3. How did living things originate?

- In biblical context, in the Book of Genesis, the story of creation, of the sea, the sky, the
birds and animals and man was mentioned. Christian people believed that all things were
created by God for 6 days. However, scientifically speaking, life almost certainly originated
in a series of small steps, each building upon the complexity that evolved previously:
1. Simple organic molecules were formed.
Simple organic molecules, similar to the nucleotide, are the building blocks of life
and must have been involved in its origin. Experiments suggest that organic molecules
could have been synthesized in the atmosphere of early Earth and rained down into the
oceans. RNA and DNA molecules — the genetic material for all life — are just long
chains of simple nucleotides.
2. Replicating molecules evolved and began to undergo natural selection.
All living things reproduce, copying their genetic material and passing it on to their
offspring. Thus, the ability to copy the molecules that encode genetic information is a key
step in the origin of life — without it, life could not exist. This ability probably first evolved
in the form of an RNA self-replicator — an RNA molecule that could copy itself.
3. Replicating molecules became enclosed within a cell membrane.
The evolution of a membrane surrounding the genetic material provided two huge
advantages: the products of the genetic material could be kept close by and the internal
environment of this proto-cell could be different than the external environment. Cell
membranes must have been so advantageous that these encased replicators quickly
out-competed “naked” replicators. This breakthrough would have given rise to an
organism much like a modern bacterium.
4. Some cells began to evolve modern metabolic processes and out-competed
those with older forms of metabolism.
Up until this point, life had probably relied on RNA for most jobs, but everything
changed when some cell or group of cells evolved to use different types of molecules for
different functions: DNA (which is more stable than RNA) became the genetic material,
proteins (which are often more efficient promoters of chemical reactions than RNA)
became responsible for basic metabolic reactions in the cell, and RNA was demoted to
the role of messenger, carrying information from the DNA to protein-building centers in
the cell. Cells incorporating these innovations would have easily out-competed “old-
fashioned” cells with RNA-based metabolisms, hailing the end of the RNA world.
5. Multicellularity evolved.
As early as two billion years ago, some cells stopped going their separate ways after
replicating and evolved specialized functions. They gave rise to Earth’s first lineage of
multicellular organisms
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/from-soup-to-cells-the-origin-of-life/how-did-life-originate/
#:~:text=Experiments%20suggest%20that%20organic%20molecules,began%20to%20undergo
%20natural%20selection.
 4. Define organic chemistry and relate its importance to biological area.
 - Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and
preparation of carbon-containing compounds. Most organic compounds contain carbon and
hydrogen, but they may also include any number of other elements such as nitrogen,
oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, sulphur. It is originally limited to the study of
compounds produced by living organisms however, organic chemistry has now been
broadened to include human-made substances.
Furthermore, Organic chemistry is important to biological are because it studies life and all
of the chemical reactions related to life. Several careers apply an understanding of organic
chemistry, such as doctors, veterinarians, dentists, pharmacologists, chemical engineers,
and chemists in order to develop solution related to medicine or health assessments.
Organic chemistry also plays a part in the development of common household chemicals,
foods, plastics, drugs, and fuels most of the chemicals part and necessary of people’s daily
living.
https://www.thoughtco.com/organic-chemistry-introduction-608693
https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/careers/chemical-sciences/areas/organic-
chemistry.html#:~:text=Organic%20chemistry%20is%20the%20study,preparation%20of
%20carbon%2Dcontaining%20compounds.&text=Originally%20limited%20to%20the
%20study,substances%20(e.g.%2C%20plastics).

5. Provide an example of inorganic material which serves as a precursor of organic

substances.
 A precursor is a chemical which precedes and is the source of another. For example, in water
disinfection, chlorine and natural organic matter are precursors to trihalomethanes. Natural
organic matter (NOM) is ubiquitous in the aquatic environment and if present can cause varied
drinking water quality issues, the major one being disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation.
Trihalomethanes (THMs) are major classes of DBP that are formed during chlorination of NOM
and is a disinfection byproducts that form when chlorine compounds that are used to disinfect
water react with other naturally occurring chemicals in the water.
https://www.greenfacts.org/glossary/tuv/trihalomethanes-THMs.htm#:~:text=Similar%20term(s)
%3A%20THMs,fluorine%20and%2For%20iodine).
https://iwaponline.com/jwh/article/16/5/681/62793/Natural-organic-matter-as-precursor-to

6. What are the four important biomacromolecules. List its monomer unit.
Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids are the four major classes of biological
macromolecules.
 Basic
Macromolecule Formula, Monomer Examples Uses
key features

Storage;
 CHON Signals;
Structural;
−NH2 + Enzymes,
Contractile;
Proteins −COOH +R Amino acids some
Defensive;
group hormones
Enzyme;
Transport;
 
Receptors

 C:H:O Energy
storage;
Butter, oil,
Greater than Fatty acid and Protection;
Lipids cholesterol,
2:1 H:O glycerol Chemical
beeswax
(carboxyl messengers;
group) Repel water

Glucose,
C:H:O Fructose, Energy
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Starch, storage;
1:2:1 Glycogen, Structure
Cellulose

CHONP

pentose, Genetic
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides DNA, RNA
nitrogenous information
base,
phosphate

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-biological-macromolecules/
#:~:text=Proteins%2C%20carbohydrates%2C%20nucleic%20acids%2C,bonds%20to%20form
%20larger%20polymers.

7. How and when did Earth come to be?

Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, our solar system was just a cloud of dust and gas until
gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to spin, condensing the matter and forming
the sun in the center of the nebula. With the sun beginning to form, the remaining material
started to clump up. Small particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger
particles. The solar wind, a constant stream of charged particles that emanate from the sun's
upper atmosphere, swept away lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium.
This left behind heavy, rocky materials that formed smaller terrestrial worlds like Earth. Earth's
rocky core formed first, with heavy elements colliding and binding together. Dense material sank
to the protoplanet's center while lighter material built up the crust. The earth’s magnetic field is
thought to have likely formed around this time.

Early in its evolution, Earth suffered an impact by a large body that catapulted pieces of the
young planet's mantle into space. Gravity pulled many of these pieces together to form the
moon, which took up orbit around its creator. The, the flow of the mantle beneath Earth's crust
causes plate tectonics, the movement of the large plates of rock on the planet's surface.
Collisions and friction gave rise to mountains and volcanoes, which began to spew gases.

When Earth first formed it had barely any atmosphere. The atmosphere only began to form as
the planet started to cool and gravity captured gases from Earth's volcanoes. Further to that, the
collisions between these cosmic bodies likely deposited much of the water on Earth's surface. 

Our planet lies in what is known as the Goldilocks zone, a region surrounding a star that is close
enough for liquid water to exist on a planet's surface, with water neither freezing nor
evaporating. Many scientists think that being in this zone, and the presence of liquid water,
plays a key role in the existence of life.

https://www.space.com/19175-how-was-earth-formed.html

8. Describe the key roles of nucleic acids and proteins in life processes. ASH

Proteins and nucleic acids serve a variety of biological functions, including catalyzing
and regulating processes, transporting substrates, code and transcribe genetic information.
Water molecules are widely acknowledged to serve an important role in regulating the structure,
stability, dynamic, and function of these biomolecules.

https://www.exobiologie.fr/blog/2005/11/07/the-role-of-water-in-the-structure-and-function-of-biological-
macromolecules/#:~:text=Proteins%20and%20nucleic%20acids%20play%20important%20biological
%20functions,structure%2C%20stability%2C%20dynamic%2C%20and%20function%20of%20these
%20biomolecules.

9. Which came first, the catalysts or the hereditary molecules? Defend your answer.

Hereditary molecules came first before catalysts. According to the article, the notion that
catalysis and coding occur in one molecule has provided further investigation into the origins of
life. Since catalysis and coding occur in one molecule, then hereditary molecules is needed in
order to make proteins which are catalysts.

https://www.brainkart.com/article/Molecules-to-Cells--Which-came-first---the-catalysts-or-the-hereditary-
molecules-_27426/

10. What is a prokaryote? A eukaryote?

 Prokaryotes are organisms that are made up of cells without a nucleus or any
membrane-encased organelles. On the other hand, Eukaryotes are organisms made up of cells
with a membrane-bound nucleus containing genetic material and membrane-bound organelles.

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-are-prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes-129478

11. What is “selective toxicity” as applied to chemotherapeutics?

Selective toxicity is a preferred chemotherapy for the treatment of cancer. Selective

toxicity may be achieved through devising drug regimens based on pharmacokinetic data. It is
advantageous because there are less chances of normal human cell to be affected by drug thus
leading to lesser side effects.

https://www.ukessays.com/essays/biology/chemotherapy-and-selective-toxicity-biology-
essay.php#:~:text=Due%20to%20this%20reason%20selective%20toxicity%20is%20a,drug%20thus
%20leading%20to%20lesser%20side%20effects%20%282012%29.

12.  Provide examples of drugs that target prokaryotic cells. List the therapeutic
categories and provide at least one brand each that is available in the Philippines.

Drugs that target Therapeutic Categories One brand that is available

prokaryotic cells in the Philippines.

Penicillins Beta-lactam antibiotics Biophen

Ciproflaxin Quinolone antibiotics Ciprobay
Izoniazid Antituberculotic Isonid
Chloramphenicol Antimicrobial agent, Pediachlor
antibacterial drug
Polymyxin Polypeptide bactericidal Polymyxin B
antibiotic

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-microbiology/chapter/mechanisms-of-antibacterial-drugs/
 www.verywellhealth.com/whats-pencillin-1124178
https://www.rxlist.com/consumer_ciprofloxacin_cipro/drugs-condition.htm
 pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/chloramphenicol
https://ldh.la.gov/assets/oph/Center-PHCH/Center-CH/infectious-epi/VetInfo/VetAntibioResSen/LADDL/
AntimicrobialClasses/otherantibiotics/PolymyxinB.pdf

14. Provide the functions of the following. Tel

Lysosomes Protein reduction
Ribosomes Protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Protein production and modification
 Photosynthesis (plant cell)
Chloroplast
Energy production
Mitochondrion
Define the inside and outside of a cell
Cell membrane
DNA replication, transcription, DNA repair,
Chromatin genetic recombination, and cell division.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and

Nucleolus ribosome biogenesis

Protein transportation and export

Golgi Apparatus

References:

https://rsscience.com/cell-organelles-and-their-functions/

https://www.creative-diagnostics.com/blog/index.php/the-structure-and-function-of-chromatin/

16. Differentiate oxidation from reduction

Difference between Oxidation and Reduction

OXIDATION REDUCTION

Losing electrons Gaining electrons

Increase in oxidation number Decrease in oxidation number

For a given compound losing hydrogen For a given compound gaining hydrogen

This reaction releases energy This reaction stores energy

oxidizing agents: Ozone, Bleach, peroxide Common reducing agent is metal

Reference: https://byjus.com/chemistry/difference-between-oxidation-and-reduction/

17. Describe the role of ATP as energy source of the body. How many calories per gram do
a protein, a carbohydrate, fats and an alcohol contribute?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level.
ATP is consumed for energy in processes including ion transport, muscle contraction, nerve
impulse propagation, substrate phosphorylation, and chemical synthesis. These processes, as
well as others, create a high demand for ATP. As a result, cells within the human body depend
upon the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP per day to ensure proper functioning.

 Protein provides 4 calories per gram

  Carbohydrates provide 4 calories per gram
 Fat provides 9 calories per gram
 Alcohol provides 7 calories per gram

References:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553175/
https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/alcohol-support/calories-in-alcohol/
https://www.nal.usda.gov/legacy/fnic/how-many-calories-are-one-gram-fat-carbohydrate-or-
protein