormsndoced ol horizontal and vertical instal. Als, connections to ofshore risers or secs tens are designed uth that ‘operating stresses due wo thenmal expansions Internal pressure, and ‘ther le remain within sale lami {3.2 intemal Proseure After the pipe size has been determined, pipe-wall thickness is selected so the maximum tangential (hoop) tess due to internal pressure does not exeed the allowable tess outlined by American Navional Standard Code for Pressure Piping [ANSI BSL.8, 1973) and ‘minimum Federal Safety Standards for gas lines relating to transporte tion of natural gas by pipeline [Part 192, wile 49, Code of Federal Regulations). These codes state cht a design factor of 0.5 should be used forthe riser ane the pipeline near he platform andadesiga factor of (072 be used for pipe away from ehe platform. For oll pipelines, the governing codes are ANSIS14 and part 195, ie 49, Code of Fedral Regulatians. “The hoop stress due to internal pressure (Ps given by D ® ony ‘Where 95 = hop stress due to pressure P, psi "= interal pressure in pipe, pst. = nominal outside demetr of pie, 1 = pipewall thickness, in Desig Evans ana Pip Panels | 25 A temperature erating factor is used if the product temperature exceeds 2507. Also, 2 longitudinal jone factor must be used where sppleable jn for sates pipe 33 Bucklo Analy. 331 General ‘As pipeline installations moved into deep water, the problem of pipeline collapse caused bythe increased hydrostatic pressure became ‘Significant. Pipe collapse depends on many factors, including the pipe Aiameterwallthickness ratio (Dit) strestrtrain properties, initial ovalzation (out of roundness, hydrostatic pressure and bending m0 ‘ment in the pipe, Axial tension wat also reported to influence the collapse characteisties of the ppeing although toa lesser exten than bending or hydostaue pressure Pipe buckling can be defined asthe fattening or excessive valing of the pipe cross section. The buckle can bey” where pipe does hot pee or "wet" where pipe rupees and ll wich water, 332 Local Buckling ‘The critical clastic buckling pressure of «theoretically perfect pipe (perfectly rund with sconstane thickness and lawless material dito "bydostaci pressure loading only is given by the following expression Ete p= aT LS (52) Where: P, = ertical collapse pressure for perfect pipe psi E = caste modulus, ps Poisson's ratio pipe diameter, in Pripewall thickness, in, ‘Theesitial clastic buckling pressures valid fora perfec pipe witha very large Dera greater than 280) Ia practic, esdualovalicton ‘the pipe i present, an significant deformation a the pipe sutiace may 28 | Otthee Pine Design, Aras, ans Meese occur prior to collapse Hence, the hydrostatic collapse pressure isalso2 Fanetion of the yield properties ofthe pipe material, ’At expression for determining the enial buckling pressure of per fect pipe which accounts for the pipe yield tess is adopted from the Rules for the Design Construction and Inspection of Submarine pln and ic Ne Bethe Ves 16 Tas (i backling pes eo en Srnec? neato Sina dy ay Efi (2)]aroe 2 neath Jonrty as) Where: a, = E(=*- 4 Gs) oa pe pei yl tes onsoding iw Computer programs have boon developed by various organizations predict the collapse pressure of pipe under the combined influence of pressure, axl forces bending, snd arcountingof pipe out-of oundnes. [kn approximate expression forthe eitcal combination of bending ‘moment [Mae extermal pressure [i reported in the DaV code as Gay eae B51 cxiial bending moment when P = 0 triial net external pressure when M = 0 a 14 OE Dit Pe 1339 Buckle Propagation Laboratory experiments on pipe buckling conducted by Battel (Columbus Laborstores inthe eaty 1970s revealed buckle phenomena releredto a "propagating buckle Thisdesribes the situation where 4 transverse dent (which may have been cause by excessive bending oF ‘byany other cause} changes ts configuration into longitudinal buckle Design Evans and ge Panels | 27 and propagates along the pipe, causing collapse ofthe pipe along its twavling length. The diving energy which causes abuckle to propagate Is the hydrostatic pressure, ‘The nature ofa propagating buckle is cat greater pressure level is ‘requited to initiate a propagating buckle (alld buckle initiation pres ute, P) than the pressre required to maintan propagation of the ‘buckle [called bute propagation presnue Py) Asa consequence to this, a buckle iniuated in an olshore pipeline propagates and collapses the line untl the extemal presrare Becomes equal to or less than the ‘opagting pressure: This assumes that pipe properties partially ‘wal thickness remain the same. A number of propagating buckle ‘modes have been reported from experimental studies. These ae shown, in Figure 3.1, “Theoretical and experimental investigations were made by various ‘owganzations to study the buckle propagation phenomenon and (0 determine the buckle propagation pressure fortishore pipelines These ‘seudies have resulted in sma, ater simple expressions forcaleuat Jing the propagation presse (: p, 6 (2) ate oo uaser (4) (oo an UD is much greater than tas isthe ease n most applications, then the second expression Becomes: neaniser (2) an comparison ofthe propagating prestute as calulated by these expres. sons is shown in Table 31" As seen in ths, considerable diference roted Between the results fo low Dit ratios, whereas the results ate similar for large Dt ratio. The expression reported by DaV isconsidered very conservative forthe low Dre ation. eis interesting onote thatthe propagation pressure depends only on the pipe yeld stress and an the De ratio and doesnot depend on the stress state ofthe pipe. The nace of casings buckle in the pipe ‘depends on the pipe parameters as well as external ores applied onthe Pipe. In contrast, the propagation phenomenon addresses the pie Buckle wavling dew bydrntati preoe ater» buckle has been 28 | crehere Pine Design, Arai and Methods Design Evauatone and Ape Paamtes | 20 Table 3.1 Buckle Propagation Pressure Pee Deve T= Lise Dita ° i > 1 2 $ Fiattening buckle 31 Dypeal pipeline buckle modes 3.4 Buckle Arrestors As state, s pipe localized buekle initiated by excessive bending during laying. anchor dent, or any other cause propagates along the ppeline ta er fpr OCT Sle cn Calo, Hs, 1976, By ha ea ‘Pom noe eM Rees Cosrain degen length as lng asthe hydrostatic pressure exceeds the propagation pres suse. This could damage a substantial length ofthe line and result in ‘at econnmic asses. It woul alo be very uneconomical to design the Pipeline with sufcient wall thickness such thatthe propagation dep Ieoresponding to propagation pressure) would be greater than water Sept alongthepipelength Accordingly, means have been found olimit the length of damaged pipe by the use of buckle arestors Tn principle, che buckle seston sa segment of pipe stronger than the rain pipe, ths equiing additonal energy t plarcally deform i nd flavten i This i usually done by increasing the wall thickness ofthe utestor to withstand fattening by «propagating buckle ‘Vancus ype of extra and internal Bose resto exist, cluding Ice ing welded ing, welded sleeve, hesvy all integral cylinder, and routed eesing buckle sestors. These ae lista in Figure 3.3, tnd at listed as fllows 2‘ Tategral ring a heavy-wall sing with the same ID anda greater OD than the pipethe mostellctive extemal type clded nga sleeve welded onto the OD ofthe pipe, 1 Fre ring a sleve which is slipped over ee pipe. The annular space between the sleeve ID and pip OD is grote. Fre rings are wsualy sl om hay wl iad recor, bt Shy abs fst Posne Dason, Anas, ns Meta | Design Evabntons ard pe Prana | 31 sa totemal ing, a section of essa pie with the same OD and Intemal ng buckle restr aera than te line pge, Thais the most ective type but the intern ovens | Salle ID may vestc pein ging operations. Pipe. Design of buckle arestors includes selection of the spacings of axestors and restr parameters, inluding ameter, wall thickness, {rade length, and typeof artestar. These parameters are selected ach {hea traveling buckle i ee pipeline under hydrostatic pressure docs Integral rng buckle arrestor i hot “crossover” the heny-walledarestor. The cross-over pressure is ‘efined asthe net hydrostatic presure sequired to allow a traveling ] thucklc i the pipeline to penetzate the aestor and continve to props fate in the pipeline onthe other sde ofthe arestor. Accordingly, the [tcklearestor shoul be designed such that the croswover pressures Shel greater than the expected hydrostatic pressure on the buckle Sclecton of the number and spacings of buckle arestors along the pipeline is stitly a mater of cennomics. Installation of buckle ars {ors tol the amount of pipe damage shoulda buckle occurs form bof isk insurance to limit ime and economic loses. Since the risk of i Dip buckles genealy greatest during pipe laying it seems logical to ee elect the length spacings betveen buckle arestos to equal the length . | Of pipe suspended ree span. However, selecuon of spacings and the fhumber of buckle nestor ofen depends on many factors, including ‘ase of wpa, evaluation of sks inthe aea, moe of instalation and ‘ther economic factor. In many cases, buckle atestors have been _i0-to Spaced at intervals of 400-300 ft stom We pipe Tength, aUHOUBT 3 jot THeavywal Integral cylinder ‘Shavings of as mach a 1,300 ft have been use. a buckle arrestor i reering ike srestorsmay cost from about $500 $2,000 ormore | cach to install, The order af magoitud installed cost is about three times that of the material cor lone. Integtal ring and weeding Srestors are more expensive due to added fabrication, machining and ‘welding costs Its tnporeant to note that buckle arestor requirements depend on ‘water depth, Lang subses pipelines are typically divided ino shorer Teements, depending on water Jeph Appropriate design eiteria are teed for each segment, Different buckle atstor designs and spacings bre used forthe various pipeline segments. Pipe-wal thicknesses and ‘aterlal grades are also graduated to fit the buckling and laying re {irements of various water depts along dhe pipeline oute A single ‘buckle eestor design will hve limited application. The optimum 39 Types of chia anes design ormaximum water depth willbe overdesigned foralarge portion se a ‘of many pipeline routes, Pipe Pipe Pipe: Concrete weight coating 52 | Othe Pptine Oetgn, Anas, ard Mets ‘The length of a buckle arestor is selected so i 18 longer than propagating buckle wave length and so the buckle docr not penta the "veto For this parpore, restore clase nto longandshore Long. frestors are dened generally a done with length to-dameter aio ILiD4 of 2 to 5. Arrestors of L/D, satis of less than 1 are generally ‘lassie as shor arrestor. These satis can ange between 025 and I. L/D, ation of 1 to ean be clasied ss intermediate ats. “Along intel buckle arrestor, which consists of hick pipe segment (ugha length Landa yield stem Yl ean vesist buckle propagetion| ‘where the nt hydrostatic pressure [Ps es than the cross over pressute [caal to propagating pressure ofthe asestr ofthis case: Ra dtle reoy, (2s) . 91 provided thatthe buckle arestor slong and that Dy es han 40. “Along seeveype, reetng external buckle aresior which has a wall thickness (anda yield stress Y,)ean resist buckle propagation where ‘he net hydroseaie pressure P| Tess than the eos over pressure The ‘maximum allowable pressure for along re sing extemal buckle arrestor ‘eth minimum annular clearance between pipe and arrestor ing 8 Fe can be conservatively estimated frm the fllowing expressions: peasy sory ras 5 VAY" fox p> a a0) % (4)" + (3) «ew iy b neta elder, 2 Etter yal kn B,ceueil damat roto ¥° Chie sew ef pe oO sta il oe fr 9005 8 [Note that these formulasare val for long bekle arrestor and where a soug fii accomplished, asin dhe case fa fering aston shor Design Eason ana Pie Parameters | 39 buckle arrestor shorter eng than the pipe diameter areused, then the cross overpressure will decreas. "The freeing bucle arvestr i more racial chan the intesral-type welded atestor. This eliminates the additional welding and any prob: lems which may be associated withthe welding, The loosing sleeve should have a minimum clearance between t and the pie 0 thatthe SMdiioal stesses in che pipe during pressurization, In practice, the fReeringarrestoris made withaslight annular gap, and grout materials then applied co il this gap. 34 Hydrodynamic Forces ‘The submarine pipeline canbe subjected to the combined elect of steady currents, oellatory currents and wavesnduced forces while Testing onthe seabed. To evaluate the stability of pipe due to these forces, 4 eetody diagram of these forces acting on the pipe cross section Is sbown in Figure 33. These foxes include the following Submerged weight of the pipe and the weight of the contents ' Combined dag fore 1 Combined lit fore, ‘pert fore ‘Friction resistance force between the pipe an the seabed. brief review fist presented the oscillatory surface wave theories, ‘Waveinduced particle velocity and acceleration nar the seabed. and bottom pressure canbe ealulated sing these theories, ‘A deinion ofthe various parameters fora inp sinusoidal progres sive wave is shown in Figure 34 The linear (Airy) wave they ean be ‘wed to describe oscillatory wave characteristics where motions fe ‘small, where the wave amplieage is small Higher oder theories such 4sStokes2nd 3 th, and Suborder theories canbe sed to predict more Accurately wae characteristics forawavehaving alarge amplitude, Als, long. finiteamplitde waves propagating in shallow water can best be Intine oseatons SIT Vorerindoced vcilations Hoes [1965 found that the Stoubal number canbe slated othe drag coefficient through the following relationship 5 =021/Cle (526) ‘Thisformulaisalso plotedin Figure3.13.Formost practical pipeline problems, dhe Stouhal number i taken a 0. "Natural frequency ofthe pipe span depends on the pip stillness, end ‘conditions ofthe pipe span, length of the span, and combined mass of ‘he pie including its contents and added mass around the pipe, This ‘aed mass is generally 1 to2 times the mass of water displaced by the Pipe. The fundamental natural frequency forvibration ofthe pipe spans fen in the following formula fe 4-§ DYM (aan) 50 | Ofthore Ppeine Deeg, Anahi, and Moos Design Erausons ana Roe Paanetrs | $1 03 Boz 5 2 2 on B ° 10 © 10 © Reynolds number S12 Vaition of Sra namber Where I = Pipe stifines bef? = Span lenge, fe 1M = Combined mass of the pipe and added mass around the pipe pet uni length of pipe, luge ‘onstant which depends on the end condton of the pipe span For example, if both ends ofthe pie span ae assumed tbe simply ‘supported, Cis? or 157 both ends ate assumed abe clamped Cis 350, In practice it dfcle vo assess the best modeling of the end ‘conditions fo simulate the assumed end conitions,Therlore, in many problems che lowest value which coresponds to simply supported end ‘Conditions is considered fora conservative evaluation of he potential of 2 vortexinduced oscillation ia the pipe span Previous studies have shown that thevortex eacitedoscillation ofthe pipe span isa function ofthe educed velocity (al defined by 08 3 04 é 2 3 02 6 t+ | o ° 05 10 1s 20 Drag coetici 313. Scrouhal mumber vd coficent “ a ‘Where: V ~Flow velocity, fsec f= Natural frequency ofthe pipe span, ops DB Pipe diameter, tt fa +{ Re (328) “These sties also have shown that a pipe span starts to oscillate in line with the flow when the sheng requencyisaboutonethitdol the ‘natural frequency of vibration ofthe pipe span. Ths corresponds to value for the reduced velocity of about 13 -As the flow velocity im eases to higher levels, then cross flow osilations begin to occu td {hiscorespond to areduced velocity of about. ln thisease, the natal Stequency ofthe pipe span equals che vortex shedding frequency ofthe fw For design purposes, it is customary to maintain the value ofthe ‘duced velocity to es than 3.5 [coesponding oa rato ofthe vortex shedding fequency to pipe natural Frequency of 0.7, Vortex induced: 52 | onenee Pptne Design, Anas, ad Matos cscilations i the pipe were not observed fr vorte frequency values ‘where keork, (329 [EXAMPLE PROBLEM: Given: Pipe = 12.75 in. OD x 05 in. WT Span lenge = 100 Flow velocity = 2 fsce Assume pipe span is simply supported at both ends and check for vortxcexited osilations of the pipe spn Solution: [A Caleulate the Reynolds number: nater B. The vortex-exciting frequency (ts given from Equation 3.25: 4-3¥ 2212 =038 4 a7 O88 CC. Pipespan natural frequency for simply supported ends 1 = © (Dt D4) (D, = inside pipe diameter Zor-vyo, pipe 7 Where: Dy =~ 2¢ = 1275 - 175i, 1 S14 aa.75+— 1.754 = 361.54 int EL =3 x 10" x 361.54 = 1,085 x10" Thin? EL =753 x 10" Ib? amma Design Evans ana Pe Pamala | 53 Pipe unit weight i air = W, = © (D-DA) x ya Where: § = weight density of sect © 490 Pipe unit mass = My = Y . Ma = ggg ars — 1.75) 20 03 slug Displaced mass assumed equl to aided mass} Bg § 1275 x = 176 sa ie 1278 See 170 lag ‘Therefore, total unit mass, M= 2.03 + 1.76 = 3.79 slupe Now: FSS HID 9.75 py 076 =049 Examining Equation 3.29 for pp silty om vortecexcited Reork In his case: 03<049 nd pipe is safe fom vortex excitations. 36 Pipetine-Solt Stability Analysis Vertical and horizontal pipeline stabilities need to be carefully {examined when pipe i esting onthe seabed or embedded inthe sai, ‘These stabilities must be analyzed under static conditions ss well under cyclic pressure conditions eaused by pasage of surlace wave 361 Settoment and Fotation ‘When a pipeline i partily or cotlly buried, i may float upward or settle downward unde storm conditions, depending on the pipe weight linluding contents), soil density, and ndetned shea stcngth of the sel [se igure 3.14, ‘Various experiments have heen made to measure sll lation and 54 | Osho Ppaline Oso, Ara, ans Metrase —IE——== te i OO ff iM i P case A Pipe tending to sink cate 8 Pipe tending to fost Buoyancy W-= Submerged weight of pipe += Soll shear resistance to pipe movement S14 Pipe sabiiy in wile resistance frees. Based on these studies (Ghazzaly, 1973), a range of Pipe specific gavities may be selected such thatthe pipes sable The following equations have Been adopted to determine such a design range. weight densiy of pipe and fontents = R (320) R=20D [ssi Where: R =Soi resistance to flotation or settlement pe uni volume of pipe, Ivf (C = Remolded cohesive shear strength ofthe si, Tie D =Oursde diameter of pipe, fe 20% Design Eratatons and Aloe Parameters | $5 | both sides of Equation 3.30 are divided by p, the density of water ten the upper and lower limits ofthe pine spect gravity tule fot ‘ulliium canbe eluted fer ip ache aot mei ges ter ely 56,

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