ISSN: 0025 0406

THE MAHA BODHI

Founded by Bodhisatthva Anagariaka Dharmapala
“Go Ye, O Bhikkhus, and wander forth for the gain of the many, for the welfare of the many,
in compassion for the world, for the good, for the gain, for the welfare of gods and men.
Proclaim, O Bhikkhus, the Doctrine glorious, preach ye a life of holiness, perfect and pure.
- Mahavagga, Vinaya Pitaka

2564 B.E. Vol. 128 December 2020

“Countless times I took birth in the Saÿsàra, all the time

incessantly running (towards the death). In search of the Builder
of this house I have been taking in misery again and again. O
builder of the house! You are now seen, You can’t build the house
again. All the rafters and the central pole (the building materials
of the house) are shattered. The mind is free from all the (bhava)
Saïkhàra. The craving free stage attained”
-Words of the Buddha on attaining Sammà Sambodhi

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Prof. (Dr.) Bimalendra Kumar

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 Editorial Advisory Board
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Prof. Sanghasen Singh, India
Prof. D. K. Barua, Kolkata, India
Prof. K.T.S. Sarao, Delhi, India
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The Maha Bodhi is the bi-annual journal of the Maha Bodhi Society of India,
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 Contents
Part - I
The Enshrinement of the Holy Relic of the Blessed One in the New
Sri Dharma Rajika Chaitya Vihara in Calcutta 11
Centenary of Sri Dharmarajika Chaitya Vihara: A History 19
Tarit Kanti Roy
The History of the first Buddhist Vihara in Kolkata – Sri Dharmarajika Vihara 25
Partha Subir Guha
Sri Dharmarajika Chaitya Vihara : In Search of Buddhist Art and Architecture 27
Oindrila Ghosal
Reflecting on the Auspicious Hundredth Anniversary of
Sri Dharmarajika Chetiya Vihara, Kolkata 36
Subhas Chandra Saha

Part - II
The Impact of Mahayana Buddhism on Javanese Life and Culture 41
Prof. J. Sitaramamma
Da Bore Boluo Miduo Jing: An Ancient Chinese Buddhist Manuscript
on the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra Discovered in Sikkim 50
Dhriti Roy
Reflections on Anatta and Meditation 59
Amartya Kumar Bhattacharya
Suffering as a Condition of Mental Disorder 66
Rajitha P. Kumara
Bodhi, Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva: An Informative Study 74
Sanjib Kumar Das & Geshe Dakpa Kalsang
Values and Ethics in Pali Buddhist Literature: A Study 85
C. Upender Rao
Dharmakirti on Foundational Status of Perception 94
Pramod Kumar
Wheel of Life (Bhavacakra): Scriptural and Visual Presentation 98
Penpa Dorjee
Buddhism and Bengal: Its Past and Pre.sent 106
Lalji ‘Shravak’
Hindu Mahasabha, Congress and the Buddhists in late colonial India:
the question of the Bodh Gaya temple 116
Bhuwan Kumar Jha
Anagarika Dhammapala: One of the Builders of Contemporary India 128
Sanghasen Singh
A Study of the Mamgala Sutta 130
Sanghasen Singh
Buddhism in South East Asia & Swami Vivekananda’s thought for the West: A Critique 134
Professor N.C. Panda
Establishment of Mindfulness of Mind and Phenomena: Theory and
Practice as a Part of Four Mindfulness Teachings of the Buddha 141
Animesh Prakash
Buddhist Monasteries in Kolkata as centres of learning: An Overview 154
Saswati Mutsuddy & Dr. Swarupa Charan
Book Review
Relations in Abhidhamma Philosophy by Bimalendra Kumar 163
Ramesh Prasad
Miśrakābhidharma-hṛdaya śāstra of Dharmatrāta by Lalji 165
S. K. Pathak
 Establishment of Mindfulness of Mind and
Phenomena: Theory and Practice as a Part of Four
Mindfulness Teachings of the Buddha
Animesh Prakash *

It is rightly said that even one drop of practice is better than an ocean of theories and a lot
of resolution. No matter what tradition of Buddhism do we practice, the meditation is the heart,
the gem of Buddha’s teachings. In this regard, the Ciraṭṭhiti sutta of SN (47.22) records that the
Buddhadhamma will not decline until the satipaṭṭhāna practice is developed and cultivated.
The Satipaṭṭhāna sutta is among the most significant and well-known early Buddhist discourses.
It consists a detailed and full exposition of the fourfold placement of mindfulness and clearly shows
how the application of mindfulness of body, feeling, consciousness, and phenomena are firmly
established. This core teaching of the historical Buddha is said to be the direct path for vanishing the
negative emotions present in our mind and for the realisation of nibbāna.
The Satipaṭṭhāna sutta and related discourses
There are two discourses (sutta-s) in Pāli—the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta of MN and the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna-
sutta of DN—which particularly teaches the practice of mindfulness meditation. However, the
bare outline of same fourfold satipaṭṭhāna is discussed in several sutta-s of the other two early
Nikāya-s, namely, the SN and the AN. Needless to say here that the post-canonical literature such as
commentaries, sub-commentaries, manuals, and other later writings details about the similar practice
in an instructive manner.
Apart from the Theravāda expositions, the satipaṭṭhāna discourses are also well-preserved in the
Chinese and the Sanskrit sources.
The satipaññhāna method: the direct way
The fourfold satipaññhāna practice are as follows: establishment of mindfulness of body
(kāyānupassanā); establishment of mindfulness of feeling (vedanānupassanā); establishment
of mindfulness of mind (cittānupassanā); and establishment of mindfulness of phenomena
(dhammānupassanā). The entire discourse consists of twenty-one meditative technique under four
aspects of satipaṭṭhāna: body (fourteen), feeling (one), mind (one), and phenomena (five).

*Assistant Professor of Pali, Central Institute of Higher tibetan studies, Sarnath, Varanasi-221007.
email : animeshatuts@gmail.com

The Maha Bodhi || 141

 For the proper attention to each aspect, there is universal formula after each technique with
respect to each aspect of satipaṭṭhāna. This formula has three steps for the proper realisation of each
attainment. I take, here, an example for the contemplation on mind.
[Formula]
with regard to the mind one dwells in the contemplation of the mind in the following three
modes:
Contemplate Justifes presence/ absence

Internal External Internal-external Arising Passing Arising-Passing

Away away

Mindfulness that “there is a mind placed (paccupaṭṭhitā) in him/her to the extent necessary for
bare knowledge (ñāṇamattāya) and mindfulness (paṭissatimattāya). And one dwells independent
(anissito), not clinging (upādiyati) to anything in the saṁsāra.
The same formula is applied for the other three factors to be contemplated, namely, body, feeling,
and phenomena.
According to the commentary of the satipaṭṭhāna sutta, each of the four satipaṭṭhāna-s are
detailed by the way of aggregate, temperament, and insight.
The establishment of mindfulness of body, feeling and mind correspond to the aggregate of
rūpa, vedanā and viññāṇa respectively while the aggregate of saññā, and saṅkhāra belongs to the
placement of mindfulness of phenomena.
The commentary states that the first two contemplation helps to eliminate craving, however,

The Maha Bodhi || 142

the removal of intellectual speculations concerns with the last two contemplations. It indicates
that the practice of feeling and mind are recommended for those with a more affective inclination,
while the practice of mind and phenomena suit those of a more cognitive orientation. Moreover, the
commentary on Vibh points out that the fourfold division is only functional and can be compared to
a weaver splitting a piece of bamboo into four parts to weave a basket.1
In terms of insight a meditator attains the realisation of the absence of beauty by the practice
of body, un-satisfactoriness by feeling, impermanence nature by mind, and non-self-nature by the
phenomena.
Single satipaṭṭhāna and the realisation of Nibbāna
Although, this is not very matured question whether a single satipaṭṭhāna can lead the attainment
of Buddhahood. But, I am going to discuss a few points here, as this topic sometimes bothers us.
Ānāpānasati-sutta (MN 118) instructs that through the practice of mindfulness of breathing, it is
possible to develop all four aspects of satipaṭṭhāna contemplation and hence a single meditation
object integrates all aspects of satipaṭṭhāna contemplation. In support of this theory, there are a few
other discourses of the SN (43.12; 47.11; and 47.35) and the commentary on MN (Ps 1.249, 1.252,
1.277, 1.280) state that even a single satipaṭṭhāna contemplation leads directly to the realisation of
full awakening. Moreover, some modern meditation masters also believe the same and focus on a
single technique. They are in opinion that all the four satipaṭṭhāna-s do work together with each other
in a background having a single aspect as a part of primary object of meditation. For example, âcàrya
S. N. Goenka Ji focuses on vedanā only. He says vedanā samosaraṇā sabbe dhammā—Everything
that arises in the mind is accompanied by sensation. Again, he says that the proper contemplation
of Vedanā leads to get such a special sensation and that is “the entire world is nothing but burning
up and vibration” this quote can be clear seen in the Mnd (1.15; Attadaṇḍasuttaniddeso) and Their
(9.61; Aṭṭhakanipāto). I quote: sabbo pajjalito loko, sabbo loko pakampito’ti.
If this is the case that one satipaṭṭhāna can lead awakening, then why did the Buddha teach all
four contemplations? On the other hand, there are a few scholars and monk such as Ñāṇaponika
Thera, author of the heart of Buddhist Meditation (1992) and Soma Thera, author of the Way of
Mindfulness: The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and its Commentary (1975) do not deny that with one primary
object of contemplation, the other aspects of satipaṭṭhāna should be deliberately contemplated too,
even if only in a secondary manner but they recommend on qualifying all four contemplations. They
say that in the prediction section of the satipaṭṭhāna sutta clearly mentions that the development of
all four satipaṭṭhāna contemplation leads to any two of the higher awakening—either non-returner
or arahantship. Debes (1994:190) aptly sums up:
“it may be possible to gain realisation with one single exercise, but that one who has practised
all of them should still not realise awakening would seem to be impossible.”
(cf. Analayo 2003: 23)
The sequence of the satipaṭṭhāna contemplations leads in a progressive pattern from grosser to
more subtle levels. The similar explanation I quote from the Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra —
“having investigated the body, the meditator searches for the cause of attachment to it, which is
evameva Bhagavā... nayena ārammaṇavasena catudhā bhinditvā tato ekekaṃ satipaṭṭhānaṃ gahetvā vibhajanto. VibhA; 222.
1

The Maha Bodhi || 143

found to be pleasant feeling. Investigating feelings, the question “who experiences feelings?” arises,
leading to contemplation of the mind. This in turn forms a basis for an inquiry into the causes and
conditions of mind, being the focus of contemplation of dhammas.” (cf. Guenther (1957, 219), and
Analayo (2003, 20))
Prerequisite mental qualities for the satipaṭṭhāna
Being ardent (ātāpī), clearly comprehending (sampajāna), endowed with mindfulness (satimā)
and free from desires (avijjā) and discontent (domanassa) - these mental qualities support a
meditator for the attainment of the fruit of meditation. However, according to the Papañcasūdanī,
the commentary on MN mentions that lacking any of the first three qualities may cause the failure to
the practice of mindfulness meditation.2
Establishment of Mindfulness of Mind (cittānupassanā)
The placement of mindfulness of mind is prescribed for those who are intellectually dull and
possess a propensity for diṭṭhi (i.e., theorising type). This satipaññhāna correspond to the aggregate
of viññāṇa and a meditator realises the impermanence as insight having succeeded to this state. The
practice of mindfulness of mind instructs thus:
He knows a lustful mind to be “lustful”, and a mind without lust to be “without lust”; he knows
an angry mind to be “angry”, and a mind without anger to be “without anger”; he knows a deluded
mind to be “deluded”, and a mind without delusion to be “without delusion”; he knows a contracted
mind to be “contracted”, and a distracted mind to be “distracted”; he knows a great mind to be
“great”, and a narrow mind to be “narrow”; he knows a surpassable mind to be “surpassable”, and
an unsurpassable mind to be “unsurpassable”; he knows a concentrated mind to be “concentrated”,
and an unconcentrated mind to be “unconcentrated”; he knows a liberated mind to be “liberated”,
and an unliberated mind to be “unliberated”. (Analayo 2003: 187)3
A meditator practices on the sixteen state of mind for the practice of the placement of mindfulness
of mind. The scope of these sixteen minds ranging from unwholesome- to wholesome- state of mind.
Moreover, they can be analysed with their two aspects: ordinary- and higher- states of mind. A
meditator, during contemplation, knows these two aspects of mind with the presence and absence.
The presence and the absence of four unwholesome mental states—lust (rāga), hatred (dosa),
delusion (moha), and distraction (vikkhita)—belongs to ordinary mind while the higher state of mind
concern with the presence and absence of great (mahaggata), unsurpassable (anuttara), concentrated
(samāhita), and liberated (vimutta) mind.
According to the commentary of the Satipaññhāna sutta, all sixteen-fold mental states belong
to the mundane state (lokiya), none of the consciousness in concerned with the supramundane state
(lokuttara). Ps (I 279) also states the same—idha ekapadepi lokuttaraṃ na labbhati.
2
..yasmā anātāpino antosaṅkhepo antarāyakaro hoti, asampajāno upāyapariggahe anupāyaparivajjane ca sammuyhati,
muṭṭhassati upāyāpariccāge anupāyāpariggahe ca asamattho hoti, tenassa taṃ kammaṭṭhānaṃ na sampajjati… Ps, 306
3
Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu sarāgaṃ vā cittaṃ sarāgaṃ cittanti pajānāti. Vītarāgaṃ vā cittaṃ vītarāgaṃ cittanti pajānāti.
Sadosaṃ vā cittaṃ sadosaṃ cittanti pajānāti. Vītadosaṃ vā cittaṃ vītadosaṃ cittanti pajānāti samohaṃ vā cittaṃ samohaṃ
cittanti pajānāti. Vītamohaṃ vā cittaṃ vītamohaṃ cittanti pajānāti. Saṅkhittaṃ vā cittaṃ saṅkhittaṃ cittanti pajānāti.
Vikkhittaṃ vā cittaṃ vikkhittaṃ cittanti pajānāti. Mahaggataṃ vā cittaṃ mahaggataṃ cittanti pajānāti. Amahaggataṃ
vā cittaṃ amahaggataṃ cittanti pajānāti. Sauttaraṃ vā cittaṃ sauttaraṃ cittanti pajānāti. Anuttaraṃ vā cittaṃ anuttaraṃ
cittanti pajānāti. Samāhitaṃ vā cittaṃ samāhitaṃ cittanti pajānāti. Asamāhitaṃ vā cittaṃ asamāhitaṃ cittanti pajānāti.
Vimuttaṃ vā cittaṃ vimuttaṃ cittanti pajānāti. Avimuttaṃ vā cittaṃ avimuttaṃ cittanti pajānāti.

The Maha Bodhi || 144

i. Lustful mind (sarāgaṁ vā cittaṁ)
Aṭṭhavidhalobhasahagataṁ. Eight unwholesome consciousness of the mundane state, those are
rooted in greed, first among the three unwholesome roots. Here, lobha includes all degree of greed
ranging from intense passion to subtle liking. Delusion, the third among the wholesome roots also
co-exists with these eight consciousness as underlying roots.
ii. Mind without lust (Vītarāgaṁ vā cittaṁ)
Lokiyakusalābyākataṃ. These consciousnesses belong to the wholesome and neutral mundane
state.
In terms of mind with and without lust, it should be understood that the rest of four unwholesome
consciousness i.e., dosamūlaka and mohamūlaka—domanassasahagataṃ paṭighasampayuttaṃ
asaṅkhārikamekaṃ, sasaṅkhārikamekanti imāni dvepi paṭighasampayuttacittāni nāma.
upekkhāsahagataṃ vicikicchāsampayuttamekaṃ, upekkhāsahagataṃ uddhaccasampayuttamekanti
imāni dvepi momūhacittāni nāma—does not belong to either i.e., sarāgaṃ and vītarāgaṃ cittaṃ.4
iii. Mind with hatred (sadosaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Duvidhaṃ dosasahagataṃ. Among the twelve consciousness of unwholesome state, there are two
states of consciousness are regarded as the mind associated with hatred. They are—a. accompanied
by displeasure, associated with hatred, and unprompted, b. Accompanied by displeasure, associated
with hatred and prompted.5 Rest of ten consciousness of unwholesome state do not belong to sadosaṃ
vā cittaṃ.
iv. Mind without hatred (vītadosaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Lokiyakusalābyākataṃ. These consciousnesses belong to the wholesome and neutral mundane
state.
In this way, ten consciousness of unwholesome kāmāvacara-akusala-citta do not belong neither
to sadosaṃ vā cittaṃ nor to vītadosaṃ vā cittaṃ.6
v. Mind with delusion (samohaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Duvidhaṃ. Among the twelve consciousness of unwholesome state, there are two states of
consciousness which are regarded as the mind associated with delusion. They are—a. accompanied
by equanimity and associated with doubt, b. Accompanied by equanimity and associated with
restlessness. These two types of consciousness involve sheer delusion.
vi. Mind without delusion (vītamohaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Lokiyakusalābyākataṃ. These consciousnesses belong to the wholesome and neutral mundane
state.

4
Bodhi, 36-37: idaṃ pana yasmā sammasanaṃ na dhammasamodhānaṃ, tasmā idha ekapadepi lokuttaraṃ na labbhati.
sesāni cattāri akusalacittāni neva purimapadaṃ, na pacchimapadaṃ bhajanti.
5
Bodhi, 36-37: domanassasahagataṃ paṭighasampayuttaṃ asaṅkhārikamekaṃ, sasaṅkhārikamekanti imāni dvepi
paṭighasampayuttacittāni nāma.
6
Ps. 279: sesāni dasākusalacittāni neva purimaṃ padaṃ, na pacchimaṃ padaṃ bhajanti.

The Maha Bodhi || 145

vii. Contracted mind (saṅkhittaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Thinamiddhānupatitaṃ, etañhi saṃkuṭitacittaṃ nāma. The contracted states of mind are those
state, which fallen into sloth (thīna) and torpor (middha). They are also called Saṅkuṭita-cittaṃ.
viii. Distracted mind (vikkhittaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Uddhaccasahagataṃ, etañhi pasaṭacittaṃ nāma. The distracted state of mind is always
accompanied by agitation (uddhacca). They are also called as Pasaṭa-cittaṃ.
ix. Great Mind (mahaggataṃ vā cittaṃ)
Rūpārūpāvacaraṃ. Great minds are otherwise called the fine-material-sphere-consciousness
and the immaterial sphere. The fine-material-sphere-consciousness are, by the way of wholesome
(5), resultant (5), and functional (5), fifteen in number and the immaterial sphere, by the way of
wholesome (4), resultant (4), and functional (4), are twelve in number.
x. Narrow mind (amahaggataṃ vā cittaṃ)
Kāmāvacaraṃ. The narrow-minded consciousnesses are the sense-sphere consciousness. They
are fifty-four in number.
xi. Surpassable mind (sauttaraṃ vā cittaṃ)
Kāmāvacaraṃ. The surpassable consciousness are the sense-sphere consciousness. They are
fifty-four in number.
xii. Unsurpassable mind (anuttaraṃ vā cittaṃ)
Rūpāvacarañca arūpāvacarañca. The unsurpassable minds are those, which belong to any fine-
material-sphere-consciousness and the immaterial sphere. However, among the unsurpassable-s the
fine-material-sphere-consciousness are named as sauttaraṃ and the immaterial consciousness are
entitled as anuttaraṃ.
xiii. Concentrated mind (samāhitaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Yassa appanāsamādhi upacārasamādhi vā atthi. It refers to the conscious state associated with
access (upacāra) concentration or absorption (appaṇā) concentration.
xiv. Unconcentrated mind (asamāhitaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Ubhayasamādhivirahitaṃ. If the meditator’s mental state does not belong to either concentration-
full (absorption) or partial (access)–it belongs to the asamāhitacittaṃ. Absorption (appaṇā)
concentration only occurs at anuttaracittaṃ.
xv. Liberated mind (vimuttaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Tadaṅgavikkhambhanavimuttīhi vimuttaṃ.
During absorption when one’s mind partially be free from defilements or surpasses the
hindrances of the concentration, one becomes (temporarily) liberated. Therefore, the moment when
the defilements are suppressed, one is temporarily liberated from the defilements, one’s mental
state refers to vimuttacittaṃ. In other words, liberated minds can be taken to refer to experiences of

The Maha Bodhi || 146

mental freedom with regard to twofold meditation—calm and insight. However, this state does stay
temporarily.
xvi. Unliberated mind (avimuttaṃ vā cittaṃ)
Any mental state not associated with any temporary emancipation is called unliberated mind.
These mental states refer to such a conscious level, where a meditator does not attain mental freedom.
He sees and knows the defilements in his body and mind.7
Establishment of Mindfulness of Phenomena (dhammānupassanā)
In order to practice the fourth and the last satipaṭṭhāna, it is said in the Ps that dhammānupassanā
is suitable for sharp theoriser (tikkhassa). That is why, it is advised to contemplate on phenomena to
those who has successfully qualified in the establishment of mindfulness of mind (cittānupassanā).
A meditator, having qualified the third satipaṭṭhāna, knows clearly all the sixteen aspects of mind
and hence tendency for diṭṭhi becomes weaker. It automatically allows him to move forward for
deeper concentration and investigate those mental factors, which actually obstruct the path.
Following the gradual system, a mediator proceeds with hindrances, the first phenomena of the
placement of mindfulness of phenomena. This is how a bridge is made from the Cittānupassanā to
Dhammānupassanā. The placement of mindfulness of phenomena correspond to the aggregate of
saññā and saṅkhāra. Comprehension of these two aggregates make a meditator realises the non-self-
nature as insight.
This practice includes the specific categories of phenomena—contemplation on hindrances,
aggregates, sense-sphere, awakening factor, and the four-noble truth. In other words, one practices
the dhamma-s in terms of each categories of phenomena stated above.
The Five Hindrances (Nivaraṇa-s)
The five hindrances—sensual-passion, ill-will, sloth and torpor, excitement and worry, and
perplexity— can be seen here as the manifestation of the three unwholesome roots—greed, hatred,
and delusion. A meditator, in the cittānupassanā state, knows only the presence and absence of
these three roots or these hindrances while in the practice of dhammānupassanā he recognises the
conditions underlying the presence or absence of each obstructions. And hence, prevents for future
arising. Following the practice, gradually, he knows these hindrances are eliminated with certain
conditions. The instructions are given as follows:
If sensual desire is present in him, he knows “there is sensual desire in me”; if sensual desire is
not present in him, he knows “there is no sensual desire in me”; and he knows how unarisen sensual
desire can arise, how arisen sensual desire can be removed, and how a future arising of the removed
sensual desire can be prevented. If aversion is present in him, he knows.... If sloth-and- torpor is
present in him, he knows.... If restlessness-and-worry is present in him, he knows.... If doubt is present
in him, he knows “there is doubt in me”; if doubt is not present in him, he knows “there is no doubt
in me”; and he knows how unarisen doubt can arise, how arisen doubt can be removed, and how a
future arising of the removed doubt can be prevented. (Analayo, 187)
This practice does not only eliminate the obstruction of the path but also allow to contemplate
7
Ps. 279: Ubhayavimuttivirahitaṃ, samucchedapaṭippassaddhinissaraṇavimuttīnaṃ pana idha okāsova natthi.

The Maha Bodhi || 147

on the awakening factor. If we minutely see the awakening factor they are the opposite state of
hindrances. In this way, a meditator can easily proceed for the awakening factor, a requisite condition
for becoming the Buddha.
Having contemplated the Dhamma with regard to hindrances, a meditator proceeds for the
aggregates.
The Five Aggregates (Khandha)
Our body is made up of nāma and rūpa. The term nāma represents the four aggregates except
the material form (rūpa)8, namely feeling (vedanā)9, perception (saññā)10, volition (saṅkhāra)11, and
consciousness (viññāṇa)12. A meditator, now, proceeds for the contemplation on each aggregate.
Clinging to five aggregates, as the Buddha said, is the root cause of suffering. Therefore, one can
overcome suffering, when one fully understands the impermanence nature of each aggregate. During
this course, one need to know the arising, passing away, and the conditioned nature of each aggregates.
The instruction, for the true realisation ranging from the gross physical body to a subtle mental state,
is given in the following manner—
He knows “such is material form, such its arising, such its passing away; such is feeling, such
its arising, such its passing away; such is cognition, such its arising, such its passing away; such are
volitions, such their arising, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its arising, such
its passing away.” (Analayo, 203)
This practice plays a significant role for a meditator who wish to enter in the supramundane state
(lokuttara jhāna). It is evident from the canon that if a meditator detaches himself from the clinging
of the five aggregates, the constituent factors of one’s personality, he enables himself to realise the
impermanent and conditioned nature of each aggregate. Such a realisation make a meditator attain
the first stage of supramundane-state i.e., stream entry, he becomes sotāpanna. Here, it does not
mean that this practice does not help in other three supramundane state. SN III 167 mentions that it
is practice by the Arahata-s and leads all four supramundane states—strem-entry, once-returning,
non-returning, and Arahata.
The Sense-sphere (Āyatana)
Through the contemplation on five aggregates, one experience subjectively. Therefore, in order
to analyse the outer world or to experience objectively, one needs to contemplate on sense-sphere.
There are six internal and six external sense-spheres. Like the five aggregates, sense-sphere also leads
to awakening. However, the insight and detachment regarding these twelve sense-sphere removes the
I-centered thoughts or a substantial I. Without removing I-ness it is impossible to to get away of
unsatisfactoriness and realise awakening. I quote the instruction given for this contemplation—
He knows the eye, he knows forms, and he knows the fetter that arises dependent on both, and he
also knows how an unarisen fetter can arise, how an arisen fetter can be removed, and how a future
arising of the removed fetter can be prevented.
He knows the ear, he knows sounds, and he knows the fetter that arises dependent on both, and….
He knows the nose, he knows odours, and he knows the fetter that arises dependent on both,
8
Four great elements and twenty-four elements generated by the great elements themselves.
9
Affective aspect of experience.
10
Cognitive aspect of experience.
11
Cognitive aspect of mind.
12
Conscious of something.

The Maha Bodhi || 148

and….
He knows the tongue, he knows flavours, and he knows the fetter that arises dependent on both,
and....
He knows the body, he knows tangibles, and he knows the fetter that arises dependent on both,
and....
He knows the mind, he knows mind-objects, and he knows the fetter that arises dependent on
both, and he also knows how an unarisen fetter can arise, how an arisen fetter can be removed, and
how a future arising of the removed fetter can be prevented. (Analayo, 216-17)
The Awakening Factor (Bojjhaṅga)
Gaṅgānadīādisutta of SN (46.82-93) clearly mentions that a meditator who develops and makes
much of the seven faros of enlightenment flow, slides, and tends towards nibbāna- satta bojjaṅge
bhāvento satta bojjhṅge bahulīkaronto nibbāna ninno hoti nibbānapoṇo nibbānapabbhāro.
Saṃbojjhaṅga has been explained in the commentary of Satipaṭṭhāna sutta as the harmony of
seven dhammas, viz., sati, dhammavicaya, viriya, pīti, passaddhi, samādhi, and upekkhā, is called
‘Sambodhi’. Human beings realise the truth by this harmony. Thus, factor of person and harmony of
seven things are called saṃbojjhaṅga- “Sā dhammasāmaggī sambodhi.”
The instruction for the practice of sambojjaṅga is as follows:
If the mindfulness awakening factor is present in him, he knows “there is the mindfulness
awakening factor in me”; if the mindfulness awakening factor is not present in him, he knows “there
is no mindfulness awakening factor in me”; he knows how the unarisen mindfulness awakening
factor can arise, and how the arisen mindfulness awakening factor can be perfected by development.
If the investigation-of-dhammas awakening factor is present in him, he knows.... If the energy
awakening factor is present in him, he knows.... If the joy awakening factor is present in him, he
knows.... If the tranquillity awakening factor is present in him, he knows.... If the concentration
awakening factor is present in him, he knows....
If the equanimity awakening factor is present in him, he knows “there is the equanimity awakening
factor in me”; if the equanimity awakening factor is not present in him, he knows “there is no
equanimity awakening factor in me”; he knows how the unarisen equanimity awakening factor can
arise, and how the arisen equanimity awakening factor can be perfected by development. (Analayo
2003, 233-34)
Here, in this instruction we see that the practice for the contemplation of satisaṃbojjhaṅga
proceeds similarly to the contemplation on nīvaraṇa: first knows these mental qualities whether they
are present or absent and their respective conditions. However, there is one difference in practice
of both that a meditator, in contemplating hindrances, makes sure the absence all the hindrances
and makes himself aware enough so that those negative factors cannot arise in future. On the other
hand, in the contemplation of the awakening factors, with the presence of those awakening factors, a
meditator knows how to develop and firmly establish these positive mental qualities.
The practice instructs to constantly aware of the presence (santaṃ) and absence (assantaṃ) of
mindfulness as a factor of awakening. If it is present one should develop it. If it is absent, one should
strive for making it arise. It is nicely stated in Ᾱhāra sutta: Atthi, bhikkhave, satisambojjhaṅgaṭṭhānīyā
dhammā. Tattha yoniso manasikāra bahulīkāro– ayaü āhāro anuppannassa vā satisambojjhaṅgassa
uppādāya, uppannassa vā satisambojjhaṅgassa bhāvanāya pāripūriyā (SN 46.51).

The Maha Bodhi || 149

 The commentary on the satipaṭṭhāna sutta mentions here are four things, which help the aspirant
in developing Sati as a factor of enlightenment, they are: Mindfulness with clear comprehension
(satimā and sampajāno); avoiding of person with confused mind (muṭṭhasatissa asevanā); association
with person who keep mindfulness ready for application (samāhitassa asevanā); and inclination
towards mindfulness in all posture of body (iriyāpathesu tadadhimuttatā). (Cf. Soma, 152)13
Therefore, the awakening factor of sati is the ground supporting factor and necessary condition
for other these six factors. Moreover, Aggi suttaṃ of SN (46.53) instructs that a meditator should
practice the contemplation on investigation of dhammas (dhammavicaya), energy (viriya), and
joy (pīti) when the mind is lacking in energy, and inactive (yasmiṃ samaye līnaṃ cittaṃ hoti).
However, the last three practices—tranquillity (passaddhi), concentration (samādhi), and equanimity
(upekkhā)—should be practiced when mind is bewildering, excited and over-energetic (yasmiṃ
samaye uddhattaṃ cittaṃ hoti).
These awakening factors are the opposite states of hindrances as it is mentioned several times in the
Bojjhaṅga-saüyutta of the SN. Hence, these awakening factors eliminate hindrances. For example,
dhammavicaya, viriya, passaddhi eliminates vicikicchā, thīnamiddha, and uddhaccakukkucca
respectively (SN 46.51). And pīti is said to be the absence of vitakka and vicāra—avitakkaavicārā
pīti (SN 46.52).
The Four Noble Truth (Cattāri Ariya Saccāni)
The commentary of Mahasatipaṭṭhāna sutta states that mindfulness (sati), which examines the
four Noble Truths, is of dukkhasacca. The prescription, which brings about that mindfulness is the
dukkhasamudaya. The non-occurrence of both is the dukkhanirodha. The noble eight-fold path,
which understands dis-satisfactoriness, abandons origination, and objectifies cessation in the truth of
the path. This is how the relation between mindfulness and the four noble truths are stated.
In the Saccaniddesa of Vism, the practitioner is advised to understand the four Noble Truths as
void (suññatā). The statement runs as follows: “In ultimate sense, all the truths should be understood
as void because of the absence of: 1. Any experiencer; 2. Any Doer; 3. Anyone who is extinguished;
and, 4. Any Goer. Hence it is said- “Dukkhameva hi, na koci dukkhito, kārako kiriyāva vijjati, atthi
nibbuti, na nibbuto puma, maggamatthi gamako na vijjatī”ti.
The instruction for this practice is:
He knows as it really is, “this is dukkha”, he knows as it really is, “this is the arising of dukkha”,
he knows as it really is, “this is the cessation of dukkha”, he knows as it really is, “this is the way
leading to the cessation of dukkha.” (Analayo, 243)14
At the end of this discourse, the Buddha the Buddha declares that if a meditator—monk, nun,
layman, or a laywoman—develop these fourfold contemplations properly for seven years, he/she
will get either of results: final knowledge here and now or non- returning.15 However, the realisation
13
Apica cattāro dhammā satisambojjhaṅgassa uppādāya saṃvattanti satisampajaññaṃ muṭṭhassatipuggalaparivajjanatā
upaṭṭhitassatipuggalasevanatā tadadhimuttatāti. Abhikkantādīsu hi sattasu ṭhānesu satisampajaññena,
bhattanikkhittakākasadise muṭṭhassatipuggale parivajjanena, tissadattatthera-abhayattherasadise upaṭṭhitassatipuggale se-
vanena, ṭhānanisajjādīsu satisamuṭṭhāpanatthaṃ ninnapoṇapabbhāracittatāya ca satisambojjhaṅgo uppajjati. Evaṃ catūhi
kāraṇehi uppannassa panassa arahattamaggena bhāvanāpāripūri hotīti pajānāti.
14
idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu ‘idaṃ dukkhan’ti yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti, ‘ayaṃdukkhasamudayo’ti yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti,
‘ayaṃ dukkhanirodho’ti yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti, ‘ayaṃdukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā’ti yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti. (MN, p. 62)
15
“yo hi koci, bhikkhave, ime cattāro satipaṭṭhāne evaṃ bhāveyya satta vassāni, tassadvinnaṃ phalānaṃ aññataraṃ phalaṃ
pāṭikaṅkhaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme aññā; sati vā upādiseseanāgāmitā. (MN, p. 63)

The Maha Bodhi || 150

depends on the one’s personality and intelligence. In the canon it is said that a meditator can attain
the same even in seven days.16 Moreover, according to the commentary on MN, a meditator can attain
the final knowledge here and now in the evening even if he starts this practice in the morning. So, the
meditator’s state of mind even make himself realise the final truth in just one day.
The Buddha calls this practice as the direct path (ekāyano maggo) for the purification of beings
(maggo sattānaṃ visuddhiyā), for the surmounting of sorrow and lamentation (sokaparidevānaṃ
samatikkamāya), for the disappearance of dukkha and discontent (dukkhadomanassānaṃ
atthaṅgamāya), for acquiring the true method (ñāyassa sacchikiriyā), for the realization of Nibbāna
(nibbānassa sacchikiriyāya), namely, the four satipaìṭṭhāna-s.
Internal- external- internal-external formula
Canon Commentary Practitioner Remarks
Ajjhataṃ (internally) It is said to be attano, meaning MN 51 and SN 46.6
oneself
Again, attano is understood is
Sukhajjhāna in MN 213
Manodvāra, Mind-door Not always appropriate. According to Analayo
(2003) an interpretation
Direct experience (the Com- One’s own bodily and mental
of Uddesavibhaṅgasutta:
mentary on Anupada sutta) processes are accessible to direct
experience only. [Ñāṇponika Internal as mind door and
(1975), Mahasi Sayadaw (1999) external as five sense door
Bahihhaṃ (exter- It is said to be parassa, of Through supernatural pow- not always appropriate.
nally) other; DN 18 says parakāye, ers (Abhiññā) such as It holds true in relation to
paracittavijānana? several Satipaṭṭhāna.
paradhamma. Goenka (2001) explains Contem-
plating the mind experience an
object from outside. MN 51 and SN 46.6 speaks
internal as all six senses.
Sense-door Not always appropriate.
Inference Pa-Auk Sayadaw (2000) claims
that one should practice externally
by direct experience only, not by
inference.
Mahasi Sayadaw interprets con-
templating other’s (body/mind) as
contemplating other’s (body/mind)
by inference after having contem-
plated one’s own mind and body.
Direct-experience Pa-Auk Sayadaw (2000) sup-
ports this theory.
Ajjhatabahiddhaṃ Oneself-other “Internal” and “external”
(internally- exter- occur together in a sense of
nally) “whatever there is”,
expressing a sense of com-
prehensiveness.
(Suttanipāta 516, 521, 527)
16
“tiṭṭhantu, bhikkhave, satta vassāni. yo hi koci, bhikkhave, ime cattāro satipaṭṭhāne evaṃbhāveyya cha vassāni ... pe ...
pañca vassāni... cattāri vassāni... tīṇi vassāni... dve vassāni...ekaṃ vassaṃ... tiṭṭhatu, bhikkhave, ekaṃ vassaṃ. yo hi koci,
bhikkhave, ime cattāro satipaṭṭhāneevaṃ bhāveyya satta māsāni, tassa dvinnaṃ phalānaṃ aññataraṃ phalaṃ pāṭikaṅkhaṃ
diṭṭhevadhamme aññā; sati vā upādisese anāgāmitā. tiṭṭhantu, bhikkhave, satta māsāni. yo hi koci,bhikkhave, ime cattāro
satipaṭṭhāne evaṃ bhāveyya cha māsāni ... pe ... pañca māsāni... cattārimāsāni... tīṇi māsāni... dve māsāni... ekaṃ māsaṃ...
aḍḍhamāsaṃ... tiṭṭhatu, bhikkhave,aḍḍhamāso. yo hi koci, bhikkhave, ime cattāro satipaṭṭhāne evaṃ bhāveyya sattāhaṃ,
tassadvinnaṃ phalānaṃ aññataraṃ phalaṃ pāṭikaṅkhaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme aññā sati vā upādiseseanāgāmitā”ti. (MN, p. 63)

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 The formula, throughout the satipaṭṭhāna practice, instructs that a meditator must contemplate
internally (ajjhataṃ), externally (bahiddhā), and internal-external-mode (ajjhatabahiddhā). One
may raise questions such as how does a meditator contemplate other people’s bodily phenomena, such
as breathing-in and breathing-out? And, how does a meditator contemplate the mental phenomena
of other persons, such as miscellaneous states of mind? Here, we need to analyse the views as
depicted in the canon, commentaries, and of course we need to know the experience of a practitioner.
Concerning this, I am going to show some data as given in the canon, commentaries, along with the
personal views of practitioners and their interpretations on instructions as given in Pali literature.
Concluding remarks
The discourse on satipaṭṭhāna is common to all Buddhist schools irrespective of vehicle.
However, the practice of each vehicle differs in terms of technique and philosophical position. I
say “common practice” in a sense that the system of satipaṭṭhāna is entirely from conditioned to
unconditioned. Practice, however, does not determined by philosophical positions but by motivation.
Those who are motivated to work for the welfare of all sentient beings, they are really “maha-” as
there is greatness in terms of scope.
Although, any aspect of meditation is determined by observer’s temperament and his/her
mental elevation but the fourfold satipaṭṭhāna is very systematic and logical practice in order.
The contemplation on body is the first practice and easy to proceed. For example, the practice of
Ānāpāna is suitable to everyone, to all six temperaments as given by the Buddhaghosa in the Vism.
The observer while finding (Ahir, 1999) (Gunaratana, 1999) (Bodhi, A Comprehensive Manual
of Abhidhamma, 2010) (Willemen, 2012; Tatia, 1975) the cause of attachment and detachment to
his/her body, he/she knows and feels pleasant and unpleasant sensation respectively. This is the
emotional state, which leads to investigate who is having this sensation, what is it? And gradually
he finds the various aspects of mind so called the sixteen-fold mind under cittānupassanā. Again,
when a meditator makes effort to understand the cause and conditions to those “higher and ordinary
minds,” he automatically contemplate on the phenomena. The true realisation of the dhamma with
the aid of first three contemplations leads to nibbāna.
All twenty-one meditative techniques of the satipaṭṭhāna method allow a practitioner to experience
one’s own subjectively. In other words, with the aid of four aspect of the establishment of mindfulness
one can have a subjective comprehension of five aggregates, which leads to the realisation of anatta.
The attainment of anatta state or the complete elimination of any substantiality could be understood
and seen clearly through satipaṭṭhāna, this direct way, which is also mentioned in the SN (IV, 197).
Moreover, the commentary gives a simile of a city, which is approachable through different gateways
and agrees that each aspect of satipaṭṭhāna have the same essence: they lead to nibbāna. I agree with all
those scholars and practitioners such as Ñāṇaponikā (1992), Ñāṇananda (1993), and Anālayo (2003)—
the more subjective experience can be seen “objectively”, the more the “I”-dentification diminishes.
For the external mode of practice, it seems that one can observe externally different states of
other’s mind through abhiññā, however, it is really difficult to conclude external understanding
through ‘inference’ or ‘direct experience’.
May we all develop and cultivate the satipaṭṭhāna, the direct way to Buddha’s wisdom and
compassion.

The Maha Bodhi || 152

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