Material Book Seminar Mark

Materials & Processes
For Spacecraft & High Reliability Applications

FAILURE ANALYSIS OF
ELECTRICAL INTERCONNECTIONS
AND RECOMMENDED PROCESSES
MARK ANGELO C. PURIO

OUTLINE
6.5 Soldered Interconnections
6.5.5 Failure Analysis of Electrical Interconnections and

Recommended Processes
6.6 Problems Associated with Coatings for Soldering Applications
6.6.1 The Need for Coatings

6.6.2 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered To’
6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’
6.7 The Use of Indium Solder Alloys

2
Failure Analysis of Electrical Interconnections
6.5.5 and Recommended Processes
Solder Joint Cracking
❑ Due to poor handling of preformed cables during integration onto the
space craft
❑ Thermal cycling when the PTFE* dielectric contained within these
cables expanded and tended to protrude out from the cable ends
❑ Protrusions → soldered interconnections can be stressed

❑ Successive thermal excursions → solder joint cracking at one end of
the cable and the formation of air gaps between the PTFE and
adjacent mating surfaces at the opposite end.
*Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene. Being hydrophobic, non-wetting, high density
and resistant to high temperatures, PTFE is an incredibly versatile material with a wide variety of applications, though it's perhap
3 s best-known for its non-stick properties.
❑ The problem is compounded when the
conductors and mating parts possess gold
plating, as this finish will form a layer of brittle
gold–tin intermetallic when incorrectly
soldered.
❑ Addressed by Fletcher (1978), and it is now

realized that strict process controls must be
adhered to if the degradation of cable
interconnections is to be avoided.
a) General view of SMT verification sample highlighting
b) the fractured solder lap joints associated with the central conductors of RF
cables that suffered from extensive cold flow during thermal cycling.
4
Section through connector-to-coax assemblies

showing cracked solder joints resulting from PTFE
extrusion and resultant force on solder.
a) Suitable connector with non-captive nut and
good solder workmanship.
b) Non-approved captive nut; during torqueing,
stressing of solder joints can occur if inadequate
allowance has been made for torqueing distance
(arrowed). Detail shows location of circlip that
permits rotation of the coupling nut, but not
retraction as photographed in (a).
c) Poor lay-up, when there is a dimensional
mismatch between the coaxial cable assembly
and the unit. Assembly will be forced into
position, so stressing the solder joints.
5
d) Typical appearance of cracked joint due to either bending

stress or PTFE Teflon extrusion (after thermal cycling of non-
preconditioned assembly.
e) Macro-section through cracked solder and revealing the
extent of PTFE dielectric protrusion from semi-rigid cable
following thermal cycling
6
❑ Deep drawing of the copper cable sheath has created minute surface
striations on the internal walls—these cause ratcheting of the PTFE
towards one direction as it expands/contracts during each
heating/cooling cycle.
❑ Correct processing of flight cables should follow the requirements of
ECSS-Q-ST-70-18*, when the following critical steps must be
adhered to:
▪ Selection of at least one cable-end connector with a noncaptive centre contact and coupling nut (to
avoid stressing during integration).
▪ Final soldering using 96Sn–4Ag solder alloy to ensure adequate joint strength.
▪ Preconditioning the formed cable by heat treatments (at least three complete thermal cycles between
−45 and +75 °C) with trimming of any protruding dielectric.
▪ Degolding of all surface areas intended to be joined by soldering.
*ECSS-Q-ST-70-18C – Preparation, assembly and mounting of RF coaxial cables (15 November 2008)
7 https://ecss.nl/standard/ecss-q-st-70-18c-preparation-assembly-and-mounting-of-rf-coaxial-cables/

❑ Many spacecraft electronic devices and assemblies employ non-
metallics and/or metals that are either impossible to wet or not easily
wetted by tin–lead solders.
❑ Applied Coatings to provide surfaces that are better suited for soldering.
▪ Cladding
▪ Vacuum deposition
▪ Electroplating
❑ Two types of metallic finish: surfaces designed to be
▪ ‘soldered to’
▪ ‘soldered through’.
8
Cladding Vacuum Deposition Electroplating
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adding_(metalworking) po.html g/english/overview/technologies/gt
ms/metal_parts.html
9
❑ These coatings should not

appreciably dissolve during the
soldering operation.
❑ Usually very adherent as they are
applied by hot mechanical working
operations.
❑ Usually give no problem during the
thermal shock of soldering or later
during the mechanical loadings of Kovar is a special alloy designed to have a
similar coefficient of expansion to that of glass.
service environments. It can be oxidized and used to form strong
glass-to-metal seals. Its composition is 28–30 %
nickel, 17–19 % cobalt, remainder iron.
10
❑ However, if the coating is not well attached

to the substrate material by a sound
metallurgical joint, electrical failures may
result from detached bonds, resulting in
the form of open circuit.
These micrographs detail

a) the fracture of an electrical connection on a spacecraft solar array. The
special solder alloy has wetted both the wire strand and the silver-plated
copper conductor, but failure
11 b) occurred at the copper-to-silver-plating interface (arrowed), a ×30. b ×1000

❑ Thick coatings may also be applied to machined
electronic parts for other reasons. Example: brass
turret terminal
❑ The solderability of tinned parts which have been
fabricated from brass is severely reduced by long
storage.
❑ Zinc is known to diffuse from the substrate and onto
Brass Turret Terminal
the component’s free surface.
https://images.app.goo.gl/38c
❑ Oxidation/Tarnish → prevents solder spread CgEcfYXwXKEZJ9
❑ Solution: Presence of a barrier layer of 2-3 μm of

copper or nickel plating.
12
Microsections showing details of tin-plated brass turret terminal pins after attempts to solder them onto
PCBs. (a, recently manufactured item.) Solder has wetted the new terminal pin. Pins from the old stock
were found to be non-solderable, even with active fluxes and high soldering temperatures. The high solder
contact angles shown in b (item from old stock) result from the inability of the solder to wet a thin film of
zinc oxide present on the surface of these items. The X-ray analysis (EDAX) reveals only zinc (large peaks),
tin, and lead, with no copper, thus proving the diffusion of zinc through this plated finish
13

Black Pad
❑ Black pad is a corrosion of the surface of the Ni layer during gold plating
in ENIG (electroless nickel immersion gold). *
❑ This causes the growth of a thin Ni3P layer, which prevents formation of
the intermetallic layer during soldering.
❑ Fracture joints on the nickel side appear as black circles having a brittle
morphology.
* K. Zeng, R. Stierman, D. Abbott and M. Murtuza, “The Root Cause of Black Pad Failure of Solder Joints with Electroless Ni/Immersio
n Gold Plating,” The Journal of The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (JOM), June 2006.
14

SEM cross-section images of a) a good
board and b) a board affected by black
pad. On the bad board, the intermetallic
layer is not continuous, and the mud
crack affected Ni3P layer has formed on
top of the nickel
Optical images corresponding to the SEM

images. There is no intermetallic layer on
the bad board.
Source: https://circuitsassembly.com/ca/m
Good Bad
15 agazine/28133-plating-1710.html

Black Pad
❑ Gerard O’Brian, President of ST and S Testing in the US:

“Black pad occurs during the immersion gold process and not during
assembly which is only responsible for revealing the defect. The primary
factors are a very aggressive gold reaction with the electroless nickel
whereby there is hyper-corrosion with the electroless nickel surface that
leaves an elevated phosphorous layer along the interface of the gold to
nickel. Phosphorous is not solderable and once the gold is dissolved
during the soldering process the underlying non-wettable phosphorous-rich
surface can be exposed (after joint fracture)”.
16

❑ These are frequently applied to form a protective layer on delicate
electronic circuitry, to prevent oxidation of the substrate and to preserve
the solderability of the underlying layer.
Example: Gold, silver, palladium, tin, and solder
❑ Under certain conditions, each may have considerable drawbacks.
Silver Migration
❑ electrochemical migration (ECM) → short-circuit
failure under high humidity
❑ an electrochemical process (ECM) whereby silver
is removed ionically from its initial location.
https://images.app.goo.gl/9Fs6EH59BEcsZkfP6
17

❑ Tin-lead metals → ECM is much slower than
silver but, because components are becoming
more miniaturized and PCBs have a finer pitch,
these failures are becoming more prevalent.
❑ Silver will react with the slightest trace of
hydrogen sulphide in the air to form a brown or
black patina which is essentially silver sulphide. Tin–lead electrochemical migration
(EMC) under the influence of an
❑ silver-plated copper-stranded wire → specially electrical (d.c) potential in
stored and processed combination with damp conditions.
These conductive dendrites shows a
▪ NASA has forbidden this plating for use on PCBs, bus bars, ferny morphology and caused short
circuit of conductors on a
mechanical electrical contacts and special precautions are contaminated FR4 PCB (photo
requested when silver plated wires and cables are selected for courtesy of Mr. Wilhelm Maier, IFE,
space use (NASA STD-651 2012). Oberpfaffenhofen)
18

❑ Gold → highly attractive finish for spacecraft electronic components
(connectors, terminations, and printed circuits)
Pros:
▪ high resistance to tarnish and corrosion,
▪ its low electrical resistivity
▪ contact resistance
Cons:
▪ high cost
▪ soldered joints produced has very low mechanical strength
❑ Joints made to thick gold-plated surfaces lose their electrical continuity
under both vibration and thermal cycling conditions.
19

Gold Embrittlement
❑ Joints made to thick gold-plated surfaces lose their electrical continuity
under both vibration and thermal cycling conditions.
▪ 1.5 μm thick gold platings → can cause joints to fail due to gold
embrittlement
▪ 0.5 μm thickness → will dissolve totally in the tin-lead solder without
detrimental effects, but finishes are always porous and will cause
oxidation of the substrate during even short storage periods.
▪ Thicker gold finishes → acceptable for industries but but this is totally
unsuitable for survival of vibrational loading during the launch of any
spacecraft.
20

Gold Embrittlement
Quality Standard
❑ space hardware shall not include joints made directly to gold plate, and
the recommended method for removing such coatings is to immerse the
part into a bath of pure tin–lead solder.
❑ “Gold embrittled solder connections can occur regardless of gold
thickness when solder volume is low or the soldering process dwell time
is not sufficient to allow the gold to dissolve throughout the entire solder
joint”. IPC J-Std-001F* (2015)
*Requirements for Soldered Electrical and Electronic Assemblies
21

❑ Use of ceramics for microelectronic components and packages →
stability under vacuum, mechanical characteristics and dimensional
stability.
❑ Leadless Ceramic Chip Carriers (LCCC) → plated with nickel then gold
▪ Good solderability of the nickel under layer.
Effects
▪ mechanical and thermal shocks can break the fragile tungsten-to-
ceramic bonds (Zhang and Jin, 2009)
▪ the poor solderability of the nickel layer due to porosity in the gold
(Dunn, 1993).
22
a) Fracture of spacecraft dipole connection due to gold embrittlement of

solder alloy.
b) Semi-rigid cable solder joint fracture due to gold embrittlement, as-
polished and (right) etched.
c) Thickness of intermetallic layers as a function of ageing time from
experiment samples held at 125 and 80 °C.
d) Schematic representation of (a and b) showing diffusional flow during
reaction between tin from solder and gold that has diffused to the
interface between intermetallic and solder [c and d are courtesy of
23 Hannech and Hall (1992)].

Gold Embrittlement
Intermittent Electrical Failure
❑ Excessive gold dissolution
from both a gold-plated Kovar
pin and the thick-gold
metallization on the ceramic
resulted in gold saturation of
the molten tin–lead solder
joint.
A severely gold-embrittled solder joint. The general
photomicrograph a shows the effect of specimen
beveling due to the extreme hardness variations Intermittent electrical open-circuit between pin and metallized pattern
between alumina ceramic, the Kovar pin, and soft on ceramic results from the fin network of cracks b which propagate
solder alloy. longitudinally through the acicular gold–tin intermetallic, and c along
24 the solder-to-pin interface.

Gold Embrittlement
❑ Gold has a high solubility in liquid solder and is very quickly leached
from coated articles during the soldering operation.
❑ The presence of brittle needles of gold–tin intermetallic in the joints seen
will obviously degrade the quality of the interconnection, but in many
cases defective joints have shown failure along the solder-to-gold
interface when there were no needle-like intermetallic within the solder
volume.
25

Solder-plating with a tin–lead alloy
❑ probably the most trouble-free coating which can be ‘soldered through’.
❑ It is generally fused to eliminate porosity.
❑ Palladium is also a useful coating material but is very expensive and
finds little usage within even the highest-cost electronic system selected
for spacecraft.
❑ coatings may become non-solderable and embrittled if they are
subjected to high temperatures → formation and growth of two
intermetallic layers
26

Formation of Intermetallic Layers
❑ growth becomes a real problem only when high temperatures (80–
120 °C) are encountered for long periods, because, when stressed, they
are prone to the form of cleavage fracture depicted.
❑ may not only degrade solderability owing to oxidation of the surfaces to
be soldered, but the growth of intermetallic layers which are composed
of tin and copper can make the surface become lead-rich and this will
also produce a solderability problem (Billot et al. 1982).
27
Solder copper wire joint failure after long-term thermal cycling.

a) Metallography reveals the existence of two bands of intermetallic. The environmental testing promoted a continuous
network of brittle cracks to propagate within the Cu6Sn5. The wires could be withdrawn from the joint, and, with an
SEM, their surfaces were seen to be covered in cleavage-fractured Cu6Sn5 crystals. These cleavage facets
b) (b,c) are seen to contain spherical pockmarks which denote the positions of impurity inclusions trapped within the
microstructure.
28

Fused tin–lead eutectic composition alloy coating
❑ strongly recommended for use in high-reliability electronic applications
whenever the temperature constraints permit (i.e. extended periods
below 80 °C).
❑ This finish could also replace tin, cadmium, and zinc coatings
▪ can support stress-induced whisker growth,
▪ can sublimate in the space environment.
29
Indium-Lead Alloys
❑ Contains 50 wt% of indium
❑ Liquidus Temperature: 210 °C
❑ Solidus Temperature: 185 °C
❑ Good wettability to gold with mildly activated flux and this is most
suited for soldering to gold plating that have a thickness of between 1
and 10 μm.
❑ Soldering techniques: using hot-plates, soldering irons and solder in
ribbon or as a paste.
❑ indium-lead solders form unusually ductile intermetallic compounds
with gold.
30
Metallographic evaluation of indium–lead soldered to various gold interfaces after thermal cycling (100 cycles +100 to
−100 °C) and 12.8 years’ room temperature storage.
a) Overall view of microsectioned chip capacitor. All circuit tracks are gold plated, as is the aluminium support plate.
b) Detail of circuit-board-to-aluminium support plate soldered connection. Aluminium is plated with an intermediate layer
of copper, and the final gold layer has transformed entirely to AuIn2. The gold-plated copper PCB ground plane is also
converted to AuIn2.
31
c) Detail of lower
corner of chip
termination. Note
that excessive
pressure during
solder assembly has
deformed copper
circuit.
d) Hardness
impressions in the
AuIn2 layer on (e)
to indicate its
ductility, i.e. no
radial cracking as
would be the case
with gold–tin
intermetallics.
32
e) e Edge of solder fillet to highlight 2.5 μm thick gold layer. This produces an intermetallic having a thickness of 14.0 μm and
some free gold is still present (arrowed).
f) A gold-plated beryllium–copper alloy ribbon interconnector was also soldered to the Teflon PCB. There has been complete
reaction with the gold on the interconnection side of the joint, and some free gold exists on the PCB side. Although the IMC
is extremely thick, there is no evidence that these joints have degraded
33
Indium-Lead Alloys
❑ More susceptible to corrosion than the SnPb alloys when submitted to
high humidity and high temperatures.
❑ Between −55 and +125 °C they establishedthat 50 %In–50 %Pb
provided a one-hundredfold increase in fatigue life over eutectic SnPb.
❑ Well-suited for hybrid assembly because it absorbed gold at a slower
rate than tin–lead.
❑ Uniform and dense reaction zones having a similar appearance
❑ Suitable for the electrical and mechanical interconnection of gold-
plated articles with the important proviso that operational temperatures
do not exceed 70 or 80 °C.
❑ Far superior to those alloys based on tin–lead during mechanical tests
34
Indium-Lead Alloys
❑ has been selected for the assembly of components onto circuit board
intended to operate at cryogenic temperatures.
❑ losses its strength properties on cooling, but remains soft and ductile,
even down to liquid helium temperature.
❑ the greater stress relaxation in indium-lead soldered joints during
thermal cycling within cryogenic regimes will provide those circuits
with a higher reliability.
❑ mechanical properties of metallic and organic electronic materials
have been measured down to 4.2 K
35
Solder Comparison
50InPb 63SnPb
Soft Stiff
Softness/Stiffness
E = 14 GPa E = 43 GPa
Ductility/Brittleness ductile brittle
at 4.2 K A = 20 % A = 0.3 %
low high
Strength
Rm = 76 MPa Rm = 136 MPa
low high
Proof Stress
RP0.2 = 33 MPa RP0.2 = 116 MPa
36
Indium-Based Solders
❑ Melting Point: 93 to 314 °C
❑ General they will wet and flow onto soldering surfaces in the same
way as tin–lead solders
❑ Wide range of melting temperatures enables step soldering
processes to attach wire leads near each other by means of the
progressive use of lower melting-point alloys.
❑ The lower soldering iron temperatures can avoid reflowing or
deforming the initial soldered connections.
37

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Materials & Processes

For Spacecraft & High Reliability Applications

MARK ANGELO C. PURIO

6.5.5 Failure Analysis of Electrical Interconnections and

6.6 Problems Associated with Coatings for Soldering Applications

6.6.1 The Need for Coatings

6.7 The Use of Indium Solder Alloys

❑ Protrusions → soldered interconnections can be stressed

❑ Addressed by Fletcher (1978), and it is now

Section through connector-to-coax assemblies

d) Typical appearance of cracked joint due to either bending

6.6.1 The Need for Coatings

6.6.1 The Need for Coatings

Cladding Vacuum Deposition Electroplating

https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Cl http://web.tuat.ac.jp/~usuilab/English/de https://www.schott.com/epackagin

6.6.2 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered To’

❑ These coatings should not

6.6.2 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered To’

❑ However, if the coating is not well attached

These micrographs detail

6.6.2 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered To’

❑ Solution: Presence of a barrier layer of 2-3 μm of

6.6.2 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered To’

6.6.2 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered To’

6.6.2 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered To’

Optical images corresponding to the SEM

6.6.2 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered To’

❑ Gerard O’Brian, President of ST and S Testing in the US:

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

*Requirements for Soldered Electrical and Electronic Assemblies

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

a) Fracture of spacecraft dipole connection due to gold embrittlement of

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

Solder copper wire joint failure after long-term thermal cycling.

6.6.3 Surfaces that can be ‘Soldered Through’

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