LESSON 01: MICROSCOPE 3. Open the iris diaphragm.

4. Place the prepared slide of onion root

A. Microscope:
tip on stage and secure the slide by
- A microscope is an optical instrument
using the stage clip.
that is used to observe tiny objects, often
5. Adjust the mirror of the source light.
objects that cannot be seen at all with the
Look through the ocular.
naked eye. Each optical instrument has a
6. By using the coarse adjustment knob
limit as to what can be seen using that
screw, lower the body tube of the
instrument. This limit is referred to as
microscope until the objective is
the resolving power or resolution of the
about 1 or 2 millimeters from the
instrument
cover glass.
7. Look through the microscope and
B. Transporting and handling microscope:
move the tube until the image of the
1. Transport the microscope in the
specimen comes to view.
original packaging or
8. For a detailed study of the parts of
container/materials to prevent it from
the specimen, put the high-power
moving within the container
objective in place. Use only the fine
2. If the original container/packaging is
adjustment screw when focusing
not available, use a similar
under HPO.
packaging material to prevent the
microscope from moving within the
E. Adjustment of microscope magnification:
container during transport
1. Cut a small lettere from the
3. Protect the microscope during
newspaper or magazine.
transport from excessive movement
2. Measure the actual size of the letter e
4. Protect the microscope from
using a ruler.
exposure to water and direct
3. Place the lettere in its natural
sunlight, excessive heat, and pests
position on a slide and cover it with
(rodents, cockroach)
coverslip.
5. Carry the microscope with 2 hands,
4. Focus under LPO. Observe the
one holding the arm and one
position of the letter under the
supporting the base
microscope.
5. Measure the size by placing a ruler
C. Placement of microscope:
along the right side of the stage.
1. Place the microscope on a flat, level,
Look through the microscope with
firm, and vibration free bench
your left eye at the same time
2. Do not place the microscope in front
looking at the ruler with your right
of an illuminated window, place it in
eye.
front of a wall or a darkened
6. Compute the magnification power
window.
using the formula below:
Total magification power =
D. Use of microscope:
(magnificication power of ocular)
1. Be familiar with the parts and
(magnificication power of LPO or
function of the microscope fir
HPO)
efficient use.
7. Turn to the HPO and observe if the
2. Plug in the power cord and turn on
whole letter can be viewed. 8. Draw
the power source. Align the low
the letter e as seen by the naked eye,
power objective (10X) with the
under LPO and HPO.
ocular (10X).
F. Parts of the Microscope: 11. Mirror - It is found below the stage
1. Base - It keeps the microscope and held by a mirror rack. It reflects
steady at any position of the stage. light through an opening in the stage
2. Arm- It is fastened to the base to illuminate the object.
through the inclination joint and used 12. 2. Iris diaphragm - A series of
in handling the microscope. circular structures between the
3. Pillar - It is a short part arising from mirror and the stage which is used to
the base and is screwed to the lower control the light admitted to the
end of the arm. condenser.
4. Inclination point - It is found at the 13. Condenser - It is a lens lying
boundary of the pillar and the arm immediately beneath the opening of
and it is used to tilt the microscope to the stage that concentrates light rays
a desired position. in the specimen.
5. Body tube - It is a cylindrical
structure arising vertically from the
arm and holds the dust shield and the LESSON 02: CELLS
nosepiece with the objectives of the
A. Definition
lower end.
- The basic unit of life.
6. Draw tube - It is fitted to the body
tube and is used to hold the ocular or B. History Of Cell Study
eyepiece. * Galileo Galilei
7. Adjustment knobs - These are two * Hans and Zacharias Janssen
pairs of wheels attached to either * Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
side of the body tube. * Robert Hooke
 Course adjustment knob - * Robert Brown
These are bigger wheels * Matthias Schleiden and Theodore
which are used to raise and Schwann
* Rudolf Virchow
lower the tube. It is also used
to adjust the low power
objective in focusing. C. Cell Theory
 Fine adjustment knob - A
pair of smaller wheels used
for delicate focusing in
connection with the high All organism are made up of cell
power and oil immersion
objectives. It is used to have a
clearer view of the specimen.
8. Revolving nosepiece - A circular Cells are the basic unit of life
structure at the lower end of the body
tube to which the objectives are
attached.
All cells came from pre-existing cells
9. Stage- A platform where the slide is
placed during focusing. It is provided
with clips to hold the slide in place.
10. Dust shield - It is a thin circular
structure at the lower end of the body
tube and is used to protect the
objectives from the dust.
D. Types Of Cells
 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes
E. Cell Structures
o Cell Wall
 Definition
- Strength and protection
- It contains a
considerable amount of
cellulose
- 3 Layers of Cell Wall
 Primary Cell Wall
* • Stretches and
expands as the cell
increases in size
 Middle Lamella
* • A layer of pectic
compounds
* • Acts as a cement
between the primary
cell walls of
adjacent cells
 Secondary Cell Wall
* • Forms after growth
ceases
* • Forms between
primary wall and the
plasma membrane
* • Contains cellulose
and lignin
* • Lignin (a hard
substance that gives
wood its distinctive
texture)
o Protoplasm
- It is a mass of proteins, lipids,
nucleic acids and water within a
cell
- Except for the wall everything
in the cell is protoplasm.
o Plasma Membrane aka plasmalemma
- Is the selectively permeable
membrane that completely
covers the surface of the
protoplasm
- Molecular pumps keep
substances moving by actively
pumping them in and out of the
cell.
o Cytoplasm
- •If the nucleus and vacuole are
excluded from the protoplasm,
the remaining material is the
cytoplasm.
o Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria)
- Tiny organelles bounded by a
double membrane
- Using Cellular Respiration
- “Powerhouse” of the cell
- •Crista (pl. cristae) –
mitochondrial membranes are
folded, forming large sheets or
tubes which provides room for
large number of enzymes
- •Matrix – found between the
cristae; place for reactions that
do not involve highly reactive
intermediates
- •Outer mitochondrial membrane
–freely permeable; gives shape
and little rigidity to the
mitochondrion. numerous
pumps and channels.
- • Inner mitochondrial
membrane– selectively
permeable membrane which
forms the cristae. Center for
ATP synthesis.
o Dictyosomes (Golgi Apparatus or Golgi
Body)
- •A stack of thin vesicles held
together in a flat or curved
array.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- •A system of narrow tubes and
sheets of membrane that form a
network throughout the
cytoplasm
- •RER (Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum) – ER which contains
ribosomes ; aids in protein
synthesis
- •SER (Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum) – lacks ribosomes;
for lipid synthesis and
membrane assembly
o Ribosomes
- •Particles responsible for protein
synthesis
- •Complex aggregates of 3
molecules of RNA (ribosomal
RNA) and about 50 types of
 proteins that associate to form 2 transformation of
subunits proplastids to
- •Polysome – cluster of chloroplasts; occur
ribosomes that are bound when tissues are grown
together by messenger RNA without light
o Microbodies  Proplastids – small,
- •Spherical bodies about 0.5 to undifferentiated plastids
1.5μm in diameter  Leucoplasts
- •2 Classes: Both isolate  Colorless plastids
reactions that either produce or  form and store
use the dangerous compound starches, oils, or
peroxide (H2O2) proteins
- •Peroxisomes – involved in  Common in seed,
detoxifying by products of root, & stem cells
photosynthesis and found  Chromoplasts
closely in chloroplasts  Contains yellow,
- •Glyoxysomes – occur only in orange, and red
plants; converts stored fats to pigments
sugars; important in germination  Often form from
of fat-rich, oily seeds chloroplasts when
o Plastids chlorophyll breaks
- Found in all plants and algae but down
never in animals, fungi or  Ex: Tomatoes;
prokaryotes deciduous tree
- Group of dynamic organelles leaves
that perform many functions - Parts of Plastids:
like:  Inner and Outer
 ✓Photosynthesis Membrane
 ✓Synthesis, storage and  Thylakoids – membrane
export of specialized sheets that projects to
lipid molecules the stroma; folded in
 ✓Storage of order to increase
carbohydrates and iron membrane area;
 ✓Formation of colors in provides more space for
some flowers and fruits the insertion of
photosynthetic pigments
 ✓Each metabolism is
 Granum (pl. grana) –
associated with a
the stack of baglike
particular type of plastid
vesicles formed by
- Types of Plastid:
thylakoids; essential in
 Amyoplasts – store
the transport of protons
starch; considered to be
needed for
leucoplast
photosynthesis
 Chloroplasts – carry out
 Stroma – where
photosynthesis; contains
conversion of carbon
chlorophyll; A molecule
dioxide to
with the vital role of
carbohydrates occurs
absorbing light energy;
o Nucleus (pl. nuclei)
Absorbs blue and red
- Serves as an archive or
light (reflects green)
permanent storage place for the
 Etioplasts – a specific
plant’s genetic information
stage in the
 - Nuclear envelope – separates - Volume of the cytoplasm which
the nuclear material from the occurs as a clear substance
rest of the cell; it consists of composed of water, enzymes,
nuclear pores that are involved and numerous chemical
in the transport of materials in precursors, intermediates and
the nucleus and the rest of the products of enzymatic reactions
protoplasm o Cytoskeleton
- Chromatin- darkly-staining - Assemble into arrays like an
bodies inside the nucleus. They antenna
contain genes. - Cellular integrity
o Nucleolus (pl. nucleoli) - Means of motility for both
- Area where components of organelles and whole cells
ribosomes are synthesized and - Framework that moves
partially assembled chromosomes during the
- An organelle that contains RNA division of nucleus
- Serves as the control center of - Microtubules and Microfilament
the cell - Hemicellulose – binds together
- Contains nucleoplasm cellulose microfibrils; produced
- Nucleoplasm – it is a complex from dictyosomes
association of : - Lignin – together with
 DNA hemicellulose, makes the 2°cell
 Enzymes and other wall stronger; it has the ability
factors necessary to to resist chemical, fungal and
maintain, repair and bacterial attack.
read DNA - Plasmodesmata – fine holes in
 Histone proteins that the cell wall which
support and interact interconnects plant cell
with DNA (chromatin)
 Several types of RNA
 Water and other
substances necessary for F. Plant Cell Vs. Animal Cell
nuclear metabolism
o Vacuole
PLANT ANIMAL
- Appears to be an empty
CELL CELL
membrane which stores water
Cell wall Present Absent
and salts
(formed of
- Sometimes contains visible cellulose)
crystals, starch, protein bodies Shape Rectangular Round
and various types of granules (fixed shape) (irregular
and fibrous minerals shape)
- Tonoplast – vacuole membrane Vacuole Vacuole One, One or more
- Central vacuole – one large large central small vacuoles
vacuole (as the cell grows and vacuole taking (much smaller
expands); functions as a storage up 90% of cell than plant
for nutrients and waste products; volume. cells).
digestive organelle Centrioles Centrioles Present in all
- Helps cell maintain turgid shape Only present in animal cells
- Provide strength for non-woody lower plant
forms
plants
Chloroplast Plant cells Animal cells
- Temporary storage area for
have don't have
excess materials
chloroplasts chloroplasts
o Cytosol aka Hyaloplasm because they
 make their  Kindom Protista – single-celled
own food organisms (protozoans, algae);
Cytoplasm: Present Present multicellular algae
Endoplasmic Present Present  Kingdom Mycetae – fungi such
Reticulum as mushrooms, puffballs and
(Smooth and bread mold
Rough):  Kingdom Animalia – animals
Ribosomes: Present Present  Kingdom Plantae – plants
Mitochondria: Present Present
Plastids: Present Absent
Golgi Apparatus: Present Present
Plasma cell wall and a only cell
Membrane: cell membrane membrane
Microtubules/ Present Present
Microfilaments: LESSON 03: GROWTH AND DIVISION OF
Flagella: May be found May be found
THE CELL
in some cells in some cells
Lysosomes: Lysosomes Lysosomes A. Parts Of Chromosomes
usually not occur in
evident. cytoplasm
Nucleus: Present Present
Cilia: It is very rare Present

G. Plant Cell Vs. Fungal Cell

o Cells of fungi are similar to plant cells
with two important differences:
 They do not contain plastids of
any type
 Their walls contain CHITIN,
not cellulose except for some
unusual group of fungi, the
Oomycetes.
o CHITIN - physically similar to B. Cell Cycle
cellulose, being tough, inflexible and o ❖The cyclic series of events in the life
insoluble in water, but it of a dividing eukaryotic cells.
contains nitrogen and is synthesized in a o ❖In plants – CELL CYCLE ARREST –
different mechanism than that used for as plants reach their final form, cells
cellulose. stop dividing (e.g. Leaf)
o 2 Phases
H. Division Of Kingdom Plantae o Growth Phase – also known as
o Bryophyta – mosses
Interphase
o Pteridophyta – ferns  G1 Phase
o Coniferophyta – conifers - •Known as Gap 1 phase
o Anthophyta – flowering plants - •It is the first stage after
division
I. 5 Kingdoms Of Organism - •Cell is recovering from
o Prokaryotes division and is
 Kingdom Monera – bacteria and conducting
cyanobacteria - most of its normal
o Eukaryotes metabolism
 - •Generally, it is the
longest part of the cell
cycle
- • Single-celled
organisms (algae) –
several hours
- • Plants that grow
slowly – 2 to 3 days or
weeks or months
 S Phase
- ➢Known as Synthesis
phase
- ➢Replication of DNA
 G2 Phase
- ▪Known as Gap 2 Phase
- ▪Cells prepare for
division
- ▪Usually lasts for 3 to 5
hours
- ▪Produce factors in the
cytoplasm necessary to
start nuclear
- division
- ◦ Synthesis of alpha and
beta tubulin for spindle
microtubules
- ◦ Proteins necessary for
processing
chromosomes
o Division Phase - 2 Processes:
 Karyokinesis
 Division of the nucleus
 Mitosis
 Meiosis
 Cytokinesis
 Division of the
protoplasm
C. Mitosis
 Definition
- The division of the cell nucleus
resulting into two daughter
nuclei, each with the same
number of chromosomes as the
parents nucleus.
 Prophase
- Chromatin begins to condense
- Nuclear envelope breaks apart
- Nucleolus shrinks and
disappears
- Centrioles move towards
respective poles
 Metaphase
- Centrioles reached the
respective poles
- Chromosomes lined up in the
midplane of the cell
 Anaphase
- Sister chromatids separate
- Moves to the opposite poles
 Telophase
- Chromosomes arrive at the
poles
- Chromosome begin to elongate
- Nuclear envelope forms around
each set of chromosomes.
- Nucleoli reorganize
 Cytokinesis
- Division of the cytoplasm
- Formation of cell plate
D. Meiosis
 Definition
- The production of gametes—sex
cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal
is to make daughter cells with
exactly half as many
chromosomes as the starting
cell.
 Meiosis 01
a) PROPHASE 1
- Homologous chromosomes
come together side by side
(synapsis → Crossing
over)
- Maternal and paternal
homologue
- Spindle forms
- Nuclear envelope and
nucleolus disappear
b) Metaphase 1
- Homologous chromosomes
line up in pairs along
midplane
c) Anaphase 1
- Paired homologous
chromosome separate
d) Telophase 1
- Two duplicated
chromosomes
- Nuclei reorganize
- Chromatid elongates
- Cytokinesis takes place
  Meiosis 02 Dermal Epidermis Parenchyma cells,
a) Prophase II – similar to mitotic Tissue guard cells,
prophase System trichome
b) Metaphase II – sister chromatids Periderm Periderm Cork
line up on midplanes cells, cork cambium
c) Anaphase II – sister chromatids cells, cork
separates parenchyma
d) Telophase II – Nuclei form at
opposite poles. B. Ground Tissue System
e) Cytokinesis occurs o PARENCHYMA CELLS
- A plant cell that is
unspecialized, is thin walled,
may contain chlorophyll, and
typically loosely packed.
E. Mitosis vs. Meiosis - Functions: photosynthesis,
storage and secretion
MITOSIS MEIOSIS o COLLENCHYMA CELLS
Daughter nuclei Two sex cells (gametes) - A living plant cell with
replicates the original fuse together forming a moderately but unevenly
mother nucleus zygote which grows into a thickened primary walls.
new adult - Function: Provide support in
Diploid Haploid soft, non woody plant organs
Occurs in other body Occur ONLY in sex cells o SCLERENCHYMA CELLS
cells or reproductive cells - A plant cell with extremely
Has 4 stages: prophase, Has two divisions: thick walls that provides
metaphase, anaphase, Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2 strength and support to the plant
telophase which also have 4 stages body
like mitosis - 2 TYPES:
a) Sclereids – shells of
LESSON 04: CELLS AND TISSUES OF THE nuts; stones of fruits;
PLANT BODY pears
b) Fibers – wood; inner
A. Tissues bark and leaf rib
- A group of cells that forms a structural
and functional unit. C. Vascular Tissue System
o XYLEM
TISSUE TISSUES CELL TYPES
- Conducts water and dissolved
SYSTEM
minerals throughout the plant
Ground Parenchyma Parenchyma cells
body.
Tissue tissue
System Collenchyma Collenchyma cells - Tracheids and vessel elements –
tissue conducts water and minerals
Sclerenchyma Sclerenchyma cell - parenchyma cells – storage
tissue functions
Vascular Xylem Tracheid, vessel - Fibers – provide support
Tissue elements, o PHLOEM
System parenchyma cells, - Conducts food throughout the
fibers plant body
Phloem Sieve tube - Sieve tube elements, companion
elements, cells, parenchyma cells, fibers
companion cells,  Sieve tube elements –
parenchyma cells, long, thin cells stacked
fibers
 end on end to form
sieve tubes
 Sieve plates – Cell’s
end walls; series of
holes through which
cytoplasm extends from
one sieve tube element
into the next
 Companion cells –
adjacent to sieve tube
elements; assists
functions of STE
D. Dermal Tissue
o EPIDERMIS
- Outermost tissue layer, usually
one cell thick, that covers the
primary plant body.
- Cuticle – secreted on stem and
leaves to restrict loss of water
- Stomata – facilitate diffusion of
CO2
o PERIDERM
- Outermost layer of cells
covering a woody stem or root
- Cork cells – dead at maturity;
coated with suberin
- Cork parenchyma (phelloderm)
– for storage
o APICAL MERISTEM - Area of cell
division at the tip of stem or root in
plants; produces primary tissues
o LATERAL MERISTEM – Area of cell
division on the side of the vascular
plant; vascular cambium and cork
cambium give rise to secondary tissues.
LESSON 05: ROOTS
A. Definition
- Cylindrical structures which generally
grow downward into the soil
- Underground extension of the plant axis
B. Functions
- Anchoring the plant firmly to a substrate
- Absorbing water and minerals
- Producing hormones
- Food storage
- Asexual reproductive organ
C. Structure Of Individual Roots
o Root Cap
- A covering of cells over the root tip
that protects the delicate
meristematic tissue directly behind
it.
o Area of Elongation
- Pushing the root tip deeper into the
soil.
- 3 Primary Meristems (Area of
Elongation)
* Protoderm
* Procambium
* Ground Meristem
o AREA OF MATURATION
 Root Hairs
- An extension of an
epidermal cell of a root
that increases the
absorptive capacity of
the root.
 LATERAL MERISTEM
- Areas that extend along
the entire lengths of
roots except the tips
- Vascular cambium and
Cork cambium; give
rise to secondary tissues
 • Vascular Cambium
- Layer of meristematic
cells that form a thin,
continuous cylinder
within stem and root.
 • Cork Cambium
- Thin cylinder or
irregular arrangement of
meristematic cells in the
outer bark region.
D. Roots Of Herbaceous Eudicot
o Epidermis – outer protective covering
o Cortex -Storage
o Endodermis – innermost layer of the
cortex of the root that prevents water
and dissolved materials from entering
the xylem by passing between cells.
o Casparian strip – A band of waterproof
material around the radial and transverse
cells of the endodermis
o Pericycle - A layer of cells just inside
the endodermis of the root; gives rise to
lateral root.
o PITH - central tissue in monocot roots.

E. Movement Of Water In Root Cortex
o 2 PATHWAYS
 Symplast – A continuum consisting
of the cytoplasm of many plant cell,
connected from one cell to the next
by plasmodesmata
 Apoplast – A continuum consisting
of the interconnected, porous plant
cell walls, along which water moves
freely.
F. External Structure Of The Roots
1. Taproot System
- Consists of one main root with
many smaller lateral roots
branching from it.
- Examples: Carrot (Daucus
carota), Sugar Beet (Beta
vulgaris), Radish (Raphanus
sativus)
2. Conical Taproot:
- This root type has a wide top
and taper toward the bottom end
to give them a conical shape.
3. Fusiform Root:
- It has a wide middle section and
tapers toward both ends,
forming a two-sided fusion of
conical roots.
4. Napiform Root:
- This taproot type has a wide top
and tapers suddenly to a pointed
bottom end.
5. Fibrous or Diffuse Root System
- Consists of numerous fine roots
similar in diameter
- Arises due to the radicle that
dies during or immediately after
germination
- Example (cereals, bulbs and
grasses), Corn (Zea mays),
Talahib (Saccharum
spontaneum), Yard grass
(Eleusine indica), Onion
(Allium cepa)
G. Other Types Of Roots And Root
Modifications
o • Storage Roots
* Food Storage- Enlarged, long-
term storage for carbohydrates
(usually summer and for
perennial plants)
* Water storage- fascicled roots-
enlarged fleshy and succulent
roots.
o • Gas exchange- presence of
pneumatophores (mangrove plants)
o • Reproduction/ propagation- formation
of adventitious root buds.
o • Protection presence of spine or thorns
o • Photosynthesis
- green aerial roots
o • Contractile Roots
- Roots undergo contraction,
extends through the soil,
become more firmly attached
- Contraction is caused by the
changes in cortical cells
H. Other Types Of Roots And Root
Modifications
o Support Prop or Stilt Roots- aerial roots
arising from branches.
o Support Clinging Roots- aerial roots that
cling to some kind of support. Ex.
Orchids
o Support Brace roots- aerial roots arising
from branches.
o Support Buttress roots- big roots that
look like they arise from the base of the
tree trunk.
I. Roots Association
o Mycorrhizae
- Symbiotic relationship with soil
fungi (both organisms’ benefit)
 Ectomycorrhizal
- for woody forest plants
- fungal hyphae penetrate
between the outermost root
cortex cells but never
invade the cells
o Endomycorrhizal
 for herbaceous plants
 hyphae penetrate the root cortex
as far as the endodermis
 they are able to pass through the
walls of the cortical cells but
cannot pass the Casparian strip
 invade the cell but do not break
the cell membrane
  branched repeatedly inside the
cell forming arbuscule (contains
phosphorus)
o Root Nodules and Nitrogen Fixation
- Scarcity of nitrogen in the soil is
the growthlimiting factor
- Nitrogen fixation – conversion
of atmospheric nitrogen (78%)
into usable compounds
- “The bacterium supplies the
plant with nitrogenous and in
return, plants give sugars”
o Haustorial Roots of Parasitic Flowering
Plants
- Haustoria – modified roots of
parasitic plants
o Adheres firmly to the host by secreting
an adhesive or by growing around a
small branch or root
o Modified parasitic roots (mistletoe);
penetrate on stems and roots of other
plants to obtain water, mineral and
organicmolecule.
LESSON 06: STEM
A. Functions:
* Support leaves and reproductive
structure
* Internal transport
* Produce new living tissue
* Asexual reproduction
B. Parts Of Stems
* Bud – Underdeveloped shoot that
contains embryonic meristem; may be
terminal or axillary
* Node- Area on a stem where each leaf is
attached
* Internode – region of stem between two
successive nodes.
* Leaf scar – where leaf attached to stem
* Lenticels – gas exchange
C. General Differences Between Herbaceous
Eudicot Roots & Stem
ROOTS STEMS
No nodes or internodes Nodes & Internodes
No leaves or buds Leaves and buds
No pith Pith
No cuticle Cuticle
Root hairs Trichomes
Pericycle No pericycle
Branches form Branches form externally
internally from from lateral buds
pericycle
D. Stems Of Woody Plants
o Secondary growth – result from the
activity of vascular cambium & cork
cambium
* Vascular cambium divide &
produce secondary xylem
(wood) & secondar phloem
(inner bark).
* Cork cambium divide &
produce cork cells & cork
parenchyma (phelloderm)
o Sapwood – functional secondary xylem
(conduct water & minerals)
o Heartwood – older wood in the center of
the trunk; no longer function for
conduction
o Annual rings – growing period (spring
& summer)
o Springwood – wood has thin-walled,
large diameter conducting cells
o Late summerwood- thicker-walled
o narrower conducting cell
E. Vines
o A plant with long, thin, often climbing.
o Tendrils – modified leaves or stems that
o wrap around supports
o Twiners – plant which stem grow
spirally around host
F. Asexual Reproduction
o Rhizome
- Horizontal underground stem
that often serve as a storage
organ
LESSON 07: LEAVES
A. Process
H. Leaf Margin

1. 2.
3. Thin Leaf
LeafPrimordium
buttress
petiole and blade

B. Parts & Functions

o Stipule
o Petiole I. Leaf Surface
o Leaf blade/ lamina o Glabrous
o Pubescent
C. Internal Anatomy Of Leaves
o Upper epidermis
o Palisade mesophyll
o Spongy mesophyll

D. Plant Identification
o Single or divided blade
o Leaf shape
o Leaf margin characteristics o Villous
o Venation

E. Shapes And Arrangement

o Alternate
o Opposite
o Whorled

F. Leaf Types
o Simple leaf
o Compound leaf o Tomentose
 Pinnately compound
 Palmately compound

G. Leaf Venation
o Parallel venation
o Netted venation
 o Scabrous
J. Specialized Leaves
o Reproduction
- Plantlets or buds may grow
along the notches, bases, apices
and tips of the blades and
petioles
o Aeration
- Enlarged petiole for buoyancy
o Glaucous o Support
- Presence of tendrils, hooks and
supporting leaf bases
o Protection
- Presence of bud scales, motile
leaves, spines, stipules and
bracts (cactus)
o Storage
- with succulent leaves that retain
o Rugose water in their large, thin-walled
parenchyma cells
o Attraction
- Petalloid flower bracts or
brightly-variegated leaves of
some plants
o Absorption
- insectivore leaves; uncutinized
leaves especially in some
aquatic plant

o Glandular

Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through

Transpiration plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves,
where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere.

Guttation Guttation is the exudation of drops of xylem sap on the tips or

edges of leaves of some vascular plants, such as grasses.