Control of a micro grid supplied by renewable
energy sources and storage batteries
Emmanouil A. Bakirtzis, Student Member, IEEE, and Charis Demoulias, Senior Member, IEEE
Φ
Abstract -- A micro grid supplied entirely by renewable
energy sources (photovoltaics and wind generators) and a
battery storage system is investigated. The battery converter is
controlled with variable-frequency, variable-amplitude
sinusoidal PWM modulation. The system frequency is
determined by the state of charge (SOC) of the battery while
the voltage at the main bus is held constant. The PV inverter is
controlled as a current source following a reference active and
reactive power with the active power being a function of the
system frequency. The induction machine of the wind
generator (WG) is directly connected to the grid. Detailed
simulation shows that with this type of control the grid voltage
and frequency remain within the limits specified by the EN
50160 standard even under large variations in active and
reactive power caused by the wind generator, the PV or the
load. It is further shown that, by changing the operation mode
of the battery converter to current-controlled, the system can
provide, in case of faults, adequate current for the protective
devices to operate. Since the frequency is used as control
signal, a wireless communication among the renewable energy
sources is achieved while the battery SOC and thus its state-
of-health is continuously monitored.
Index Terms-- Micro grid, stand-alone converters, PV
inverter, wind generator, power quality, harmonic distortion,
renewable energy sources
I. INTRODUCTION
T HIS paper investigates the behavior, under steady-state
and transient conditions of a micro grid supplied
entirely by renewable energy sources and a battery storage
system. The grid studied is that of a small Greek island
which, at present, is supplied by conventional synchronous
generators driven by diesel engines. There are three
generators each one rated at 220kVA, 400V, 50 Hz and one
generator rated at 90kVA, 400V, 50Hz. A 3km, 15kV,
overhead line connects the conventional power station with
the load which is concentrated at the single town of the
island. Measurements of the load show that, during the
summer period, its peak value is 350kW (15min average)
while during the winter 70kW (hourly average). The annual
energy consumption is 1020 MWh. It is assumed, in this
paper, that the conventional diesel-driven generators are
replaced by a 230 kWp photovoltaic (PV) station and two
wind generators each one rated 275 kW. A battery storage
system of 7.3 MWh will keep the balance between the load
and the generated power. The energy produced by the
renewable sources is calculated to cover -on average- 90%
This work was supported by European Regional Development Funds and
Greek National Resources (Ministry of Education, Lifelong Learning Fund
and Religious Affairs, Greece) under Research Grant 09SYN-32-624
(Research Program “Cooperation 2009”).
Emmanouil A. Bakirtzis is with the Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece (e-mail: emmanouil.bakirtzis@gmail.com ).
Charis Demoulias is with the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki,
Greece (e-mail: chdimoul@auth.gr ).
978-1-4673-0142-8/12/$26.00 ©2012 IEEE
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of the load energy. In terms of power, the new system has
to cope with a projected 50% increase of the load demand.
One or more of the conventional diesel-driven synchronous
generators will be engaged only in case the battery is
empty. The conventional generator will operate as long as it
takes to charge the battery and then it will be disconnected.
The most significant challenge in a micro grid is the
control of the load frequency and voltage, when renewable
and/or conventional power sources are used. Numerous
control methods have been proposed with the majority of
them being based on the implementation of power-
frequency (P-f) and reactive power-voltage (Q-V) droop
characteristics [1]-[7]. There are cases where battery
storage is used [3], [5], [6] and cases where not [1], [2], [7].
In [5] and [6], WGs with induction machines participate in
the micro grid too, while the PV inverter is controlled as
voltage source which adjusts the phase-angle of the
terminal voltage. The aim of the various control methods is
to keep the voltage and frequency of the micro grid
constant without, however, taking into account the SOC of
the battery, which is usually considered as “sufficiently”
large. In a micro grid like the one examined here, another
control method based on the battery state of charge (SOC)
is proposed. The battery converter is controlled with
sinusoidal PWM modulation at variable frequency and
variable amplitude so that the voltage at the terminals of the
converter (which can be considered as the main bus of the
micro grid) follows a reference value. The PV inverter is
controlled as current source supplying a reference active
and reactive power. The WG is assumed to operate on its
own control system following its wind-speed/power
characteristic. To prevent battery overcharging an
additional control system is superimposed, according to
which, the battery converter changes the frequency of the
grid following a droop characteristic between frequency
and SOC of the battery. The frequency change is detected
by the PV inverter which varies the PV active power
according to a similar droop so as to compensate active
power fluctuations caused by the load or the WGs. Over-
and underfrequency relays disconnect and connect the WG
when the frequency (and thus the battery SOC) exceeds
specified limits. If the system frequency decreases below a
certain level (indicating that the battery is empty) a
conventional synchronous generator is engaged until the
battery is charged.
The system is simulated with the Psim software and it is
shown that it operates well under steady-state and transient
conditions. It is also shown that, by changing the control
mode of the battery converter to current-source, the battery
can supply a short-circuit current sufficiently high for the
protective means to operate avoiding thus the need for
rotating synchronous capacitors.
The single-line diagram of the micro grid is shown in
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Fig. 1 Single-line diagram of the investigated micro grid
Fig.1.
II. DIMENSIONING OF RES
A brief discussion on the dimensioning of the renewable
energy sources (RES) and of the battery is presented in this
section. The average daily energy consumption in August-
which is the month with the peak demand - is 4 MWh.
Assuming autonomy of one day, permissible depth of
battery discharge 60%, and converter efficiency 95%,
yields a battery of 7.3 MWh.
The two most abundant RES in Greek islands is wind
and solar power. Taking into account the significant
difference in the installation cost between these two sources
it was decided that the wind generators should cover
approximately 80% while the PV 20% of the projected
annual energy demand which is 1500 MWh. With the given
wind velocity and solar irradiation data of the island, a wind
park consisting of two 275 kW WGs and a PV park of 230
kWp was selected. It is estimated that the wind park will
produce approximately 1200 MWh while the PV system
330 MWh per year.
The selection of the nominal power of the PV inverter
(250 kVA) was based on the optimization of its energetic
performance [9]. The selection of the battery converter size
was based on its capability to supply the required three-
phase short circuit current at the most distant load. In the
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specific micro grid configuration, this short-circuit current
is 1500 A for 2 s (at 400 V level). Converters can usually
supply, for 2 s, 1.5pu of their rated current. Thus, the rated
current of the converter should be 1000 A, which leads to
850 kVA at rated voltage 400 V
III. DETAILED MODELING
A. Battery
The battery bank consists of three battery strings
connected in parallel, with each string having 450, 2V,
2700Ah battery cells in series. The battery bank was
modeled as a variable voltage source (which represents the
battery open-circuit voltage) behind a resistance [10]. In
general, the battery internal resistance is different during
the charging and discharging periods and is affected by the
battery SOC and temperature. In this paper however, it was
assumed constant (20mΩ) because the control method
applied in the battery converter is not very sensitive in the
variations of the battery terminal voltage. The open-circuit
voltage, Voc, of a 2V battery cell was modeled as a variable
voltage source which is a polynomial function of the SOC
and is described by
Voc = a + b ⋅ SOC + c ⋅ SOC 2 + d ⋅ SOC 3 (1)
where, a=1.958, b=1.155·10-3, c=2.946·10-5, d=-2.112·10-7.
Eq. (1) was derived by data provided by a specific
battery manufacturer, as shown in Fig, 2, but is generally
the same for any OPzS-type lead-acid battery.
2,20
2,15
2,10
Voc, V
2,05
2,00
1,95
1,90
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SOC, %
Fig. 2 Variation of open-circuit voltage of a 2V battery cell with the SOC.
Black line: Manufacturer data. Red line: Eq.(1)
An LC filter (L=1mH, C=100μF) between the battery
terminals and the DC/AC converter filters the high order
harmonics and deteriorates the DC current ripple to 20% at
nominal current.
B. DC/AC converter
The DC/AC converter is the basic element for the stable
operation of the micro grid. It maintains the magnitude and
frequency of the AC voltage almost constant under
dynamic conditions caused by variations of the load or by
variations of the power produced by the renewable energy
sources. The converter is modeled as a three-phase full
bridge voltage source which can operate at all four
quadrants. A sine wave PWM (SPWM) is employed as
shown in Fig. 3.
 The reference frequency, fref, of thhe sine wave is
determined by the droop characteristic between
b frequency
and SOC of the battery. When the SOC C of the battery is
40% the battery is considered empty (perrmissible depth of
discharge 60%) and fref=49 Hz while wheen SOC=100% the
battery is considered full and fref=51 Hz. These frequency
limits are dictated by the EN 50160 standdard [8] for island
grids.
The amplitude of the sine wave is determined by a
feedback loop that controls the amplitudee of the ac voltage
at the terminals of the ac LC filter. The aim is to hold the
voltage at that point (which can be consiidered as the main
bus of the micro grid) fixed at 4000V (RMS value)
independently of the active and reactive power
p variations of
the load, wind park or PV station. Sinnce the converter
nominal DC voltage is sufficiently higgh (~900 V) the
converter operates at the linear region even when the DC
voltage drops to approximately 881 V when w the battery is
completely discharged.
With this kind of control the converteer operates at four
quadrants, i.e., it can charge the battery when
w there is power
surplus or discharge it when there is activve power shortage.
It can also supply or absorb reactive poweer in order to keep
the voltage at 400V.
Fig. 3. Control method of the battery converter
In case of a three-phase short circuit the control of the
converter switches to current-control as shown in Fig. 3.
The aim is to supply, for 2 s, ac current which
w is 1.5 pu the
nominal converter current. For the speciffic micro grid, this
current is sufficiently high to make evenn the most distant
circuit breaker trip and thus eliminate thhe fault. With this
control mode, the necessity for a rotatting machine (for
example a synchronous condenser with high h mass inertia)
in the micro grid can be eliminated. If thhe frequency drops
below 49 Hz and there is no power availaable from the RES
a conventional generator is engaged –w with the aid of an
undefrequency relay-to supply the loadd and charge the
battery. In this case, the battery converterr switches again to
current-control in order to charge the batttery by supplying
it with constant dc current. When the SO OC=90% (f=50.67
Hz) the conventional generator is disconnnected with the aid
of an overfrequency relay. This operatioon mode however
will not be analyzed further in this paper because it is very
common and well documented in the literaature.
The compromise between low total-haarmonic-distortion
of the ac voltage (THDv<3% at various loads) and high
converter efficiency (>96% even at thee lightest loading)
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was achieved with a switching frequency of 12 kHz and an
LC filter (L=0.2mH, C=20μF)) at the AC terminals of the
converter.
C. PV station
The PV station was modeeled as a current-controlled,
full-bridge, three-phase inverteer with constant dc voltage of
700 V as shown in Fig. 4. The model has two input values:
the active power and the voltagge at the terminals of the PV
inverter which must be held constant at 400 V. A PLL
circuit captures the phase of the grid voltage (which is
determined by the battery convverter).
The reference value of the active power is equal to the
minimum among: (1) the activve power determined by the
maximum power point trackerr (MPPT) and, (2) the active
power determined by a powerr-frequency characteristic as
shown in Fig. 4. According to this characteristic the power
of the PV system should bee set to zero if the system
frequency is equal to or largerr than 51 Hz, because at this
frequency SOC=100% as menntioned earlier. The battery is
assumed to be almost fulll when SOC=90% which
corresponds to system frequenncy of 50.67 Hz according to
the droop of the battery convverter. Thus, the PV system
should start deteriorating lineaarly its active power from its
rated value to zero as the freqquency increases from 50.67
Hz to 51 Hz. From the instantaaneous currents and voltages
at the inverter terminals thhe actual active power is
calculated and compared to the respective reference value.
The error, through suitable PI P controller, determines the
active current component, ip.
The reference value of the reactive current component,
iq, is determined by
iq = min{iq1 , iq 2 } (2)
where, iq1 is the reactive curreent required to maintain the
voltage at the inverter terminaals equal to 400V and, iq2 is
the reactive current determinedd by
iq 2 = I N2 − i p2 (3)
Fig. 4. Control of the PV inverter
where IN is the nominal innverter current. With these
constraints the inverter is neverr overloaded while priority is
given in the injection of active power.
From ip and iq the amplitude and phase of the reference
current is determined. Then, the reference current is
followed by means of a hysteresis band the width of which
is selected to be 1% of the peak value of the reference
current.
The switching frequency of the PV inverter was selected
to be 20 kHz so that the efficiency of the inverter is
between 0.93 and 0.98 according to its load. An LC filter
(L=0.5mH, C=20μF) is used at the ac side of the PV
inverter so that the current THD<4% at full load.
D. Wind Generators
The wind generators were modeled as an aggregate
squirrel cage asynchronous machine with six poles, 400V
and 550 kW rated power. The equivalent moment of inertia
is 200 kgm2 (referred to the generator speed) corresponding
to an inertia time constant of 2 s. The machine is directly
coupled to the grid which means that it operates as
constant-speed WG. The WG is assumed to follow its
wind-speed/power characteristic shown in Fig. 5 (for one of
the two WGs). At 3-13 m/s wind speeds the WG follows
the wind power while at larger wind speeds and up to 20
m/s it operates as constant power source adjusting
continuously its mechanical torque. An underfrequency
relay disconnects the WG at 51 Hz since this frequency
indicates that the SOC=100%. To avoid a cycle of
connections and disconnections, the WG reconnects when
the system frequency is 49.67 Hz, which corresponds to
SOC=60%.
E. E. Distribution Lines, Load and Transformers
Since the load is concentrated in the single town of the
island it was modeled as constant impedance. The load is
assumed to be three-phase and symmetrical. The
distribution lines (35mm2 ACSR conductors) were modeled
with their equivalent positive-sequence impedance
0.6+j0.393 Ω/km. The 15/04 kV transformers were
modeled with their equivalent series resistance and leakage
reactance.
300
250
200
Power, kW
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20
Wind Speed, m/s
Fig. 5. Wind speed/power characteristic of each of the two 275 kW, WGs.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
A. Case 1
In this case the load is assumed to be 400 kW with 0.8
lagging power factor (PF). The wind velocity is assumed 15
m/s which means that the WGs produce 550 kW constant
power. According to the MPPT of the PV system 100 kW
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of solar power is available. Let’s assume that at t=0.5 s the
SOC=93% (6.78 MWh or 7.54 kAh are available). The
SOC of the battery is determined by the net electric charge
into or out of the battery. The variation of the electric
charge between t1 and t2 is determined by
t2
Q( Ah) = ∫ I bat (t )dt (4)
t1
A scaling factor of 1:21600 between real and simulation
time was assumed in order to reduce the simulation time.
Fig. 6 shows the variation of various parameters of the
micro grid. Since there is a surplus of 250 kW of active
power the battery keeps on charging with the battery
converter increasing the system frequency (lower graph in
Fig. 6). The PV inverter compares the active power
determined by its own droop characteristic with the power
set by the MPPT selecting always the smaller of the two.
After 0.75s the power determined by the droop is the
smaller one and thus the PV power decreases below 100
kW. Since the load and WG power remain almost constant,
the battery power increases. When the system frequency
reaches 51 Hz at t=1.1s (SOC=100% or 8.11 kAh) the PV
power has been decreased to zero and the WG is
disconnected by the action of an overfrequency relay. The
WG disconnection causes an abrupt decrease of frequency
which engages the PV system again and the load is now
supplied by the battery and the PV. Since the PV power is
lower than the load power, the battery starts discharging
and the control system decreases the frequency. At 49.67
Hz the WG is engaged again by the action of an
underfrequency relay, causing the battery charge and the
system frequency to start increasing.
The open-circuit voltage of the battery changes
according to the SOC. The same happens to the battery
terminal voltage which depends on the open-circuit voltage
of the battery and the charging or discharging current. By
constantly adapting the modulation ratio of the dc/ac
converter, the RMS value of the main bus voltage is held
constant near the nominal value (400 V) except for small
periods during the disconnection and reconnection of the
WG which causes abrupt changes in the reactive power.
It is thus shown that, with the proposed control method,
the micro grid maintains the frequency and voltage of the
system within the limits specified by the EN 50160
standard while at the same time prevents the battery
overcharge. Moreover, this is accomplished without any
communication between the RES because the frequency of
the system is acting as signal for their coordination.
B. Case 2
In this case the load is again assumed to be 400 kW,
PF=0.8 lag. According to the MPPT of the PV system 100
kW of solar power is available. The wind speed is initially
assumed 8 m/s with the WG producing 300 kW and then (at
t=1s) it starts oscillating around this value with 4 m/s
amplitude and a frequency of 1 Hz. At this range of wind
velocities, the mechanical power of the WG follows the
wind power. Since the rotational speed of the WG is almost
constant the variation of the mechanical power reflects to a
respective variation of the mechanical torque given by
Tmech (kNm) = −2.86 + 1.43sin(2 ⋅ π ⋅ t ) (5)
 Fig. 6. Variation of electric parameters for Case 1.
The SOC=50% (or 4.06 kAh) which means that the
system frequency is, initially, 49.33 Hz. A scaling factor of
1:3600 between real and simulation time was assumed in
order to reduce the simulation time. It can be noticed in Fig.
7 that, although the mechanical torque oscillates with an
amplitude equal to 50% its average value, the electric
power at the WG terminals oscillates around its average
value (300 kW) with a much smaller relative amplitude
(25%) due to the WG inertia. Fig. 7 shows that, before the
wind-speed oscillation, the system frequency was
decreasing because the battery covered the losses in the
distribution system and thus it was discharging. When the
oscillation starts, the control system keeps the voltage at the
main bus and at the PV terminals almost constant resulting
in a constant active and reactive power at the load. The
fluctuation of the WG active power is absorbed by the
battery resulting in fluctuation of the system frequency and
in fluctuation of the battery open-circuit and terminal
voltage. Since the frequency-during the fluctuations- is less
than 50.67 Hz, the PV power estimated by the PV droop is
larger than the nominal PV power (230 kW). Thus, the
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reference PV power is set to 100 kW which is the minimum
among the MPPT power (100 kW) and the one estimated
by the droop. It can also be noticed from Fig. 7 that the
voltage at the main bus and at the PV terminals is held
constant with the proposed control method although the
oscillation of the WG active power causes a respectively
large oscillation in the battery terminal voltage and in the
reactive power absorbed by the induction machine.
This case shows that, when the battery is not close to its
full charge, the proposed control method can maintain the
system voltage and frequency within the limits specified by
the EN 50160 standard even under large fluctuations of the
WG power.
C. Case 3
In this case the load is again assumed to be 400 kW,
PF=0.8 lag., with the PV system producing 100 kW and the
WG 300 kW. The load current is 720 A. A three-phase
short-circuit is assumed to happen at t=0.5 s, at the
terminals of the aggregated load. As shown in Fig. 8, the
battery inverter switches to current-control mode when the
line voltage at its terminals drops below 300 V (RMS). The
current supplied to the load increases to 1500 A resulting in
the clearing fault after 2 s. The clearing of the fault causes
the system voltage to rise. When the voltage rises above
300 V
Fig. 7. Variation of electric parameters for Case 2.
Fig. 8. Voltage at the main bus and load current before, during and after a
short circuit.
(RMS) the battery inverter switches back to the default
control method supplying the load with constant voltage.
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The PV system and the WG are disconnected from the
micro grid at the appearance of the fault and are
resynchronized with the grid after the fault is cleared. The
disconnection and reconnection are triggered by under- and
overvoltage relays respectively.
V. CONCLUSIONS
It is shown that a micro grid with a PV station, a wind
generating system and a battery storage system, can
maintain the voltage and frequency within the limits
specified by the EN 50160 standard (for island grids) even
under large load or generating-power variations by
implementing a new control method which takes into
account the SOC of the battery. Since with the proposed
control method the system frequency acts as control signal
among the battery converter and the RES, there is no need
for wired communication among them. The battery
converter determines the system voltage and frequency and,
assisted by the PV inverter, takes care of the SOC of the
battery. By continuously monitoring the battery SOC, its
state of health can also be estimated. The induction WG
machine needs no electrical control except over- and
underfrequency relays for its disconnection and connection
 according to the battery SOC. During short-circuits the
battery converter is controlled as current source in order to
provide significant short circuit current for the grid
protection systems to operate avoiding thus the need for
rotating synchronous capacitors.
VI. REFERENCES
[1] Karel De Brabandere, Bruno Bolsens, Jeroen Van den Keybus,
Achim Woyte, Johan Driesen, and Ronnie Belmans, "A Voltage and
Frequency Droop Control Method for Parallel Inverters,” IEEE
Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 22, pp. 1107-1115, July 2007.
[2] Alfred Engler, “Applicability of droops in low voltage grids,”
International Journal of Distributed Energy Resources, Vol. 1, No.1,
(2005), pp.3-15
[3] Justin Au-Yeung, Greet M.A. Vanalme, Johanna M.A. Myrzik,
Panagiotis Karaliolios, Martijn Bongaerts, Jan Bozelie, Wil L. Kling,
“Development of a Voltage and Frequency Control Strategy for an
Autonomous LV Network with Distributed Generators,” in Proc. of
44th Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), 2009,
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[4] Xueguang Wu, Yibin Zhang, Atputharajah Arulampalam, Nick
Jenkins, “Electrical Stability of Large Scale Integration of Micro
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Distributed Energy Resources, Vol. 1, No4 (2005), pp. 279-298.
[5] F. D. Kanellos, A. I. Tsouchnikas, N. D. Hatziargyriou, “Micro-Grid
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[6] S. Papathanassiou, D. Georgakis, N. Hatziargyriou, A. Engler, Ch.
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[7] Caldon R., Rossetto F., Turri R., “Temporary islanded operation of
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[8] Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution
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[9] Charis Demoulias, “A new simple analytical method for calculating
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VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Emmanouil A. Bakirtzis (S’ 2008) was born in Serres, Greece. He
received his Diploma in Electrical Engineering from the Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece, in March 2010. He is
Ph.D. candidate in Aristotle University of Thessaloniki since February
2012.
His research interests are in the fields of power electronics, power quality,
electric machines, renewable energy sources and power system economics.
Charis S. Demoulias (M’96, SM’11) was born in 1961. He received the
Dipl. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece, in 1984 and 1991,
respectively. Currently, he is Assistant Professor with the Electrical
Machines Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
His research interests are in the fields of power electronics, harmonics,
electric motion systems, and renewable energy sources.

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