Module 6.

The Impact of Culture and Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem: The Importance of Beauty
Body Image and Self-esteem
“Beauty may be only skin deep, but its effect goes on forever: Stereotypes in everyday life”
Culture is generally defined as a set of values, ideologies, traditions, beliefs, and ways of engaging the world that
can be transmitted through some type of communication over the course of time and place throughout the
generations (Oyserman & Lee, 2007).
Physical appearance is one of the first individual characteristics noticed by others and has an important
impact on social interactions. Appearance in general and body image in particular has become very important
constructs in contemporary Western societies (Tiggeman, 2011)
Body image has been defined as a view of one’s own overall physical appearance, and is established as an
important aspect of self-worth and mental health across the life span (Harter, 1998). It has also been defined as the
internal representation of your own outer appearance; your own unique perception of your body (Thompson et al.,
1999).
Body image can be said to be a psychological construct, which can be defined as a person’s perception,
thoughts and feelings about his or her body. It is a reflection of attitudes and interactions with others. Body
dissatisfaction on the other hand, is a person’s negative thoughts about his or her feelings and these feelings are
largely determined by social experiences, such as media images (Grogan, 1998).
The tendency to link physical attractiveness with positive personal qualities has become a cultural
stereotype, not only in western culture but also globally. The avalanche of perfect bodies in mass media,
advertising, and social media causes people to accept that “what is beautiful is good,” with physical attractiveness
often been linked with the success.

What is self-esteem?
Self-esteem is the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life and being worthy of
happiness. It is the sum of self-confidence and self-respect (Branden, 1969).
Much research has shown that negative body image and body dissatisfaction leads to low self-esteem. If one
does not take a positive attitude towards their body, it can lead to feelings of worthlessness and confidence levels
can be hindered. (Harter, 1998).
Studies have shown that the increases in eating disorders are due to either negative body image and or low
self-esteem. The pathological eating behavior patterns in such cases, serve as a coping mechanism to these
negativities (Button et al., 1997).

The Effect of Mass media on body image and self-esteem

It has been said that body image is established as an important aspect of self-worth and mental health
across the life span (Harter, 1998). The concept that the mass media can affect the body image and self-esteem of
girls and women and has been circling ever since celebrities have become famous, not for their talents, but for their
looks. These looks are then portrayed through the media and they become ‘ideals’ for the population.

Very often, these ideals are unrealistic, and surveys show that over 60% of women are dieting in order to attain a
perfect body image (McCabe et al., 2007).
Body dissatisfaction is prominent in females aged between 18 and 23. Girls preferred a slimmer figure to what
they have themselves, were conscious of their weight and or believed that their own weight was above what the
healthy norm should be. Chinese women preferring lower weight for attractiveness, after being exposed to model
images, suggesting that short term exposure to model images can in fact affect a woman’s body image (Stephen &
Perera 2014).

Studies such as Champion & Furnham (1999) show that female body image is affected by the media. There
is also research to show possible effects on men. Barlett et al., (2008) conducted two meta-analyses in order to
determine the extent to which pressure from the mass media influenced men to conform to the muscular "ideal"

Module 7: Facebook Self: Issues and Concern

Module 8 . The Digital Self: Self and Other in Cyberspace

How do people present their selves to others when they become disembodied and anonymous in the online world?
How do people come to conceive their selves when others become disembodied and anonymous?

This question is particularly important for understanding the effect of the Internet on self‐formation, especially in
teenagers who are yet to form a stable view of themselves. Based on the analysis of teenagers' online experience,
the present study shows that others on the Internet constitute a distinctive “looking glass” that produces a “digital
self” that differs from the self-formed offline.
Teenagers' playful online self‐presentation is thus an integral part of the process of self‐formation. As such,
“intimate strangers” or “anonymous friends” on the Internet play an important role in affecting the self‐development
of online teenagers.

Identity Formation and Self-Presentation

As social networking sites require their users to expose themselves, not just in terms of names, but also in
terms of friends, activities, images, feelings, and preferences. As a result, some users decide, consciously or
unconsciously, to present an identity or a self that deviates from their true-self (if such a thing really exists).
Presumably, and assuming rationality, these users self-enhance their true identity to match a desired one, but would
unlikely play down their true identity.

I, Me, Myself And My User ID Online Identity

Erikson (1959 (Links to an external site.)) proposed that adolescence is the developmental period where
identity becomes the primary concern. It is also widely understood within the developmental literature that
adolescence is a period when youth aim to foster their own autonomy via their identity creation, sexuality, and
interpersonal intimacy (Valkenburg and Peter 2011 (Links to an external site.)).
Valkenburg and Peter (2011 (Links to an external site.)) argue that youth develop both self-presentation and
self-disclosure skills in order to cultivate their personal autonomy, while Jordán-Conde (2014 (Links to an external
site.)) suggest that Facebook is a place where late adolescents experiment with their identity as their identities are
not yet fixed.
College students feel greater subjective well-being when they present themselves positively on Facebook (Kim and
Roselyn Lee 2011 (Links to an external site.)), and present themselves as having better emotional well-being and
greater positive affect on Facebook than they do in their actual lives in order to enhance their self-presentation (Qiu
et al. 2012 (Links to an external site.)).

False identity and the Facebook-self: True Self and False Self

How can a false-self be created on Facebook?

False self-presentation
Winnicott’s (1960) (Links to an external site.) theory posits that one’s ego can split to “true self” and “false
self.” These terms describe two types of experiences: one is more spontaneous, authentic and real and the other is
more defensive and protective, trying to hide the “true self.”
Rogers (Links to an external site.)’ (1959 (Links to an external site.)) stated that he ideal self often deviates
from the real-self, and this can be a result of the lack of positive regard during childhood. Large gaps or
incongruence between the true and protective self can lead to various psychological problems. Behaving according
to one’s “true self,” as well as having clear and explicit identity, tends to have positive consequences. This idea
extends to online environments. People who present their “true selves” and are authentic on online media, tend to
create honest, healthier and longer relationships with their online friends. These relationships, in many cases, are
also translated into the offline world (McKenna et al., 2002 (Links to an external site.)).
Facebook provides an efficient vehicle for developing and presenting a false-self. This false presentation is
known as the “Facebook-self.” The “Facebook-self” can be very different from the user’s real or “true self.” People
often present themselves in a manner which is inconsistent with who they really are and with their set of real beliefs
and values.
The gap between the real self and the ideal self is called incongruity (Rogers, 1959 (Links to an external
site.)); and it could lead to the creation of “false self” which is a more defensive, protective self that hides one’s “true
self” (Winnicott, 1960 (Links to an external site.))
 Those who use social networking sites felt pressure to create a social presence that depicted the perfect
life, even though clearly life is not always perfect, i.e., they create “false selves” on such sites (Emarketer, 2014
(Links to an external site.)). Hence, some users, especially with vulnerable personalities may create online identities
which are much more rewarding and appealing than their true identities. (Turel et al., 2014 (Links to an external
site.)).
It is uncommon for Facebook users to present false surface information (i.e., they mostly present true name,
activities, and social demographic information). However, their deep identities are often presented in an implicit way
using cues and signals embedded in their posts and images.
For example, people may selectively post images of them being happy dining at a fancy restaurant with good
looking friends, in an implicit attempt to enhance their image in the eyes of others in their social network; even
though their true selves may be depressed and introvert, and the rest of their week was pretty dull. Consequently,
users keep their identity much more implicit and present their identity in a positive way (Zhao et al., 2008 (Links to
an external site.)).
Even though facebook sites look like “safe” environments, recent research shows that interactions with
and on such sites can lead to unwarranted consequences. For example, retaliation against people with different
opinions may be common on such sites (Forest and Wood, 2012 (Links to an external site.)). This unsupportive
interaction causes social networking site users with depressive symptoms to have negative interactions and
negative affect (Feinstein et al., 2012 (Links to an external site.)). This concern regarding social-and affective-safety
may be one predictor that promotes social compliance and the development of false Facebook-self.
The false Facebook-self is driven, in part, by shortcomings in one’s personality, which may relate to his or
her upbringing and the consequent social traits he or she has developed.

Factors that promote false Facebook-self

Personality characteristics that contribute to the presentation of a false-self, regardless of Facebook, are low self-
esteem and unawareness of the true self (Harter et al., 1996 (Links to an external site.))
Given these social and self-enhancing benefits, the use of such websites may be especially appealing for people
with low self-esteem, who can use such sites to self-disclose in a “protected” environment (Reis and Shaver, 1988
(Links to an external site.)).
In a process called “identity play” a person can explore and adopt different identities that are different from his or
her own identity (Turkle, 1995 (Links to an external site.))
Lonely people that have low social skills tend to develop strong compulsive Internet use behaviors, and as a result
have negative life outcomes instead of relieving their original problems (Kim et al., 2009 (Links to an external site.)).
It has been reported that troubled adolescents form closer online relationships than other adolescents, which
suggests that online relationships may attract more socially and emotionally vulnerable adolescents (Wolak et al.
2003 (Links to an external site.)).

Positive and Negative Effects of using Facebook

Primarily, Facebook provides its members with the opportunity to interact with many different people, called
“Facebook friends.”
Through social interactions, users especially those with low self-esteem and low life satisfaction can improve their
psychological well-being, (Ellison et al., 2007 (Links to an external site.)).
However, these rewarding interactions can lead to excessive use of such sites, up to the level of addiction
especially for individuals with low self-esteem, low self-efficacy and other “problematic” characteristics (), and those
with strong need for escapism ((Turel et al (Links to an external site.). 2014 (Links to an external site.)).

Others may feel guilty regarding the time they spend on Facebook and the way they manage relationships on
Facebook (Turel, 2015 (Links to an external site.)).

The negative effects of Facebook usage were mainly found in parameters such as reduced offline social life
participation, withdrawal from academic studies challenges in relationships (Kuss and Griffiths, 2011 (Links to an
external site.)
It was also found that some Facebook users prefer their social interaction to be online (versus offline). These users
usually engage in social networking site use as a means to regulate their mood changes.
 Users with low levels of self-esteem and high levels of narcissism tend to spend more time on Facebook and post
self-promotional Photoshop-enhanced images (Mehdizadeh, 2010 (Links to an external site.)).
On average, heavy Facebook users tend to be less conscientious and socially lonely (Ryan and Xenos, 2011 (Links
to an external site.)).

With regards to self-worth it was found that its sources (appearance, outdoing, and others) explain online sharing of
photos (Stefanone et al., 2011 (Links to an external site.)). Hence, Facebook users low on self-esteem will be more
likely than others to self-enhance their image on Facebook, and present higher degrees of false Facebook-self.
One’s authenticity in the “real world” (outside of Facebook) will mirror into the Facebook arena, and will lead to
lower degrees of falseness in one’s Facebook representation.
Morgan and Cotten (2003 (Links to an external site.)) reported that the impact of Internet use on depression differs
depending on the activity that one engages in. For example, college students who use the Internet for
communication via instant messaging and chat rooms experience a decrease in depressive symptoms, whereas
depressive symptoms increase when the Internet is used for other purposes (e.g., shopping).

The use of Facebook can also be associated with other psychological problems, beyond addiction. It is specifically
suggested that the use of Facebook, and perhaps other social media sites, can promote false presentation of the
self, which presume to be unhealthy based on false-self theories (Rogers, 1959 (Links to an external site.);
Winnicott, 1960 (Links to an external site.)), because it can ultimately lead to reduced wellbeing and promote
various psychological pathologies

Module 8. Impression Management and Self-Presentation

There will be time, there will be time, to prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet.
T.S. Eliot, The Lovesong of J. Alfred Prufrock

Image versus Self-Concept

Impression Management
Theory is what psychologists call the way we act in public. These are the things we do when someone is watching
so they’ll think of us in a certain way.

Impression Management
Most people are concerned with making good first impressions on others, because they believe that these
impressions will exert lasting effects. Hence, during social interactions; individuals attempt to control their images
both consciously and unconsciously (Schlenker,1980). This is called as Impression Management (also called self-
presentation). It is a behavior used to create and maintain desired images of the self (Gardner & Martinko, 1988).In
other words, Impression Management is a process through which individuals attempt to influence the impressions
other people form of them. The impressions people make on others have implications for how others perceive,
evaluate, and treat them, as well as for their own views of themselves. People sometimes behave in ways that will
create certain impressions in others' eyes
The desire to make a favorable impression on others is a strong one, so most of us do our best to “look good”
to others when we meet them for the first time. Persons who perform impression management successfully do often
gain important advantages in many situations (Sharp & Getz, 1996; Wayne & Liden, 1995).
Individuals use different techniques for boosting their image which generally fall into two categories: effort
increases their appeal to others (self-enhancement) and efforts to make the target person feel good in various ways
(other-enhancement).
Self- enhancement makes use of specific strategies to bend the truth and enhance one’s own appeal, whereas
in Other-enhancement tactics used play an important role in generating liking for the person responsible for them
(Byrne,1992).
According to (Taylor, 1997), Impression Formation is an important universal trend for all individuals, and
managing these impressions affects one’s life deeply (Sallot, 2002). We, humans, seem motivated not only to
perceive ourselves in self-enhancing ways, but also to present ourselves to others in desired ways. How might our
tactics of “impression management” lead to false modesty or self-defeating behavior.
 Newcomers continuously use Impression management tactics to be accepted by the organization, whereas
those who have matured with the organization, used in order to be influential (Demir, 2002). Impression
management strategies have a lot to do with the protection and maintenance of power and have an impact on an
organization’s culture and performance (Jones & Pittman,1982).

Jones & Pittman offered five strategies of impression management: Self-Promotion, Ingratiation,
Exemplification, Intimidation and Supplication. Use of a particular strategy depends on what attribution the first party
is seeking from the second party. (Jones & Pittman,1982).

Types of Self-Promotion
Ingratiation, whereby individuals do favors or use flattery to elicit an attribution of likability from observers
Exemplification, whereby people self-sacrifice or go above and beyond the call of duty in order to gain the attribution
of dedication from observers
Intimidation, where people signal their power or potential to punish in order to be seen as dangerous by observers;
and
Supplication, where individuals advertise their weaknesses or shortcomings in order to elicit an attribution of being
needy from observer

Self-Presentation
Everyone is always trying to maintain an appropriate impression in the social context, in order to get a positive
evaluation (Goffman, 1959). After the emergence of social media, people gradually transfer social activities to the
Internet, and they build their own images through text, images, sound and other symbols systems (Hogan, 2010).
Self-presentation refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how others (called
the audience) view them. It involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create the desired impression.
Self-presentation is part of a broader set of behaviors called impression management.
People have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Each year, Americans spend
billions of dollars on diets, cosmetics, and plastic surgery—all intended to make them more attractive to others.
Political candidates are packaged for the public's consumption like automobiles or breakfast cereals. Parents stress
to their children the importance of first impressions and, when trying to control public misbehaviors, may admonish
them to consider "what the neighbors will think."
Millions of people become paralyzed at the prospect of speaking or performing in public because they are
worried about the audience's evaluation of them. Even in relatively mundane encounters at home, work, school, and
elsewhere, people monitor others' reactions to them and often try to convey images of themselves that promote their
attainment of desired goals.
The need to create a positive impression to others is one reason that people spend billions of dollars a year
on cosmetics and other personal-appearance products. Self-presentational concerns also lead people to engage in
behaviors that enhance their appearance to others but simultaneously jeopardize their own physical well-being (e.g.,
overexposure to the sun; excessive dieting) (Leary, Tchividijian, & Kraxberger, 1994).

The function of self-presentation was first highlighted by Erving Goffman (1959). Goffman noted that social
life is highly structured. In some cases, this structure is formalized (e.g., state dinners at the White House are
characterized by strict rules of protocol), but most often it is informal and tacitly understood (e.g., norms of
politeness and etiquette guide our social interactions).
Among these norms is one that mandates that people support, rather than undermine, one another’s public
identities. Goffman refers to these efforts as face work. Each participant in an interaction is obliged to honor and
uphold the other person’s public persona. Toward this end, people may misrepresent themselves or otherwise
refrain from saying what they really think or feel.
For example, people publicly claim to like the presents they receive, find another person’s new clothes or
hairstyle attractive, or make excuses for why they cannot get together for some social encounter. This kind of self-
presentational behavior seems to be primarily driven by a desire to avoid social conflict and reduce tension
(DePaulo, Kashy, Kirkendol, Wyer, & Epstein, 1996).

Self-serving bias- The tendency to perceive oneself favorably

False modesty
“Humility is often, but a trick whereby pride abases itself only to exalt it alter”
La ROchefoucauld, Maxims, 1665
People sometimes present a different self than they feel. Perhaps you may hear when sometimes an
individual is not self-praising but self-disparaging. Such put downs can be subtly self- serving, for often they elicit
reassuring “strokes” Ex. “I felt like a fool” may trigger a friend to reassure that “you are good, just fine enough” “I
am so ugly” may elicit a response like “you are more attractive compared to some other people whom I know”

Self- Handicapping
Why people handicap themselves with self-defeating behavior?

Self- Handicapping is an act of protecting oneself image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for failure.
Sometimes people destroy their chances for chances by creating impediments that make success less likely. It may
sound self-destructive, but such behavior typically have a self-protective aim. We eagerly protect our self-images by
attributing failure to external factors. Handicaps protect our self-esteem and public image by allowing us to attribute
failures to something temporary or external.
Researchers have documented other ways in which people self-handicap. Fearing failure, people will:
Report feeling depressed( Baumgardner, 1991)
Reduce their preparation for important individual athletic events ( Rhodewalt, et. Ak, 1984)
Perform poorly at the beginning of a task in order not to create unreachable expectations (Baumgardner &
Brwonlee, 1987)
Give their opponents an advantage by giving their best against their opponents’ and yet losing against them would
make people feel inadequate (Shepperd & Arkin, 1991).

Module 9: Managing and Caring for Self

A. Stressors Among Teenagers
"The interpretation of stressful events is more important than the events themselves." - Lazarus
“I think stress is a problem for teenagers like me… because when you get a certain age, you start worrying about
certain things, like, when your puberty comes, your body starts to develop more, and then you get to worry about
school, your families, and what most people think about you.” Girl, 14
Adolescence is a stressful time for many kids. Stress in teens has been linked to withdrawal, aggression,
risky behavior, and substance abuse. A recent study from the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine,
published in the journal Science, helps shed some light on why mental illness in young adults is so common and
how it occurs.
A 2013 survey by the APA found that stress is extremely common among teenagers. Teenagers who
responded to the survey report they’re experiencing what they think are unhealthy levels of stress, especially during
the school year. The term “stress”, as it is currently used was coined by Hans Selye in 1936, who defined it as “the
non-specific response of the body to any demand for change. Stress is a natural human response to pressure when
faced with challenging and sometimes dangerous situations. That pressure is not only about what’s happening
around us, but often also about the demands we place on ourselves.
Lazarus states that stress is experienced when a person perceives that the “demands exceed the personal
and social resources the individual is able to mobilize." .According to Lazarus, the effects that stress has on a
person is based more on that person's feelings of threat, vulnerability, and ability to cope than on the stressful event
itself. He defines psychological stress as a "particular relationship between the person and environment that is
appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her wellbeing."
Stress is a serious health concern for young Australians. In 2015, a research study by Mission Australia found
that almost 40 percent of 15- to 19-year-olds are very concerned about their ability to cope with stress. Stress can
be a trigger for severe depression in teens and may trigger mental illness in young adults who are vulnerable.
"Having the genes for mental illness puts the mice at risk, but it is not enough to cause mental illness," says
Akira Sawa, MD, PhD, a psychiatry professor and director of the schizophrenia center at Johns Hopkins Medical
Center in Baltimore and lead researcher on the study. "When you add stress to the equation, at an age when the
mouse brain is most similar to the human adolescent brain, the mental illness is triggered."
B. Sigmund Freud’s Ego Defense Mechanism
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety
arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings. We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of
anxiety or guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too demanding.
Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out of proportion (i.e., used with frequency),
neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or hysteria.
Why do we need Ego defenses? In order to deal with conflict and problems in life, Freud stated that the ego
employs a range of defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off
unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual

Compensation is a defense mechanism in which people overachieve in one area to compensate for failures in
another.
Denial- the subconscious or conscious process of blinding yourself to negative self-concepts that you believe exist
in you, but that you do not want to deal with or face. It is “closing your eyes” to your negative self-concepts about
people, places, or things that you find too severe to deal with. It is a type of defense mechanism that involves
ignoring the reality of a situation to avoid anxiety. It can be helpful in situations that are beyond a person’s control.
Displacement- is when you express feelings to a substitute target because you are unwilling to express them to the
real target. It is the redirecting of thoughts, feelings, and impulses directed at one person or object, but taken out
upon another person or object. Displacement is the redirecting of thoughts, feelings, and impulses directed at one
person or object, but taken out upon another person or object. People often use displacement when they cannot
express their feelings in a safe manner to the person they are directed at.
Introjection is the acceptance of the standards of others to avoid being rated as negative self-concepts by their
standards. Introjection can be considered as the extreme case of conformity because introjection involves
confirming your beliefs as well as your behaviors.

Projection is the attribution to others of your own negative self-concepts. This occurs when you want to avoid facing
negative self-concepts about your behaviors or intentions, and you do so by seeing them, in other people, instead.
Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or
logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior.
Rationalization is sometimes referred to as the “sour grapes” and “sweet lemon” responses.
Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse, or behavior. People hide their true
feelings by behaving in the exact opposite manner. An example of reaction formation would be treating someone
you strongly dislike in an excessively friendly manner in order to hide your true feelings.
Regression tells that people who feel threatened or anxious may unconsciously “escape” to an earlier stage of
development.
You return to thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of an earlier developmental stage in order to identify yourself as you
used to back then.
Repression is the unconscious blocking of unpleasant emotions, impulses, memories, and thoughts from your
conscious mind.
Suppression involves attempting not to think about a memory or feelings - a person may try to think of another
subject when an uneasy thought enters their mind or they might preoccupy their minds by undertaking an unrelated
task to distract themselves.
Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors
into a more acceptable form. For example, the criminally minded often become police as a way to think well of their
meanness and feelings of being entitled to take advantage of others.

Some common and less well-known defense mechanisms that a person might deploy
Altruism- An act of goodwill towards another person, known as altruistic behavior, can be used as a way of diffusing
a potentially anxious situation. Altruism may be used as a defense mechanism, for example, by being particularly
helpful to a person who we feel might dislike us
Avoidance- When a perceived situation creates anxiety, one convenient option is sometimes to avoid it.
Conversion is a defense mechanism whereby the anxiety caused by repressed impulses and feelings are
‘converted’ into a physical complaint such as a cough or feelings of paralysis.
Fantasy- When life seems mundane or distressing, people often use fantasy as a way of escaping reality. Touch
with reality and take more viable actions to improve our lives.
Humor-George Vaillant described the use of humor as a “mature” defense mechanism - a primarily adaptive
technique to help us to cope with tense or stressful situations. Looking for a funny aspect in an environment in which
we lack control can help us to endure it, and can even be an altruistic act in helping others to better cope as well.
Humility- Showing humility involves lowering our expectations and view of our self-importance, sacrificing our pride
and often focusing on others. Humility can enable us to pacify those around us from intense conflicts and encourage
cooperation with other people to take place
Intellectualization- When a person is attached emotionally to an issue, they may be tempted to consider it in
intellectual terms. This often involves standing back from the situation and attempting to take a cold, neutral view of
it.

Module 10: Self-efficacy, Mindset theory and Principles of Proper Goal Setting
A. Albert Bandura’s Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a sense that one is competent and effective. People with strong feelings of efficacy are more
persistent, less anxious and less depressed. Self-efficacy, or confidence as it is commonly known, is one of the
most enabling psychology models to have been adopted into positive psychology. It is the optimistic self-belief in our
competence or chances of successfully accomplishing a task and producing a favorable outcome.
Self-efficacy is certainly worth having because as Henry Ford famously put it, whether you believe you can or
you can’t, you are right. And Gandhi perfectly understood the pivotal role that self-belief plays in our lives: Your
beliefs become your thoughts. Your thoughts become your words. Your words become your actions. Your actions
become your habits. Your habits become your values. Your values become your destiny.
Self-efficacy plays a major part in determining our chances for success; in fact some psychologists rate self-
efficacy above talent in the recipe for success. We need to pay special attention to self-efficacy when setting goals
to make sure that our efficacy beliefs are in line with our aims and not working against them.

Definitions of Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy, or the beliefs regarding one's capabilities of successfully completing tasks or goals (Locke & Latham,
2002).
Self-efficacy is the belief we have in our own abilities, specifically our ability to meet the challenges ahead of us and
complete a task successfully (Akhtar, 2008).
The basic idea behind the Self-Efficacy Theory is that performance and motivation are in part determined by how
effective people believe they can be (Bandura, 1982; as cited in Redmond, 2010).
Bandura (1977) outlined four sources of information that individuals employ to judge their efficacy: These
components help individuals determine if they believe they have the capability to accomplish specific tasks.

Albert Bandura names four sources of efficacy beliefs.

1. Mastery Experiences
- The first and foremost source of self-efficacy is mastery experiences. However, nothing is more powerful than
having a direct experience of mastery to increase self-efficacy. Having success, for example, in mastering a task or
controlling an environment, will build self-belief in that area whereas a failure will undermine that efficacy belief. To
have a resilient sense of self-efficacy requires experience in overcoming obstacles through effort and perseverance.
2. Vicarious Experiences
- The second source of self-efficacy comes from our observation of people around us, especially people we
consider as role models. Seeing people similar to ourselves succeed by their sustained effort raises our beliefs that
we too possess the capabilities to master the activities needed for success in that area.
3. Verbal Persuasion
- Influential people in our lives such as parents, teachers, managers or coaches can strengthen our beliefs that we
have what it takes to succeed. Being persuaded that we possess the capabilities to master certain activities means
that we are more likely to put in the effort and sustain it when problems arise.
4. Emotional & Physiological States
- The state you’re in will influence how you judge your self-efficacy. Depression, for example, can dampen
confidence in our capabilities. Stress reactions or tension are interpreted as signs of vulnerability to poor
performance whereas positive emotions can boost our confidence in our skills.
5. Imaginal Experiences

Psychologist James Maddux has suggested a fifth route to self-efficacy through “imaginal experiences”, the art of
visualizing yourself behaving effectively or successfully in a given situation.

Carol Dweck’s Mindset theory – Fixed vs. Growth mindset (Dweck)

Why do some students seek to gain competency, whereas others seek to outperform their peers? Why do some
athletes redouble their efforts when facing setbacks, whereas others respond with helplessness? Why do some
dieters feel confident in their ability to face challenges to their weight-loss goals, whereas others feel they lack the
requisite skills?
Mindset theory states the effects of the beliefs that individuals hold for the nature of intelligence. These beliefs are
held to be an important part of people’s motivational systems. They are held to influence the goals that people
pursue, the level of interest that they maintain and the effort that they invest as well as predict their behavior after
setbacks (Dweck, 2000; 2007).
In her earlier research, Dweck identified “entity" and “incremental" theorists, based on whether individuals
attributed success in tasks that required intelligent behavior to having sufficient native aptitude (entity) versus having
practiced a skill and improving performance over time (incremental).
“Mindset" refers to implicit theories that individuals hold regarding the nature of intelligent behavior; to the
degree that individuals attribute intelligence to fixed traits or growth mindset. The terms fixed and growth mindset
replaced the earlier terms for entity and incremental theories of intelligence.
Individuals with a fixed mindset believe that their qualities (such as intelligence and other personality traits) are
“set in stone”– how god made you is basically who you are. One’s traits are fixed — not something that can be
practiced or developed.
Individuals with a fixed mindset tend to be interested only in feedback on their success in activities to the
degree that it serves to evaluate their underlying ability. They are not using the feedback to learn, since they do not
believe that their success depends on their effort to learn. Rather, they believe that success depends on the level of
innate ability that they have. Therefore, they dread failure, because it suggests constraints or limits that they will not
be able to overcome
Individuals with a growth mindset, on the other hand, believe that effort or training can change one’s qualities
and traits. A growth mindset, on the other hand, attributes success to learning. Therefore, the individual is not
terrified of failure, because it only signals the need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master
the new learning opportunity. They are confident that after such effort they will be able to learn the skill or
knowledge, and then to improve their performance.
Messages to children can influence the development of mindset. If parents or teachers constantly seem to attribute
success to inborn or innate abilities, children will come to develop a fixed mindset

“Johnny failed the math test because he is low on math ability". Praise of a child’s performance can be particularly
likely to produce a fixed mindset when it attributes the success to the child’s intelligence (implying aptitude or fixed
traits).
However, if parents or teachers attribute success to effort and practice, children will be more likely to develop a
growth mindset
“Johnny failed the math test because he did not do his homework, but he will pass the next one because i will make
sure he puts in the time and practices". Praise of a child’s efforts to practice, or attributions of success that reference
the prior practice in which the child engaged, can spur the child to develop a growth mindset.
Principles of Proper Goal Setting
What you get by achieving your goals is not as important as what you become by achieving your goals.— Henry
David Thoreau
Dr. Edwin Locke and Dr. Gary Latham spent quite a few years of their lives examining goal setting theory —
they wanted to know why goal setting worked so well for some people and not-so-well for others, and how to
redefine goal setting (Links to an external site.) theory so that it worked optimally for everyone. In 1990, they
published their first goal setting theory book, titled, “a theory of goal setting and task performance.” Within that book,
they outlined principles for successful goal setting to better direct people on how to achieve their desired outcomes.
The principles go as follows:
A. Set clear goals.
Sometimes people set goals such as, “I’m going to start losing weight” or “i am going to be more active.” These
goals are very difficult to achieve because they are near-impossible to measure. These immeasurable goals aren’t
nearly as motivating; plus, one may not even realize it when they have been achieved!
Clear goals would be more along the lines of, “i am going to lose 3 pounds per week, for 3 months” or “i will start
running a mile every morning.”
One way to help you set clearer goals is to use the popular smart goal mnemonic:
1. Specific — goals should be written simplistically and clearly define what exactly you are aiming to do (what, why,
and how).
2. Measurable — you should be able to measure your goals in one way or another; provide yourself with tangible
evidence that you’ve completed your goal. You can even set yourself smaller, mini-accomplishments within a goal if
the goal is quite large.
3. Achievable — goals should be challenging enough to stretch and push you, but not too challenging to where it
is impossible (these goals can be demotivating). You must know that you have it within you to achieve the goal.
Establish a reasonable timeframe to reach your goal; too much stress is never fun.
4. Results-focused — goals should be measured by outcomes, not activities.
5. Time-bound — goals should be set within a certain timeframe. A timeframe will create a sense of urgency and
help to energize you to complete it. Without this sense of urgency, the goal may never get done. However, also
make sure that you give yourself a reasonable amount of time to complete the task.
B. Set challenging goals.
Here are a few more tips of setting challenging (but not too challenging) goals:
Develop self-discipline and a sense of persistence so that you can work through any struggles that may arise in
achieving your goal.
If this is a group goal, create a bit of friendly, competition among the members of the group; competition is wildly
encouraging
Is the goal you’ve set challenging enough to get you excited? Is your interest sparked?
Set milestones and find ways to reward your progress along the way; this will help to motivate you until the very end.
C. Commit to your goals
Make sure this goal is something you are beyond willing to commit to. Write it down, post it up, or perhaps even tell
a trusted friend your goal in order to seal in the commitment.

If you are working on a goal as a team, it is important to make sure that everyone on the team both understands
and agrees with the goal — better yet, make sure they take a part in setting it (this will ensure much better results
from their actions).
D. Get feedback.
- Feedback helps to gauge your progress; if you are moving along well, this can be very motivating— if you are
not, this realization can also be very motivating.

Asexual
- A person who does not experience sexual attraction or has little interest in sexual activity

Gender
- The attitudes, feelings, and behavior that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex (what it
means to be a woman/ a man)
Gender expression
- Individual’s presentation, including physical appearance, clothing choice and assesories, and behavior that
communicates aspects of gender or gender role.
- May or may not conform to a person’s gender identity
Gender Identity
 - A person’s deeply felt, inherent sense of being a boy, a man, or male; a girl, a woman, or a female; or an
alternative gender (genderqueer, gender non-conforming, boygirl, ladyboi) which may or may not
correspond to a person’s sex assigned at birth or to person’s primary or secondary sex characteristics.
- Internal, a person’s gender identity is not necessarily visible to others.
o Affirmed Gender Identity
 Refers to a person’s gender identity after coming out as transgender or gender non-
conforming or undergoing aa social and/or medical transition process.
- One’s sense of oneself as male, female, or something else (American Psychological Association, 2002)
- When one’s gender identity and biological sex are not congruent, the individual may identify along the
transgender spectrum (cf. Gainor, 2000; APA guidelines)
Gender Dysphoria

- Discomfort or distress that is associated with a discrepancy between a person’s identity and that person’s
sex assigned at birth (and the associated gender role and/or primary and secondary sex characteristics)
(Fisk, 1974; Knudson, De Cuypere, & Bockting, 2010).
- Only some gender-nonconforming people experience gender dysphoria at some point in their live.
(Coleman, et al. 2011)
Intersex
- Range of condition associated will a typical development of physical sex characteristics (American
Psychological Association [APA], 2006)
- May be born with chromosomes, genitals and/or gonads that do not fit typical female or male presentations
(OII-USA, 2013)
- Examples: ambiguous external genitals, inability of the body to respond typically to sex-related hormones,
and inconsistency between external genitals and internal reproductive organs (APA, 2006)
Pansexual
- Most commonly used in the world outside academia as a sexual identity [and sexual orientation] term similar
to ‘bisexuality,’ but more inclusive of trans people. (Elizabeth, 2013)
Sex
- A person’s biological status and is typically categorized as male, female, or intersex (i.e., atypical
combinations of features that usually distinguish male from female).
- There are a number of indicators of biological sex, including sex chromosomes, gonads, internal
reproductive organs, and external genitalia. (APA, guidelines).

“A man who conquers HIMSELF is greater than ONE who conquers a thousand men in battle.” - BUDDHA