UNIT 1

John Smith

Learning objectives

In unit 1 you will:

» realize how the unfamiliar environment of the New World provided the
English explorers and settlers with a great diversity of experiences
which demandeda variety of discourses and originated a wide range of
literary formulations;
learn how the adventurer and explorer Captain John Smith, expressing
himself in the travel-writing tradition, chronicled the early days of the
English colonization of America, and tried to entice his fellow
countrymen to leave their homeland andsettle in the New World;
see how colonial policy was justified through the concept of “manifest
destiny”: the notion that America made manifest the predestined
expansion of European civilization, and therefore, that Europeans had
the right to take possession of the whole continent;
consider how the Native peoples of North America began to be portrayed
by English explorers, and how the enduring national myth of Pocahontas
was created;
examine how Captain John Smith’s rhetorical processofself-fashioning
and self-representation illustrates issues of reliability which are a matter
of concern in the interpretation of many autobiographicalliterary texts.

Suggestions for how to proceed

Read the introduction to unit 1 (American Literature to 1900, pages 13-16) before you
approach Captain Smith’s text itself (pages 17-20) so as to be previously acquainted
with its biographical and historical context. A good procedure to tackle the excerpt
from The General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles is to skim-
it first just to get a general idea ofits content, and then reread it carefully, paying
special attention to the footnotes. Once you becomefamiliar with the text, answer the
ten questions for self-evaluation (pages 21-22), returning repeatedly to any passages
that you need to look over, and finally check your choices with the help of the key
(page 499). The followingactivity will show you how to answer exploratory questions
1-12, which you will find in the next section of the study unit (pages 22-24).
14 A STUDY GUIDE FOR AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

Activity

Answering exploratory questions

In each study unit of the coursebook American Literature to 1900 you will find
a series of exploratory questions which are meantto stimulate your personal
inquiry if you are studying on your own. They are also meant to offer a
springboard for discussion, in order that you may share your experience with
others if your courseincludestutorials, or if you have access to an electronic
forum.In any case, since this sort of activity is intended to add pleasure to your
reading experience, you can proceedas best suits you, so that it never becomes
tedious or burdensome. You are not expected to answer exhaustively all the
exploratory questions in every study unit, but rather to choose the ones you are
mostinterested in, depending on how much time you have.

Unlike the answersto the questionsfor self-evaluation, which are appended

in a key at the end of the volume (pages 499-500), the answers to the
exploratory questions are not provided in American Literature to 1900 for two
main reasons: 1. generally there is no single correct answer, but as many
different suitable answersto the same questionas there are readers, and 2.if this
kind of exercise is to be of any use to you, you need to work out the answers
for yourself, because it is important that you reflect upon your own impressions
of the text rather than memorize suggested answers. For these two reasons, all
of the answers to the exploratory questions posed throughout the coursebook
are not supplied systematically in this Guide. However, twelve sample answers
are offered below so as to give you an idea of how you mayapproachthis type
of activity, which some students find too demanding at the very beginning of
the course.

You are advised notto start by reading the suggested answers, but to reply
to the exploratory questions yourself, taking into accountall the information
which they contain, particularly the definition of any literary terms that you
need to apply to your analysis. As was the case of the questions for self-
evaluation, now you will probably have to reexaminethe text again and again,
and perhaps even review the introductory pages of unit 1. Finally, when you
feel satisfied with your achievement, compare your own answerswith the ones
which appear below, bearing in mind that yours will be quite different from
these in many respects regarding both form and content. For instance, the
suggested length is only approximate, and you may prefer to furnish shorter or
longer answers, concentrating on other aspects which can be equally relevant
to accomplish this assignment successfully. Your best answers will be the ones
Unit 1: JOHN SMITH 15

in which you articulate your personal responsesin the light of the supporting
evidence you will find primarily in the text, supplementing it if you wish with
knowledge drawn from other sources.

The following suggested answersto questions 1-12 (pages 22-24) are to be

taken as examples or samples, rather than as models to bestrictly imitated.

1. Captain John Smith was captured by a large group of bowmen who

had previously killed two of his men, and who took him to areas
inhabited by various tribes. At last, he was brought to Powhatan’s
village, Werowocomoco,where he wastreated alternately as an enemy
and as a guest, and where Pocahontas supposedly savedhislife.

2. Captain Smith namesthe following individuals:

— George Cassen (line 1). Under torture, he told the bowmen that
Captain Smith had goneuptheriver.
— Captain Smith (line 1). According to him, the bowmen who had
killed Robinson and Emry did not dare to approach him until he was
paralyzed with cold in the middle of a small river. After being
captured, he offered a dial to Openchancanough, the King of
Pamunkey, and was honored and well fed. When he was brought
into Powhatan’s presence in the village of Werowocomoco, he was
submitted to a ritual, in which he felt that his life had beenatrisk,
and after that he remained in Werowocomoco makingtools for
Powhatan.
— Robinson and Emry (line 4). They were shot with arrows andslain
by the bowmen led by Openchancanough,the King of Pamunkey.
— Openchancanough(line 13). He wascalled “the King of Pamunkey”
by Captain Smith. He conducted the 300 bowmen who captured
Captain Smith, received a dial from him, and held the Captain in
custody until he delivered the prisoner to Powhatan.
— Powhatan(line 51). He was called “the Emperor” by Captain Smith.
This Native chief wore a great robe made of raccoonskins (line 55).
— Queen of Appomattoc (line 62). Her real name, Opossunoquonuske,
is not given in the excerpt. She was appointed to bring Captain
Smith water to wash his hands.
— Pocahontas(line 68). She was one of Powhatan’s daughters, aged
sixteen or eighteen. According to Captain Smith’s account, she took
his head in her arms and laid her own head upon him to save him
from death.
16 A STUDY GUIDE FOR AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

In this particular excerpt, all the individuals whose namesare mentioned

are characterized by their actions rather than by any detailed
descriptions of their physical appearance.

. The authorcalls his captors “savages” (lines 1, 5, 9, and 25), “grim

courtiers” (line 52), and explicitly compares them to “devils” (line 50)
that utter “hellish notes and screeches” (line 33). Such terms are
clearly derogatory.

. The author briefly refers to his captors’ exotic physical appearance,

focusing on the waythey decorate their bodies with red paint, animal
skins, feathers, pieces of copper, white shells, and chains of beads
(lines 34-40 and 58-60). As the writer never uses direct or reported
speech in this passage, we only learn about his captors from what he
says they did. At no time are the Natives presented engaging in
conversation or articulately expressing their thoughts, but “singing
and yelling out such hellish notes and screeches” (lines 32-33) and
giving “a great shout”(line 61).

. There are three instances in which Captain Smith feels seriously

threatened: 1. when he is attacked by the same bowmen who have
killed two of his men and useshis guideashis shield (line 6), 2. when
he is tied to a tree and is about to be shot with arrows(lines 18-19),
and 3. whenhe is dragged before Powhatan,and his head is placed on
two great stones, while a number of people with clubs seem to be
ready to beat his brains out (lines 65-68). On the contrary, Captain
Smith receives help or feels honored as a valued guest: 1. when his
captors pull him out of the icy bog, warm him upbyrubbinghis limbs
by the fire (lines 10-12), and admire the dial he offers to their leader
(line 15), 2. when the armed captors lead him to Orapaks, to be
“kindly feasted and well used” (line 22), and he is given a great
amount of food (line 43), and 3. at Werowocomoco, in Powhatan’s
presence, when the Queen of Appomattoc and someoneelse bring him
water and a bunchof feathers to wash and dry his hands, and heis well
entertained once more (lines 62-64),

. The authortried to give the impression that the Natives were moodyor
temperamental, and totally unpredictable, so that his original audience
might easily understand why he was alwaysunsure ofhis fate. Smith’s
contemporary readers probably perceived such behavior as primitive,
extravagant and irrational. The changing attitudes ascribed to Natives
reinforced any existing prejudice about their mental instability,
Unit 1: JOHN SMITH 17

unreliability and treacherous nature. However, nowadays most readers

tend to question such negative notions about Native Americans,realize
their plight, and feel inclined to sympathize with them rather than with
the invadersoftheirterritories.

7. The author mentions the following weapons:

— arrows. They are used by the bowmento slay Robinson and Emry
(lines 4-5). The bowmen lay downtheir arrows when they refrain
from shooting Captain Smith (line 20). On each side six men go in
single file with their arrows nocked,that is, fitted on the bowstring
ready to use (line 26). The King makeshis own arrows(line 73).
~ bows. The bowmen lay down their bowsat a sign of their leader
(line 20). Each bowman dances with a bow in his hand (line 37).
The King makeshis own bows(line 73).
— pieces(fire-arms) and swords. When these weaponsare turned over
to Openchancanough, Captain Smith implies that they have been
seized but are not being used by the bowmen whohave captured
him and killed his men (line 24).
— quiver of arrows. Each bowmancarries one (lines 33-34).
— clubs. Each bowmancarries a club at his back (line 34). Clubs seem
about to be used to beat out Captain Smith’s brains(line 67).
— hatchets. The King makeshis own hatches(line 73).

The author also describes very precisely how his captors moved,first
in single file, then in a snakelike formation he calls bissom, and later
in a ring (lines 24-31), thus revealing that he is an expert in warfare,
thanks to his military background.

8. Facing the unfamiliar in the New World, colonial writers had to

explain it by relying on the familiar, that is, by fitting it into prior
conceptualizations and representative modes they knew well. Thus,
Captain Smith portrayed the tribesmen and their leaders as if they
were soldiers and officers in a European army (lines 29-30), and
deliberately focused his audience’s attention on military order.
Because he wanted to makereaders understand differences in rank and
authority among his captors, he drew parallelisms with European
hierarchical positions, and consequently spoke about the King of
Pamunkey, the Queen of Appomattoc, and the Emperor.

9. The main function of the quotation from Seneca (lines 49-50) is to

demonize the inhabitants of the New World by presenting them as
18 A STUDY GUIDE FOR AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

devils, and by likening their dwellings to hell. Additionally, this

mention of hell—which can belinked to a previousreferenceto it in
the phrase “hellish notes and screeches” (line 33)—underscores
Captain Smith’s predicamentduring his captivity.

10. Captain Smith’s account of his captivity can be examined as an

autobiographical text in which he construed himself as a brave hero
with knight-like traits. That his account is authentic can neither be
proven nor conclusively denied, because of lack of independent
testimony regarding the events he records. Amongthe decisive actions
he says he performedtosavehislife before he was capturedare the true
facts, or the imaginary feats, that he slew three of his attackers and
wounded manyothers before he slipped into the middleofa slimy creek
(lines 6-9). He emphasizes his captors’ fear of him (“all the rest would
not comenear him,”line 7), and declares that they did not approach him
until he wastoo cold to defend himself (line 10). Then, he explains that
he was clever enough to offer a dial to the leader of his captors, thus
provoking general admiration (lines 14-16). The references he makesto
the repeated entertainment or feasting he receives from his captors are
indicative of his valued status (lines 22, 48, 64). At last, he seems
convinced that Pocahontas had saved his life, but does not explicitly
indicate any action onhis part that may have promptedherto intervene.
In short, although the author depicts himself as an intrepid, courageous,
resourceful and proud hero, readers may perceive him as a consummate
self-promoter, over-confident and exaggeratedly boastful.

11. Captain Smith declares that he was not with John Robinson and
Thomas Emry when the two Englishmen went ashore (instead of
remaining in the barge, as they had beeninstructed), lit a fire, and were
shot with arrows and slain by a group of bowmen(lines 4-5). This
passage clearly indicates that there was nothing Captain Smith could
have done to prevent these two deaths. Furthermore, the passagesthat
follow reiterate his own helplessness during his capture.

12. Like other explorers of his time, Captain Smith refers to himself using
the third person singular because in The General History of Virginia,
New England, and the SummerIsles (1624) he wants to distance himself
from the narrative voice and give the impression that his account of
events objectively reflects what happened. First-person narratives are
suitable to express subjective impressions and opinions, but are less
effective than third-person narratives when authors want their
statements to be unanimously accepted as if they were universaltruths.
 UNIT 1
John Smith (1580-1631)

Nowadays, many courses in Americanliterature begin with texts written in

Spanish by Christopher Columbus, Bartolomé de las Casas, Hernan Cortés,
Bernal Diaz del Castillo and Alvar Niifiez Cabeza de Vaca. These courses
often also include examples of old Native American oral narrative and poetry,
originally composed in a number of different languages, which were
transcribed and translated into English at various times throughouthistory.
While acknowledging the importance of such contributions to the
development of American culture, we will begin our course with John Smith,
the author of the first English work written in America: A True Relation of
Such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Hath Happenedin Virginia. He
wrote it in June 1608 as a personal letter to a friend in England while he was
in Virginia (a region vaguely defined at that time), and although he did not
intend it for publication, it was published as a pamphlet in Londonin 1608.
This was thefirst of a series of books in which Captain John Smith chronicled
the early days of the English colonization of America. As a writer, Captain
Smith stood in the tradition of the great Elizabethan voyagers whose works
were very popular in Europe throughout the sixteenth century and into the
seventeenth.
Born into a farmer’s family in Willoughby (Lincolnshire), shortly after
his father’s death, at the age of sixteen John Smith left his apprenticeship in
England and went to the Netherlands as a volunteer soldier to fight for the
independence of the Dutch against the troops of King Philip II. This was the
start of his military career, filled with high adventure knownto us primarily
through theprotagonist’s own lively accounts, whose authenticity manycritics
doubt. According to his autobiographical work entitled The True Travels,
Adventures, and Observations ofCaptain John Smith, in Europe, Asia, Africa,
and America (1630), in 1600 he joined the Austrian army fighting against the
Turks, and was promoted to captain while fighting in Hungary.In Transylvania
 14 AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

Captain John Smith’s portrait, attributed to

Simon van de Passe, was drawn in 1617 and
published with the first map to name the
region of “New England,” a product of
Smith’s own surveying.

he was woundedin battle, taken prisoner and sold as a slave to a Turk, who
sent Captain Smith as a gift to his sweetheart in Istanbul. This lady supposedly
fell in love with the young Englishman and sent him to herbrother to get
training for the Turkish imperial service, Captain Smith escaped by killing the
brother and returned to Transylvania, where he received a large reward.
On his return to England in the winter of 1604-1605, John Smith became
involved with the Virginia Company, which was a joint stock corporation
formed with a charter from King James I and charged with the settlement of
Virginia. In December 1606, Smith sailed with the Virginia Company’s first
colonists as one of the seven councillors whe were to govern the colony, due
to his rich experience and strong character. Their main goal was commercial,
not religious. Therefore, unlike the Puritan families who later settled in
America in order to build a new home, this group of men wanted to
accumulate wealth as quickly as possible for their colonial company of
investors in London through the discovery of gold|and copper. This first
_expedition required a voyage of over three months in three ships before they
landed at Jamestown on May 13, 1607. From the start, Captain Smith had
serious conflicts with his fellow travellers—he was placed underarrest while
the fleet was near the Canary Islands, and even threatened with execution in
the West Indies. In September 1608, however, he wasfinally elected president
of the council, a position equivalent to that of the colony’s governor.
UNIT 1: JOHN SMITH (1580-1631) 15

Life was extremely difficult for the settlers because of the lack of supplies,
harsh weather conditions, disagreements overpolicy, illness, and resistance by
the Native People, who wanted the strangers to leave. In order to secure the
Jamestown colonists’ survival, Captain Smith fought the indigenous
population wholived in that area, but sometimeshe also hadto negotiate for
food with them. He reported that, although he generally dealt with them from
a position of force, in the course of his explorations he was captured by the
Chesapeake Bay Indians and held prisoner for six or seven weeks by
Powhatan, the chief of a confederacy of tribes, whom Smith called their
“Emperor” or “King.” Captain Smith was released in friendship and returned
to Jamestown, guided by Powhatan’s men. He governed the colony until he
was seriously burned in a gunpowder explosion and decided to return to
England for treatment in October 1609. In London, hetried to promote the
further colonization of Virginia, but was unable to go back because the
Virginia Company no longer supported him. One of his many enemies,
George Percy, who succeeded him in the government of Jamestown, described
him as “an ambitious, unworthy and vanaglorious fellow.” Prevented by his
opponents from returning to Virginia, John Smith crossed the Atlantic again to
explore the Maine and Massachusetts Bay areas, which he named New
England, with the approval of the Prince of Wales, who would become King
Charles I. It was Prince Charles who put English names on the map of the
coast of New England which John Smith gave him. As Captain Smith was
denied other opportunities to return to the colonies, he spentthe rest of his life
writing books through which he tried to encourage colonization with vivid
descriptions of the riches of the New World and the beauties of the wilderness.
The colonists who would later settle Plymouth (1620) and Massachusetts
Bay (1630) profited from Smith’s maps andreports.
Nowadays Captain Smith is most widely knownasthe heroofa love tale
about an Indian princess rather than as a writer, a geographer and a ruthless
administrator of the Jamestown colony. Nevertheless, the veracity of the
famous episode in which Pocahontas supposedly saved the Captain’s life is
still in dispute because it seems awkward that whenever Smith mentioned
Pocahontasin earlier versions of his captivity narrative he invariably omitted
that crucial incident. In fact, there was no trace of her courageous intervention
in his first book, published in 1608, less than a year after Smith’s capture, nor
in the detailed text which wasprinted with his Map of Virginia (1612). She
emerged as Smith’s saviourin a letter to Queen Anne (June 1616) in which
the author simply mentioned: “at the minute of my execution, she hazarded
the beating out of her own brains to save mine.” It was not until 1624, seven
years after Pocahontas’ death in England in 1617, that Smith publicized a
thrilling account which was suspiciously similar to another rescue by an
16 AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

Indian princess described in a Spanish work that he might have read in those
years. Since Powhatan had also died in 1618, there was no oneto contradict
the author. Smith may have borrowed or invented the episode forits
melodramatic effect, taking advantage of the fame of Powhatan’s daughterin
Londonsociety at a time when the English had to justify war on Powhatan’s
nation.
Lacking other sources of information, the national myth of Pocahontas was
created relying basically on an account Smith published seventeenyears after
the actual events, in his General History of Virginia, New England, and the
SummerIsles (1624), where he often mixed fact and fiction. We will read
someextracts from this work, his most famous and substantial one, published
in six books, with four engraved maps, a portrait of Pocahontas and some
poems. We will notfind in it the accuracy we would expect from a modern
historian, but a story told by an adventurer who was amongthefirst to recount
his direct experiences in the New World. When approaching the following
passages, we should bear in mind thatits author was a proud, self-made man
of action who was addressing readers back in England in order to explain the
advantages of his aggressive colonial policy and to emphasize his central
role in the survival of the Jamestown colony, which wasthe first permanent
English settlement in America. In other words, he wrote with political
intention and his work constitutes a major resource for understanding the
concept of “manifest destiny”: the notion that America made manifest the
destined expansion of European civilization and, therefore, that Europeans had
the right to take possession of the whole continent.’ Always writing of himself
in the third person, he presented himself enthusiastically in the role of hero,
focusing attention on his exploits and asserting his bravery to face all kinds of
dangeroussituations.

1 In 1845 a journalist named John L. Sullivan wrote that nothing mustinterfere with “the
fulfilment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for
the free developmentof our yearly multiplying millions.”
UNIT 1: JOHN SMITH (1580-1631) 17

From The General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer
Isles?
Book IH, Chapter 2

The savages having drawn from George Cassen whither? Captain Smith was
gone, prosecuting that opportunity they followed him with 300 bow-men
conducted by the King of Pamunkey, whoin divisions searching the turnings
of the river found Robinson and Emry bythe fireside; those they shot full of
arrows and slew.’ Then finding the Captain, as is said, that used the savage 5
that was his guide as his shield (three of them being slain and divers others so
galled?), all the rest would not come near him. Thinking thus to have returned
to his boat, regarding them, as he marched, more than his way, [he] slipped up
to the middle in an oozy® creek’ and his savage with him, yet dared they not
come to him till being near dead with cold he threw away his arms. Then 1C
according to their composition® they drew him forth and led him to the fire
where his men wereslain. Diligently they chafed? his benumbed"® limbs.
He demandingfortheir captain, they showed him Openchancanough,!!
King of Pamunkey, to whom hegave a round ivory double compassdial.
Much they marveled at the playing of the fly? and needle, which they 15

2 The BermudaIslands.
3 To whichplace.
4 Slay, slew,slain: to kill in a violent way.
> Wounded.
© Slimy.
7 Small river.
8 Agreement for surrender.
° Rubbed_for warmth. .
10 Made numbwith cold, deprived of the powerof feeling or moving.
4 Powhatan’s half brother.
2 Compasscard.
 18 AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

could see so plainly and yet not touch it because of the glass that covered
them. [...]
Notwithstanding, within an hour after, they tied him to a tree, and as
many as could stand about him prepared to shoot him,but the King holding up
the compassin his hand, they all laid down their bows and arrowsand in a
triumphant manner led him to Orapaks!> where he was after their manner
kindly feasted and well used.
Their order of conducting him was thus: Drawing themselvesall in file, the
King in the midst hadall their pieces'* and swords borne before him. Captain
Smith was led after him by three great savages holding him fast'> by each arm,
and on eachside six went in file with their arrows nocked.’° Butarriving at the
town (which wasbut only thirty or forty hunting houses made of mats, which
they removeas they please, as we ourtents), all the women and children staring
to behold him, the soldiersfirst all in file performed the form of a bissom!’ so
30 well as could be, and on each flank, officers as sergeants to see them keep
their orders. A good time they continued this exercise and then cast themselves
in a ring, dancing in such several postures and singing and yelling out such
hellish notes and screeches; being strangely painted, every one [had] his quiver'®
of arrows andat his backa club, on his arm a fox or an otter’s skin or some such
35 matter for his vambrace,!° their heads and shoulders painted red with oil and
pocones” mingled together, which scarlet-like color made an exceeding
handsome show, his bow in his hand and the skin of a bird with her wings
abroad,” dried, tied on his head, a piece of copper, a white shell, a long feather
with a small rattle growingat the tails of their snakestied to it, or some suchlike
toy. All this while, Smith and the King stood in the midst, guarded as beforeis
said, and after three dances they all departed. Smith they conducted to a long
house where thirty or forty tall fellows did guard him, and ere” long more
bread and venison” was brought him than would have served twenty men.
[...]

3 A temporary hunting village further inland.

‘4 Fire-arms; weaponsfor shooting.
'S Firmly.
'6 Fitted on the bowstring ready to use.
7 Bissone: a snakelike formation.
'8 Archer’s sheath for carrying arrows.
‘9 A piece of armour designedto protect the forearm.
2 Puccoon: the Virginian Indian name of a North American plant yielding a red dye. Cf.
Capt. Smith, Map of Virginia 13 (1612): “Pocones is a small root that grows in the
mountains, which being dried and beaten in powder turns red.”
1 Qutspread.
% Before.
2 Theflesh of a deer, used as food.
UNIT 1: JOHN SMITH(1580-1631) _ . 19

Then they led him to the Youghtanunds, the Mattapanients, the

Piankatanks, the Nantaughtacunds, and Onawmanients” upon the rivers of 45
Rapahannock and Potomac, overall those rivers and back again by divers
other several nations to the King’s habitation at Pamunkey where they
entertained him with most strange and fearful] conjurations:

Asif near led to hell

Amongstthe devils to dwell.” 50
[...]
Atlast they brought him’? to Werowocomoco,”” where was Powhatan,
their Emperor, Here more than two hundred of those grim courtiers stood
wondering at him, as he had been a monster,till Powhatan and his train® had
put themselves in their greater braveries.”? Before a fire upon a seat like a
bedstead,he sat covered with a great robe made of raccoon”! skins andall 55
the tails hanging by. On either hand did sit a young wench”of sixteen or
eighteen years and along on each side [of] the house, two rows of men and
behind them as many women, with all their heads and shoulders painted red,
many of their heads bedecked* with the white down*ofbirds, but every one
with something, and a great chain of white beads abouttheir necks,
At his entrance before the King,all the people gave a great shout. The
Queen of Appomattoc®* was appointed to bring him water to wash his hands,
and another brought him a bunchoffeathers, instead of a towel, to dry them;
having feasted him after their best barbarous manner they could, a long
consultation was held, but the conclusion was, two great stones were brought 65
before Powhatan; then as manyas could, laid hands on him, dragged him to

* All these groups were part of the confederacy ruled by the powerful Algonquian chief
Powhatan.
** A couplet from translation of Seneca published by Bishop Martin Fotherby in his
Atheomastix (1622).
6 Captain John Smith
27 Powhatan’s village, on the north shore of the York River, twelve miles from Jamestown.
8 Group of persons following as attendants,
*” Finestattire; costumes,
*° A framework for supporting the mattress of a bed.
3! A mammal that inhabits most of North America. It is chiefly gray with black and white
stripes on its face and onits longtail. Its coarse fur is used in furriery.
* Girl or young woman.
33. Decorated,
Soft, fluffy feathers, as the outer covering on youngbirds or an innerlayerof feathers on
£

adult birds.
35 Opossunequonuske, the leader of a small village in Virginia who was killed in 1610 in
retaliation for the deaths of fourteen soldiers.
20 AMERICAN LITERATURETO 1900

them, and thereon*laid his head and being ready with their clubs to beat out
his brains, Pocahontas,*” the King’s dearest daughter, when no entreaty*®
could prevail, got his head in her arms and laid her own upon him to save him
from death, whereat the Emperor was contented he should live to make him
hatchets,® and her bells, beads, and copper, for they thought him as well ofall
occupations as themselves.” For the King himself will make his own robes,
shoes, bows, arrows, pots; plant, hunt, or do anything so well as therest.

This scene ofthe rescue of

Captain Smith by Pocahontas was
oneof the nine illustrative
drawings which Robert Vaughan
added to the engraved “Mapof
Ould Virginia” published in the
General History of Virginia, New
England, and the SummerIsles
(1624).

36 On them.
7 The historical Pocahontas (c. 1591-1617) was kidnapped bythe settlers in 1613, taken to
Jamestown and usedas a political pawn in negotiations with her father. She was the first
Native American in Virginia to convert to Christianity, and was baptized an Anglican. In
April 1614, she married the tobacco planter John Rolfe, a marriage which brought peace
between the English settlers and her people. She travelled to England with her husband
and infant son in 1616. She was presented at the court of James I, where she made an
excellent impression byher intelligence and beauty. The following year, on her way back
to New England, Pocahontas had to be taken off the ship at Gravesend, and died there of
pneumonia, smallpox or tuberculosis. “Pocahontas” was a nickname, meaning “the
naughty one,” “little- wanton”or “spoiled child.” Her parents knew her as “Amonte,” her
secret clan name was “Matoaka” (which meant “she is playful”), and she was also
known as Rebecca Rolfe after her marriage.
38 Earnest request.
® Light, short-handled axes.
# They thought him as skilled as themselves.
UNIT 1: JOHN SMITH (1580-1631) 21

1. How did Captain Smith protect himself from the Natives?

a. Heleft in his boat.
b. He hid from them on the banks of the creek.
c. He hid behind the bodyof his guide.
d. He pleaded with his captors.

2. According to the author, which of the following best describes the Natives’
feelings before they captured Captain Smith?
caution
ano

. jubilation
contempt
. excitement

3. What word best describes the Natives’ reaction to the dial?

a. indifference
b. wonder
c. dislike
d. fear

4. The Natives’ treatment of Captain Smith can be described as

alwaysviolent.
aon

. always kind.
invariably hostile.
. generally unpredictable.

5. The author portrays the Native “soldiers” as

a. educated.
b. disciplined.
c. undisciplined.
d. restrained.

6. What makesus think that Captain Smith is not in immediate danger while
he is in Orapaks?
a. Heis given presents of feathers and shells.
-b. He is not guarded.
c. The Natives bring him a vast quantity of food.
d. The Natives dance around him.
22 AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

7. As Smith is taken back and forwards among the Native groups, what do we
understand abouttheir attitude to him?
a. They are unsure of what he is and whatta do with him.
b. They wantto kill him.
c. They believe heis the devil.
d. They want him to fight Powhatan.

8. What word best describes the Natives’ treatment of Smith early in the feast
in Werowocomoco?
a. dismissive
b. respectful
c. insulting
d. mannerless

9. Which of the following makes us think that the Natives had difficulties in
reaching a decisian?
a. Even Pocahontas had to contribute to the debate.
b. Two great stanes were brought.
c. The debate lasted a long time.
d. Powhatan hadlittle authority over his subjects.

10. How could we term Pawhatan’s final decision?

a. practical
b. vengeful
c. pitiless
d. just

1. Skim the text to get its general sense and try to sum up the plot in two or
three sentences. Rememberthat the plot is what happens to the characters
in a story; it is an unfolding series or pattern of events.

2, Now, scan the text and list the names of the individual people who are
mentioned. Next to each name, write down anyinformation provided by
the author about each person. How are these individuals portrayed? Are
Any of them described or are weonlytold about the actions they perform?

3. Notice how the authorrefers to his captors. Can you find any derogatory
terms applied to them?
UNIT 1: JOHN SMITH (1580-1631) 23

How are the captors described? What do they look like? How are they
dressed? Do they ever speak, or do we learn about them only from what the
authorsays they did?

List the instances in which Captain Smith is attacked or feels threatened,

and thenlist the instances in which heis treated as an honoured guest by
the Natives.

. What impression of the Natives does the author try to conveybythis

alternation of threats and compliments? How do you think Smith’s
contemporary readers would have perceived such behavior on the part of
his captors? How successful was the author in presenting the Natives as
potential betrayers neverto be trusted by the English? How reliable does he
appearto readers today?

. John Smith’s military training allowed him to use technical terms, such as
“bissom,” to explain how the warriors were placed. List the weapons that
are mentioned and, next to each name, write down any details that the
author gives about them (their form and/or how they may be used). By
looking at the way the author paysattention to details of warfare, can you
point out how hereveals his military background?

Whydid the author refer to the tribesmen as “soldiers,” to their leaders as

“sergeants,” to the tribal chiefs as “Kings” and to Powhatan as “Emperor” or
“King”?

Captain Smith interspersed his General History with quotations from English
translations of classical authors. Whatis the main function of the quotation
from Seneca in the passage above?

10. The author generally wrote in a self-promoting wayin orderto establish his
own reputation and prided himself on knowing how to managetheIndians.
By scanning the text, can you find any actions performed by Captain Smith
that proved to be decisive in saving his life? In general terms, how did he
depict himself?

11. Apart from publicizing his accomplishments, Captain Smith often had to
justify his daring actions and defend himself from numerous accusations. In
particular, he was held responsible for the deaths of Thomas Emry and
John Robinson, and sentenced to death by hanging. Thetimelyarrival of the
Susan Constant, under the command of Captain Newport, at the Jamestown
waterfront stayed the execution. Can you find in the passages above any
evidence used by Captain Smith to claim that he should not have been
blamedfor the deaths of the two colonists?
24 AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

12. In other books, such as A Description of New England (1616) and

Advertisements for the Unexperienced Planters of New England, or
Anywhere, Or the Pathway to Experience to Erect a Plantation (1631),
Captain Smith uses the first person narrative and expresses his own
subjective perceptions and opinions about all kinds of matters. Why does
he omit the personal pronoun “I” and write of himself in the third person
singular throughout The General History of Virginia, New England, and the
SummerIsles? Whatis the effect of this strategy?

13. Look closely at the Pocahontas episode andtry to interpretit from your own
perspective. The author clearly states that she saved him from being
clubbed to death. Would she have shownherwillingness to offer her own
life in place of Smith’s in such a way? Would Powhatan and his men have
yielded to the girl’s wish to save Captain Smith? How probable do you think
the event was?

14. Philip L. Barbour, the foremost modern Smith scholar, accepted the
Pocahontasrescue story as true. He suggested that the Captain might have
misunderstood a ceremony of naturalization and adoption in which he
was symbolically killed and reborn with the status of one of Powhatan’s
sons. Pocahontas’ action would have been part of a ritual which Smith
could not understand. What do you think aboutthis interpretation?

15. Pocahontas became a symbolto all Americans, representing wilderness

reclaimed bycivilization. She has inspired many novels and poems. Why
do you think that the legend of Pocahontas has achieved the status of a
national myth? Comment on the fact that Pocahontas’ gesture has been
interpreted as a sign of the Native Americans’ submission to their English
conquerors.

16. After his liberation, Captain Smith became interested in the Natives’
languages and waysoflife. in the passages above, does he° give anyhints of
his interest in the Natives’ customs?

17. From the passages above, can you reach any conclusions about how Smith
viewed contact between the two cultures? Did he perceive the so-called
“encounter” as an interaction on equal terms? Bear in mind the basic
difference between facts (actual events) and the author’s opinions
(viewpoint, personal judgementand interpretation of facts).

18. As a colonial writer, John Smith had to struggle to make his language
depict a new world. Whatlinguistic strategies did he use? Note particularly
the adaptation of the current English lexicon and the introduction of new
vocabulary, restricted to a number of concrete words derived from Native
languages.
UNIT 1: JOHN SMITH(1580-1631) 25

19. According to Everett Emerson, Book {Il of The General History of Virginia,
New England, and the SummerIsles “is characterized by richness and
literary integrity, and it is full of incident and character.” Discuss this
statement.

20. Captain John Smith wasa person of singular importance in the colonization
of America. His practicality, common sense, hard work, individualism and
leadership have been praised by many Americans. Why do youthink that
he has often been identified as the quintessential American hero?

lation of{uch occur

rences and accidents ofneateas
__hazh hapned in Virginiafincethe firt ,
ee planting ofthat Collony, whichis aew
refident in the Southpartthereofull
the laftretarnefiona
“ thence. ce
eu CaptaineSenith encof vhe (asdColony, toe
Obitendothe Copland ae
a oe Thetitle page of the first
a English work written in
America, which was
published in London in
1608, reads: A TRUE
RElation of such

BS
occurrences and accidents
x ba caper
Pn, a,
of noate as hath hapned in
= _ s .
SUTpebe teste : Virginia since the first
PbeoPl planting of that Collony,
which is now resident in the
? Soe ey

South part thereof,till the

last returne from thence.
Written by Captaine Smith
oneof the said Collony, to a
worshipfull friend ofhis in
England.
26 . AMERICAN LITERATURE TO 1900

| When you finish each study unit, before you proceed to the next one,
you mayfindit useful to makea list that will help you to keep in mind the
| most important points you have studied. Your notes will also be valuable
whenever you need a quick revision. You may prefer either to write full
sentences about the authors and their works, or only jot down the key
words that you consider essential to remember. Here is an example of a
_ student'sresponseto the contentsof unit 1.

Captain John Smith (1580-1631)

* Author of the first book written in America: A True

Relation (1608). Other works: Map of Virginia (1612),
General Historyof Virginia (1624), The True Travels
(1630).
* English soldier, adventurer, explorer, geographer. Self-
made man of action.
* Arrived at Jamestown, 1607. Governor of Virginia
1608-09. Life devoted to writing after his return to
England.
Well-known as the hero of a love tale which probably
never happened: Pocahontas history + myth.
*READING: Excerpts from General History of
Virginia about Captain Smith’s captivity (threatened
+ honoured). Powhatan and Pocahontas.
- travel writing tradition (description + report of events)
- portrayal of Natives in derogatory terms (savages,
devils)
- quotations from classical writers (Geneca)
- lexicon: military technical terms + words from Native
languages
- third person narrative (Smith = he); in other works, he
uses the first person narrative (Smith = J)
- rhetoric: self-promoting way of writing; proud author
whojustifies and defends himself (individualism and
practicality)
- reliability? fact + fiction