Public at io n s of th e

C a r n e gi e E n d o w m e n t fo r I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a c e
D ivis io n o f E co n omics an d H is t ory
E C O NO M IC A N D S O C I A L H I ST O R Y
O F TH E W O R L D WA R

JA M E S T . S H O TWE L L ,
LL D . .

Gener a l E d i t ar

R um a n i an S e r i e s

D A V I D M I T R A N Y, P H D . .
 T HE

AND T HE P E A S A NT
I N RU M A N I A

T HE

WA R A ND A G RA R I A N RE F O R M

( 1
9 1 7
— 2 1
)

DA VID MITRA NY
PH D. .
( Lond on ) , E Sc. .
( Ec on . L o do
n n )

L O N DO N HU M P HRE Y M I L F O R D
O XF O R D U N I V ERS I T Y P R E SS

NEW H A V EN YA LE U N I V E RSI T Y P RES S

P ri n t e d i n G rea t Bu ta i m
 TO T HE MEM O RY

P RO FE S S O R L . T . H O BH O U S E
1 8 64— 1 9 2 9
 E D I TOR S P R E F A CE
’

IN the a utumn of 1 9 1 45 when the sci en t ifi c study of the effects

,

of w ar upon modern life p a ssed suddenly from theory to hi story ,

the Division of Economics a n d History of the Ca rnegie Endow

ment for Intern a tion a l Pea ce proposed to a dj ust the progra mme
of its resea rches to the new a n d a ltered problems which the Wa r
presented Th e existin g progra mm e whi ch h a d b een prep a red
. ,

a s the resul t of a conference of economists held a t B erne in

1 9 1 1 a n d which de a lt with the f a cts then a t h a nd h a d j ust

, .
,

begun to show the qu a lity of its contributions ; but for m a ny

rea sons it could no longer be followed out A pl a n w a s therefore
.

dra wn up a t the request of the Director of the Di vi sion in which ,

it w a s proposed by me a ns of a n historica l survey t o a ttemp t

, ,

to me a sure the economic cost of the Wa r a n d the displa cement

w hi ch it w a s c a usin g in the proces ses of civili z a tion Such a n .

Econo mic a n d S ocia l History of the World Wa r it w a s felt

’
, ,

if underta ken by men of j udicia l temper a n d a dequ a te tra in ing ,

might ultim a tely by rea son of its s ci en t ifi c ob liga tions to truth

, ,

furnish d a t a for the forming of sound publi c opini on a n d thus ,

contribute fun d a ment a lly tow a rds the a ims of a n institution

dedic a ted to the c a use of intern a tion a l p e a ce .

The need for such a n a n a lysis conceived a n d executed in the

,

spirit of hi s torica l rese a rch wa s in cre a sin gly obvious a s the Wa r

,

developed rele a sin g complex forces of na tion a l life not only for
,

the va st process of destruction but a lso for the stim ul a tion of new
c a p a cities for production Thi s new economic a ctivity which
.
,

under norm a l conditions of pe a ce might ha ve b een a g a in to

society a n d the surprising c a p a city exhibited by the b elligerent
,

n a tions for enduring long a n d increa sing loss — often while pre
sentin g the outw a rd sembla nce of new prosperity— m a de neces sa ry
a reconsider a tion of the whole fi e ld of w a r economics A double
.
viii EDITOR S PREFACE
’

ob liga tion w a s therefore pla ced upon the Division of Economics

an d History . It w a s oblig ed to concentra te its work upon the
problem thus presented a n d to study it a s a whole ; in other
,

words to a pply to it the tests an d disciplines of history J ust

, .

a s the Wa r itself w a s a single event though penetra ting by seem

,

i n gly unconnected w a ys to the remotest p a rt s of the world so ,

the a n a lysis of it must b e developed a ccording to a pl a n a t once

a ll embr a cing a n d yet a dj usta ble to the pra ctic a l limits of th e
-

a v a il a ble d a t a .

During the a ctu a l progress of the Wa r however the execution

, ,

of this pl a n for a s ci en t ifi c a n d obj ective study of w a r econo mi cs

.

proved impossible in a n y l a rge a n d a uthorit a tive w a y Incident a l .

studies a n d surveys of portions of the fi eld could b e m a de a n d were

m a de under the direction of the Di vision but it w a s impossible to
,

underta ke a genera l history for obvious rea sons In the fi r st pl a ce .

,

a n a uthorit a tive st a tement of the resources of b elli gerents bore

dir ectly on the conduct of a rmies in the fi eld The result w a s to .

remove a s fa r a s possible from scrutiny those da t a of the econo mi c

life of the countries a t w ar which wo ul d ordina rily in time of ,

pe a ce b e re a dily a va il a ble for in vestiga tion In a d di tion to t hi s

,
.

d i ffi cult y of consulting documents coll a bor a tors competent to

,

de a l with them were for the most p a rt c a lled i nto n a tion a l service
in the b elligerent countrie s a n d so were un a va il a ble for res ea rch .

The pl a n for a w a r history w a s therefore postponed un til con di

tions should a rise which would m a ke possible not only a ccess to
essenti a l documents but a lso the co opera tion of economists
~

histori a ns a n d men of a ffa irs in the n a tions chiefly concerned

, ,

whose j oint work would not b e misunderstood either in purpose

or in content .

Upon the termina tion of the Wa r the Endowment once

more took up the origin a l pl a n a n d it wa s found wi th but
,

slight m od ifi ca t ion to b e a pplic a ble to the situ a tion Work w a s .

begun in the summer a n d a utumn of 1 9 1 9 In the fi rst pl a ce .

 ED ITOR S P REFA C E
’
ix
a fi na lconference of the Advisory B o a rd of Economists of the
Divi s ion of Economics a n d History w a s held in Pa ris which ,

li mited itself to pl a nning a series of short prelim i n a ry surveys of

speci a l fi eld s S ince however the purely preli min a ry ch a ra cter
.
, ,

of such studies w a s further emph a sized by the f a ct th a t they were

directed more e s peci a lly towa rds those problems which were then
frontin g Eur ope a s questions of urgency it w a s considered b est
,

not to tre a t them a s p a rt of the genera l s urvey but ra ther a s of

contempora ry v a lue in the period of w a r settlement It w a s clea r
.

tha t not only co ul d no genera l progra mme b e l a id down a p ri or i

by thi s conference a s a whole but th a t a new an d more highly
,

speci a lized rese a rch org a niz a tion th a n th a t a lre a dy existing wo ul d

be needed to undert a ke the Economic a n d S oci a l History of t h e
Wa r one b a sed more upon n a tion a l grounds in the fi r st inst a nce
,

a n d less upon purely interna tion a l c o oper a tion

-
. Until the f a cts
of n a tion a l history could b e a sce rt a ined it would b e impo s sible
,

to proceed with comp a ra tive a n a lysis a n d the different n a tion a l

histories were themselves of a lmost ba tfli n g intrica cy a n d v a riety .

Consequently the former Europ ea n Committee of Resea rch w a s

di ssolved a n d in its pl a ce it w a s decided to erect a n Editori a l
,

B oa rd in ea ch of the l a rger countries a n d to no m in a te s peci a l

editors in the sm a ller ones who should concentra te for the
, ,

present a t le a st upon their o wn economic a n d soci a l w a r history

, .

The nomin a tion of these b o a rds by the Genera l E ditor w a s the

fi r st step t a ken in every country where the work h a s b egun And .

if a n y j ust ifi ca t ion w a s needed for the pl a n of the Endowment ,

it a t once m a y b e found in the lists of those distin guished in

,

schola rship or in public a ffa irs who h a ve a ccepted the responsi

,

bi lit y of editorship .Thi s responsibili ty is by no me a ns light ,

i nvolvin g a s it does the a d a pt a tion of the gener a l editori a l pl a n

, ,

to the va ry ing dem a nds of na tion a l circum st a nces or methods of

work a n d the me a sur e of success a tt a ined is due to the generous
an d e a rnest c o oper a tion of those in ch a rge in e a ch country
-

.
 EDITOR ’
S P REF A E C
Once the edi tori a l orga niz a tion w a s est a blished there could
b e little doubt a s to the fi rst step which should b e t a ken in e a c h
insta nce tow a rd the a ctu a l prep a ra tion of the history Without .

documents there can b e no history The essentia l records of the.

Wa r loc a l a s well a s centra l h a ve therefore to b e preser ved a n d to

, ,

b e m a de a v a il a ble for res ea rch in so fa r a s is comp a tible with publi c

interest But t hi s a rchi va l t a sk is a Very grea t one b elonging of
.
,

right to the governments a n d other owners of hi storic a l sources

a n d not to the histori a n or economist who proposes to use them .

It is a n ob liga tion of own ership for a ll such docum ents a r e publi c

trust The colla bora tors on thi s section of the w a r history there
.
,

fore working within their own fi eld a s resea rchers could o nl y

, ,

survey the situ a tion a s they found it a n d report their fin di n gs in

the form of gui des or m a nu a ls a n d perha ps by stim ula ting ,

a comp a rison of methods , help to further the a doption of those

found to b e most pra ctica l In every coun try therefore t hi s w a s
.
, ,

the point of dep a rture for a ctu a l work ; a lthough speci a l mono
gra phs h a ve not been wr itten in every insta nce .

This fi r st st a ge of the work upon the w a r h istory de a li ng with ,

little more th a n the extern a ls of a rchi ves seemed for a Whi le to ,

exh a ust the possibilities of rese a rch And h a d the pl a n of the.

history b een li mited to rese a rch b a sed upon offi cia l documents
little more could h a ve b een done for once docum ents h a ve b een
,

l a b elled s ecret few government offi cia ls ca n b e foun d with

s uffi ci en t cour a ge or initi a tive to bre a k open the se a l Thus va st .

m a sses of source m a teri a l essenti a l for the histori a n were e ffec

t i ve ly pl a ced b eyond his re a ch a lthough much of it w a s qui te
,

h a rmless from a n y point of View W h ile w a r con di tions thus

.

continued to h a mper resea rch an d were likely to do so for m a ny

,

yea rs to come some a ltern a tive h a d to b e found

,
.

Fortuna tely such a n a ltern a tive w a s a t h a nd in the n a rra tive

, ,

a mply supported by document a ry evidence of those who h a d

,

pl a yed some p a rt in the conduct of a ffa irs during the Wa r or who , ,

 EDITOR S P REF A C E
’
xi
as close observers i n pri vi leged positions were a ble to record
,

from fi r st or a t lea st second h a nd knowledge the economi c history

-

of different pha ses of the Grea t Wa r a n d of its effect upon society

, .

Thus a series of monogra phs w a s pl a nned consisting for the most

p a rt of un offi cial yet a uthorit a tive st a tements descriptive or ,

hi storica l w hi ch m a y b est b e describ ed a s a bout h a lf —w a y b etween

,

memoirs a n d blue books These monogra phs m a ke up the m a in

-
.

body of the work a ssigned so fa r Th ey a r e not li mited to con

.

tempora ry w a r time studi es for the economic history of the w a r

,
-

must dea l wi th a longer period th a n tha t of the a ctu a l figh t in g .

It must cover the yea rs of d e fl a t ion a s well a t lea st suffi ci en t ly

,

to secur e some fa irer mea s ure of the economic displ a cement th a n

is possible in purely contempora ry j udgements .

With thi s ph a se of the work the editori a l problems a ssumed

a new a spect . The series of monogra phs h a d to b e pl a nned
prim a rily with rega rd to the a va il a bility of contributors r a t her ,

tha n of sour ce m a teri a l a s in the ca se of most histories for the

contributors themselves controlled the source s This in turn .

involved a new a ttitude towa rds tho s e two idea ls w hi ch histori a ns

ha ve sought to emph a size consistency a n d obj ectivi ty In order
, .

to brin g out the chief contribution of e a ch writer it w a s impossible

to keep withi n n a rrowly logic a l outlin es fa cts wo ul d h a ve to b e
repe a ted in di fferent settings a n d seen from di fferent a ngles a n d ,

sections included which do not lie within the strict li mits of history
a n d a bsolute obj ecti vity could not b e obt a ined in every p a rt .

Under the stress of controversy or a pology p a rti a l Views would ,

here a n d there fi n d their expression But these Views a r e in some

.

inst a nces a n intrinsic p a rt of the history itself contempora ry ,

me a surements of fa cts a s sign ifi ca n t a s the fa cts with which they

de a l Moreover the work a s a whole is pl a nned to furnish its
.
,

own corrective an d where it does not others will , .

In a ddition to this monogra phic trea tment of source m a teri a l ,

a numb er of studies by sp eci a lists is a lr e a dy in prep a r a ti on ,

xii EDITOR ’
S P REF A E C
de a lin g with technic a l or limited subj ects historic a l or st a tistica l
, .

These monogra phs a lso p a rt a ke to some extent of the n a ture of

fi r st h a nd m a teri a l registering a s they do the d a t a of history
-

clos e enough to the source to p ermit ver ifi ca t i on in w a ys im p ossible

l a ter But they a lso belong to th a t constructive process by which
.

history p a sses from a na lysis to synthesis The process is a long .

a n d d i ffi cult one however a n d work upon it h a s only j ust b egun

, .
,

To quote a n a pt ch a ra cteriz a tion in the fi r st st a ges of a history

,

like thi s one is o nl y pickin g cotton The t a ngled threa ds of

’
.

events h a ve still to b e woven into the p a ttern of history a n d for

this crea tive a n d constructive work different pla ns a n d orga niz a
tions m a y b e needed .

In a work which is the product of so complex a n d v a ried

co opera tion a s this
-
it is impossible to indi c a te in a n y but
,

a most genera l w a the a pportionment of responsibility of editors

y
a n d a uthors for the contents of the different monogr a phs For .

the pl a n of the History a s a whole a n d its effective execution the

Genera l Editor is responsible but the a rra ngement of the det a iled
progra mmes of study h a s b een l a rgely the work of the different
Editoria l B oa rds an d division a l E ditors who h a ve a lso rea d the,

ma nuscripts prep a red under their direction The a ccepta nce of .

a monogr a ph in this series however does not commit the editors

, ,

to the O p i nions or conclusions of the a uthors Like other editors .

,

they a r e a sked to vouch for the s ci en t ifi c merit the a ppropri a te ,

ness a n d usefulness of the volumes a dmitted to the series ; but

the a uthors a r e n a tura lly free to m a ke their individua l con t r i bu
tions in their own w a y In like m a nner the public a tion of the
.

monogra ph s doe s not co m mit the Endowment to a greement

with a n y sp ecifi c conclusions which ma y b e expressed therein .

The responsibility of the Endowment is to History itself— a n

ob liga tion not to a void but to secure a n d preserve v a ria nt n a rr a
t i ve s a n d points of View in so fa r a s they a r e e s senti a l for the
,

underst a nding of the Wa r a s a whole .

 EDITOR S P REF A C E
’
xiii
Th e present volume c a ll s for speci a l editori a l comment There .

a re two w a ys to de a l with the problems covered by the Economic

a n d Soci a l History of the World Wa r There is on the one h a n d

.
, ,

the close a n a lysis of the immed ia te effects the tre a tment of events ,

in their own set ting without reg a rd to their historic a l a ntecedents

or their effects upon the subsequent developments of economic or
soci a l life ; on the other h a nd there is the purely historic a l tre a t
,

ment which pl a ces the events of the Wa r in the long per s pective of
n a tion a l development a n d follows the story through slo w a n d com
plic ated processes of recovery The Economic a n d S oci a l History
.

of the World War cont a in s b oth types of a n a lysis ; the strictly

limited study of w a r time phenomen a a n d the surveys which
-

present not only the det a i l of co n tempora ry h a ppeni n gs but a n

interpret ation of their me a ning Thi s study is of the l a tter type
. .

An d the f a ct th a t it is l a rgely a pioneer explor a tion i n a n a re a a s

yet not well d efi n e d in either theory or pr a ctice h a s m a de it n e ce s s
a ry to describe the historic a l b a ckground of the problem i n a lmost

a s gre a t det a il a s the problem itse lf Mr Mit r an y h a s in a truly

. .

s ci en t i fi c spir it a ttempted to de a l with the a gr a ri a n problem of

south e a stern Europ e a s it h a s sh a ped itself under v a ryi ng pressures

-

of w ar an d politics It is a l a rge c a nva s which h a s here been filled

.

with the fi gur es of those in a rticul a te m a s s es of men an d women to

whose f a te the hi s tori a n h a s bee n a s often indifferent a s the poli
t ici an h a s been un j ust . At l a st i n this volum e the Rum a ni a n
, ,

pe a s a nt spe a ks for himself to the whole world An d his ple a for .

soci a l economic a n d politic a l j ustice i s in its very n a ture a force

, , , ,

which m a kes for pe a ce There i s therefore a n a dded re a son for

.
, ,

includi n g in this series the volume which m a kes this a ppe a l in t elli
g i ble to E n glish re a ders .

J . T S
. .
 A U TH O R S P R E F ACE
’

The a gra ri a n reform described in this volum e w a s a result of

the World Wa r in the s a me sense a s w a s the Russi a n Revolution
, .

The slow a ction of centuries cre a ted the conditions which m a de

such a n outcome poss i ble a n d the shock of the Gre a t Wa r sh a t
,

t er e d the soci a l structur e of e a stern Eur ope a t its we a kest j oint .

In the potency of the i r contribution to th a t effect Wa r an d history

perh aps h a d a n equ a l sh a re Inevit a bly however there is more
.
, ,

to b e told a bout the slow work of history th a n a bout the st a rk

blow of the Wa r For the proper underst a nding of the reform this
.

study therefore h a d to go b eyond the lim its of the Wa r ye a rs

, , .

Its re a l me a nin g could not h a ve b een m a de cle a r without proj ect

i n g the reform a g a in st its historic a l b a ckgroun d esp eci a lly a s
,

writers on south e a stern Europ e h a ve been so engrossed with its

-

politics hitherto a s to give sc a nt a ttention to soci a l h istory For .

the s a me re a son the study h a d to t a ke i n a num b er of post w a r -

ye a rs the a pplic a tion of the reform itself took a numb er of ye a rs

to complete a n d its effects to b e mea sured with a n y solidity
, , ,

h a d to b e observed over a s long a p eriod a s possible This .

method imposed itself— p a ra doxic a l though it m a y sound

j ust b ec a use in this c a se the effect of the Wa r w a s so deep .

Where the Wa r merely c a used some tr a ns i ent body to b e set up ,

like the Allied Shipping B o a rd or some existing pr a ct i ce to be

,

tempora rily suspended like the p a rli a ment a ry control of ex

,

en d it ur e i t s effect w a s simple d i rect a n d co extensive in time

p
-

, , ,

a n d could be pl a ced ni cely within the fr a mework of the Wa r .

But such limits wo ul d h a ve been a ltogether a rt ifi ci a l a n d dis

t or t i n g for the description of a n effect which h as revolutionized
the whole soci a l progress of a n a tion .

The poi n t is still more evident when on e considers not effects

but c a uses of w a r Speci a l w a r bo a rds a n d exception a l w a r rules
.

h a ve no pl a ce in the l a tter c a tegory a t a ll They a r e merely

.

a djun cts in the conduct of w a r but a r e neither produced b n or

, y ,

do they revise the issues whi ch un derlie the c onfl i ct Not s o

, .

b
xvi AUTHOR S P REF A C E ’

with the soci a l found a tions of St a tes They a r e b oth the wa rp .

,

a s c a uses ,a n d the weft a s effects

, from whi ch is woven the
,

p rogress of the n a tions through w ar a n d pe a ce If it is cert a in .

th a t without the Wa r those sweeping soci a l ch a nges wo ul d not

h a ve occur red who could tell if the Wa r itself would h a ve
,

h a ppened were e a stern Eur op e to h a ve h a d a different soci a l

,

history ?
There a r e two a spects of this study on which it might be a s
well to say a word here One is the mood of the historic a l p a rt
.

of the n a rra tive The picture dra wn in th a t p a rt is s o d a rk

.
,

a lmost without a n
y h a lf —lights th a t it m a
y possibly
, strike the
gener a l re a der a s bi a ssed Yet it is j ust a s likely I fe a r th a t
.
, ,

those who h a ve b een sp ect a tors of the un bri dl ed m a nn er i n

’
which the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt s power of work a n d gentlen ess
of temper were a bused b efore the Wa r m a y ra ther repro a ch me ,

with a pp e a ring to m a ke light of a gre a t wrong by sp e a king of it ,

in too me a sured tones .

T h e second poin t concerns the st a tistic a l an d sociologic a l

m a teri a l used in this study In a letter to his friend S uvor in
.
,

written in the nineties Chekhov compl a i n ed th a t in Russi a

’
,
‘

there is a terrible de a rth of f a cts a n d a terrible a bund a nce of

’
s pecul a tions of a ll sorts Since th a t time the z emstvo w orkers
.

h a ve provided Russi a with the most el a bora te a gr a ri a n st a tistics

a n d soci a l studies of a n y country the United St a tes excepted
, .

But Chekhov s rem a rk a pplies with di s tressing a ccur a cy t o

’

Rum a ni a Her a gra ri a n a n d soci a l st a tistics h a ve never yet b een

.

t a ken seriously by those responsible for the budget of the

st a tistic a l services I a m con sci o us therefore of m a ny short
. , ,

comings which might h a ve b een m a de goo d if the me a ns a t the

,

dispos a l of the offi ci als concerned h a d b een equ a l to their a bility

a n d goodwill .

Rese a rch for this study h a ving stretched over a number of

ye a rs with severa l spells of work in the fi eld it will b e evident
, ,

th a t I h a ve received inform a tion a n d a ssist a nce from m a ny more

p eople th a n I could publicly th a nk here The kindness of .
 AUTHOR
’
S P REF A C E x vii
members of the former Rum a ni a n Government— M Vintil a .

Br ati a nu M I Duc a M C Argen t o ia n u a n d M G Cipaian u

, . .
, . .
, . .

a s well a s of the present Min ister of Agriculture M I Mih a la ch e , . .

,

m a de it possible for me to obt a in help from dep a rtments a lre a dy

overburdened with work I owe immens e gr a titude for their .

unstinted help to my friend Genera l R a du Rosett i son of the ,

distinguished histori a n of the a gr a ri a n question t o Dr Gr , . .

An t i pa Director of the N a tur a l Science Museum a n d to Pro

, ,

fe ssor G Ionescu Sise s ti D i rector of the Institute of Agronomic

.
-

Rese a rch I a m deeply i n debted to the indefa tiga ble genera l

.

secret a ry of the Rum a ni a n Ac a demy Professor I Bi a nu a n d , .

,

’
to the st a ff of the Ac a demy s re a ding room for much courtesy ,

a n d help ; a n d likewise t o Dr Gheron Nett a Director of the .

,

Rum a n i a n E conomic Institute a n d his a ssist a nts I h a ve , .

received much encour a gement from my friend Professor Dimitrie

Gusti President of the Rum a ni a n Soci a l Institute Profe s sor Al
, . .

N a st a Director of the Centra l Resettlement Otfi ce a n d his

, ,

a ssist a nt M N Ch i toi u h a ve given me a ll the a i d in their

. .
,

power I h a ve received a lso most willing help from MM P

. . .

R os ia d e I Lup a n a n d E F ilot t i of the Ministry of Agriculture ;

, .
, .
,

a n d from M E M a ri a n a n d F K eme n y techn ic a l exp erts to

. . .
,

the S am an t a comp a ny My friend M E m a n oil B ucuta never

‘ ’
. .

f a iled to reply to a letter a n d to give all the help he co ul d a s did ,

a lso my friend M Aurelin Pop escu now Commerci a l Att a ch é in

.
,

Pa ris a n d M I Coler editori a l secret a ry of the Adevém l

, . .
, .

In this country I h a ve received from Mr C S Orwi n Director . . .

,

of the Oxford Institute of Agric ul tura l Economics v a lu a ble ,

a dvice for the solution of cert a i n d i ffi cu l t i es in the tr a nsl a tion

of technic a l terms a n d he h a s a lso been kind enough to re a d in
,

proof the ch a pters on Production Dr G P a vlovs k y h a s pre . . .

p a red the Index .

D M . .

K I NG S T O N B L O U N T O X F O R D , .

Decemb
er 1 929 .
 C ONTE NTS
I NTR O D U CT I O N : THE E EC FF T
O F TH E W R D O L W AR
U P ON THE A GR A R IA N S R U C UR E OF E UR T T OPE xx iii

PAR T I
THE A GR A R IAN P R OB LE M I N R U MAN I AN H IS T OR Y
I . S O C IA L F R E E D O M PO L I T I CA L
AN D P
D E E N D E NC E
1 . Th e Mi dd
l e A ge s : L d d P pl
an an eo e

Th e r u l e r s
d
Th e r u l e
La n d t en u r e
2 . P p
F oun d a t io n o f t h e r i n ci a l it i es
b p
R e l a t ion s e t we en r in ce s a n d c n e 2 1
Th e e m e r ge n ce of a n u pp
e r c l a ss

3 . b
Th e egin n in gs o f s e r f o m d
Th e l oss o f fr e e om d
d
Th e i n c r e a se i n s e r v i tu e s
h
Th e l im i t a t i o n o f t h e r ig t t o l a n d
p y
Th e r a e o f e om a n l a n d
II .PO L I T I CA L F B EED OM AN D S O C IA L P
DE E N D E NC E
1 Th O r g
. i e S t a t u t es
an c

d
Th e Mo l a v i a n s t a t u t e
Th e Mun t en ia n s t a tu t e
2 R e v i s in g t h e o r ga n i c s t a t ut es
at io a l
.

3 Th e con i t io n o f t h e
. d e a s a n tr p y on the e ve of n n

i n e en en ce d p d

I II NA T I O NA L I N D E P E N D E NC E AN D
. E MANC I PA
T I O N OF THE P E A S AN T S
1 Th e n e w fa c t o r s
.

2 Th e r e fo r m o f 1 8 6 4
.

Th e n a t u r e o f t h e r e fo r m
Th e b a ck g r o un d o f t h e r e fo r m
3 P r a c t i c a l e ffe ct s o f t h e r e fo r m
.

I V THE NE W S T A T E
. AN D THE NE W S E R F D OM ( 1 8 6 4 —1 9 1 7
)
1 . L dp
an l ic y a ft e r 1 8 6 4
o

fi rs t p e r io d
s e co n d p e r io d
2 . Th e l a ws o n a gr icu lt u r a l con tr a ct s
3 . Th e P e a s a n t s bu r d e n s
’

4 . W a r s a n d r e v o l u t io n s
xx CONTENTS
P A R T II
THE NE W L A ND R E FO R M
V . L AN D L AW S : PO L I T I CA L H I S T O R Y
Fix i ng the b a sis o f t h e r efo r m
L egis l a t i v e e v o l ut io n of t h e p r op osa l s
Th e p e a s a n t is t i n t e rl u d e
Th e s e c o n d e xp r o p r i a t i on

VI . L AN D L A W S THE NA T U R E : OF R E F OR M, GE N E R A L
L E G I S L A T I VE P R O V I S I O N S
Th e e
1 . xp p
r o r ia t ion :
Th e fi r s t
Th e s e con d
Th e m e c a n i s m h
2 Th e r e s e ttl e m e n t :
h d
.

d b
Th e i s tr i u t i on o f o l i n gs
h
Th e m e c a n i s m o f 1 es e tt le m e n t
C om m u n a l gr a zin gs a n d woo l a n d d s : g r a z i n gs
F r t
o es s

C o l on i z a t i on
3 . Th e p r o b l e m o f co m p e n s a t ion
Th e e xp r o p r ia t i on p r i ce
Th e 1 e s ett le m e n t p r i c e
4 . Me a s ui e s for t h e p r o t e c t io n o f p r o d u c t i on
Th e a s s o c ia t i o n s o f r e s e ttl e m e n t
Th e cu lt i v a t i o n of n e w h o l d in gs
5 . Me a su r es f0 1 s a fegu a r d in g p ea sa n t p r op er t y
C on so li d a t ion
Th e m a i n t e n a n c e o f p e a s a n t ho l d in gs
I n h e r it a n ce
S a l e a n d m o rt ga ge o f ho l d i n gs
Th e r e s t 1 1c t 1 o n o f l a r ge p r o p e rt y
6 . V a r i a t ion s i n t h e s e v e r a l l a n d l a ws
Th e m a i n d iffe r e n ce s
N a t i on a l is t t e n d e n c i e s

PAR T II I
THE A PP L I CA T I O N OF THE R E FO R M AN D ITS R E S U LTS
VI I . THE E FF E C T S O F THE R E FO R M ON THE D I S TR I B U
T I O N OF L A ND P R OP E R T Y
1 . Th e c h a n ge i n t h e O l d K i n gd o m
Th e e xp r o p r ia t ion
Th e r e s e ttl e m e n t
C r it ic is m s o f a pp l ica t io n
2 . Th e e ffe ct s o f r e fo r m i n t h e n e w p r o vm ce s
B e s s a r a b ia
B u co v i n a
 CONTENTS xxi
T r a ns y l v a n i a
Th e c h a n ge i n the d is tr i but ion of lan d a mon g t h e v a r ious
t ion a l i t i e s
na

3 S u mm a r y o f t h e e ffe c t o f t he r e fo r m o n t h e d i s tr i but i o n o f l a n d
.

p r o p e rt y
V I I I THE E FF E C T S OF THE R E F OR M ON TH E O R GAN I ZA
.

T I O N OF P A R MI N G
1 C h an ge s in t h e scale of a gr i cu ltu r a l e xp l oi t a t ion s
.

2 C h a n ge s i n t h e m e a ns o f p r o d uc t i on
.

I X THE E FF E C T S OF THE R E F OR M ON P R O D U C T I O N
.

1 Th e c h a n ge i n t h e d is tr i bu t i on o f c r o p s
2 P r e s e n t p o s i t i o n a n d t h e fu tu r e o f w h e a t a n d m a i z e
.

W h ea t
Ma i z e
3 . Th e e ffe c t o f t h e r e fo r m on p r o d uct io n
Th e cu lt i v a t e a r e a d
P d
r o u ct i o n
p
Th e n e w r o v i n ces
4 . Th e e ffe ct o f t h e 1 e fo r m on p r i ce s an d e xp o rt
E xp01 t

p
V a l ue a n d r i c e s

X . THE E FF E C T S OF THE R E R M ON R U R A FO L E C O N O MY
1 Th e e ffec t s on l i v e s t o c k
.

2 Th e e ffe c t o n r u r a l i n d us tr i e s
.

D o m e s t i c i n du s tr i es
A gr icu ltu r a l i n dus tr ies
3 Th e e ff e c t on t h e e o o p e r a t i v e m o v e m e n t
.
-

H is t o r y o f t h e m o v e m e n t
L
e ga l s t a t us o f c o o p e r a t i on -

C re d it e o op e ra t i v e s
-

F e d e r a l s of p o pu l a r b a n k s
C e n tr a l of p o p u l a r b a n k s
C o n s um e r s co o p e r a t i v e s a n d co op e ra t l ve s o f p r o duce r s
’

Co o p e r a t i v es of p r o d uct ion
~

A gr i cu ltu r a l co o p e r a t io n-

L a n dh ol d in g s ocie t ies
L a n d p u r c h a s e s oc ie t ies
A gr icu ltu r a l s ocie t ie s
Co o p e r a t i on i n t h e n e w p r o v i n ce s
-

Th e S t a t e a n d e o o p e r a t ion -

Th e n e w c o o p e r a t i v e c o d e
-

XI . THE E FFE C T S OF THE S T A TE S E C O N O MI C AN D

F INANC I A L PO L I C Y U PO N THE W O R K I N G OF THE
R E F OR M .

1 . Th e r e s ou r ces of a gr icu ltu r e

Wo r k in g ca p i t a l a s a ffe ct e d by r e fo r m
Th e s upp l y of a gr icu lt u r a l c r e d i t
xx ii CONTENT S
2 . Th e bu r d en s o f a gr i cu lt u r e
T a x a t io n
T a r iffs
T r a n s p o rt
Me rca n t i h s m r r i a n is m ? ‘
3 . or a g a

XII . THE S C I A O L AN D PO L I T I CA L E FF E C S T OF THE

R E F OR M .

1 . S o ci a l t
e ffe c s o nu r b a n l ife a n d i n s t i tu t ion s
2 . S oc ia l i n t h e Vi l l a ge
e ffe c t s

Th e e con o m i c s i t u a t i on o f t h e p e a sa n tr y
Ma t e r ia l co n d i t ion s o f l ife
( a ) H ous i n g
( b) A l im e n t a t io n
( c ) A l co h o l is m
3 . H e a lt h a n d Vi t a l s t a t is t ics
4 . Cu ltu r a l a n d p s y c h o l ogi ca l c h a n ge s
( a ) E duc a t io n
E l e m e n t a r y e d u ca t i on
P r o fe s sion a l e duca t ion
A du lt e d uca t io n
( b) C r i m e a n d c o n fli ct
ligious
.

( c) C h a n gin g p s y c h o l ogy , as s een in 1e an d so ci a l

o utl ook
R e l igio n
py h y
S o c i a l s c o l o g a n d c l a ss d 1 v 1 5 1o n
. Th e P o l i t i c a l e ffe c t s o f t h e r e fo r m

p
Th e t i m e a n d t e m e r o f t h e n a t io n a l i s t m i dd l e c l a ss
p
Th e e a s a n t r e v i v a l
p
Th e e a s a n t m o v e m e n t

C O NC L U S I O N
A PP E N D I X I T r a d i t ion a l fo r m s of j oin t l an dho l din g
.

I I Mét a y a ge i n r um a n ia n a gr icu ltu re

.

I I I Th e fi n a n c i a l a cc ou n t s o f t h e r e fo r m
.

B IB L I O GR A P H Y
INDEX

MA P S
P hy s i ca l ma p of R u m a n ia

Th e e ffe c t o f t h e r e fo r m on t h e d i s tr i but io n of a r a b l e p r op e rt y a t en d
 E X PL A N A T OR Y N O TE S
1 . Geograp hi ca l N a mes .

Ge o gr a ph i ca l n a m es a r e use d h e r e i n a cco r d a n ce wit h R u m a n ia n

cu s t o m . Th e p r o v i n c e ge n e r a ll y ca l l e d W a ll a c h i a i s a l w a y s r efe rr e d
t o i n R um a n i a n a s flI un ten i a a n d t h i s fo r m i s a d o p t e d i n t h e ,

fo l l owi n g p a ge s .

Mun t e n i a i n c l u d e d Olt e n i a Mo l d a v i a i n c l u d e d B u co v i n a u n t i l .

1 7 7 4 a n d B e s s a r a b i a u n t i l 1 8 1 2 a n d a ga i n b e t w e e n 1 8 5 6 a d 1 8 7 8
, , n .

D ob r ogea i s h e r e u s e d i n i t s R um a n i a n fo r m a n d n ot i n t h e m o r e ,

h a b i t ua l co rrup t fo r m s Do br ud s h a or Dobr ud j a wi t h t h e Tu r k is h
, ,

t e rmi n a tio n It w a s a cqui r e d by R um a n i a i n 1 8 7 8 a n d it s s out h e r n

.
,

p a rt kn own a s t h e Qua d r i l a t e r a l fro m B u l ga r ia i n 1 9 1 3

, , , .

F or t h e s a k e o f c o n v e n i e n c e a ll t h e n e w t e rr i t o r y b e y on d t h e ,

C a r p a t h ia n s a c qui r e d by R um a n i a a ft e r t h e W a r i s r e fe rr e d t o a s
, ,

T r a n s y l v a n ia t h ough it i n c l ud e s p a rt of t h e B a n a t ( of Te m e s v ar )
,

a s we l l a s t h e p r o v i nc e s k n own a s C r i sa n a a n d Ma r a mu r e s .

0
5 ech n i ca l Ter ms .

Th e r e a d e r w h o m a y h a v e o cca s io n t o r e fe r t o t h e o r igin a l s ou r ce s
wi l l fin d i n t h e m t w o t e r m s w h ic h d o n o t a pp e a r i n t h es e p a ges ,

a n d w h i c h h a v e n o e qu i v a l en t i n E n g l i s h u s a ge

I mp r op r i etd r i r e i n R um a n i a n d es ign a t e s t h e o pp o s it e o p e r a t i o n
, ,

t o e xp r o p r i a t i o n i e t h e p a r c e l l i n g o ut a m o n g t h e p e a s a n t s o f
, . .

t h e l a n d t a k e n o v e r fr o m t h e l a n d own e r s ; b ot h op e r a t ions we r e
c a rr ie d out by t h e S t a t e o n a n a t ion a l s c a l e To r e n d e r t h e wo r d
, .

i n t o E n gl i s h a s i m p r o p r i a t i o n wou l d h a v e b e e n t o gi v e a n a lt o
‘ ’

ge t h e r n e w s e n se t o a n old t e r m : t o i m p r o p r i a t e m e a n i n g i n
‘ ’

E n gl i s h t o p u t t h e p o s s ess i on s o f t h e C h u r c h i n t o t h e h a n d s o f
‘

la i ck s ( D r J o h n so n ) Th e r e fo r e i mp r op r i etd r i r e h a s b e e n
’
. .
,

r e n d e re d he r e a s by a n a l ogy wi t h t h e c l os e r ‘

se ttl e m e n t us e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e a ct ion o f p ub l ic a ut ho r i t ie s
’

w h i c h a c qui r e l a r ge o r m e d iu m s i z e d fa r m s a n d s p l i t t h e m i n t o -

s m a ll h o l d i n gs .

Coma s a re i n R u m a n i a n d e s c r i b es a n o p e r a t ion w h ic h h a s n o
, ,

p a r a l l e l i n E n gl is h a gr a r i a n h is t o r y n a m e l y t h e ga t he r in g , ,

t o ge t h e r by e x c h a n ge or r ea l l o t m e n t o f a p e a s a n t h o l d in g
, ,

w h i c h h a d co n s i s t e d o f s e v e r a l i n c l ose d bu t wi d e l y s e p a r a t e d
fi e ld s ( a n d n ot be i t n o t e d t h e tr a n s i t io n fr o m s tr i p fa r m i n g
, ,

in o p e n fi e ld s t o i n c l o s e d fa r m i n g) Comas a re i s n o t n e ces sa r i l y
‘ ’
.

a cco m p a n i e d by a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e o f t h e h o l d i n s a nd
g ,

t h e r e fo r e con so lid a t ion a pp e a r e d t h e mos t sui t a b le w a y o f

‘ ’

d es c r i b i n g i t .
 EXPL AN ATORY NOTES
3 . P r on un ci a ti on .

B e l ow a re h e qui va l en t s of a cce n t s a n d ce d i ll a s
gi v e n t h e E n gl is
us e d i n R u m a n i a n o rt h ogr a phy
a €
A

, h a v e no e qui v a l en t i n E ngl is h — s l igh t l y s h a r p e r t h a n 6 .

d é , l i ke t h e e i n fa t h e r .

S h ( a s i n s h ou t ) .

t is or tz (as i n ts a r ) .

c ts h , b e fo r e i an d 6 ( but k b efo r e a , 0, u and con s on a n s t ) .

g dj (a s i n gen tl e ) w hen fo ll owe d by e or i , o t h e r w is e as in

ga r d e n .

u 00 i n m oo d .

4 . Weigh ts an d M ea s ur es .

Qui n ta ls and tons i n t h e fo l l o w i n g p a ges a re a l w a y s us e d in t he i r

m e tr i c v a l ue s ;
Ch i ld ( from Tu r k i s h k i lé ) i s a n old co r n m e a sur e e qua l t o
the ,

6 7 9 2 6 8 l i tr es i n Mun t e n i a a n d 4 3 0 l i tr e s i n Mo l d a vi a ;

fa lce ( fr o m fa lcem l i t e r a l l y t h e q ua n t i t y of gr a ss m ow n i n a
—
,

gi v en s p a ce o f t i m e ) 8 0 p r dj i n i 1 43 h a ( a pp r o xi m a t e l y -
.

on e a n d a h a l f h e c t a r e s ) ;

p agan ( fr o m t h e R u s s i a n ) 5 01 2 s q m ( a pp r o x i m a t e l y h a l f a
. .

h ect a r e ) ;
d esy a ti n ( R u s s i a n ) 1 0 9 h e ct a r e s 2 7 a c r es ; -

j uga r ( fr o m j uger um) us e d i n A us tr ia a n d H un ga r y ( ka ta s tr a l

,

j ock ) 5 7 5 4 s q m ( s l igh tl y o v e r 1 3 a c r es ) ;
. .

h ecta re 2 4 7 1 a c r e s ( a pp r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 a c r e s ) -
.
 I NTR O D U CTI ON
THE E F F E C T W O R L D W A R U PO N
OF THE
’
THE
A GR A R I A N S T RU C T U R E OF E U R OP E

A M ON G the v a rious soci a l effects of the Gre a t Wa r the down

f all of the cl a ss of l a rge l a ndowners h as been the most outst a nd
ing on the Continent N 0 other effect comp a res with th a t either
.

in intensity or ext ent It h a s b een a ctive throughout the

.

Continent a n d in principle h a s penetra ted even i n to Gre a t

,
’
Brit a in— the l a st stronghold of l a n d lordism But in Brit a in ‘
.

no p e a s a nts stood re a dy to push it over the b orderline between

progr a m a n d policy .

As a mere dispossession of propertied people the phenomenon

h as not been limited to the l a nd After the Wa r we a lth ch a nged .

h a nds on a n enormous sc a le a n d in a ll the fi eld s of economic ,

a ctivity Whole sections of the popul a tion for inst a nce were
.
, ,

ruined by the coll a pse of the Germ a n currency Sim il a rly with .

the depreci a tion of the L a nc a shire cotton sh a res Dr Hilfer d in g . .

,

the fi n an cia l expert of the Germ a n Soci a lists s aid a few ye a rs ,

‘
a go th a t never before h a s expropri a tion gone to the lengths t o

which c a pit a lists a r e driving it now ; never h a s the s a nctity of

contra ct a n d property been so desecr a ted a s durin g a n d a fter
the Wa r In the h a nds of the c a pit a lists th i s h a s led to a gig a ntic
.

a ccum ul a tion of priv a te we a lth a n d even of power over public ,

’
we a lth 1 Nevertheless this v a st a n d merciless tra nsfer of we a lth
.
,

in the in dustri a l West h a s been t a ken for gra nted by the Very
critics who s eemed profoundly shocked a t a p a ra llel process in
the a gr a ria n E a st .

It is true th a t the two processes though a like in kind differed , ,

in more th a n one respect In the West we a lth ch an ged h a nd s

.
,

m a inly a mong indivi du a ls of the s a me cl a ss by spec ul a tion a n d ,

keen competition ; both these methods in the c a pit a list system , ,

be i ng perfectly legitim a te me a ns tow a rds a tt a ining the perfectly

l a wful end of piling up we a lth In the E a st the tra nsfer of .
,

1
S p ee ch at the I n te rn a tion a l S o ci a li s t C on gre ss .
( Ha mburger E ch o, Ma y 25 ,
1 9 23 )
xx vi INTRODUCTION
we a lth w a s from one cl a ss to a nother an d it w a s more or less ,

forcibly imposed either by the St a te or by revolution And while .

in the West the event led merely to a fresh co n centra tion of

we a lth in the a gra ri a n countries the res ul t w a s a wholes a le
,

division of the m a in so urce of we a lth a mong those who h a d

little or nothing Moreover in industry a n d fi n an ce the event
.
,

ch a nged the ben efi cia r i es without in a n y w ay a fi ect ing the

system where a s in the a gra ri a n E a st the division of l a rge
,

property me a nt a ch an ge likewise from l a rge se a le to pe a s a nt

, ,
-

f a rm ing Fina lly while the expropri a tion which Dr Hilfer d in g

.
, .

deplored goes on d a y by d a y on stock exch a nges a n d in the -

m a rkets the Wa r h a vin g merely sh a rpened its a ction so th a t

, ,

luck or shrewdness might a t a n y moment turn the sc a les in the

’
Victims f a vour the a gra ri a n expropri a tion h a s been sudden a n d
,

fi n a l le a ving those wh o suffered under it without a n y prospect

,

of a ppe a l .

On the Europe a n Continent we a lth in the form of l a nd h a s

become ra re a n d m a y soon b e unknown Th e Wa r h a s a cted a s .

a sh a rp dissolvent of a st a t e of things wherein m a ny elements ,

economi c a n d soci a l were a lre a dy workin g a ch a n ge Our ide a s

, .

on property— perh a ps the most stubborn of a ll soci a l c a n ons

‘
h a ve a ltered considera bly during the l a st h a lf —century There .

is no doubt wrote Duguit th a t the View which rega rds property

’
, ,
‘

a s a subj ective right is b e i ng repl a ced by a conception wh i ch

’
reg a rds it a a soci a l function
s
1
Theoretic ally this ch a n ge of
.

outlook m a de gre a ter strides with reg a rd to l a nd ownership th a n

other forms of property S oci a l philosophers were continu a lly
.

point i ng out how in a dmissible it w a s th a t l a nd wh i ch w a s not ,

’
cre a ted by m a n s efforts yet w a s the prim a ry s ource of his
exist e nce should be own ed despotic a lly In pr a ctice however
,
.
, ,

the new Vi ew wa s more extensively a pplied in the industri a l

fi eld b ec a use the somewh a t brut a l fe a tures of the Industri a l
,

Revolution c a lled for incre a sed public con trol a n d the org a nized ,

pressure of the workers helped to secure i t .

In a griculture this ph ilosophic a l evolution w a s reinforced

,

l a ter on by pr a ct i c a l needs The cri sis c a u s ed by the exp a nsion

.

’
of overse a corn growing g a ve fre s h support to P r oud h on s ple a
-

L e Droi t S oc ia l, le Dr oi t I nd ivid uel ci les Tra n sforma ti ons d e l Eta t Pa ri s

’ ’
1 .
, 1 908 .
 INTRODUCTION xx vn

th a t a m an who t illed a piece of l a nd should own it O nl y .

intensive a gricul t ure co uld extra ct from Europe s old soil returns ’

c a p a ble of withst a nding oversea competition ; a n d i ntens i ve

a gr i culture on a l a rge sc a le proved unr emuner a tive with p a id

l a b our Hence for the s a ke of production the tre n d of Europe a n

.
,

a gr i culture durin g the l a st fift ye a rs h a s been tow a rds the

y
division of l a rge est a tes Even a mong S oci a lists those who h a d
.

speci a liz ed in a gra ri a n problems like Dr D a vi d or M Va nder

, . .

’
Velde reverted to P r oudh on s distinction b etween freehold a n d
,

possession an d a dvoc a ted th a t in the Soci a list progra m the

,

dem a nd for the n a tion a liz a tion of the l a nd should b e coupled

with provisions for its individu a l exploit a tion .

The View therefore th a t l a rge est a tes should b e divided into

, ,

sm a llholdings formed the leitmotiv of the a gra r ia n reforms

p a ssed in Europ e in pre w a r yea rs But such reforms were few
-
.

a n d feeble In most Europe a n countries more especi a lly in the

.
,

E a st the l a nded cl a sses ret a in ed suffi ci en t politic a l i n fl uen ce to

,

obt a in fa vours from the St a te by me a ns of which they co ul d

conti nu e to pr ofit from extensive cultiv a tion a n d a t the s a me
time w a rd off the pressure of the l a ndless p e a s a nts But the .

Wa r severed th a t a ncill a ry conn exion b etween l a rge l a ndowners

a n d St a te a n d a s a res u
, l t the flood tide of a gra ri a n reform held
-

up by politic a l devices w a s freed Redistribution of politic a l

, .

power it must b e noted a n d in some c a ses revolution preluded

, , ,

the reforms ; even in Victorious countries in spite of the f a ct ,

th a t m i lit a ry Victory often strengthens the power of the ruling

cl a sses they h a d to be a dopted
, .

There is no doubt th a t i n cert a in a gra ri a n regions the ch a n ge

received impetus from the f a ct th a t the bulk of the l a ndowners
were not of the s a me n a tion a lity a s the m a ss of the p e a s a nts But .

the results were not very different where the l a nded cl a ss w a s

a utochthonous a s in Russi a a n d old R um a ni a
, The ch a r a cter of .

the reforms w a s determ i ned not by n a tion a lity but by soci a l r e

la t i on sh i p However conson a nt with economic needs philosophic
.
,

creeds or a t t imes n a tion a list prej udices they m a y h a ppen to be

, ,

they a re fir st ly a soci a l phenomenon They m a rk the f a ll of the

.

l a n dlords a n d out of the soci a l c a t a clysm— c a used prim a rily by

,

the Grea t Wa r— the triumph a nt emergence of the pe a s a nts .

x xviii INTRODUCTION
The va rious reforms p a ssed on the Continent a fte r the Wa r
represent different st a ges in these two results At one ext reme .

is Russi a Th a t country h a s done a w a y with l a rge property

.

a ltogether an d with no compens a tion wh a tever to former

,

own ers Then most of the countries b orderin g on Russi a a s

.
, ,

well a s Yugosl a vi a a n d Czechoslova ki a h a ve a cted on a sim il a r ,

pri nci p le dividin g the gre ater p a rt of the l a rge est a tes a mong
,

the pe a s a nts ; in their c a se the former owners received com

e n s a t i on but a lwa ys less tha n the a ctu a l v a lue of the l a nd
p , .

Fin a lly in centra l a n d western Europ e —in Austri a Hun g a ry

, , ,

Germ a ny & c —the reforms h a ve a i med merely a t f a cilit a ti n g

, .

the exp a nsio n of p e a s a nt f a rmi n g ; they h a ve ch a nged th a t is , ,

the det a ils but not the b a sis of the existi ng a gra ri a n orga ni z a tion ,

a n d the l a nd h a s b een purch a sed for the pe a s a nts a t current

pri ces .

In pointing out these differences Professor Ma x S ering

expl a ins th a t the fi r st group of reforms foll owed the Russi a n
model while the seco n d followed the Europ e a n
,
1
If t h is i s .

me a n t to ii n ply th a t the reforms were moulded by the more or

‘ ’
less ci vi lized outlook of the i r m a kers the rem a rk f a ils to reve a l
,

the re a l c a use of the difference The r a nge of e a ch reform w a s

.

determined by the st a te of the a gr a ri a n system which it h a d to

correct In centra l a n d western Europe W here preferenti a l
.
,

me a sures in fa vo ur of the l a rge owners h a d to some extent

d efl e ct e d the a ction of eco n omic f a ctors rel a tively mild reforms ,

s uffi ce d to redress th a t leg i sl a tive bi a s But in e a stern E ur ope .

the l a ndowners h a d ret a i ned a feud a l hold on the soci a l a n d

politic a l life of the region a n d only reforms of revolut i on a ry
,

dim ensions could bring th a t st a te of th ings up to the level of

the more a dva nced p a rt of the Continent The reforms h a d to .

retrieve ground in a gre a ter or lesser degree in the me a sure in

, ,

wh i ch the progress of a gra ri a n conditions h a d b een ret a rded .

In e a stern Europe the ir t a sk w a s nothing less th a n to complete

a t long l a st the demolition of feud alism begun in the West by

the French Revolution .

The m a in post w a r reforms therefore a r e in direct line wi th

-

, ,

th e gre a t nineteenth century me a sures which em a ncip a ted the

-

1
In troduction t o Th e Agra r i a n R evoluti on i n E ur op e .
( I n R u ss i a n )
.
 INTRODUCTION xxix
pe a s a nts The two groups form p a rt of a conti nuous movement
.
,

only now completed ; yet b etween the two a r e differe n ces a n d

even contr a sts which serve to reve a l the st a rtl in g ch a nge which
the position of the pe a s a nt h a s undergone i n the i nterv a l The .

e a rlier reforms were in the m a in the a chievement of the new

Libera li sm which w a s moved to work for the em a n cip a tion of
,

the pe a s a nts by f a ctors which were tr a nsformi n g the outlook

a n d l i fe of th a t period Their hum a nit a ri a n philosophy depre
.

ca t e d a ll restrictions on p erson a l lib erty ; Constitution a l gover n

ment dem a nded the equ a lity of a ll citizens before the la w ; a n d

the new economic doctrine required freedom of movement for
l a b our a n d c a pit a l a like But in our time the new reforms h a ve
.

been c a rried through si n gle h a nded by the pe a s a nts themselves

-

running ra ther contra ry to prev a iling soci a l a n d econom i c ten

d en ci es a n d t a ki n g no a ccoun t cert a inly of economic cond itions
, .

One of the chief res ul ts which the middle cl a ss expected from the -

e a rlier em a ncip ation of the p e a s a nts w a s the rele a se of a supply

of l a bour a n d of chea p foodstuffs for the exp a ndin g industri a l
cities The new reforms which h a ve given so m a ny pe a s a nts
.
,

a fresh ch a nce on the l a nd tend t o reduce the supply of l a b our

, ,

a n d this j ust in those less developed countries which a spire to

cre a te a n industry of their own Moreover formerly the town s

.
,

were gl a d to h a ve the Villa ges behin d them in their fi gh t a ga inst

the strongholds of feudalism a s in 1 8 48 for ex a mple ; but b ec a use
,

the present reforms swing the politic a l pend ul um b a ck tow a rds

the country side the former a lli a nce h a s given w a y to a cut e
-

a nt a go n ism between country a n d town s .

The two groups of reforms show e qu ally strong contr a sts in

ch a r a cter a s in b a ckground The m a in fe a tures of the nineteenth
.

centur y me a sur es were for the pe a s a nts of a neg a tive ch a r a cter

, , .

They were freed from feud a l servitudes but they h a d t o pa y ,

compens ation e ither i n a lum p sum or in t a xes a n d a lso they ,

genera lly lost some of the l a nd which they h a d formerly f a rmed ,

a s for inst a nce in E a stern Prussi a where a l a rge rur a l prole

, , ,

t a ri a t o nl y c a me into be ing a fter the reforms — an effect which

gra du a lly h a d to b e remedied by successive me a sures for closer
settlement Quite otherwise in the twentieth century Wh a t
. .

ever privileges the l a ndlords h a d enj oyed h a ve been utterly

xx x INTRODUCTION
swept a w a y without a n y compens a tion while the pe a s a nts h a ve
, ,

rece i ved most of the l a nd on very e a sy terms everyw here the

’
new reforms h a ve r a ised the pe a s a nts st a tus an d st a nd a rd of
living B ut while un der the e a rlier me a sures the p e a s a nts were
.

the losers re a l ben efit s were re a ped by the l a ndl ords Their
, .

est a tes were freed from servitudes in a period of exp a nding corn
tra de a n d rising l a nd v a lues tra ns a ctions in l a nd were m a de free
,

a n d the w a
y opened for the concen tr a tion of l a nded property .

The new reforms h a ve well nigh ruined the l a ndowners l a ti

- —

fundi a h a ve been destroyed a ltogether— a n d the new l a ws con

t a in provisions which restrict the s a le of l a nd a n d bar the w a y
to a n y rem a king of l a rge priva te est a tes .

The gulf which sep a ra tes the two rel a ted groups of reforms
a ppe a r s very cle a rly when one comp a res the more extreme

incidents in e a ch of them M Leroy B e a ulieu observed a s e a rly

. .
-

a s 1 8 98 th a t
‘
a Russi a n Revolution might b e the gre a test

historic a l event since the French Revolution represent ing in a ,

’
w a y its counterp a rt a t the other end of Europe 1 It i s very true .

th a t the Russi a n Revolution which rele a sed the S pri n g of the

,

new l a nd reforms is the e a stern counterp a rt a n d complement

,

of the French Revolution But the sp a n of time which s ep a ra tes

.

the two eve n ts expl ains the gre a t ch a nge in their positive effects .

B oth of them a r e mileston es in the soci a l progress of Eur op e ,

m a rking the successive bre a kdown of feud al i sm in the West a n d

in the E a st But the one took pl a ce on the threshold of the
.

Industri a l Revolution w i th its i mpetuous unch a ining of the

,

forces of production an d tra de The other st a nds a t the b eginnin g.

of a S oci a l Revolution which will a s impetuously press forw a rd

,

the problem of distribution The one though helped by the .

,

m a s s es w a s in the service of th e urb a n middle cl a ss ; duri n g the

,
-

French Revolution l a nd w a s sold to the pe a s a n ts merely for

securing revenue a n d it w as divided i n to sm a l lholdin gs only
,

a s a n a fterthought a n d a s a n a dj unct in the p a rty struggle .

But the Russi a n counterp a rt h a s turned out a revolution for the

pe a s a n ts while the sh a re of the a pp a re n tly domin a n t urb a n
,

cl a ss is second a ry a n d incident a l Noth ing conclusive could b e .

proved by comp a ring the professed J a cobin individu a lism of

1
L E mp i r e d es Ts a rs
’
cl les R usses . Pa ri s , 1 8 9 7 —8 , vol . ii .
p 6 24
. .
 INTRODUCTION xx xi
the fi r st with the profess ed B olshevik comm unism of the second .

As a French writer h a s pointed out the J a cobin s who cl a imed , ,

to defend property a n d thre a tened with de a th those who pr opa

’
g ated the a gra ri a n la w th a t is the Communist s h a d in fa ct
‘
, ,

requisitioned confi scat ed a n d expropri a ted The Bolsheviks

,
1
, .

procl a imed the extermin a tion of individu a l property but in ,

effect they h a ve contributed to its enormous exp a nsion a n d con

solid a tion in Russi a an d in the neighbouring a gr a ri a n countries .

All things considered therefore the French Revolution i n the

, ,

West a n d the Russi a n Revolution in the E a st a r e two v a stly

dissimil a r specimens of the s a me genus The old worlds which .

both demolished were a like but there is little in common be ,

tween the new worlds to which e a ch h a s given birth B oth put .

a n end to a ristocr a tic rule m a int a ined with the revenue of feud a l
,

est a tes But the fi r st prep a red the w a y for the rise oiz the
.

c a pit a list middle cl a ss where a s the second hera lds the politic a l
-

predomin a nce of the working cl a ss The new movement h a vi n g -

.

t a ken rise in a gra ri a n regions the difference b etween the two ,

events is best seen in the ir effect on the pea s a nt The fi r st did .

no more for the pe a s a nt t h a n to rele a se him from his servile

n

fetters But the second h a s pl a ced upon h i s shoulders the m a ntle

.

of power .

In Rum a ni a it w a s not until 1 9 1 8 th a t the right of the pe a s a nt

to t ill h i s own fi eld s fi r st w a s form a lly recog n iz ed through the ,

la w for comp ul sory l a b our p a ssed in th a t ye a r Until then the .

,

m a ss of the pe a s a nts h a d i n pra ctice rem a ined bound to the l a nd

lords Throughout the evolution of the politic a l r é gime from
.
,

Turkish suzera inty to n a tion a l i ndepen dence a n d from a utocra tic

princip a lities to Con stitution al kingdom the n a ture of the pe a s a nt ,

servitudes h a d rem a ined the s a me ; o nl y the form i n wh i ch they

were imposed h a d va ried to fit the lega l system of e a ch ,

period The cre ation of the Rum a ni a n Princip a lities found the
.

Vill a gers a s free j oint holders of the Vill a ge l a nds burdened

-

with no other duties th a n th a t of givin g the Villa ge he a dm a n

’
one tenth of the produce a n d three d a ys s ervice in the ye a r
-

In time however th a t yeom a n st a tus w a s more a n d more

, ,

1
A Ma t h iez , L e B olché vi sme ci le J a cob
. i n i sme . Pa ri s , 1 9 20, p 1 4 . .
x x xn INTRODUCTION
encro a ched upon until the p e a s a nts were pressed into serfdom
, .

But the i r dec a dence did not follow from the politic a l tri a ls which
befell the whole region a fter the coming of the Tur ks Ou the .

’
contr a ry e a ch downw a rd step in the p e a s a nts soci a l st a tus
,
’
corresponded r a ther to some moment of recovery in the coun try s
politic a l st a tus .

The fi r st prince to turn the m a ss of the p e a s a nts into Vi lleins ,

a t the end of the sixteenth century i n Munte ni a Mih a iu

( ) w as ,

the Bra ve who a lso equipped the fi r st profession a l a rmy a n d

, , ,

with its help roused the Rum a ni a n provinces to a l a st flicker of

,

independence b efore they fi n ally succumb ed to the Turks .

1Vh e r ea s the fi r st to decree the form a l a bolition of serfdom ,

a bout the middle of the eighteenth cent ury w a s one of the ,

ill reputed Ph a n a riote prin ces Const a ntin Ma vr ocor d a t D ur ing

-

, .

the long period of subj ect i on to the Tur ks the pe a s a nts sh a red
in the genera l m i sery but their tria ls were due to chr o n ic la w
,

lessness a n d to spor a dic a buses by the l a n dl ords a n d not to a n y

, ,

form al depression of their cl a ss Throughout thos e centuries .

the i r l a nd rights rem a ined i nt a ct Their servitudes i ncre a sed .

o nl y slightly a s the l a ndlords were kept in check by the ru ling

,

powers But step by step a s the provi nces esc a ped from
.
,

Turkish rule the pe a s a nts were reduced to such a st a te of serf

,

dom a s they h a d never known b efore The fi rst a cts to prelude .

the end of Turkish rule a n d its repl a cement by a Russi a n

protectora te ( the Tre a ties of Kutshuk Ka in a r d j i 1 772 a n d of , ,

I a s sy , a n d the return of n a tive princes ( Convention of

’
were followed by a severe incre a se in the p e a s a nts l a b our
dues a n d for the fi r st time by the restri ction esp eci a lly , ,

of their fi gh t s to l a nd When the provinces recove r ed their

.

politic a l a utonomy ( Convention of Ackerm a nn 1 8 26 a n d Tre a ty , ,

of Adri a nople 1 8 29 ) there w a s immedi a tely a h esh i ncre a se in

,

l a b our dues a n d ot h ei servitudes an d a fur ther 1 e st 1 1 ct i on of the

,

pe a s a nt s l a nd rights ; a n d this b eing the fi r st occ a sion on which

’

the boi ar s forming the n a tion a l di va n were allowed to legisl a te ,

they used it to tra nsform their usufructu a ry title to the l a nd

into one of full ownership When in the sixties of the l a st
.
’

century the new St a te a cquired independence the pe a s a nts ,

were form a lly em a ncip ated in compli a nce with the inj unction
,
 INTRODUCTION xx xiii
of the Gre a t Powers ; but the holdin gs of the pe a s a nts were
a g a in reduced to a poin t where they no longer offered su fficie n t
,

me a ns of subsistence while l a bour servitude s were promptly

,

rein troduced in pr a ctice by me a ns of the l a ws on a gric ul tur a l

contra cts At the s a me tim e the l a ndlords were rele a sed of all
.

their obliga tions tow a rds the p e a s a nts a n d m a ny of them were ,

a ll owed to ret a in l a nd whi ch w a s by a ncient right the portion of

the v i ll a gers If the f a te of the pe a s a ntry b e j udged not by leg a l

.

t ext s but by the mora l a n d physic a l conditions of life on the

,

l a nd then there is no doubt th a t the pe a s a nts re a ched the worst

,

degree of economic a n d soci a l bon d a ge a fter their em a ncip a tion ,

under n a tion a l government an d the form a l rule of Con st it u

t i on a l liberties Th e e lement a ry conditions for the re a l em a ncip a
.

tion of the pe a s a nts were cre a ted only a s a result of the Wa r ,

a fter the Rus s i a n Revolution by the a gra ri a n a n d electora l

,

reforms procl a imed in 1 9 1 7 a n d en a cted a fter the a rm i stice .

The c a se of the Rum a ni a n pe a s a n ts b ec a use it h a ppens to ,

b e peculi a rly fl a gr a n t i llustra tes very well the difference between

,

the two c a tegories of rura l reforms Th e em a ncip a tion of the .

p e a s a nts in 1 8 6 4 which in fa ct left them in every respect worse

,

off th a n they were b efore but which opened the w a for the
, y
enrichment of the l a ndlords b elonged to the group of me a sures
,

through which lai ssez fa i r e w a s introduced in to a griculture in

the fi r st h a lf of the n i neteenth century The new reform the .
—

speci a l subj ect of this study belo n gs to the group initi a ted by
—

the War a n d the Russi a n Revolution a n d its effect h a s b een to ,

oust the l a ndlords a n d to le a ve the p e a s a nts in control of

a griculture .

The spe cifi c fe a tures of the Rum a ni a n c a se a lso help to prove

the second premiss th a t the m a in spring of the new reforms
—

w a s politic a l a n d th a t it w a s rele a sed by t h e Gre a t Wa r The .

nineteenth centry reforms were in the West p a rt a n d p a rcel of

-

the tra nsform a tio n of rur a l economics but they were every ,

where pressed by the mon a rchies wh i ch felt the need of cur bing,

the power of the l a ndlords Even i n Russi a B ut in Rum a ni a

. .
,

a fter the wilting a w a y of the Turkish domin a tion the l a nded

cl a ss was the centra l power There w a s no middle cl a ss to

.
-

counter the wi ll of the l a ndl ords nor a ruler w ith enough ,

xx x iv I NTRODUCTION
a uthority to check it a s the position of the new foreign dyn a sty
,

w a s insecure Hence with every rele a se from foreign control the

.

strength of the l a ndlords incre a sed a n d the bur dens which they ,

l a id upon the pe a s a nts i n cre a sed in the s a me degree It w a s this .

politic a l suprem a cy of the l a nded cl a ss which m a de p ossible the

continu a nce of a servile system un til well on in the twentieth
century ; a n d it w a s the sn a pping of this suprem a cy by the Wa r
which m a de w a y for the new reform The Wa r h a d not other .

’
wise disloc a ted the country s economic a n d soci a l orga niz a tion
the whole structure of Rum a ni a n society h a ving rem a in ed a s it
w a s b efore there w a s no orga nic re a son for the bre a kin g up of its
,

feud a l a gra ri a n found a tions h a d its chief ben efi ci a r i es b een a ble

-

to preserve them The a nxious efforts which they m a de to r e

.

entrench themselves on the heights of St a te a fter the reform i n ,

order to ret a in a s a dmini stra tors the control they h a d lost a s

‘
l a ndlords prove how a bnorm a l h a d b een the gr a nt ing of l a nd
,
’
a n d lib erty in 1 9 1 7 .

F rom wh a tever ngle genera l or p a rticula r one rega rds the

a , ,

post w a r l a nd reforms it i s their soci a l a spect whi ch st a nds out

-

, ,

a s a revolution a ry ch a nge which will le a ve its m a rk upon the

future history of Europe Nor is th a t outcome of the World .

Wa r perh a ps w ithout a wider po litic a l s ignifi can ce E a stern .

E urope h a s h a d a n in or d i n a te sh a re of inv a sions an d w a rs a n d

revolutions Thi s expl a i n s in a l a rge me a sure the economic a n d
.

soci a l b a ckw a rdne ss of the region Yet it is p ossible th a t the .

present forcible redres s c a used by the stress of yet a nother an d

,

fe a rful w ar m a y extra ct some good for the world a t l a rge from

,

the fa ct of its h a ving been ret a rded s o long if wh a t Professor ,

S e ign obos s a id in 1 9 1 9 proves a s true in the futur e a s it h a s

proved in the p a st Writing on the Do w nfa ll of Aristocra cy in
.
‘

E a stern Europe he s a id : We seek gu a ra n tee s a g ain s t a return

’ ‘

of the w a r spirit Wh a t r egime is more pa cifi c th a n a democr a cy

.

of pe a s a nt proprietors ! Sin ce the world b eg a n no such com ,

’
munity h a s ever desired or prep a red or commenced a w a r .
PROBLEM HISTORY
 C H A P TE R I
S OCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
As a na tion the Rum a ni a ns ha ve suffered more th a n their
,

norma l sha re of w a rring a n d duress but those frequent politica l ,

storm clouds ha ve not b een without a mea s ure of silver li ning to

-
-

them More th a n once their sh a dows h a ve given shelter to

.

pop ul a r institutions which might ha ve fa ded bene a th a brighter

politic a l sky ; popul a r customs a n d rights h a ve somehow sur vived
through a ges when rul ers were wont not to tolera te them beca use ,

in those times either r ul ers could not exist in the Rum a ni a n

regions or h a d more tha n their work cut out to keep themselves
,

a bove the flood of inva ders One ca n illustra te the p a ra dox with
.

the m a rvellous fa te of the B ess a ra bia n pe a s a nts in our own time , .

About a century a go Russia tore th a t province a w a y from the

,

body of the Rum a ni a n Princip a lity of Mold a vi a a n d set a bout

turning it into a loya l depen dency It h a d a h a rd life un der the .

wilful rule of the Ts a rs ; but bec a use these princes wo ul d not let
an
y r a y of light penetra te to the m a sses either by w a y of self ,

government or of educ a tion a whole centur y of a lien di scipline ,

h a s left the li fe of the pe a s a nts un touched They now return to .

Rum a ni a a s a fter a long win ter sleep with a ll the w a ys which ,

their a ncestors took with them in 1 8 1 2— with a s they still c a ll it , ,

‘ ’
their Mold a vi a n l a ngu a ge a n d customs a n d tra ditions And .

this is but the most recent inst a nce of the curiously double sided -

fa te which h a s b een the lot of the Rum a ni a n p eople during fift e en

centuries a n d more .

From the time when the Rom a ns bendin g b efore the o n rush ,

of the b a rb a ria ns withdrew their legions from the region b etween

,

the D a nub e a n d the C a rp a thi a ns a b a ndoni ng wha t h a d b een ,

‘
D a ci a Felix a bout A D 270 its inh a bit a nts fell Victim s to a n
’
, . .
,

unbroken ch a in of a li en inva sions a n d in trusions ; more of them ,

prob a bly a n d more v a ried th a n those which h a ve p a ssed over

,

an
y other people of Europe Yet in spite of th a t or a s I beli eve.
, , ,

la rgely bec a use of th a t the m a ss of the people wa s a ble to

,

preserve its customs a n d w a ys to a n a m a zin g degree The dis .

t in ct i ve costume whi ch the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt we a rs every d a y

B 2
4 SOCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
is still identic a l from hea dwea r to footgea r with tha t w hi ch
, ,

common p eople a s shown on the ba s reliefs of Tra j a n s column

,
-
’
,

h a d worn when the Roma ns conquered the region eighteen

centur ies a go The Rom a nce l a ngu a ge whi ch they t a lk h a s sur
.

vi ve d a s a mystery isl a nd in the Sl a v oce a n w hi ch surrounds i t

, ,

a n d which in the politic a l a n d religious a n d other fi e ld s h a s more

th a n once submerged the whole region An d so it h a s b een with .

m a ny customs of the soil a n d wi th the a ncient rights of those who

till ed i t As long a s the l a nd w a s a prey to a lien in va ders an d
.

oppressors its rulers were h a rd pressed to preserve their est a te ;

,

they could h a rdly fi n d me a ns to try to in crea se it a t the expense

of the m a sses nor coul d they t a ke the risk of rousin g their enmity
,

by such a n a ttempt In the genera l mi sfortunes of the country

.

the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt no doubt h a s h a d to b e a r a he a vy sh a re

, ,

of misery ; yet h e a t a n y ra te kept the freedom of hi s own person

, ,

a n d his rights to the use of the l a nd in tim es when in the civi li zed

West hi s fell ow p e a s a nts were b ei ng pressed into serfdom Not .

till the b eginning of the nineteenth centur y when the Rum a ni a ns ,

b eg a n to e n ter upon the ro a d to n a tion a l independence w a s the ,

pe a s a ntry form a lly deprived of its title to the l a nd an d of the

right to move on it freely B ut this subj ection which co uld not
.
,

come b efore h a d fortun a tely come too l a te The system w a s

, .

misb egotten when everywhere the towers of feuda lism were

tottering or were b eing successfully stormed For a w hi le it w a s .

a ble to veget a te in th a t uncongeni a l period but not to spre a d ,

solid roots ; a n d it broke down therefore a fter the Gre a t Wa r

, , ,

more speedily an d completely th a n elsewhere under the pressur e

of the re a w a ken ed m a sses .

Th e Mi ddle A ges L an d a n d p eop le As soon a s the Rom a n

. .

legions h a d a b a ndoned the forts a n d entrenchments which pro

t e et e d the e a stern con fin e s of the Empire the b ar b a ri a n hosts ,

broke through the ga p b etween the Bla ck S ea a n d the Ca rp a thi a ns

a n d flooded the pl a ins which stretched b elow the mount a ins to

the D a nub e These inva ders seemed a s innum era ble a s they were
.

ins a ti a ble Wherever they p a ssed little wa s left a bove ground of

.

wh a tever they could consume or c a rry a w a y with them ; a n d a n y

thing else th a t stood in their w a y merely roused their p a ssion for
d es troying a s they p a ssed onw a rds or retrea ted in their ex pe
,
 S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 5

d it ion s N ot h ing w a s s a fe from them except th a t which w a s too

.

lowly a n d wea k to tempt the greed or pique the temper of these

wild nom a d w a rriors .

Wa lls or princely power co ul d not stem the inva sion ; they

only drew upon them the blows of the inv a ders And so the .

people of the region lost the a r t of livi ng in cities a s well a s th a t ,

of orga nizing in grea ter numbers for b etter governm ent during ,

the m a ny centuries in which the b a rb a ria n inva sions continued .

Public a n d priva te life in former D a cia w a s reduced t o Very

humble a n d sim ple forms a s a mea ns of n a tura l self protection
,
-
.

The old poli tic a l hi era rchy a n d orga ns fa ded a wa y a n d so did the ,

inner a rticula tions a n d the outer boun d a ries of the country Its .

sorely ha ra ssed a n d b a dly reduced inh a bita nts lived in sma ll dis
ointed communities more like trib a l groups th a n a nythi ng else
j ,

except th a t they ret a ined a sense of their kin ship a n d of common

a m Romd n eas ca ( Rum a ni a n
"

a tt a chment to a v a st a n d v a gue
T
l a nd ) The orga niz a tion of e a ch Vill a ge w a s equ a lly simple Life
. .

a n d we a lth of a ll b e i ng equ a lly exposed they a ll h a d to st a nd

together ; there w a s no room for stiff hiera rchic a l forms Money .

eco n omy did not exist ; the di vision of l a bour w a s rudiment a ry ;

a n d in gener a l economic a n d soci a l life w a s boun d to b e of the

simplest when the Vill a ge h a d a lwa ys to hold itself re a dy to fl y

with children a n d ch a ttels b efore some a ppro a c hi ng inva der In .

the a bsence of el a bora te a n d a ctive centra l a uthorities requirin g

considera ble supp lies a n d men for their m a inten a nce the hea ds ,

of the Vi ll a ges di d not a cq uire till l a ter on in the period the power
to oppress a n d to pun ish which elsewhere the executors of more
ex a cti n g m a sters derived from their functions .

Th e Ruler s Under the restr a i n ed a n d fra gile rul e of the d omn i

.

ea ch Vill a ge w a s in effect a self —governi ng unit a j ud egti e in , ,

ch a rge of a j a de; (j udex ) the most a ctive a uthority of the time 1 .

The j a d e; un ited in his person a ll the functions of a feuda l lord

he led the men of hi s j ud ej i e in w a r ; he j udged a mong them in
p e a ce ; he ga thered t a xes for the r ul er or l a ter for the p a ssing
,

1
Th e j ud efi w e re the ms e lv es di vi d ed i n to th re e cl ss es ( 1 ) t h e cn ezi d es c en d an ts
a : ,

of t h e o ld n o bl c as te h e ld t h e cha rge by ri ght of h ritage a n d the ir childr e n h ad a n

e , e ,

e qu a l ri ght t o rule o v e r a pro p orti on t n u m b e r of p e a s n t s

a e a ( 2) t h e j u i l cte d or z , e e
a pp o i n te d h ld t h e office temp or rily ; ( 3) t h va ta ma n i pro b a bly we re b a il iffs
, e a e
a pp o i n te d by cnezi w h o h a d j uri s dicti on o v e r m or e th a n one ud e i e
j y .
6 S O CI AL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
b a rb a ri a n m a sters In retur n for these fun ctions b esides being
.
,

himself exempted from ta xes he w a s entitled to one tenth of the ,

-

produce ra ised by the vill a gers a n d h e could cla im from e a ch

p e a s a nt three d a ys l a b our in the ye a r He a lso h a d the sole right
’
.

to mill a n d to sell strong bevera ges But with thi s hi s pri vileges .

a n d prerog a tives ended fa r short of the point re a ched by those —

of feud a l lords in the West .

Th e Ruled The chief difference from the West la y in the

.

st a tus of the pe a s a ntry The pea s a nts were a ltogether free in .

their p ersons a n d in their possessions They coul d move when .

ever a n d wherever they liked tied in no w a y to the soil or to the ,

j a d e ! except
, by the duty of p a yi n g h im a rewa rd in l a bour a n d
kin d for services rendered There w a s a lr e a dy however a n .
, ,

exception to tha t genera l rul e Most of the Villa ges h a d a cl a ss .

of settlers c a lled veci m ( neighb ours ) who h a d prob a bly been

’

m a de prisoners in w a r These people un like the n a tive pe a s a nts .

, ,

were b ound to the l a nd a n d they h a d a lso to l a b our m a ny more ,

d a ys th a n the others for the j ud et Origin a lly thi s servile cl a ss .

wa s very sm a ll but it a ppe a rs to h a ve grown in time misfortune

, ,

c a usi n g some of the free pe a s a nts to b a rter their freedom a wa y

for a me a sure of protection or rew a rd a n d thus to b ecome veezm ,

tied to the l a nd It w a s a t worst o n ly a mild form of serfdom ; it

.

w a s mitig a ted in effect a n d extension by the custom which p a ssed

on its burdens only to the m a le children ( perh a ps bec a use the
orign a l veci ni were a ll men c a ptured in b a ttle but their w ives , ,

free n a tive women ) ; a n d in the a ll import a nt m a tter of a right -

to us e the l a nd the veci m enj oyed ex a ctly the s a me rights a s

’

the free pea s a nts 1 .

1
ri gi n a d ch a ra ct r of t h e s tatu s of vec n i s still i n dis pute F or a more
Th e o n e z
'

re ce n t u mma ry of t h e v a ri o u s a rgu me n ts s e e G N L eon I s tor ia E co mi ei P ublice

s , .
,
no

l R omd n i Buc a res t 1 9 24 pp 5 7 7 2 9 8 1 1 0 a n d 1 1 5 20 M L e n divid e s t h e

a , , , .
—
,
—
,
— . . o

R um i p eas n try i n t thr ee c ategori s ( 1 ) mosnen i or rd zesi w h o own e d l n d a n d

a n an a o e : ,
a

w e r fr i th ir p rs n p a yi ng o ly tith e a d a li mite d l a b o ur d ue ; ( 2) cld ca s w h o

'

e ee n e e o s, n n z,

we re fr but h d n o l a n d of th e ir ow n a n d w orke d 3—2 4 d a ys i n r etur fo l n d ;

ee , a n r a

( 3 ) umd i or veci n i w h o w r e s e rfs with or with o ut l n d owi n g s e rvic e with o ut

r n , e a ,

li m it ; th y c o uld be sold with o with o ut t h e s ta te on which th ey lived but s rfd om

e r e , e

did n ot i clud th e ir w ome n d ch ildr e n i n which res pe ct th e y s tood b etter t h an

n e an ,

s e rfs e l e wh e re
s Thi re m i n d t h e s ci l structure till t h e reform of Ma vroco d a t
. s a e o a r

( 1 74 6 — M A D Xe n o ol i n h i s
.
p . rticl
. e on t h e His to ry of th e A g a r i a n Ques ti on
, a r ,

p oi n ts out th t wh en a se rf purch as e d h i free d om t h e cus toma ry for mul sa id th a t

a s ,
a

h e w as purch as i g hi m lf fre e of r um d m e with a ll t h e l an d h e p os sesse d i n r e turn

‘ ’

n se ,

for a p y me n t
a J udi cia l d e cis ion s lik ewise s how tha t t h e la n d of a r umd n pa sse d in to
’
.
 S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 7
L an d Ten ur e The tenur e of l a nd w a s reg ul a ted by a ncient
.

customs forming a body of unwritten Rum a ni a n la w (j us ‘ ’

va la eh or um ) E a ch vi ll a ge di sposed of cert a in stretches of l a nd

.

whi ch together formed the hotar ( b ound a ry ) a n d were the com

mon p a trim ony of the village a s a whole The b ul k of the hotar .

consisted of me a dows gra zing a n d woo dl a nd a n d these were , ,

used j ointly by the whole vi lla ge The a ra ble l a n d w a s divided .

into a numb er of equa l strips c a ll ed j i rea bi e in Mold a vi a a n d ,

d eln igfe in Mun teni a decrea sing in size a s one tra ve lled from the
,

pl a ins to the hill s e a ch household b eing entitled to one of these

,

strips Gra z ing l a nd w a s common The j a de; m ay h a ve been

. .

entitled to more th a n one strip but there is no evidence tha t ,

there w a s a n y reserved demesne Neither h a d the d amn a n y ‘ ’

.

superior title to the l a nd ; hi s rights consisted in a cl a im to the

tithe , a ugmented by vol unt a ry gifts on festive occ a sions There .

w a s s uffi ci en t l a nd with whi ch to endow new households a n d

the strips were indi visible House ga rden pl a nt a tion a n d .
, , ,

a r a ble l a nd were reg a rded a s the priv a te possession of the indi

vidu a l householder p a ssing in herita ge t o the youngest son

,
1
.

Such very bro a dly w a s the structure of e a rly Rum a ni a n

, ,

society exclusively rura l a n d ega li t a ri a n The b ul k of the p eople

,
.

were of the s a me origin a n d led the s a me life ; there w a s but

the merest cl a ss di vision b a sed less on p ower a n d we a lth th a n ,

on a rudiment a ry division of functions ; a n d a s long a s the

supreme hope w a s to esca pe from the da ngers of the time
w ith b a re exi stence a ll were u ni ted by the s a me element a ry
,

interest w h ich forb a de riva lry an d strife Nor w a s there a n y

, .

re a son to compete for possessions As far a s the ordin a ry .

needs of life were concerned the pe a s a nts could h a ve l a cked ,

the h a n d s of t h e Wi nn i n g s id e n d th e refore th a t t h e s e rf did n ot l ose his l a d Whe n

, a , , n

h e so ld h is p e rs on a l free d o m .

1
Professor Iorga a dduc e d philologic a l e vide n ce i n a pa pe r s ub mitte d t o t h e ,

In tern atio a l C o gress of Agriculture ( Buc a res t J un e

n n t o s h o w th a t t h e old es t ,

a gr a ri a
n r égime a mo g t h e R u ma n i a n peopl e w a s th a t of a n a gricul tur a l c ommu n ity
n .

The re is in t h e R u ma ni an la n gu age n o w ord of La tin origin t o i n d ica t a b o un d a ry e ,

o th r th
e an ma gi n e whi ch r e fe rs t o geogr phic a l a n d n ot t o l ega l li m its Th e L a tin
r , a .

w ord s refe rrin g t o i dividu a l posses s i on fin i s a n d e v en li mes a r e c om pl et ly l ost

n , , e .

Th e ir m n in g is c o ta ine d i n t wo w ord s of a li en origin : gran i te?( from t h e G e rm n

ea n a

Gr en ze) which n ow se rv es t o i n dic a te t h e li mi ts of t h e S t te a n d h ta ( from t h e

, a , o r

M agya r ) gen era lly u se d in referen c e t o limi ts of prope rty Th e Wo rd cd mp d oe s n ot

, .

mean t h e d ete rm in e d esta te of a priv a te o wn er but me re ly t h e a ra bl e soi l u n d e r ,

cultiv ation ( E voluti on of th e Rura l Ques ti on p

.
, .
8 S OCI AL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
little if a nything a t a ll They h a d a right pr a ctic a lly to the
.

whole of the l a nd an d to the whole produce of their l a bour .

Their sup eriors in the Vill a ge only took wh a tever l a nd w a s left

over a fter the needs of the householders h a d b een s at i sfi ed a n d ,

they coul d not h a ve a spired to more nor di d they t i ll much on ,

their own for there w a s no m a rket for the sur plus ; a n d wh a t

,

they received in kind from the V illa gers a mply sa t i sfi e d their

p erson a l needs At the s a me time the tithe of corn a n d h a y a n d
.
, ,
’
the three d a ys l a b our in the ye a r must h a ve rested li ghtly on
,

the shoulders of th a t free a n d frug a l pe a s a ntry .

However terrible then life must h a ve been b etween the

, ,

D a nube a n d the Ca rp a thi a ns under the consta nt dr ea d of bar

b a ri a n inva ders there w a s in th a t extern a l inst a b i lity a peculi a r
,

s a fegu a rd for the persona l a n d economi c freedom of the p ea s a nts

a g a in st possible intern a l oppressors All efforts to build up power
.

or possessions were so un promising a s not to b e worth whil e .

And it therefore h a ppened th a t the old sterlin g customs persisted

un spo ilt a s long a s for these re a sons there were no scrib es to
, ,

record them on p a rchment a n d no fun ction a ries to di ct a te thei r

enforcement Agra ri a n discords b eg a n to germi n a te b elow the
.

Ca rp a thi a ns only when quieter tim es d a w ned for the region an d

the inh a bit a nts could come together to found the Rum a ni a n
Princip a lities .

F oun d a ti on r i n ci a li ti es
o
f th e P
When the tide of b a rb a ri a n
p .

in va sions receded two v a ss a ls of the Hun g a ria n king crossed the

,

mount a ins a n d g a thering together the broken ties b etween the

isol a ted r ura l groups est a blished the Prin cip a lities of Mold a vi a
,

a n d Mun teni a in the thirteenth a n d fourteenth centuries r e sp e c

,

t ively. Whether it w a s the lure of old tra nsmuted memories

which set these p eople moving from thei r homes or whether they ,

were simply w a ndering in sea rch of a more fruitful soil on whi ch

to settle one does not know ; but it wa s in an y c a se not a mi lit a ry
,

expedition a n d a ll the circumst a nces of th a t a chievement p oint

to a p ea ceful progress .

Neither of the two founders c a me w ith grea t follo w ings an d ,

the Mold a vi a n prince set up his rule a ga inst the will of his
Hung a ri a n suzera in so th a t they h a d to rely upon the friendly
,
 SOCI AL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 9

welcome of the est a blished popul a tions ra ther th a n upon the

prowess of wha tever a rmed men they h a d in their tra in It w a s .

a g a thering of closely kindred cl a ns r a ther th a n a conquest of the

we a ker by the stronger a n d pop ul a r tra dition h a s recorded th a t

,

by c a lling the event pithily the d es cd lecar e ( the dismounting ) .

The new men crossed the C a rp a thi a ns by one of the high p a sses ,

tra velled to where the v a ll ey O pened into the pla in where they ,

c a me upon some of the l a rger Vill a ges a n d h a ving procl a imed

,

their purpose they dismoun ted from their horses a n d settled

down a mong the people they h a d come to r a lly The knowledge .

th a t the fi rst Rum a ni a n St a tes were cre ated in such p e a ceful

w a ys is import a nt b ec a use it expl a ins why a ll the essenti a l
customs of the people though merely tra dition a l a n d un written
, ,

were left un touched by the new politic a l m a sters Oi these .

customs evidently none concerned the people so much a s their

,

right to the l a nd a right whi ch rem a in ed un a ffected by the

,

historic a l events th a t were t a kin g pl a ce .

N 0 written la w concerning these rights or a n y others existed

, ,

either before or immedi a tely a fter the found ation of the two
princip a lities Their continu a tion is proved thereby a t le a st in
.

a neg a tive w a
y for a n y ch a nge would no doubt h a ve been
,

decreed in w riting a s were other m a tters hen ceforw a rd The

, .

fi r st written documents belong to the end of the fourteenth

century in Mold a vi a a n d the beginn i n g of the fift een t h in Mun
,

teni a ; they were m a inly concerned with con fi r mi n g existi ng

rights of j ud eyi e now a va ss a l a ge un der a fi r m er r ul er which it
, ,

w a s therefore well to h a ve r a t ifi e d by hi m L a ter w ritten j udge

.
,

ments of the princes dea ling w ith c a ses in whi ch l a nd b elonging

,

to one Vill a ge h a d b een encro a ched upon by a nother show tha t ,

it w a s a lwa ys the people of the in j ured Vill a ge a n d not its j ud ey

, ,

who ple a ded the cla i m a ga inst the usurper And there is still
.

better proof to b e found a s to the persistence of the old l a nd

customs in the oldest kno w n written la ws of the Rum a ni a n
people the p m vi le of Va sile Lupu a n d M a teiu Ba s sa r a b neither
, ,

of which know a nything of l a nd disputes between p e a s a nts ,

in dividu a lly or j ointly a n d j udet but de a l in rega rd to l a nd

, ,

tenure only w ith bound a ry disputes b etween vill a ges a s a whole .

There is indeed no record of a n y dispute between Vi lla gers a n d

10 S OCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPE ND ENCE
j udet concerni n g the right to the use of the la nd a s long a s the
period of n a tive rul e l a sted Up to the end of the seventeenth
.

century the hota r must inv a ri a bly h a ve b een reg a rded a s b elong
ing j ointly to the Vi ll a ge communi ty .

In the me a ntime however a s we sh a ll presently see the ide a

, , ,

th a t the title of the j ud et to the h ota r w a s superior to th a t of the

m a ss of the Vill a gers h a d b een ga ining ground a n d it h a d pene
, ,

t r a t e d a lso into the two old l a ws of V a sile Lupu a n d M a teiu

B a s s a r a b But it w a s a s yet strictly li mited by the right of e a ch
.

household to a piece of l a nd a n d by the strict r ul e cont a ined in

, ,

these l a ws th a t the m a n who tilled the soil w ith his l a b our a n d

,

hi s seed w a s bound to give a te n th of the produce to him who

g a ve the l a n d but never more th a n th a t L a nd tenure in s hort
,
.
, ,

continued to rest on the principle th a t a ll the inh a bit a nts h a d

a n e qu a l right to the use of the soil a s well a s to the bulk of
,

wh a t they produced with their l a bour But with the foundin g.

of the two St a tes new a n d more complex politic a l a n d soci a l

conditions were cre a ted which b ega n to ea t into th a t j ust
a ncestra l system The migra nts from Hung a ry h a d brought with
.

them k n owledge of the feud a l customs whi ch prev a i led in the

country from which they c a me ; a n d in a ddition Byz a nt i ne
, ,

influe n ce w a s introducing in Munte ni a the conception of property

a s embodied in the old Rom a n la w . Upon the prev a ili ng rel a
tions b a sed on equ a l a n d independent rights b etween the loc a l
,

m a gna tes a n d the pe a s a nts there were now being gra fted the
,

rel a tions b a sed on person a l service a n d li egedom between those

m agna tes a n d the centra l rulers — a feuda lized superstructur e
upon a p a tri a rch a l b a s e — a n d in t i me the new w a s bou n d to
.

a ffect wh a t rem a ined of the old .

Rela ti on s between
p r i n ces a n d cn ezi Al.together the documents ,

of the fift e enth sixteenth a n d s eventeenth centuries show th a t

, ,

form a lly the found a tion of the princip a lities in no w a y a ffected

the tra dition a l Rum a ni a n la w As fa r a s the letter of the la w w a s
.

concerned ch ezi an d pe a s a n ts kept the st a tus a n d the rel ations

,

in which they h a d formerly stood to e a ch other But in re a lity .

the n a tur a l b a ckground of their rel a tions h a d inevit a bly shifted

a s soon a s centra l politic a l rulers h a d come upon the scene If it .

took some time before the e ffect of this wrought itself out upon
 S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 11

the sta tus of the pe a s a nts on th a t of the cn ezi it rea cted a t once
, .

The centre of gra vity of their cl a ss moved from the Villa ge to the
court The c on fi rm a t ion of their existin g rights a n d especi a lly
.
, ,

the gra ntin g of new privi leges were henceforw a rd in the h a nd of

the prin ces ; while in their turn the princes h a d to depend for
, ,

pomp a n d power upon the service of the upper cl a ss A new s un .

h a d risen but its light a n d w a rmth were intercepted by the

,

s a te llites w h os e sh a d ow a lone spre a d ever wider over the Vill a ges

,
.

Whether the princes brought wi th them knowledge of western

feuda l custom or not it wa s in a n y c a se only n a tura l th a t if the
,

rights of existi n g comm unities over their h ota re were respected ,

such l a nd a s h a d not yet been a ppropri a ted should come to b e

rega rded a s within the lordship of the pri n ce Likewise those .
,

j
V ill a ges whi ch stood under a tempor a ry a d e; were henceforw a rd

considered a s fa lling withi n the j ur isdiction of the princes a s ,

sa te d omn es ti ( princely Vill a ges ) S e th a t a t le a st two c a tegories

1
.

of j a d e; no longer owed their st a tus to heredit a ry rights or to the

trust of the Villa ge but to the f a vour of the princes Hence
, .

forw a rd it w a s the prince who gra n ted the j udeti e over the s a te
d omn es ti for a cert a in period or for li fe or more r a rely a s a n
, , , ,

heredit a ry gift to those who h a d served him or plea sed him

, .

And it w a s the prince who from the w a stes so fa r un a ppropri a ted

occ a sion a lly a ll otted to individu a ls or to mon a steries fresh hotar e
wi th the right to set up new Vill a ges a n d to exercise heredit a ry
j j e over them These new Vill a ges usu a lly were known by the
u d e i .

n a me of the founder— s a tul Albe st ilor s a tul Negr e st ilor & c , ,

.
,

whi ch is the origin of the present Alb e s ti Negre s ti & c — a n d , , .

origin a lly their j ud eyi e could not b e a liena ted from the fa mily of
the founder It w a s therefore cle a rly a privilege ra ther th a n a
.
, ,

prop erty ; a n d the prin cely m i ce ( deeds of gift ) expli citly prove ,

indeed th a t they g a ve a w a y the j ud efi e of the Vill a ge but not

,

the ownership of its h ota r .

1

E mergen ce of upp er clas s With not hi ng a ltered therefore in

.
, ,

the outw a rd st a tus a n d leg a l rights of the j ud et subtle ch a nges ,

were nevertheless tra nsformin g them into a n upper cl a ss wi th

interests a n d cl a im s a n d customs increa singly divergin g from
s a t= villa ( i n Al b a n i an fea t) i s of Thr a ci an origi n i n t h e pi n i on
1
ge o of
O Dens usi a n u, but M B ogrea tra c es it b a ck t o t h e L a ti n fos sa tum
‘

. .
.
12 S OCI AL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
those of the common p eople At fi r st p erha ps those ch a nges .
, ,

were more psychologic a l th a n m a teri a l With the cre a tion of .

centra l a uthorities di spensing j ustice a n d f a vours the j a de; h a d

, ,

to look to the princes a n d no longer to the p eople for a dva nce

ment ; they b ega n to lea ve the villa ge seek ing functions a t Cour t , ,

for which there w a s ever growin g opportu ni ty W a rs a n d the

-
.

frequent ch a nges of rulers offered ch a nces for pr ofi t a ble a d ven

tures or intrigues Cont a ct w ith foreign peoples led to cha nges
.

in customs a n d dress a n d thereby to more obvious differences

,

from the common people of the l a nd One ca n well see moreover .

, ,

how the building of a new vi ll a ge held from the pri nce an d n a med ,

a fter its founder must h a ve given hi m a n d hi s f a m i ly a pro

,

r i et a r sense if not a right over the settlement S i mil a rly

p y , , .
,

though such gifts of j ud eti e were rel a tively few the c onfi r m a t i on ,

of existing heredit a ry rights were m a ny a n d a s these deeds c a me ,

to b e recorded in writing whi le the rights of the pea s a nts r e

,

m a ined custom a ry this a lso help ed to give a more solemn ring

,

to the titles of the upper cl a ss ; a n d cl a ims p a ssed on merely by

word of mouth could more e a sily b e deni ed or g a rbled by those ,

who held power th a n rights l a id down in bl a ck on white Alto

, .

gether the new life g a ve the upper cl a ss fresh a mbitions a n d new

,

p owers which they felt less reluct a nt to a buse a s thei r ties w ith
,

the Vill a gers loosened .

S ome of these a buses were spora dic the successful tricks of ,

individua ls for their own pr ofit a n d to t h e loss of a p a rticula r

’
Villa ge In some c a ses e g they obt a in ed the prin ce s s a nction
.
, . .
,

for selling their j ud eti e or wh a t w a s more serious p a rt of the

, , ,

Vill a ge l a nd which h a d not yet been put into cultiva tion B ut .

these were isol a ted wrongs a n d their effects not oppressive a s , ,

l a nd w a s still plentiful a n d its va lue a ltogether depended on the

p eople settled on it who h a d to b e concili a ted A re a l a gra ri a n
, .

problem beg a n when the new ruling f a ction set a bout extendi ng
its we a lth a n d pri vilege s a s a cl a ss a t the expense of the
, ,

p ea s a ntry The va riou s functions known a s boi eri i ( Russi a n

.

— b
boy r ; Sl vonic
a a olya r ) cre a ted by the new rul e were a
, ,

monopoly of these men who thus c a me to be known a s the boi ar

,

cl a ss On the other h a nd their segreg a tion a s a l a nd o w ning

. ,
-

up p er cl a ss w a s furthered by the unea sy e a rly life of the two

-
 S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 13

Princip a li ties Inv a sions were now r a rer though not e nded
.
, ,

but w a rs for the thr one dr a ined m a ny a Villa ge of its popula

tion Pea s a nts from less fertil e l a nds wo ul d move to such
.

emptied villa ges ; a n d gre a t efforts were a lso m a de t o a ttra ct

foreign settlers for repop ul a ting old Vill a ges or for building up
new ones the prin ces usu a lly exempting these new settlements
, ,

c a lled for this re a son s lobozi i freedoms ; S l a v s vobod i B ulg , .

s lob od en ) of a ll t a xes for a num ber of ye a rs These foreign

, , .

im migr a nts were settled a lwa ys with the st a tus of veei m ; more
’

over they c a me from regions densely popul a ted a n d more

,

developed econo mic ally where in consequence the rule of the

,

l a ndlord w a s hea vier a n d the Rum a ni a n l a ndlords now tre a ted

,

them li kewise It w a s inevit a ble th a t gra du a lly th a t sterner

.

tre a tment sho ul d b e extended to the na tive inh a bit a nts 1 L a nd .

w a s held in these new or repopula ted vi lla ges by the s a me rules

a s in the old but the newcomers not unlikely looked upon the
,

j udegfi from whom e a ch received his p a rt a s a dispenser of

, ,

stra nge possessions w ith power to give or to refus e — in short

,

a s a m a ster a n d so they b eg a n to know him a s the s td d n

, p
= ma ster ; S oci a lly a n d poli tic a lly therefore , ,

the boi ar s were dra win g a w a y from the Vill a ge ; a n d the s a me

circumst a nces whi ch brought t h is a bout a lso welded them into
a n upper cl a ss wi th privileges to defend a n d in cre a sing needs to

s a tisfy .

Th e b egi n n i n gs of serfd om One can give here only the briefest

.

sketch of the motives which impelled the boi a r cl a ss to covet the

l a nd a n d the lib erty of the pe a s a nts an d of the me a ns by which ,

they succeeded in gra sping them It w a s not a short a n d sudden .

process On the contra ry it spre a d over sever a l centur ies The

.
, .

boia r s contin uously ni bbled a t the p a trimony of the vill a gers a s

their own needs a n d cha nces slowly rose during the despondent ,

period of Turkish domin a tion but it w a s only a fter the repulse

of the Turks when the country enj oyed fresh secur ity a n d when
,

more a ctive rel a tions with the West g a ve v a lue to its sur plus of
produc e— then only wa s a fi na l determi ned a ss a ult m a de upon
1
S t An t im , Ch es ti a Td m n ea s ca , p 96 Ou t h e oth e r h a n d , c ol oni es of R u man i a n
'

. . .

peasan ts w e re fo u n d 1 n G a li ci a go v ern e d a cc ordin g t o t h e j us va la chor um which 11

,
1

é
Pol a n d cons tituted a privil ege d r gi me ( R os etti , P en tru Ce . . .
p 73
. .
 14 S OCIAL FREED OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
the l a nd a n d l a bour of the p e a s a ntry well on i n the ni n eteenth ,

century .

It h a s b een custom a ry with writers on this subj ect to see two

periods in the a ction whi ch reduced the Rum a ni a n p e a s a ntry to
serfdom The dividing line on t hi s View w a s formed roughly
.
, , , ,

by the Turkish conquest of the pro vi nces the pe a s a nts ret a in in g ,

most of their old rights th a t side of the line when strong n a tive ,

prin ces still ruled over the l a nd but gra du a lly losin g them a fter,

the line w a s crossed a n d government p a ssed into a li en h a nds a n d

dec a yed This re a din g of events wo ul d b e j ust ifi ed in s o fa r a s
.

the p e a s a nts were the likeliest prey for the f a b ul ously corrupt
a dministr a tors which under Turkish rul e dropp ed like locusts
, ,

upon the l a nd When everyd a y life w a s one lo n g a buse it must

.

h a ve b een h a rdest for the p ea s a nt for he h a d li ttle to sp a re a n d,

could not m a k e good hi s loss from a n y one lowlier tha n hi mself .

B ut these were the a ccident a ls of the tim e r a ther tha n of hi s

st a nding a n d in a n y c a se not the springs of hi s fa ll in st a tus For
, .

these one must look to the circumsta nces which sh a p ed the

’
country s soci a l evolution such a s those we h a ve described a s
,

crea ting a n upper cl a ss with ch a ra cteristic a mbitions a n d powers .

The fi r st form a l inro a d upon the independent st a tus of the

p e a s a ntry followed indeed a m a teri a l step in the org a niz ing of
the centra l po w er on its m ili t a ry side a n d it w a s m a de when
, ,

th a t p ower rea ched its highest glory before the Tur ks fin ally ,

crushed i t .

Th e loss of fr eed om In thr ee highly instructive p a p ers re a d

.

by Genera l B Rosetti before the Rum a ni a n Ac a demy he h a s

.
1
,

shown th a t in the second h a lf of the fifteenth century the a rmies

were b a sed on the genera l duty of a ll those who o w ned l a nd or ,

h a d a right to use i t to sh a re in the defence of the country ; a n d

, ,

further th a t the ordna nce services were of the s implest b ec a use

, ,

the pe a s a nts were obliged to bring their own a rms a n d food w ith
them whenever the a l a rm w a s r a ised In other words in a time .
,
’
of continuous wa rfa re the country s defence w a s b a sed on a
levé e eh ma ss e th a t is on the goo dwill of the pe a s a nts a n d on their
, ,

a bility to keep themselves a n d their horses provisioned ; a n d this

1
ME MOI R S or THE H I S T O R IC A L S E CT I O N S e ri es III t om iv Me m 9 , 1 9 25 ; S t ud i es
h
. .
, , ,

on th e Ma n er i n wh i h c Wa r was ma d e b
y S f
te a n th e Gr ea t 1 45 4—1 5 04
, .
 SO CI AL FREE D OM AND P OLITICAL DEPENDENCE 15

presumed th a t they h a d to b e a llowed if not the whole a t le a st

a wide m a rgin of their tr a di tion a l economi c a n d soci a l i n d ep en

dence This mili t a ry system w a s r a dic a lly ch a nged however by

.
, ,

M ih a iu the Br a ve ( oi Munteni a 1 5 9 8 , Pa rtly b ec a use of

the need of opposing a more di sciplined force to the incre a sin g
pressure of the Turks a n d p a rtly b ec a use of the roving a mbitions
,

of this wa rrior prince Mih a iu the Bra ve for the fir st time

-

equipp ed a sta ndi ng profession a l a rmy In this the tra ined a n d

.

b etter equipped cn ezi a n d j ud eti no doubt pl a yed a n import a nt

p a rt On the other h a nd most of the p e a s a nts were n o longer
.
,

needed a s willing soldiers but they were needed the more a s

,

compli a nt l a b ourers a s the centra l power now required con

,

s i d er a ble suppli es for its milit a ry est a blishment a s well a s for the ,

p a yme nt of the he a vy a nnu a l tribute to the S ult a n An d so it w a s .

Mih a iu the Bra ve— the o n ly Rum a ni a n prince to h a ve a chieved

the fe a t of bringing a ll the Rum a ni a n l a nds under his sceptre
who a t the height of his power bound a ll the p ea s a nts to the l a nd ;
though a ccord ing to M P hilli pi d e Mih a iu merely genera lized
, .
,

a n d g a ve leg a l s a nction to a custom which w a s a lrea dy wide

spre a d He decreed th a t a ll those who were settled on l a nd whose

.

j ud ette b elonged to a nother individu a l which w a s the genera l ,

rule shoul d b e veci n i ; a n d then it w a s th a t the n a me of r umd n

, ,

by which the pea s a nt w a s commonly known in Munteni a c a me ,

to me a n the s a me a s weeth In Munteni a serfdom b ec a me the

.
,

norm a l st a tus of most of the pea s a nts .

The conditions of the pe a s a ntry h a ve not a lwa ys b een i d e n t i

ca l in the two provinces .Serfdom spre a d more r a pidly in Mun
tenia th a n in Mold a vi a on the other h a nd it woul d seem th a t ,

the Munteni a n weeth never suffered the iniquities of which his

Molda vi a n fell ow w a s the V ictim under the i n fl uen ce of the
,

oppressive customs which were pr ofit a bly employed by the

neighbouring Poli sh nobles Most of the time there w a s some
.

difference between the position of the pe a s a nts— b oth in la w

a n d in pr a ctice— i n the two provinces but this wa s m a i nly
,

in det a ils ; so tha t in such a genera l sketch a s this it is more

convenient to trea t the two groups a s one cl a ss e x cept where ,

differences between them become deeper a n d more ch a ra cteristic .

Even without a genera l decree the reducing of the pe a s a nts

 CI AL 111115 1311611 AND P O LITICAL DEPE NDENCE
‘

16 SO

to the st a tus of veci n w a s procee d in g a p a ce either by f a i r me a ns , ,

the p e a s a nt consenting to it or by the use of f a lse witnesses who ,

were m a de to decl a re th a t thi s or th a t p e a s a nt w a s descended of

veci n i In Mold a vi a the weeth w a s free to go wherever he liked
.

if he co ul d prove th a t he or his p a rents h a d sometime owned

prop erty however sm a ll b ut this proof w a s di ffi cult to give a n d
, ,

m a de the pe a s a nt s freedom ill usory in pr a ctice Formerly the

’
.

veci m h a d b een a n exception but t hey formed a m a j ority by the

'

beginning of the eighteenth century a n d dur in g the first h alf of ,

th a t century the bulk of the pe a s a nts fell in to Villein age Th e .

boi a r s even a ttempted to h a ve a ll the pe a s a nts who h a d lived

twelve ye a rs in one of their Villa ges decl a red a s veci m B ut the
'

Prince Co n sta ntin Duc a by no me a ns one of the b est rebuked

, , ,
‘
them severely for even the p a g a ns p urch a se their sl a ves a n d set
,

them free a fter seven ye a rs or sooner ; but you a r e Chr isti a n a n d ,

a
p y not for hi m a n d he b eing Christi a n lik e you yet you woul d
, ,
’
m a ke him a serf for ever .

The fi rs t a ct in this process of subj ection w a s a bruptly

brought to a n end by Const a ntin Mavr o cor d a t The m a ny t a xes .

which the Munten i a n p e a s a nts h a d to b e a r d uring the Ph a n a riote

r égime were incre a sed considera bly by the a buses of the colle e
tors ; there is evidence of this in a decree of Const a ntin Bran
c o vea n u who thre a tens with h a nging those co llectors who shoul d

t a ke more th a n is written These a buses c a used whole Vi ll a ges

‘ ’
.

to b e broken up a n d fl ee a cross the D a nub e whi ch reduced the ,

sources of public revenue B etween 1 741 a n d 1 746 . t ax ,

p a ying fa mili e s left Munteni a out of a tot a l of for in ,

the democra tic a lly org a nized Ottom a n society the rights of l a nd
lords over the l a bour a n d person of the pe a s a nts were more
libera lly circumscribed This led Ma vr ocor d a t to decree in 1 746
.
, ,

th a t those who return to their l a nds sh a ll b e freed of m md n i e

‘ ’
.

As ruler of Molda vi a Ma vr ocor d at decreed the em a ncip a tion of

,

the veci n i in the northern province a lso in 1 749 S erfdom ,

.
,

therefore w a s a bolished e a rlier here th a n in the a dv a nced West ;

,

a n d it w a s a bolished a t the height of politic a l deca dence .

The ur ba r i a l system ina ugura ted by Ma vr ocor d a t w a s a

m ix ed r egime reducing serfdom without a ccording complete
,

freedom It w a s the fi r st though a s yet v a gue en a ctment

.
, ,
 S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 17

tow a rds the em a ncip a tion of both l a nd a n d pe a s a nts mi tig a ting ,

’
the p e a s a nts obliga tions but a lso limiting their rights to la n d .

The system m a de it incumbent upon the l a ndlords to gra nt the

pea s a nt c ul tiva tors cert a in portio n s of l a nd— thus recog ni zing the
p ea s a nts a ncient rights— a n d a lso tim ber for bui ldi ng a n d fuel
’
.

In their turn the pe a s a nts were obli ged to pa y the tithe a n d to

render cert a in la bour servitudes from eight to twelve d a ys ,

ye a rly the sys tem thus co n secra tin g but a lso d efi n in g a n d

,
’
lim iting the l a ndlords feud a l rights Moreover a form a l a ct .
, ,

sign ed by a ll the boia r s a n d the chief prel a tes ga ve the pe a s a nt , ,

a
‘
brother in Christ subj ected by a n e vil eust om the right
’
,
‘ ’
,

to purch a se hi s full freedom by a p a yment of ten pi a stres It .

w a s the first step tow a rds tr a nsforming the title to l a nd into

priva te ownership but wi th the m a inten a nce of servitudes in
,

f a vour of the p ea s a n ts It wa s a lso the fi r st a ttempt of the St a te

.

to intervene b etween the two rur a l cl a sses Under serfdom the .

pe a sa nts were a ltogether dependent on the la ndl ords ; un der

the ur ba ri a l system the St a te intervenes wi th precise regula tions
a n d with supervising a gents B ut these a gents merely used
.

their powers to c a rry out the wishes of the boia r s a n d to ,

enrich themselves Thus the ur ba ri a l system w a s never more

.

tha n a mil d improvement on the f ull serfdom w hi ch h a d

preceded i t Nevertheless the tendency of these Princes whose
.
, ,

French educa tion m a de them a ccessible to the hum a nit a ri a n

Views of the eighteenth century philosophers w a s to secure the ,

pe a s a nts a ga inst the a buses of the boia rs Const a ntin M a vro .

cor d a t extr a cted from the Mold a vi a n b oi a r s a d efi ni t i on of veci n

‘
which decl a red it to me a n a pe a s a nt who h a s hi s own l a n d ,

which he h a s inh erited with no right to a b a ndon the soil

,
’
.

Among the minor a dva nt a ges obt a ined by the pe a s a n ts in the

second h a lf of the eighteenth century w a s exemption from tithe
for their ga rdens ; orch a rds pl a nted by themselves h a d never been
subj ected to tithe .

Th e i n crea se i n s er vi tud es The efforts of the upper cl a ss to tie

.

the pe a s a nts to the l a nd were n a tur a l enough for the boi a rs li ved ,

a ltogether from the tithes of their vi lla ges L a ter villein a ge

.
,

beca me the instrument for extra cting without risk of losin g the ,

goose th a t l a id the eggs ever h e a vier dues from the villa gers
, .

0
18 S OCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
N ot only h a d the p erson a l needs of the boia r s va stly incre a sed a s ,

cont a ct with Turk ish p a sh a s a n d Poli sh nobles in iti a ted them i nto
the de lights of e a stern luxury ; they a lso needed a grea t de a l of
money to purch a se from the corrupt a n d frequently ch a ngi ng
rulers fa vour s or merely freedom An d now they a lso h a d a .

m a rket for a n y sur plus corn In the second h a lf of the eighteenth

.

century Turkey in cre a sed the supp lies of corn she h a d b een
a ccustomed to dra w from the Rum a ni a n provinces a t prices ,

fi x e d a s it ple a sed the Porte Thi s imposition of co urse a dde d.

, ,

a nother weight to the mi sery of the p e a s a nts who in the b a rg a in , , ,

were often a bused a n d m a ltrea ted by the a gents ch a rged with

the collection of the gra in But to the l a ndl ords it opened a door
.

to e a sy g a in a s wh a t they sold to the Porte h a d b een grown for

,

them with the seed a n d oxen a n d l a b our of their Villa gers About .

the s a me period J ewi sh immigra nts comin g from Pola nd bega n , ,

t o settle in Mold a vi a a n d to te a ch the Molda vi a n l a n dl ords the

,

a r t of m a king veget a ble a lcohol Still s were set up everyw here .

for the m a king of a lcohol from corn a n d pota toes the l a ndlords ,

eng a ging to th a t end incre a singly in cultiv a tion on their own

a ccount .

Therefore the l a ndlords sought to get from their vi lla gers

hea vier service both in its qu a ntity a n d in its ki nd Formerly
, .
,

when the j ud et needed corn merely for his own consum ption ,

wh ich he obt a ined from the tithe a n d ra rely enga ged in f a rmin g ,

on his ow n the servitudes of the p e a s a nts a s their n a me cla cd

, , ,

( S e r b tla ka ) implies were used for light l a bour s such a s mow

= 1
, ,

ing a n d e a sy c a rting But now the boia r s wa nted a s much corn

.

a s they could get ; they beg a n to cultiv a te the sp a re l a nds the ,

Vill a gers doing the ploughing a n d s owin g a n d h a rvest ing duri ng

the d a ys which they h a d to l a bour for the l a ndlord But for this .

purpose the old due of three d a ys in the ye a r could n ot h a ve been

enough It is likely th a t here a n d there the p e a s a nts were m a de
.
, ,

to work more but there is no evidence of it till we come to the

, ,

middle of the eighteenth century In 1 742 we fi n d the priors of .

the mon a steries owners of v a st l a nd s successfully dem a nding

, ,

th a t their vill a gers should work for them twelve da ys in the ye a r ,

1 O rdi rily t h
na ega e th ri g a t w hich pe s t m e e t t o h e lp on e a mon g th e ms lves
n a an s e .

m a ki n g a fe s tivity of t h e o cc as i n ; i n g e ra l fri e n dly li ght h e lp th ey give ea ch oth e r

o en ,
.
 SOCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 19

with their h a nds or wi th their c a rts a s the priors m a y w ish

, .

There is no corresponding decree for the vi lla ges of lay owners ;

contempora ry docum ents show th a t in th e se vi ll a ges six d a ys
were served by the p ea s a nts in the ye a r .

From the middle of the eighteenth century the cl a ims of the

l a ndlords for more service bec a me frequent a n d insistent ; a n d
from th a t time con ditions di ffered more w idely in the two
provinces The Mold a vi a n boia r s h a d occ a sion to lea rn from
.

v a rious cont a cts how the pe a s a nts sl a ved in Pol a nd a n d Russi a ;

they dem a nded a n d secured from Gr igor i e Ghik a reputed one of ,

the b e s t princes of the eighteenth century a decree a llowing them ,

to cl a im twelve d a ys service from their Vill a gers ( J a n 1 1 7

’
.
,

Moreover the decree cont a ined a n i n nov a tion which w a s to

,

prove the insidious me a n s for the true ensl a vement of the

pea s a ntry Where a s till the n the pe a s a nts service h a d b ee n
.
’

me a sured by the a ctu a l tim e spent in doing i t this decree now ,

fi x e d the qu a ntity of l a bour which a ccordi ng to its n a ture e a ch

, ,

p e a s a nt must p erform in one d a y This h a r t ( Turki sh h a r k t ax )

.
,

w a s twice or thrice a s he a vy a s th a t which a norm a l m a n coul d

do in a norm a l d a y In a country with only the c a ric a ture of
.

government a n d j ustice this w a s a n e a sy w a y of in denturin g the

l a bour of the pe a s a nts though the l a ndlords never ce a sed to
,

press for a n increa se in the form a l obliga tions of the Vill a gers .

E a rly in 1 7 75 the gre a t boia r s led by the Prim a te G a vril Ca li

,

m a ch compl a ined of the lo s ses they h a d suffered through the

,

a boli tion of veci m a n d a sked to b e compens a ted by obliging the

'

p ea s a nts to give them one tenth of their workin g d a ys j ust a s

-

they h a d to give one tenth of their produce It w a s only two a n d

-

a h a lf ye a rs l a ter th a t this dem a nd w a s to some extent gr a n ted ,

the Prince a d di ng to the decree of 1 766 v a rious obliga tio n s which

a mounted to fi ve more fi x e d l a bour d a ys a s well a s a n un d e t e r
,

mined n umber of d a ys for the rep a ir of d a ms a n d ditches In .

1 8 05 when the Turkish hold on the prin cip a li ties w a s a lre a dy

,

crumbling a w a y the Molda vi a n boi ar s a ctu a lly ende a voured to

,

get from the Porte a revi sion of the pe a s a nts dues In a p etition ’
.

sent to Const a ntinople by the very humble a n d obedien t Metro

t ropolit a n bishops a n d a ll gre a t boi a r s of Mold a vi a they a d
’
,

mit t e d tha t till then the pe a s a nts h a d worked not more th a n

C 2
20 S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
‘
twelve da ys in the ye a r ; yet they begged th a t the Imperi a l
Ottom a n Power should t a ke them under its protection a n d ’
,

should a uthoriz e them to cl a im one tenth of l a bour d a ys j ust

-

a s they were entitled to one tenth of the produce -

Poli tic a l .

circumst a nces did not le a ve the Porte a n opportun ity of de a ling

with th a t request but the boia r s obta in ed loc a lly fur ther
,

privileges which brought the tot a l servitudes due from the

p e a s a nts to 36— 4 0 d a ys yea r ly a ccording to the estim a te of the
,

exp erienced a n d very conserv a tive boi a r S t ur d z a Wh y the .

p e a s a nts should h a ve stood such impo sitions though no long er

bound to the l a n d m ay b e expl a ined only by the st a te of mora l
a n d physic a l l a ssitude into which they h a d f a llen ; a lso a ll the ,

l a n d w a s n ow occupied if not a ctu a lly c ul tiv a ted But th a t they

, .

were tempted to fl ee their life of sl a very when they h a d a ch a nce

is shown by the re s erva tio n m a de by the boi a r s themselves in
1 8 05 th a t the vill a ges a dj oining Mun teni a a n d the Turkish
,

districts should b e held to o n ly h a lf the l a b our ex a cted from the

others Even se the new a rra ngements were in m a ny pla ces
.
,

p a ssively resi s ted by the Vill a gers a n d could never b e a pp lie d .

The subj ection of the p e a s a ntry never re a ched such lim its in
Munteni a where co n ditio n s were le s s propitious for econo mic
,

development a n d outside i n fl ue n ce s less corrodi n g The pea s a n ts

,
.

rem a ined veci m till 1 746 a n d it is li kely th a t they h a d gra du a lly

'

b een h a rnessed to more l a bour th a n the tra di tion a l three d a ys .

B ut on the whole the incre a se w a s not severe We fi n d Alex a n

, , .

’
der Ypsil a nti ( 1 774— 8 2) decreeing twelve da ys la bour more , ,

a pp a rently under the stimulus of the Mold a vi a n ex a mple th a n

,

under the pre s sure of loc a l needs for the boia r s were permitted
,

to tra nsform into p a yment s the servitudes of which th ey could

not m a ke use a n d Pa rt V I of the code of Ga ra d a ( 1 8 1 2— 1 8 ) h a d
to provi de p en a lties for those l a ndlords who cl a imed less from
their vill a gers th a n the prescrib ed twelve d a ys Contempora ry .

documents suggest i n deed th a t in the l a st qu a r ter of the

, ,

eighteenth century a n d the fi rs t of the nineteenth the servitudes

of the Munteni a n pe a s a nts were ne a rer to six th a n to twelve
d a ys There is no tra ce of a n y cl a im by the boia r s to one tenth
.
-

of the l a bour d a ys ; nor which is more conclusive th a t a h a r t w a s

, ,

ever fix ed for the l a bour da ys in the lower Rum a ni a n province .

 SOCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 21

Li mi ta ti on of r i gh t to lan d It the burdens of the pe a s a ntry

.

h a d become very he a vy , its exi stence , a t a n y r a te , h a d been

s a fegu a rded by the tra dition a l right to the use of a ll the a va ila ble
l a nd Th a t right h a d been the found a tion of a ncient custom in
.

a ll the regions inh a bited by Rum a ni a n s L a ter on it w a s con .

fi r m e d by m a ny pri n cely decrees a n d in identic a l terms by the , ,

two oldest written l a ws the p m vi le of Va sile Lupu a n d M a teiu ,

Ba ssa r a b The l a nd la w ( ur b .a r i u) of Grigore Ca lim a eh r e a ffi r m e d

it a s l a te a s 1 76 8 Ar t XV st a tin g clea rly th a t a pea s a nt who p a id

, .

his dues in kind a n d l a bour h a d a right to a ll the l a nd he needed .

Besides much other evidence there is fi n a lly a petition d a ted ,

28 t h Febru a ry 1 8 03 from the boia r s of the Mold a vi a n div a n , ,

which shows th a t b efore they could let a n y surplus of the Vill a ge

’
‘
bound a ry the l a ndl ords h a d to a sk the Vi ll a gers whether they
di d not w a nt it themselves ; a n d f urther to s a fegu a rd them
a g a inst r a sh or unf a ir decisions the Vi ll a gers were given a ye a r ,

within which they might cl a im b a ck l a nd whi ch they h a d fi r st

refused a n d which in consequence h a d been let to a n outsider .

Such old Vill a ge pl a ns a s h a ve b een fou n d show th a t everywhere

the a ra ble l a nd w a s divided into equ a l strips w ithout a n y ,

dom a in reserve the lord of the Vill a ge b eing evidently only

,

entitled to the use of one or a few of the norm a l strips Hence .

there is no doubt th a t origin a lly the p e a s a nts were entitled to

use the whole extent of the cultiva ble l a nd a n d this right r e ,

m a ined un touched throughout the worst politic a l dec a dence .

Dur ing th a t period the rulers mostly foreigners were a ppointed , ,

by the Porte a n d frequen tly ch a nged ; they h a d no need to a tt a ch

the upper cl a ss to them s elves by gra nting them feud a l privileges
-

of lordship over the l a nd 1 But when Russi a a ssumed the pro .

t e ct or a t e of the Rum a ni a n princip a lities a n d thus prep a re d t h e

Th R u m
1
i p pl h d v r k w t h f ud li m f W t r E ur p
e a n an eo e a ne e no n e e a s o es e n o e

che i h a d on ly h ad a r e l tiv e i nfl uen ce ; l i k e t h e l te r boi a s th e y w e re m ere ly t h e

.

Th e z a a r ,

Pri n c e s a d j ut o s Th t i s why t h e p s ts h a d n e v e r ri en a ga i s t th e ir s e rvi

’
r . a ea a n s n

tud es ; for th a t w o ul d h a v e b een re v o lt n ot a g in s t fe ud a l l an dlord s the ms lve s

a a , e

o pp ose d t o t h pri c but aga i s t t h e rul er s o wn m en a n d es ta bli s h men t ( Cf L e o ’

e n e, n . . n,

op ci t p l O3 ) N omi na ll y t h e b oi a r s divid e d i n t o
grea t a n d s m ll w e re m e re ly
—
. .
, . .
, , a ,

a burea ucr tic n o bili ty ; but th ey h a d ga in e d h o ld of t h e la n d a n d on th ei r

a
,

e st a tes th e y e x e rci se d a l mo t a ut o cr tic p o w e rs Th e cl e rgy w e re e n j o y i n g a n

s a .

a ut o o mo u s a d m i n is tr a ti on l i k e a m e di e v a l
n
guild Th e ma ss of t h e p s n ts w e re
, . ea a
s rvil e
e u n d e r t h e prote ction of the i r boi a s Th e S ta te o nly h d dire ct c on tro l
, r . a

o v e r t w o r es tricte d s e cti ons o f t h e p o pul a ti on t h e r eh e at w h o w e re y eom e n : ,

22 S OCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPEND ENCE
end of Turkish domi na tion ( Tre a ties of Kutsh uk Ka in a r d j i 1 772 ,

a n d of J a ssy a n d insisted on the a ppo i ntment of n a tive

,

princes for a fi x e d period of seven ye a rs ( Convention of

then only di d the a ncient l a nd rights of the pe a s a ntry su ffer
their fi rst diminution .

The fi r st mea sure for limiting the pe a s a nts right to the use ’

of the l a nd wa s a decree of the Mold a vi a n ruler Alex a nder ,

Mor uzz i who in 1 8 03 a ll owed the l a n dlords to reserve for their

,
’
own use one fourth of the me a dow l a nd the p ea s a nts gra zin g
-

right s b eing limi ted for e a ch household to sixteen l a rge a ni m a ls

in B ess a ra bi a twelve in the Mold a vi a n pl a ins a n d six in the
, ,

mount a in regions ; a n y h a y they m ay still w a nt the in h a bit a nts

sh a ll buy elsewhere ( Art XI X ) This title to a dom a in w a s
’
. .
‘ ’

considera bly extended a fter the Convention of Ackerm a nn 1 8 26 )

which g a ve the Rum a ni a n princip a lities intern a l a utonomy ,

under the j oint protectora te of Russia a n d Turkey a n d the right ,

to b e r ul ed by n a tive princes The fi rst n a tion a l prince to occupy .

the Molda vi a n throne a fter tha t d a rk p eriod w a s a lso the fir st

to gra nt wh a t the Ph a n a riote princes h a d refused to a llow By a .

decree of l 0t h M a rch 1 8 28 I oni ta S t ur d za severely restricted ,

the pe a s a nts a ncient rights to the unlim ited use of the l a nd

’
.

In order it s a id tha t the perpetu a l l a n d lord sh all not rem a in

, ,
‘

without the mea dow a n d a ra ble l a nd which he needs both a ra ble ,

a n d me a dow l a nd including wood cle a ri n s sh a ll b e di vided into

, g ,

three p a rts a n d two p a rts of a ra ble l a nd a n d me a dows sh a ll b e

,

given to the inh a bit a nts but the t hi rd p a rt sh all b e left w ithout
,

fa il for the perpetu a l l a ndlord This w a s the fir st document to .

’

refer to the l a ndlords a s proprietors ; till then they h a d b een ‘ ’

known only a s s tdp d m (d omi ni ) which indic a ted a p erson a l

'

rel a tionship b etween them a n d the p e a sa nts r a ther th a n a re a l

rel a tionship b etween them a n d the l a nd .

In Munteni a where conditio n s rem a ined e a sier the rights

, ,

of the pe a s a nts to use a ll the l a nd suffered no restriction ti ll

the coming of the Org a ni c St a tutes of which we will sp e a k
‘ ’
,

presently .

Rap e of yeoman la nd B esides thus securing a privilege on the

.

fa r m e rs
, a nd t he me rch ts an a nd a rti sa ns, mos t ly fo re i gne rs , o rgan i ze d i n to guild s .

( E MI E S
N CU , Works , 1 9 1 4 , p p 47 4 .
 S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 23

use of one thir d of the a va il a ble l a nd the boia r s u s ed every

-

mea n s fa ir a n d unfa ir to a cqui re possession of yeom a n l a n d

, , .

In th e se vill a ges in which the p e a s a nts h a d b een a ble to ret a in

the old order gra zing l a nd w a s held in common while a ra ble ,

l a nd w ith house a n d ga rden w a s in th e priva te o w nership of

, ,

e a ch household Such priva te l a nd by old custom could not b e

. , ,

bought or sold except b etween memb ers of the Vill a ge com

muni ty the reizes t ; the m a in problem therefore for a greedy
‘

, , ,
‘
l a ndlord w a s himself to get possession of a yeom a n p a rt by ’
,

pressure or in trigue or simul a ted gift a n d thus b ecome a r dzes

, ,

with a right to buy Vill a ge l a n d The rest w a s done for him by .

the increa sin gly hea vy t a xes a n d other bur dens w hi ch were
depressing the pe a s a ntry In Mun teni a indeed it h a pp ened th a t
.
, ,

whole yeom a n Vi ll a ges whi ch were un a ble to pa y their t a xes sold

themselves to the l a n dl ord together with their l a nd thus be com
, ,

ing his vecim The r a p e of yeom a n l a nd w a s considera ble in

'

itself but it w a s o nl y a sm all p a rt of the h a rdships which were

,

b ending the b a ck of the Rum a ni a n p e a s a ntry For th a t the two .

’
tendencies to in cre a se the vill a gers dues in l a bour an d to reduce
their right to the use of the l a nd were m a inly responsible ; their
upwa rd curve c a n b e tra ced thr oughout the legisl a tion of the
eighteenth century but they only rea ch their ex tre me form a fter
,

the brea king of the Turkish domi n a tion in the fi r st h a lf of the ,

ni neteenth century The we a keni ng of the centra l a uthority a n d

.
,

the growt h of Austri a n a n d Russi a n i nfl ue n ce reduced the ,

Rum a ni a n provinces to a geogra phic a l expression to a poli tic a l ,

no m a n s l a nd in which the boia r s di d a s they plea sed Mr a n d

’
, . .

Mr s H a mmond wrote in their Vi llage La bourer t h a t In Engl a nd

.

the a ri s tocra cy h a d power a n d no privileges ; i n Fra nce the

a ristocra cy h a d privileges a n d no power In the Rum a ni a n ’
.

pro vinces the boia rs h a d b oth power a n d privileges Nomin a lly .

high function a ries on b eh a lf of the Prince they were i n fa ct the ,

keepers a n d u n co n troll ed defenders of their own interests a s

l a ndlords They h a d a pportioned the l a nd a mong themselves
. .

According to N S out z o s S ta ti s ti que d e la P ri ncip a ute d e M old a vi e

.
’ ’

the a vera ge size of a R um a ni a n est a te wa s eighty fi ve times -

grea ter th a n the a vera ge Engli s h l a rge est a te ; sm a ll properties

we r e few a n d in sign ifi ca n t Rea lizing th a t their power depended
.
24 S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE
on their we a lth in l a nd the boi a r s in the a bsence of pr im ogen i
, ,

ture introduced the custom of delibera te dis inh erita nce ; one or
,

two of the ch i ldren i nh erited wea lth a n d n a me whil e the others ,

were forced into the mon a stic st a te The coun try wrote
.
‘ ’
,

M ih a il Eminescu in one of his ess a ys w a s but a big est a te ,

‘
,

a dmini stered like a n est a t e— a complex of l a tifundi a i n w hi ch

priv a te la w is pub lic la w the i nh erit a nce of l a nded we a lth the

,
’
inherit a nce of power in the St a te .

When the fir st n a tion a l rising in the B a lk a ns the Greek ,

Heta i ma movement broke out on Rum a ni a n soil in 1 8 21 the

'

, ,

Rum a nia n p a triot Tudor V l a dim irescu used the opportunity to

instig a te a popul a r revolt He thus expl a ined his purpose in a
.

‘
l a pid a ry procla m a tion to the people : No l a ws ca n preven t you
from returning e vil for evil If a serpent crosses your p a th hi t it
.
,

a n d kill i t for if it bites you it will prob a bly end a nger your li fe
, .

B ut these dra gons — our ecclesi a stic a l a n d politic a l chiefs— who

h a ve devoured our rights how lo ng sh a ll we let them suck our
,

blood how long sh a ll we rem a in their sl a ves ? And to D ervis

,
’

‘
Pa sh a comm a nding a t V i d in he wrote to a ssur e him th a t our
, ,

rising is directed o nl y a ga inst the boia r s who h a ve devour ed our,

rights The fi r st revolt of the Rum a nia n p eople w a s consciously

a i med therefore
, ,not a ga inst outside po litic a l oppression but ,

a g a inst soci a l a n d economic exploit a tion by the i r own upp er cla ss .

 C H A P TE R II
POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE
Th e Orga ni c S ta tutes . Politic a l ch a nges a t the end of the
eighteenth century were crea ting new economic condition s on the
western shore of the Bla ck S ea ; thes e in their turn c a lled forth , ,

soci a l revisions— the whole forming a ch a in of c a uses a n d effect s

which supplied a noteworthy ex a mple of how economic pros
p er it
y m a y produce soci a l regress .

In the ea rli er centuries a ccord ing to C a rr a not more th a n

, ,

one fortieth of Rum a ni a n soil w a s under crops Corn w a s too

-
.

b ul ky to b e tra nsported a cross the rough l an d routes a n d in a n y ,

c a se the surroundin g cou n tries were genera lly self s uffi cin g B ut -
.

when the Turks lost Crime a Egypt a n d other pro vinces in

, ,

southern Europ e a n d northern Afric a they b ega n to dra w l a rge ,

corn supplies from the Rum a ni a n princip a lities reservi n g to ,

themselves a priority of purch a se The frequent Visits by .

Russi a n a rmies during the con flict s w ith Turkey a lso ra ised
, ,

the dem a nd for corn Agriculture received a strong im petus

.
,

much quickened by the Trea ty of Adri a n ople which in 1 8 29 ,

put a n end to th a t Turkish corn monopoly a n d opened the

Bla ck S ea to interna tion a l tra de B etween 1 8 31 a n d 1 8 33 the
.

rent of l a nd doubled a n d trebled The grea t fa mine which .

vi sited Russi a in 1 833 drew a ttention to the a gricultura l richness

of the Rum a ni a n provinces Whe a t o nl y b eg a n to b e exported
.

in a ppreci a ble qu a ntities from Munteni a in th a t ye a r J ules de .

Hage m eist er in a b ook pub lished a t Odess a in 1 8 35 st a ted

, ,

th a t one chi ld of whea t which sold a t 1 4 pi a stres d uring the

Tur kish occup a tion rea ched 21 0 pi a stres in 1 8 33 Pa sture a n d .

mea dows which not long b efore h a d covered 90 per cent of

, .

the a ra ble l a nd were reduced to 32 6 4 per cent by 1 8 60 a n d to

, .

b a rely 1 5 % per cent by 1 903

. .

Th a t ch a nge rui n ed c a ttle breeding which h a d been the

-

m a i n st a y of the pea s a nts but it brought gre a t wea lth to a ll who

,

disposed of l a nd a n d l a bour for gro wing corn chea ply a s the l a nd ,

lords were quick to re a li z e especi a lly during the Crime a n Wa r

, .
26 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE
Th e ra pid rise in corn a n d l a nd va lues a s well a s the gre a t
,

loss of popula tion resulting from a pl a gue epidemi c in 1 8 1 2 ,

irresistibly tempted them fur ther to encro a ch upon the l a nd

rights a n d freedom of l a bour of the p e a s a ntry ; an d the fir st
step tow a rds n a tion a l independence w a s to give them power to
s a tisfy these a mbitions .

After some fi ft y ye a rs of efforts to t a ke the pl a ce whi ch

T urkey held a s m a ster in the princip a lities Russi a settled the ,

issue in her own fa vour by the Convention of Ackerm a nn ( 1 8 26 )

a n d the Tre a ty of Adri a n ople Her a rmies occupied the
coun tries for six ye a rs a n d the a dm inistra tion w a s pl a ced un der
the control of a Russi a n Commiss a ry Discontent w a s a t the
.

time deep a n d genera l The sm all educ a ted cl a ss a spir ed to g a in

.

a sh a re of p ower ; the m a ss of the p eople longed to b e rid of the

plundering t a xes of the Ph a n a riote r eg ime It w a s in the interest

.

of the newcomer to m a ke herself welcome by a b etter a n d in some ,

degree a utonomous government The r ul ers it w a s decided

, .
, ,

should now b e elected for life from a mong the le a ding n a tive
,

f a milies by the re spective d iva n s ; a n d these oliga rchi c a ssem

,

blies in which s a t the gre a t boia r s a n d the higher clergy were

, ,

a lso to m a ke the l a ws of their two countries Mea nwhile Rus s i a .

,

a ppointed a s governor of the princip a li ties Count P a ul Kisselev ,

'

a gener a l e qu a lly a ble enlightened a n d energetic who a t once

, , ,

set to work to endow the countries with fund a ment a l l a ws In .

’
deference to the terminologic a l susceptibilities of Russi a s a uto
era t the new l a w s were c a lled Org a ni c St a tutes
‘ ’
.

In more th a n on e sense these org a nic l a ws m a rk the b eginning

of modern life in the Rum a n i a n provinces Dur ing the long .

st re tch of Turkish domin a tion the Rum a ni a n Princip a li ties h a d

never b een turn ed into mere p a sh a li ks but neither h a d they,

b een a llowed a n y politic a l will of their own It w a s a h a ph a z a rd

.

r egime during which a utonomous St a te li fe w a s suspended

,

r a ther th a n suppre s s ed The popul a tions h a d no politic a l power

.

a n d t h e tr a n sient rulers h a d but a n indifferent politic a l interest

in the country Legisl a tion spora dic a n d ephemera l in the form

.
, ,

of princely decree s w a s m a i n ly devoted to secur ing ever more

,

b ene fits for the prince a n d his s a tellites Old rules a n d customs
.

persisted or were ch a nged in ra ndom fa shion a n d b a sic principles ,

 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S O CI AL DEPENDENCE 27

esc a ped mutila tion sim ply bec a use no one troubled a b out prin
ciple s a t a ll .

’
In some such w a y h a d the pe a s a nt s right to the use of a ll the
l a nd persisted we ll into the nineteenth century With the fi r st .

mea sure of independence however the boia r s found the ch a nce

, ,

of h a vi n g their pri vil eges s a nctioned by the compelli n g a uthority

of the la w ; a n d no doubt they a lso thought it tim ely on the ,

threshold of a new Rum a ni a n polity to est a blish a s m a ny of ,

‘ ’
their cl a ims a s they eould — to endow the cou n try a s they put ,
’
it W ith a modern la w
‘
,
For this they were in a peculi a rly
.

fa vour a ble position Prob a bly they would in a n y c a se h a ve b een

.

given a monopoly of power seeing the Views which S t Petersb urg

,
.

held on governm ent by the people But moreover they were the .
, ,

only element th a t counted politic a lly a t a ll a n d Russi a w a s ,

a nx ious to propiti a te them lest they shoul d turn their hopes

,

towa rds V ienn a .

Th e M old a vi a n Orga n i c S ta tute The new fund a ment a l l a ws .

were dra fted for e a ch province by a Commission of four gre a t

boi a r s a n d a fter b ei ng a pproved by S t Petersburg they were
, .
,
‘ ’
submitted to Extra ordi na ry Genera l Assembli es of Revision ,

composed exclusively of gre a t boia r s whi ch g a ve them fi n a l ,

s a nction The Mold a vi a n di va n convened in 1 8 30 to p a ss the

.
,

Org a ni c Sta tute consisted of forty six grea t boia r s i e a s m a ny

,
-

, . .

a s there were of them represent i ng no on e but themselves a n d

, ,

of six lea ders of the Mold a vi a n ecclesi a stic a l hi era rchy Yet it .

’
is s a ying a gre a t dea l th a t Europe s most re a ction a ry govern ment
should h a ve felt c a lled upon to censure— with little effect— the
new a gra ri a n r é gime whi ch the fi r st a utonomous Rum a ni a n
a ssemb lies proposed to set u
p .

S ection V II of Oh 1 1 1 of the two Org a ni c Sta tutes de a lt

.

comprehensively with principles a n d r ul es of the new rur a l order .

It h a s a lre a dy b een sho w n how the eighteenth century h a d seen

the growth of a tendency to reduce the l a nd rights a n d incre a se
the l a bour dues of the pe a s a ntry Wh a t the boia r s could not .

obt a in even from the dissolute Ph a n a riote princes they now

bestowed upon themselves with the reluct a n t support of the
,

protecting Power The Org a n ic St a tutes a me n ded the old l a nd

.

rights in two w a ys b oth to the loss of the pea s a nts A fi r st

, .
28 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCI AL DEPENDENCE
ch a nge of principle upset the whole b a sis of l a nd tenure in
, ,

the Rum an i a n provinces : where a s the pe a s a nt h a d b een the

re a l owner of the l a nd a n d the l a ndlord a s lea der of the Villa ge
, , ,

merely entitled to one tenth of the h a rvest now for the fir st time
-

the lord of the Vi lla ge w a s esta blished a s lord of the l a n d a lso ,

a n d given the title of proprietor

‘
It is true th a t the pe a s a nts ’
.
’

right to the use of the la n d w a s con fi rm e d ( Art 1 1 8 But the .

l a ndlord w a s a llowed to reserve for him self one th ir d on the -

‘ ’
n a rrow est a tes where there w a s not enough groun d to s a tisfy
,

a ll the inh a bit a nts a fter the ex a mple of the tiers s a ge reserved
‘ ’
,

to the l a ndl ords when the villa ge commun ities were broken up in
F r a nce And the door w a s opened to further encro a chmen ts by
.

two insidious texts : Art 1 1 8 s a ying th a t the new rules sh a ll h a ve

.

force until it sh a ll b e possible to a rra nge the le a sing of the l a nd

by mutu a l underst a nding a n d Art 1 27 th a t a newly m a rried ’
, .

m a n should b e b ou n d to p erform the prescrib ed l a b our dues if h e

’
cl a imed his sh a re of l a nd a n d the proprietor is willi ng to give it .

’
The l a ndlord s title w a s thus ex a lted i n to one of full owner
ship qua li fi e d a s yet solely by the obli ga tion to let the p e a s a nts
,
’
ti ll a s much a s two thirds of the est a te ; the p e a s a nt s title how
-

ever w a s reduced to a collective cl a im to the use of not more tha n

,

two thirds of the l a nd with the w a rning tha t even thus restricted
-

it w a s in the givi n g of the l a ndlord The former tithe owners .

-

blossom out into fu ll owners of the l a nd ; the former f ull posses

sors shrink to little more th a n pri vileged ten an ts .

B esides b eing re s tricted to th a t collective m a xi mum th e

pe a s a nt s sh a re w a s further cut down in di vidu a lly Oi old he h a d
’
.

cultiva ted a s much a s he w a nted a g a inst p a yment of tithe a n d

l a bour dues In 1 8 05 he w a s limited to cert a in fi x e d holdings the
.
,

Vill a gers being for this purpose divided into three c a tegories
r un ta s mi loca s cod e s ( le a ding middli ng a n d t a il end pe a s a nts )
f j , , , ,
-

—a ccording to the numb er of c a ttle they kept The Org a nic .

St a tute reduced the holdings provided in 1 8 05 by more th a n

h a lf Even if together they did not m a ke up two thirds of the
1
.
-

1
Ki l v rt d th t cc rdi g t r gi
sse e a ss e e t h M ld vi
a , p at h d io n o e on s , e o a an eas a n s a n

1 8 05 r e cc 1 ve d ti me s more l a n d th a n w a s a llow e d t o th e m by t h e firs t te xt of

1 5 t o 31
the O rg n ic S t tutes I n 1 8 05 th y re c e ive d en ou gh t o kee p twe lve big a i ma ls i n
a a . e n

the pl a i n a n d s ix i n t h e m u nta i n o u s region ; n ow the y h a rdl y h a d en ough for fi ve

,
o ,

th o ugh c attl e r c ri ng wa s t h e pea sa n t s ma i n s ourc e of re ven u e

-
a
’
.
 POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S O CI AL DEPENDENCE 29
est a te the l a ndlords were not b o und to give a n y l a nd b eyond
th a t The boi ar s a im to lay hold of the l a nd w a s thus a chieved
.
’

in a l a rge me a sure .

La b our Dues They were still more successful in their a im to

.

increa se the l a bour dues of the pe a s a ntry The origin a l three .

d a ys which the vill a gers worked for the j ud et h a d incre a sed to

twelve by 1 8 05 Thi s figur e w a s kept by the Org a nic St a tute
. .

But wherea s Mor uzzi s decree referred to or di n a ry d a ys the

’
,

St a tute s twelve d a ys were with h ar t i e with a fi x e d progra mme

’
, . .

of work The fi r st th a t is fi x e d the number of d a ys the second

.
, , , ,

in re a lity the qu a ntity of work with the result th a t the twelve

, ,

d a ys of the one were fa r from b ei n g equ a l to the dozen d a ys of

the other Kisselev hi mself decl a red th a t on e d a y a s fixed in
.
,

Mold a vi a w a s equ a l to a b out two d a ys in the Ukr a ine a n d e a ch

, ,
’
of these equ a l to a t lea st two d a ys re a l work The number of .

a ctu a l d a ys which the three c a tegories h a d to serve in the ye a r

re a ched a n a vera ge of fifty six for the Vi ll a ger with four oxen
-

fi fty eight for the m an with two oxen a n d sixty for the pe a s a n t
-

who h a d no oxen a t a ll According to the v a lues of the time the

.
,

l a bour servitudes of the three c a tegories were worth resp ectively , ,

1 21 05 -
9 9 30
-

th e tith e 39 00 -
28 00
e xtr a l a b o ur for t h e m a ki n g of ma i ze
ba rns
T ot l a

wh ich divid e d by t h e h oldi n gs to which

th e y w ere e titl e d w orke d
n o ut , per
fa lce a t , Lei 35 00 43 1 5
-
5 76 0

Yet Kisselev h a d fi xe d for other purposes a n d the l a ndlords h a d

, ,

a ccepted the le a se v a lue of a fa lce to b e 1 8 lei

, Hence a fter .
,

b eing reduced to the st a te of tena nts the pea s a nts were m a de to

pa y for their l a nd roughly two two a n d a h a lf a n d three t imes , ,

more th a n it w a s worth a t the time ; a n d the poorer they were the

more they h a d to pa y for such fi eld s a s were left them .

S erfd om d i sgui sed a n d oth er b

urd ens Perh a ps the l a ndlords .

were n ot un a w a re of how crushin g these l a b our dues were a t a n y

ra te they m a de sure th a t the pe a s a nts co ul d not r un a w a y from
,

them Ar t 1 35 which h a d not existed in the fi r st dra ft con

. .
, ,

fir m e d the a bolition of serfdom but in pr a ctice serfdom w a s ,

30 POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCI AL DEPENDENCE
revived by the ob st a cles th a t were pl a ced in the w ay of pea s a nts
moving from one villa ge to a nother They coul d do so onl y a t .

the end of a dm inistra tive periods of seven ye a rs ea ch they h a d

to give t o the l a ndlord a n d to the Tre a sury one yea r s notice a n d ’

to pa y tithe a n d St a te t a x for a whole ye a r in a dv a nce ( Ar t .

A p e a s a nt who wished to move in the cour se of a n a dministr a tive

p eriod h a d fi r st to pa y the St a te t a x for a ll the ye a rs th a t h a d
still to run to the end of the p eriod a n d to the l a ndlord the va lue,

of his l a bour dues for a whole ye a r It w a s only a fter pressur e .

from Kisselev th a t some of these condi tions were w a ived for the
p e a s a nt who h a d to move bec a use the l a ndlord co ul d not give
h im the holding which shoul d b e his ( Ar t .

Among the second a ry servitudes imposed by the Org ani c

‘
St a tutes w a s th a t of the Volunt a ry serva nts Art 72 a llowed ’
. .

the l a ndlords to conscript 1 0 p er cent of the inh a bit a nts on their .

est a tes ( a n d 20 per cent where their tot a l numb er w a s b elow

.

200) for u n limited domestic service ; they were to b e a ll owed tim e

merely to work their fi eld s These serva nts were exempted from
.

the St a te t a x .

The pe a s a nts a lso lost the v a lu a ble right to wood for fuel a n d
b uilding which they h a d enj oyed thr oughout the worst Turkish
time s L a ter in 1 8 44 this right w a s restored to them by the
.
, ,

r ul ing Prin ce .

About the only a llevi a tion which the Org a ni c Sta tutes brought
to the lot of the p e a s a nt w a s in the degree a n d m a nn er of t a x a
tion The tithe w a s m a int a ined except for g a rden produce But
.
, .

the devouring m a s s of direct a n d indirect t a xes b eque a thed by

the Ph a n a riote r egime w a s repl a ced by a single dir ect t a x the ,

bi r a mounting to some 30 lei a nnu a lly for whose p a yment the

, ,

Vill a ge w a s j ointly responsibl e— a nother me a ns of m a king th e

Villa gers police would be run a wa ys themselves This improve
-

ment in the degree a n d n a ture of the St a te t a x a n d not lea st in ,

the m a nner of its collection which went a long w a y tow a rds ,

checking a buses undoubtedly mea nt a boon for the pe a s a ntry

,
.

With this however the boi a r s were little concerned They them
, , .

selves rem a ined a s b efore a ltogether exempted from t a xes In

, ,
.

a ddition they secured comp ens a tion for themselve s a n d their

,

widows a n d their minor children for renouncing the a busive ,

 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE 31

privilege of possessing s cuteln i ci : men th a t is who were exempted , ,

from a ll t a xes to the St a te but l a b oured co n tinuously for the

l a ndlords b ein g thus bound to full serfdom in pr a ctice Accord
, .

ing to Al Golescu there were in 1 8 28

. f a mili es of s cuteln i ci ;
they were gra nted to the boia r s in v a ryi ng numb ers a ccording ,

to ra nk a s a perpetu a l right In Mun te ni a the comp ens a tion w a s

,
.

60 pi a stres ye a rly for e a ch scuteln i c a n d h a lf th a t sum to the ,

boi ar s widow a n d childr en As th a t compens a tion sw a llowed

’
.

a bout one fi ft h of the Mold a vi a n a n d one tenth of the Munteni a n

- -

budgets a t the time wh a t it c a me to in pra ctice w a s a n indir ect

,

tribute p a id by the pe a s a nts to the boia r s Fin a lly both St a tutes .

,

m a int a ined the l a n dlord s monopoly to mill to sell spirits a n d

’
,

me a t to open sh e ps a n d so on
, , .

Th e Orga n i c S ta tute i n Muntem a The Russi a n Commissioner

'

found con d itions in Munteni a which in la w an d in pra ctice , ,

di ffered a gre a t de a l from those in Mold a vi a Geogra phi c a l posi .

tion a n d the stimul a ting intercourse with neighbouring countries

h a d set a much f a ster p a ce in the economic development of the
northern pro vince In Munteni a however l a ndlords f a rming for
.
, ,

their own a ccount were few a n d fa r b etween ; a n d this economic

b a ckw a rdness tra nsl a ted itself into b etter soci a l con di tions on
the l a nd No me a sure h a d come a s yet to c ur ta il the pe a s a nts
.
’

right to the use of the l a nd ; contempora ry documents indeed , ,

show th a t they were b eing urged to plough a s much l a n d a s they

could Nor h a d their l a bour dues been weighted wi th u n fa ir
.

reckonings so fa r The twelve d a ys were ordin a ry d a ys ; mostly

.
,

a lso they were comm uted into a money p a yment gener a lly a t
, ,

the low ra te of one leu per d a y ; while in m a n y Vill a ges a long the
D a n ub e where fl igh t w a s e a sier only six d a ys work w a s a sked
, ,
’

of the Vill a gers in the ye a r Ha d the Munteni a n St a tute there

fore held to the Mold a vi a n model it would rel a tively h a ve
.
,

, ,

ca used gre a ter d a m a ge in the life of the pe a s a ntry In f a ct the .

,

two l a ws differed considera bly in their provisions rel a ting to l a nd

rights a n d l a bour dues ; a n d while the Munteni a n St a tute w a s
much fa irer in the a s s essment of servitudes it w a s much greedier ,
’
in the cur ta ilment of the pea s a nts right to l a nd .

Art 1 40of the Munte ni a n St a tute a cknowledged the pea s a nts

.
’

right to l a nd a ccordin g to the number of their c a ttle ; but it a lso

,
32 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE
s a id lik e the Mold avi a n St a tute th a t these provisions were to
, ,

st a nd until the le a sing co ul d b e a rr a nged by mutua l a greement .

And Art 1 44 opened with the a ssertion tha t j ust a s the l a n dl ord
.

is complete owner of his l a nd 85 0 Here the reserv a tion of

. .

two thirds of the l a nd for the use of the pe a s a nts di s a ppe a red
-

a ltogether Moreover the holdings a llotted to the va rious c a te

.
,

gor i es of vill a gers were sm a ller th a n in Mold a via though the ,

pro ince
v w a s rich in extensive pl a in s There seems no other w a y
1
.

of expla inin g this th a n by a n excessive greed for we a lth for the ,

Munteni a n l a ndlords conti n ued to let to the pe a s a n ts l a nd in

plenty on e a sy terms a n d to dem a nd from them much li ghter
,

l a bour dues th a n those of Mold a vi a .

La bour Dues In Mun teni a a s in Molda vi a the p ea s a nts h a d

.
, ,
’
to give twelve d a ys l a bour in the ye a r a n d here a lso a h a rt w a s ,

now fi x e d for thos e d a ys But in Mun teni a the v a rious l a bour s

.

were defined so fa irly a s a lmost to a pproa ch wh a t a ctu a lly w a s

possible To give one inst a nce : while the Molda vi a n rul es a llowed
.

but one d a y for the cultiva tion of twelve p r dj i n i of m a ize eight ,

d a ys were a llowed in Munte ni a for the s a me l a bour ; a n d even

this b eing found in a dequ a te w a s improved l a ter Here a lso they
, , .

rememb ered to reduce proportion a tely the l a b our dues of the

, ,

Villa ger where there w a s not enough l a n d to give him the whole
extent to which he co uld la y cl a im Ag ain in Munteni a the .
, ,

l a ndlord w a s a llowed no more th a n four men from e a ch hundred

fa milies to do him p erson a l service a n d here this work w a s ,
’
usu a lly di vi ded a mong the Villa gers m a king some four teen d a ys ,

service for e a ch which were often comm uted into money

,
.

For the rest the freedom of movement of the pe a s a nts w a s

,

M ld vi
o a a Mu tn e ni a

P a s n ts with 4 o x en
e a

P e sa n ts with 2 ox e
a n

Pea s n ts with ut o x
a o en

( Thi s i n clud e d t h e v a lu e of t h e d om stic s rvic which i n Mu n te i a wa s di stribut e d

e e e, n

a mo n g a ll t h e villa ge rs ) .
 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND SOCIAL DEPENDENCE 33

as severely h a mpered a s in Mold a vi a ; somewh a t w ider l a titude

b eing a llowed only to the men who could n ot get their full sh a re
of l a nd where they lived a n d to those who a cqui red l a nd by
,

m a rria ge or herit a ge elsewhere But Art 1 44 decreed th a t eve n

. .

a fter fulfi llin g the prescribed conditions the pe a s a nts could le a ve

on ly two a t a time ; Bibescu l a ter interpreted a t a tim e a s ‘ ’

mea nin g d uring one yea r so tha t only two pea s a n ts could lea ve
,

e a ch ye a r from one Vill a ge Unlike the Mold a vi a n la w th a t for

.
,
’
Mun teni a m a i nt a in ed the pe a s a nts right to wood wherever ,

there were forests on the esta te In other respects the two .

St a tutes were subst a ntia lly a like .

The Org a n ic St a tutes ra di ca lly ch a nged the whole a gra ri a n

system of the two Rum a ni a n provinces The modern co n ception .

of property a s a right in itself not qua li fi e d a s b efore by the

, ,

profession a l use of the obj ect entered Rum a ni a n a gra ri a n la w

,

for the fi r st time An offi cia l report d a ting from 1 8 34 signed by

.
, ,

Stir b ey a n d others openly decl a red th a t the purpose of the

,
‘

Org a nic Sta tutes h a s b een to ra ise a t the expense of the Trea sury , ,

the rights of property so a s to indemnify the boia r s for the

,

s a crifices they m a de An d a Commission a ppoin ted to con sider

’
.

the position of mona stic est a tes proposed to Kisselev th a t the ,

mon a steries should renounce for the ben e fi t of the S t a te the

‘

sur plus revenue which h a s a ccrued to property from the a pplic a

tion of the new la w The pra ctic a l effects of the new r egime were
summ ed up by M R Rosetti a s mea nin g for the pe a s a nt on the
. .
,

one ha nd a reduction of t a xes but on the other a grievou s

, ,

reduction a h n ost to nothing of his old right t o use the l a nd on

, ,

which he w a s settled ; it me a ns he a vy crippli ng l a b our dues under ,

a hypocritic a l a ppe a r a nce of a llevi a tion ; ob st a cles to hi s lea ving

the Vi ll a ge in which he suffers coming very nea r to serfdom ;

deni a l of a n y a n d every civil right ; an d fi n a lly a thre a t th a t he , ,

m a y lose even the little l a nd th a t w a s left h im After the p a ssing

of the Org a nic Sta tutes the holdings were so sm a ll th a t for the
fi r st time the p e a s a nts found it necess a ry to rent a dditiona l l a nd ,

beyond th a t to whi ch they h a d a form a l cl a im And this a l .

though Ki s selev h a d gone to the length of suspending in b oth

provinces the enforcement of the two texts a n d h a d begged a n d ,
’
pres s ed for a mendments ; insisting a bove a ll on the pe a s a nt s , ,

D
34 POLITICAL FREED OM AND S OCIAL DEPEND ENCE
old right to use a ll the l a nd on the j ustice of keepin g l a b our dues,

proportion a te to the holdi n g given to e a ch pe a s a nt a n d on the ,

need to recog ni ze fra nk ly a n d fi n a lly the pea s a nt s complete ’

freedom of movement In a letter to B ut eni ev the Russi a n .

,

Amb a ss a dor in Const a ntinople he rem a rked tha t the Assembly ,

of boia r s h a ving constituted itself j udge in its ow n c a use it is

‘

only n a tura l th a t it s eeks to exten d its own privileges a t the

expense of the others who a re neith er represented nor defended
,

by a nyone Th a t goes so fa r th a t by a n insidious cl a use reg a rd

.
,

ing l a b our dues they h a ve b ound the Vill a gers to the soil though ,

they a r e free by right a n d every d a y they tend to m a ke of them

,

sl a ves to oppress them the more

, Kisselev succeeded in .

securing m a ny improveme n ts of det a il b ut in retur n he h a d ,

to a llow cert a in fun d a ment a l principles to penetra te into the

St a tutes which he k n ew to b e wrong w hi ch depressed the ,
’
p e a s a ntry s st a ndin g a s a cl a ss a n d compromised its whole futur e ;
for a fter h a ving fought them for three ye a rs the boia r s a ppe a led ,

to the Ts a r a n d Kisselev h a d to give w a y for p oli tic a l re a sons

, ,
.

But wh a t a trench a nt comment a ry on the i ndiscrimi n a te ex a lt a

tion of n a tion a l government to see Kisselev an a lien Count a n d —

gener a l a represent a tive of Europe s most a utocra tic r ul er

,
’

fi gh t i n g to s a ve some of the birthrights of the Rum a nia n p e a s a nts

which a t the fi r st opportunity the n a tive boia r s were r a p a ci
, ,

ous ly usurping Amon g the boia r s themselves not a single voice

.
,

w a s ra ised to c a ll a h a lt to th a t cruel despoilin g of their poorest

kith a n d kin 1
.

Revi s i ng th e Orga ni c S ta tutes T h a t the Org a nic St a tutes h a d .

lowered most p a infully the li fe of the pe a sa ntry w a s ob vious to

every ob server More th a n once in their reports the foreign
.

consul s condemned the h a rdships of the new r égime a n d ra ised

the w a rning a g a inst the da ngers lur kin g in such a sta te of
leg a liz ed misery The w a y in which the pe a s a nts resp onded to
.

the c a ll of 1 8 48 proved indeed th a t discontent w a s deep a n d

widespre a d a mong them ; a n d during the j oint Russo Turkish -

1 L t r Ki l v b c m R u i Mi i t r f D m i ( S t t l d ) I th t
a e sse e e a e ss a n n s e o o a ns a e an s . n a

c a p a city h e i tr duc e d i n 1 8 45 refor m s a i mi g t regul ti g t h e p os iti on of t h e

n o , , n a a n

p ea s a ts livi ng on s uch d o ma i n th e ir due a n d th eir rights t o l a n d This me asu

n s, s re .

w a s a n i m p orta n t pre c e d e t fo t h e p ea s n t e man cip a ti on of 1 8 6 1 whi ch e m bod 1 e d

n r a ,

i t s provi s i ons .
 POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE 35

occup a tion which followed the protecting a uthorities were a ble ,

to esta bli sh the truth of wh a t their consuls h a d reported As a .

consequence the Tre a ty which Russi a a n d T urkey co n cluded a t

,

B a lt a Li m a n in 1 8 49 cha rged the n a tive rul ers who were a bout to

b e a ppo i nted for a period of seven ye a rs a n d who were to govern ,

in the presence of Russi a n a n d Turkish comm iss a ries with the ,

duty of revising the l a ws governi ng the rel a tions b etween l a nd

lords a n d pe a s a nts .

I n M old a vi a The new Act brought in by Grigore Ghic a in

.

1 8 5 1 a n d a pproved by the protecting Power s r econ fi r m e d the

, ,

pe a s a nts right to l a nd a n d j ointly to two thirds of the est a te

’
,
-

where there w a s not enough to go round ; a n d it a llotted to e a ch

household twenty p mj i n i more gra zing The numb er of l a b our .

d a ys w a s m a int a ined but the wo r k to b e done w a s d efi n e d more

,

closely a n d a proportion a te a llow a nce m a de to those pe a s a nts

,

who could not get the i r f ull sh a re of l a nd The tithe w a s .

a b olished except for orch a rds a n d Viney a rds lyi n g outside the
,

pe a s a nt s ga rden Remova l from on e Vill a ge to a nother w a s

’
.

m a de ea sier An d the m a king of contra cts on terms worse th a n

.

these w a s forbidden The pra ctic a l effects a s est im a ted by

.
,

Rosetti w a s to increa se the l a bour dues of the fi r st two c a tegories

,

of Vill a gers ; 1 th a t incre a se however w a s worth not more th a n , ,

1 5 lei wherea s the tithe of which the pea s a nt w a s now re le a sed

, , ,

w a s worth 7 2 a n d 5 7 lei a n d twenty more p r aj i n i gra zing a lso

,

represented a rent a l of 5 — 1 0 lei a nn u a lly The poorest section of .

the pe a s a ntry ben efit e d from a reduction in l a bour dues worth

20— 8 lei from the remi ssion of the tithe worth some 42 lei a n d
, , ,

from the in crea se in gra zing l a nd More th a n th a t the grea ter .

,

cl a rity with which the rights a n d duties of the two p a rties were
now defined put a stop to m a ny a buses of which the p ea s a nts
h a d b een the Victims In this the Munte ni a n a men d ing la w w a s
.

even more efi e ct ive .

I n Mun ten i a Mun t eni a s new ruler B a rbu Stirbey h a d been

’
.
, ,

one of the m a kers of the Orga nic St a tute He believed th a t the .

troubles of the pe a s a nts were due merely to the ba d a pplic a tion

1
P asan ts with 4 o x n from 5 6 t o 6 1 5 d a ys
e e .

P a sa n ts with 2 o x n from 5 8 t o 6 3 5 d a ys
e e 4
.

Pe s n ts with o ut o x en from 6 0 t o 5 2 1 d ys
a a a .

D 2
36 POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE
of a n essenti a lly good la w ; a n d in a Memora ndum he wr ote
b efore the dra fting of the new la w he a sserted tha t compl a ints ‘

h a ve a risen in rega rd only to those things which the Org a nic

Sta tute thought b est to le a ve to the free decision of the two
’
p a rties Stirb ey w a s a keen student of a gra ri a n problems a n d
.
,

while hi mself a big l a ndlord not without goodwi ll for the ,

p e a s a nts .

His s a yings a n d a ctions therefore m a ke a fa ir guide to the

, ,

outlook of the Rum a ni a n boia rs a t the tim e The Pre a mble to .

his new la w insisted th a t the p ea s a nt settled on a nother m a n s ’

’
est a te is the l a ndlord s ten a nt p a ying rent in the sh a pe of dues
,

in money l a bour a n d kind The l a ndlords were st ill ob liged to

, , .

give l a nd to the pe a s a n ts but only un til a free economic rela tion

,

ship w a s est a blished b etween the two p a rties Mea nwh ile the .
,

need for st a tutory regul a tions rem a i ned hence the new la w It .

doubled the extent of gra zing to which the pea s a nts were entitled ,

fi x in g it a t one pogon per he a d of c a ttle ; it m a de the conditions

e a sier a n d sim pler on which the vill a gers could obt a in a ddition a l
l a nd L a bour dues were fi x e d a t twenty two da ys a ll roun d
.
-

which mea nt th a t the p ea s a nts w ith oxen h a d to l a bour six da ys

more a n d the pe a s a nts without oxen four d a ys more th a n under
,

the Org a nic Sta tute s ; but in return the p ersona l service est a b ,

lish e d by custom a t fourteen d a ys in the ye a r w a s a bolished S o , .

w a s t h e tithe from g a rden produce .

Art 1 44 decl a red the pe a s a nt to b e completely free in hi s

.

p erson a n d possessions a llowing gre a ter l a titude though by no

, ,

me a ns free choice to the p e a s a nt who w a nted to move from hi s

,

Vill a ge But more th a n thi s Stirb ey could not do for the existin g
.
,

a rr a ngements a ssured to the p e a s a nt the work a n d to ag ricultur e

the l a bour which w a s needed This which it mi ght b e d iffi cult

.
‘
,

or impossible to secure by other me a ns constitutes the sole ,

energy in this essenti a lly a gricultur a l l a nd ; to deprive a gr i cul

’
ture of it would b e to kill it Th a t mutu a l need Stirb ey thought
,
.
, ,

should govern a ll future legisl a tion a n d the best w a y of s a tisfy ing,

it would b e to a pply a ll round the sliding sca le provided in

Ar t 1 41 of the Org a nic St a tutes It a llowed the pe a s a nt to cl a i m
. .

a reduction in his l a b our dues if the l a ndlord were un a ble to give

him a ll the l a nd to which he w a s entitled ; should not dues b e

 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE 37

incre a sed in the s a me proportion if the pe a s a nt a sked a n d the ,

l a ndlord ga ve more l a nd ? Stirb ey seems to h a ve b een a nxious

,

to encoura ge pe a s a nt cultiva tion rightly observing th a t the ,

Org a nic St a tutes h a d ensured to the p ea s a n t me a ns of existence ,

but not for exp a nsion But his logica l a rgumen t overlooked th e
.

fa ct th a t the pea s a nt who l a boured more for a nother must culti

v a te less for himself th a t he w a s not helped by b ein g given more
,

l a nd while left with less tim e in which to till it In poi n t of f a ct .

,

the new la w g a ve a gre a t fi llip to pe a s a nt a griculture by securing

it a ga inst a buses The regul a tions for a pplyin g it supplied
.

printed forms for a greements b etween l a ndlords a n d pe a s a nts ,

a n d it a lso obli ged the l a ndlords to give for e a ch d a y of l a bour

a printed receipt to b e held by the p e a s a nt till the ye a rly settle

ment By this a n d other such me a ns the new r égime cert a inly

.

helped to improve the m a teri a l st a ndin g of the pe a s an try ; a n d ,

in genera l it introduced into the Org a nic St a tutes a ll the im

,

provem en t s of det a il comp a tible with the essenti a l inj ustice of

its principles .
1

Th e fir s t s tep to p oli ti ca l r igh ts S t ir bey s rura l la w cont a ine d

’
.

a n innov a tion of gre a t interest a s b ein g the first step tow a rds the
’
p e a s a n t s poli tic a l enfra nchisement ; besides h a ving immedi a te
pra ctic a l va lue for the betterment of his life The la w h a nded .

over to a Vill a ge council the a dministra tion of the Vill a ge the ,

collection of t a xes a s well a s the ex a m i n a tion of disputes

,

between l a ndlords a n d Villa gers — a ll of them m a tters in reg a rd

to which the pea s a nt h a d h a d most of the burdens a n d no n e of
the s a ying All offi cia l bus iness w ithin the Villa ge h a d to b e
.

c a rried out through the council The council w a s to consist of .

a m a yor a delega te of the la ndlord a n d two or four pe a s a nt

‘

, ,

d eleg a tes two if the num b er of households were below a hun

—

dred four if it were a bove Ma yor a n d pe a sa nt deputies were to

, .

b e elected for one ye a r from a mong the pe a s a nts with four oxen
or if need b
, e w ith two oxen by a ll the V ill a gers who p a id the
, ,

he a d t a x ; they could not sit two ye a rs run n ing In return for .

their services they were exempted while holdin g offi c e from

performing l a bour dues In d a ys when the burdens of the
.

pe a s a nts were l a rgely m a de up from a buses by l a ndlords their ,

men a n d the petty loc a l offi cia ls the crea tion of the Villa ge ,
38 POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE
coun cil w a s a bra ve a ttempt of the Munteni a n a mending la w to
reform a gre a t evil .

Th e s ta te of th e p ea s a n tr y on th e eve of n a ti on a l i n d ep en d en ce .

Survey ing w ith one gl a nce the whole of these ch a n ges they show ,
’
th a t in the forties of the nineteenth cent ury when the Rum a ni a n ,

pro vinces recovered their n a tio n a l a utonomy their p e a s a nt ,

popula tions lost much or most of their soci a l a n d econ omic free
dom Though the new a rra ngement w a s clothed in the ordered
.

a rticles of a modern la w it could not for a mome n t misle a d the

,

p e a s a nt s sim ple folk a s they were a s to the re a l me a ni ng of the

, ,

ch a nge Rumours concerning the ch a n ges th a t were contem

.

pl a ted s uffi ce d to c a use spor a dic loc a l risings in Mold a vi a in

1 8 31 which the a uthorities coul d h a rdly h a ve suppressed wi thout
,

the s a ving presence of Russi a n coss a ck s Elsewhere p a ssive .

,

resist a nce del a yed or checked the enforcement of cert a in pro

Visions of the Orga nic St a tutes Along the Pruth fi r st i ndividu a l
.
,

p ea s a nts then fa milies l a ter whole Vill a ges b ega n to cross into
, ,

B ess a ra bi a then in Russi a n h a nd s B y 1 8 34 th a t migr a tion w a s

,
.

reported from a ll the frontiers into Tr a n sylva ni a a n d a cross the

,

D a nub e a s well into Tur ki s h territory a n d w a s a ffecting even

, ,

more dist a nt district s Gole sco writing in 1 8 5 6 st a ted th a t over

.
, ,

fa m ilie s h a d crossed into Bulg a ri a S erbi a a n d Tra n , ,

sylva ni a s ince 1 8 32 There is rej oicing a mong the pe a s a nts he

.
,

s a id when the D a nub e freezes for they ca n esc a p e a cross its

, ,

soli d surfa ce from their sufferings at home A commis sion inqui r .

ing into the c a uses of th a t flight reported th a t they were

i n s uffi ci en t l a nd a n d a buses in the a pplic a tion of the St a tute .

No remedies however were a pp a rently a ttempted until the

, , ,

protecting Pow ers impo s ed them some fift e en ye a rs l a ter a n d by ,

a n d by the we a ry p e a s a ntry steeled in misfortune by h a ving

,
’
borne the brunt of the country s prolonged tri a ls settled down ,

under the new l e a d pl a ced upon their s houlders in the fi rst hour
of n a tion a l reviv a l .

Under the new r egime the p ea s a nt for the fir st ti me beg a n to

know l a nd hunger With the simple methods of fa rmi ng in use
.

a t the time he needed for himself a n d his c a ttle a good sli ce of

l a nd which in m a n y c a s e s he could not now get The l a bour dues .

were a cru s hi n g burden e s peci a lly a s their perform a nce w a s in

,
 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE 39

no w a y a dj usted to rough soil ba d wea ther a n d other a dverse

, ,

a ccidents . B eing me a sured by work r a ther th a n by tim e they

were el a stic enough a n d could b e stretched into e n dl ess a buses ;
in the m ixed co m mission of 1 8 48 a pe a s a nt deputy told how a fter
toiling a whole week w ith his own c a rt a n d oxe n c a rti n g m a iz e
, ,

for the l a ndlord this w a s credited to hi m a s on e d a y s l a b our

,
’
.

The custom a ry tithe h a d b een a sh a re not excessive of some , ,

th in g whi ch the pe a s a n t rea lly h a d a n d rel a ted to the conditions

,

in which he foun d himself e a ch ye a r But the he a vy l a bour dues.

h a d to b e performed in f ull no m a tter whether hi s l a nd a n d his

h a rvest were good or ba d The exce s sive l a bour servitudes them
.

’
selves were bound to ret a rd the pea s a n t s ow n c ultiv a tion a n d
h a rvesting ; the more so a s the l a n dl ord would n a tura lly cl a im
the b est d a ys for hi mself a n d a s the l a bour dues could not b e
,

commuted without his consent S e th a t the new a rra ngements.

b a nged the g a te to prosperity in the fa ce of eve n the most c a p a ble

a n d resourceful pe a s a nt It is ch a ra cteristic th a t throughout
.

th e se protra cted a gra ri a n deb a tes no one thought of suggesting

th a t some crum b of schooling a n d tra in ing should b e provided
for the Vill a gers .

And the m a n y wrongs cont a ined in the letter of the new l a ws

were but procre a tors of a multitude of a buses committed whe n
a pplyi n g their provisions The sm a ll upper cl a ss to whom the
.

Org a nic St a tutes h a d a ccorded excessive rights a n d privileges

h a d in their h a n ds the whole of the primitive a n d corrupt
a dmi nistr a tion ; there were therefore no bounds to the n a ture
, ,

a n d numb er of inj ustices which could b e perpetr a ted a t the

expen se of the pe a s a nts The pe a s a nt is the boi a r s c a pit a l a

.
‘ ’
,
’

boi a r blun tly excl a imed in the n a tion a l diva n In 1 8 37 the .

Mold a vi a n ruler himself a gre a t boi a r denounced i n biti n g words

, ,

the w a y in which the pe a sa n ts were che a ted in the me a surements

with the pole a shorter pole frequently bei n g used for the l a nd
,

they received a n d a longer one for th a t which they tilled for t h e

l a ndlord The prince h a d to intervene a g a i n in 1 8 44 on beh a lf
.
, ,

of the i n h a bit a nts of the mou n t a in regio n s most of them settled ,

on mona stic est a tes who were m a de to pa y a money compen sa

,

tion for l a bour dues a s there w a s n o a ra ble l a nd which they could

be m a de to till a difference which the Orga nic Sta tutes h a d over
,
40 POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE
looked Ab out the s a me time steps h a d to b e t a ken a ga i ns t
.

l a ndlords who were trying the new trick so pop ul a r in l a ter d a ys , ,

of m a king l a b our contra cts with the p e a s a nts d uri ng the winter
’
months when the pe a s a nt s needs were a t their hi ghest a n d hi s
,

resources a t their lowest ; a n d li kewise a g a inst those who ex a cted

he a vy fi n es for stra ying c a ttle even when no d a m a ge h a d b een ,

done The Org a nic St a tutes h a d p ermitted the l a ndlords to

.

cl a im money p a yment when they could not use a ll the l a b our

which the vi ll a gers were supposed to p erform ; for such com
p e n s a t i on a sc a le w a s to b e fi x e d by the Assembly a n d it w a s so ,

fi x e d a s to b e a r he a vily on the pe a s a nt .

Simil a r exce s ses were committed with the ch a rges for sur plus
gra zing so th a t m a ny pea s a n ts fled the Villa ges for the tow ns
, .

Alex a nder Ghic a the Munteni a n r uler endea vour ed to h a ve

, ,

them mitig a ted but a fter a long fight he h a d to decl a re tha t we

,

sh a ll no longer exp ect from the Assembly the settlement we h a d

dem a n ded but will limit ourselves to withh oldi ng a ll offi ci a l
,

interference a n d a i d for the enforcement of a n y a greements

b etween proprietors a n d p e a s a nts a n d we w ill a wa rd prop er ,
’
d a m a ges to inj ured p e a s a nts a s soon a s compl a ints re a ch us .

Fin a lly the ch a rges for surplus gra zi ng h a d to b e fi x e d offi cia lly
, ,

in 1 8 44 The ruler a l s o resisted the dem a nds of the l a ndlords for

.

gre a ter powers to prevent the pe a s a nts from moving a w a y ;

though the l a ndlords themselves h a d been a rmed w ith a fe a rful
mea n s of oppression by Art 1 26 of the Orga nic St a tutes whi ch
.

a llowed them to expel wi th the consent of the loc a l a uthorities

, ,
’
‘
troublesome pe a s a nts sim ply by giving them six months
’
,
’
notice When he w a nted the pea s a nt s l a b our however the
.
, ,

l a ndlord could not only fetch him to work with the genda rme ,

but a lso genera lly h a d him flogged ; a n in dignit y which the

‘ ’
p e a s a nts bitterly resented I n the t ime of the Turk s one of
.
,

them l a mented the sword m a y h a ve k illed but it did not s ti n g

,
‘
, ,
’
like the whip .

The gre a t s ufferings of the vill a gers were voiced in me a sur ed

but a ccusing words by the pea s a nt deputies in the mixed com
’ ‘
mission of 1 8 48 S a id Ene the J erkin m a ker : the Orga nic
.
,
‘
-

’
St a tute con fi n ed us on the l a ndlord s esta te a s in a w a lled fortress
with iron ga tes so th a t there wa s no w a y by which we could get
,
 POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE 41

out a n d even if we r a n a wa y a b a ndoning house a n d orch a rd a n d

,

Viney a rd the work of our p a rents a n d our o w n a n d they found

, ,

our where a bouts they brought us b a ck ch a ined j ust a s if we h a d

, ,

been sl a ves locking us up in their cell a rs or b a rn s in w i n ter time

, ,

with no fir e a n d even throwi ng w a ter over us th a t we should

,

freeze th a t our sufferin gs sho ul d frighten the other s ; so th a t

,

m a ny h a ve rem a ined crippled a n d c a nnot feed themselves to

d ay.
’
And old Lip a n told his own story : Another time m y ‘

wife w a s t a ken to cut corn a n d I to mow with the genda rme ,

’
a fter me a n d the three months old child left under the burni n g
,
-

s un with flies sucking hi s mouth a n d w a sps a n d gn a ts stinging

, ,

him— w a s th a t not sl a very p erh a ps ? Sl a very a n d n othing else ,

brethren ! The wife cutting corn from su n rise t ill dinner time -

a n d not a llowed to o a n d suckle the child Why do the gentle

g .

men s a y it w a s not sl a very for we know it to h a ve b een sl a very

, ,
’
th a t sorrow th a t we h a ve sorrowed And yet thes e oppressed
.
,

pe a s a nts never threa tened or a ttempted violence They were .

indeed re a dy to a ccept the new order a sking no more tha n a ,

piece of l a nd th a t woul d feed them a n d their c a ttle a n d w illing ,

to pay for it too Oi their old rights they stubbornl y defended

, .

only one tha t of ti lling more l a nd a g a inst p a yment of the tithe

, .

Though ground down by centuries of misrul e a n d w a nt these ,

pe a s a nts h a d yet le a rnt neither to b eg nor to loot ; a ll they

cl a imed w a s the right to work .
 C H A P TE R III
NATIONAL INDEPEND ENCE AND THE EMAN CIPA
TION OF THE PEASANTS
Th e Nem F a ctor s The Org a n ic St a tutes m a rked the high tide
.

of rur a l feud a lism in the Rum a ni a n pro vinces Their feud a l web .

of p e a s a nt servitudes a n d l a ndlords oblig a tions w a s shot with

’

the fi r st inkl ings of la i ssez fa i re pres a ging indi vidu a l property in

-

l a nd a n d free l a b our contra ct H a rdly h a d the Sta tutes b een

.

p a ssed when slowly the re a ction a ry w a ters bega n to recede a n d

gra du a lly to open up the bro a d v a ll ey of in dividu a l freedom .

For l a ws of their kind con fi s ca t in g the l a n d a n d the l a bour of

,

the pe a s a ntry were begotten too l a t e — a lm ost two genera tions

,

a fter the French Revolution Even Holy Russi a w a s b eing

.

stirred by the spirit of the times the new currents of thought

’
were not to b e checked li ke N a poleon s gren a diers by her s n ow
, ,

b a rriers ; they swelled a n d s urged until in 1 8 6 1 the Russi a n serfs

were em a ncip a ted .

In the Rum a ni a n provinces those currents foun d no c a stle

g a tes to force No crowned a utocra t no feud a l b a rons gu a rded
.
,

the dra wbridge On the contr a ry the poli tic a l imp ul se of the
.
,

country w a s cutting a re a dy p a th for them With the begin n ing .

of the century the Vision of government by the people h a d a lso

cro ss ed the Rum a ni a n sky The ide a ls set free by the French
.

Revolution coinciding with the crum b ling a w a y of Ottom a n

,

power a w a kened the subj ect B a lk a n peoples to a sense of

,

n a tion a l freedom The fi rst reb ellious movement the Heta i ma

’

.
, ,

w a s org a nized a n d st a rted on Rum a ni a n soil ; a n d its dre a ms were

whi s pered a ll over the l a nd The h a ndful of grea t boia r s replete
.
,

with privileges a n d we a lth h a ving much to lose a n d li ttle to

,

g a in sa w freedom merely a s the endi n g of Turkish ex a ction s by

, ,

th e intercession of either Russi a or Austri a But the younger .

a n d poorer gener a tion h a d b een touched with the m a ic w a nd of g

the spirit of n a tion a lity Under the stimulus of their rediscovered

.

L a tin origin they h a d gone westw a rds every ye a r in gre a ter ,

number s to be educ a ted especi a lly in P a ris ; a n d from there

, ,
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASAN TS 43

they returned a ll a fi r e w ith the new lib era l idea s a n d ide a ls .

Freedom to them me a nt the end of a ll a lien i n terference A

, , .

‘ ’
protectora te however Christia n a ppe a led n ot a t a ll to them
, , .

But it w a s cle a r th a t they could n ot h e pe to check the e x pa n

si oni st le a nings of the three neighbouring a utocr a t s unless with ,

support from the more dista nt a n d lib era l West The compl a int .

a g a inst the T urki s h suzer a in a n d the Russi a n protector h a d to b e

s t ifi e d therefore W ith a displ a y of ze a l for liber a l i n stitutions ;

j u , ,

a n d by such liber a l reforms they would h a ve put a mo a t b et w ee n

themselves a n d Russi a to whom a s a result of reli giou s a n d , ,

soci a l a ffi n it y they felt uncomfort a bly ne a r

,
.

While trusting to w a rd off externa l d a n gers with help from

a bro a d a t home in the a bsence of a middle cl a ss they could not
, , ,

hope to bre a k the a rroga nce of the gre a t boia r s without g a ining
the support of the m a sses T a ctic a l needs therefore a s much a s .
, ,

thei r ow n convictions led them to a ppea l to the p eople in their,

new struggle for n a tiona l self government I n 1 8 48 the c a ll r a ng -

.

out to the pe a s a nts to be up a n d to figh t for their own s oil a c a ll —

they h a d n ot he a rd si n ce the d a y s of S t efa n the Gre a t Brother .

‘

’
Pea s a nts th e m a nifesto of the Munteni a n revolution a ry govern
,

ment c a lled them ; it promi s ed them equ a l rights the repe a l of ,

‘
s ervi tudes a n d the free gift of a piece of l a nd th a t would give
,
’
them susten a nce But they were a lso enj oined to go on working
.

for the boia r s a n d to b eh a ve nicely a n d not a word w a s s a id ,

a bout redressing the wrongs committed by the Org a n ic St a tutes .

A mixed commissio n consisting in equ a l number s of l a ndlord s ,

a n d pe a s a n ts w a s a ppoi n ted to prep a re the a gr a ri a n reform ; but

,

a s it coul d n ot a gre e — its sittings becomi n g more upro a r ious

every d a y— it w a s dissolved a n d soo n a fterw a rds the revolution ,

co ll a psed The revolutiona ries of 1 8 48 were devoted to the ide a l

.

of individu a l freedom in the soci a l a s in the poli tic a l fi eld ; but

,

they h a d little underst a nding for a n d a s a cl a ss prob a bly sc a nt , , ,

symp a thy with the p a tri a rch a l rights a n d minds of the Vill a gers
, .

Their ch a llenge however h a d a t le a s t roused the spirit of the

, ,

pea s a n ts a n d it h a d b a nded their interests together The

, .

brother pea s a nts h a d he a rd the exhil a r a ting promi s e of libe r ty

a n d equ a lity ; the fi r st thing which the Commis s ion h a d to
’

concede w a s th a t m a n is free a n d his l a bour s a cred In th a t

‘ ’
.
44 NATIONAL IND EPE NDENCE AND THE
Commission the pe a s a nts h a d for the fi r st time been given a voice ,

to spea k their pl a int a n d to a sk their due ; a n d for the fi r st time ,

too their deputies spoke not divided ea ch for thi s V ill a ge or th a t

, ,

d istrict but together for the whole Munteni a n pe a s a n try a s one

,

body B eyond th a t mora l s a tisfa ction they got however no

.
, ,

thi n g the revolt c a me to a n end without h a ving brought them

even a tempora ry relief from their h a rdships The Eur op e a n .

Commission which Visited the pri n cip a lities in 1 8 5 7— 8 reported

th a t such protection a s the Org a ni c St a tutes a fforded to the
vill a gers h a d rem a ined ineffective B ec a use of corruption a mon g
.

o ffi ci a ls
‘
the a ction of the Govern me nt w a s p a r a lysed on the
l a nd the p ea s a nts were a b a ndon ed to the ple a sur e of the l a nd
,

lords a n d a kind of feud a l r egime w a s reintroduced in Mold a vi a

,

Me a nwhile however p oli tic a l developments which were a d

, ,

van ci n g the c a use of Rum a ni a n indep endence ple a ded a lso for

the b etterment of the p e a s a nt cl a ss The Pa ris Congresses of 1 8 5 6

.

a n d 1 8 5 8 restored n a tion a l a utonomy to the Rum a ni a n pro vin ces ,

a s a me a ns of stopping Russi a from m a king use of these provinces

a s a milit a ry highw a y to Const a n tinople The Gre a t Powers took

.

steps to consolid a te them not only to m a ke of them a n efi ect ive

,

buffer b etween Russi a a n d Turkey but a lso to ens ure the s a fety
,

of the mouths of the D a nub e a n d to en a ble these rich l a nds to

develop the corn growing needed for the exp a nd ing towns of the
-

We s t Thi s w a s b ound to open a new m a rket for the m a nufa cture

.

of western industries a n d a new source of food supplies for their

,

workers In 1 8 5 6 the Tre a ty of Pa ris reduced Tur kish r ul e to a

.

nomin a l suzera inty ; the Princip a lities pl a ced under the pr ot ec

,

tion of the Gre a t Powers were to b e governed by n a tive princes

, ,

popul a rly elected a n d they were to h a ve a Constitution For

, .

these s a me re a sons it w a s the wish of the western Powers th a t

the popul a tions should a t the s a me time b e given a ch a nce to
improve their existence by a reform of a gra ri a n condi tions Th a t .

w a s the period of the gre a t rur a l reforms S erfdom h a d b een

.

a bolished in Austri a in 1 8 41 in Prussi a p a rtly in 1 8 1 0a n d fi n a lly

in 1 8 5 0; in Russi a the em a ncip a tion of 1 8 6 1 w a s b ein g prep a red .

S erbi a h a d rid herself of the Turkish l a ndlords ; a n d in Bulga ri a ,

though she w a s still a Turkish province conditions on th e l a nd ,

h a d much improved S e h a d the position of the Rum a ni a n

.
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 45

pe a s a nts who were subj ects of neighbourin g empir es In 1 8 48 .

the Tra nsylva ni a n Diet a bolished a ll servitudes a n d resettled

the pea s a nts without compens a tion ; the st a te of thin gs which
preva iled a t the begin ning of th a t ye a r w a s t a ken a s a b a sis for
the reform with the result tha t in Tra nsylv a ni a holdings were
,

l a rger th a n those which h a d b een given by the O r g a nic St a tutes

in the Princip a lities An imperi a l p a tent fin a lly settled the
.

question in 1 8 5 4 to such good purpose th a t in the commu n es

inha bited by Rum a n i a ns 75 per cent of the grou n d w a s t a ken
, .

up by holdi ngs up to 5 0 h a The vill a ges were a t the s a me time

.

provided with commons a n d woodl a nds In Bucovin a a lso .

, ,

imperi a l p a tents of 1 8 48— 9 did a w a y w ith a ll servitudes a n d

gra nted l a nd to the pe a s a nts ; a s Bucovin a h a d b een a nnexed by
Austri a in 1 774 its inh a bit a nts h a d esc a ped the depriva tions of
1 8 05 a n d 1 8 31 so th a t the reform of 1 8 48 put them in posses s ion
,

of the whole s o c a lled rustic a l l a nd which they h a d occupied of

-
’

old Even the B ess a ra bia n pea s a nts fa llen under the rule of the
.
,

Ts a r in 1 8 1 2 were b etter off th a n their fellows in the free

,

Princip a lities They too h a d esca ped the kni fe of the Org a nic
.
, ,

St a tutes a n d a fter their em a ncip a tion in 1 8 6 1 they received

,

everywhere a g a inst a sma ller compens a tio n hol d in gs th a t w ere

, ,

la rger th a n the l a rgest distributed a cross the Pruth— 1 1 — 1 8 h a .

a s a g a inst a m a xim um of 7
3 h a in Mold a vi a an d 5 1 h a
. in —
.

Munteni a— b esides being provided with common gra zing l a nds ;

though it is true th a t this generosity w a s in spired by politic a l
motives a n d contra sted strongly with the w a y in wh ich the
pe a s a nts were tre a ted in the centra l p a rts of the Empire .

In the Rum ani a n pro vinces a lone the l a ndlords were still
strong enough to b a ul k a n y pl a n of reform The tempora ry .

rul ers a s we h a ve seen co ul d do nothing more th a n e a se a few

, ,

of the worst burdens imposed by the Org a n ic St a tutes a n d

endea vour to keep closer w a tch on how those l a ws were a pplied ,

a s they were instructed to do by the Conventio n of B a lt a Lim a n -

.

The deleg a tes of the Powers to the va rious Europe a n Conferences

which dea lt in those ye a rs with the E a stern questio n repe a tedly
insisted therefore th a t in the Princip a li ties no progress w a s
, ,
‘

possible till the rura l problem w a s settled a n d th a t the solution

must b e imposed from outside a s the only me a ns of m a king it ,
46 N ATI ONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE
’
a ccepted The P a ris Tre a ty of 18 5 6 decided th a t the c on st it u
.

tion a n d l a ws ruling in the two Princip a li ties were in need of

reform a n d to th a t end it obliged the Porte by Art 27 to con
, , .
,

vene a s peci a l a ssembly in e a ch of the two Prin cip a li ties a di va n ,

‘
a d h oc ,representing the in terests of a ll the soci a l cl a sse s which
were to formul ate a n d submit to the Powers the w ishes of the
two countries .

The a gra ri a n question roused a p a ssiona te deb a te in the

Mold a vi a n d iva n which met a t J a ssy in Inspired by the
n a tion a l idea l of uni ting the two Rum a ni a n provi n ces the gre a t ,

boia rs w a ived their old a mbition to be rulers of the country ; a n d

they still fou n d within themselves enough enthusi a sm to sur ren
der their politic a l privil eges But neither the cl a mour from w ithi n
.

nor the hints from without coul d im press them with the inj ustice
of their feuda l privileges a s l a ndlords When the a gend a for the .

work of the diva n w a s rea d there w a s not a single item on it ,

referring to the a gra ri a n problem The diva n included however .

, ,

in a ddition to seventy boia r s a n d eight clerics fi ft een p ea s a nt ,

deputies — sim ple vill a ge lea ders grown wise in misfortun e ; seeing
th a t wh a t most a iled them did not trouble the others they ,

t a bled a sob er but movi n g a ddress i n which they described their

sufferings a n d their rights a n d put forth the re a son a ble thi ngs
,

which they w a nted They dem a nded the a b olition of bir ching ;
.

the repl a ci n g of a ll dues by a single t a x to b e p a id w ithout ,

exception by a ll the i n h a bit a n ts ; loca l government for the

Vill a ge thr ough a n elected co uncil ; but fi r st a n d a b ove a ll the
, ,

a b olition of the tithe a n d of a ll dues tow a rds the l a ndlords We .

w a nt to buy our freedom the a ddress s a id th a t we m a y no ’

, ,
‘

lo n ger b elong to a nybody but o nl y to the soil so th a t w e too

, , , ,

should h a ve a fa therl a nd We do not w a nt to tresp a ss upon

.

an
y one s rights ’
but neither do we wish
,
our own rights to b e
forgotten As a lw a ys when they h a d a ch a nce of st a ting their
.
’

cl a ims the pe a s a nts stra ined their rights a n d mea ns to the

,

utmost offering to compens a te the l a ndlords libera lly so a nxious

, ,

were they to b e fa ir But the l a ndlords a ngrily denoun ced these

.

’ ’
communistic tendencies a n d in reply to the p e a s a nts dem a nd
,

1
Th e Mu t i div n i n terpreted
n en a n a the i n structi on s of the P w rs
o e as d b a rri
e n
g
it fro m di s cu ss i ng i nt e rn a l reforms .
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 47

th a t servitudes should b e a bolished they suggested th a t in th a t

c a se their own oblig a tion to give l a nd to the pea s a nts on their
est a tes sho ul d a lso b e a bolished— a propos a l which would h a ve
reduced the m a ss of the people to l a ndless l a bourers a t one
stroke .

The E urope a n Commission w a it ing in Buc a re s t to receive the

conclusions of the two diva ns h a d fi n a lly to report th a t not hi ng
h a d b ee n do n e to furt her the solutio n of the a gr a ri a n problem ,

a dding th a t if this reform were to b e left in the c a re of the two

’
interested p a rties it will never b e dea lt with equita bly An d
,
.

‘
Ta lleyra nd the French deleg a te wrote th a t a solution will not
, ,

b e a ccepted without con flict u nl ess the principle on which it is

’
b a sed were first to b e procl a imed by the Powers In the Pa ris .

Convention of 1 8 5 8 whi ch de a lt with the future orga niz a tion of

,

the Pri ncip a lities the Powers embo died this a dvice in Ar t 46
,
.
,

which s a id : All the privileges exemptions a n d monopolies

‘
,

which certa i n cl a sses still enj oy sh all b e a brog a ted a n d the l a ws ,

which regul a te the rel a tio n s of l a n dl ords a n d pe a s a nts sh a ll b e

revised W ithout del a y with a View to improving the conditions
,

of the pea s a ntry In spite of this inj un ction cont ai ned in a

.
’
,

docum ent which constituted the cha rter of Rum a ni a n na tion a l

independence the solution of the a gra ri a n problem w a s held up
,
’
for a nother six ye a rs ; nor co ul d Ta ll eyr a nd s policy prevent in
the end the conflict whi ch it w a s me a nt to a void .

Th e Refor m of 1 8 6 4 As soon a s the presence a n d pressure of

.

the Powers w a s removed boi a r s of yesterd a y a n d n a tion a list

,

revolution a ries of to d a y found themselves to b e of one mind in

-

wishing to b e a s little troubled with a gra ria n reforms a s they

co ul d possibly contrive The fir st n a tion a l a ssemblies p a ssed on
.

the duty of a ttending to Ar t 46 of the Pa ri s Tre a ty to the

.

Centra l Commission— a j oint body consisting of eight members

from e a ch province a n d ch a rged with the dra ftin g of bills After .

t a king a whole ye a r for this prep a ra tory work the Comm ission ,

produced a dra ft b a sed on a View of the p e a s a nt a s a privileged

ten a nt of the la nd which he held 1 As a consequence the dra ft wa s
.

1
Th e r ri an legis l ti on of t h e fir st h a lf of t h e c e tury by tryi ng t circu m v en t
ag a a n , o

a rura l r e l a ti ons hi p which it d a re d n o t or c o uld n o t b o l d ly a b o li s h h d i n d is cr i b bly , a a

c onfu se d t h e s ta tus of t h e R u m n i a n pea s a t M B B oere scu thus d s crib e d it

a n . . . e
48 NATIONAL INDEPEND ENCE AND THE
resolutely opposed by the fi r st ruler of R um a ni a l — Alex a nder
Cuz a a former offi cer of the civi c gu a rd a n d a m an of the people
, ,

elected on the underst a ndin g th a t he would b e merely a locum

ten en s until a foreign prince coul d b e secur ed a n d by his inti —

m a te a dviser the p a ssion a tely progressive Mih a il Kog alni cea nu , .

Th a t it w a s possible no longer to j ustify a n d m a in t a in the

p e a s a nt servitudes w a s t a citly a ccepted a ll round But when .

Kog alnice a nu put forw a rd a bill of hi s own whi ch ga ve the ,

i n h is Mmi e
'

o r e sur les con d i ti on s d

’
exi s ten ce d es P r i n cip a utes Da n ubi en n es ( P a ris ,
’

l
Wh a t kin d of m a n i s t h e R u ma ni a n p ea s a n t ? I s be f ee or r a se rf , an e m phyt e utic
ho ld e r a tenan t u s ufructu a ry o a meta yer c
, , a w e r i s d iffi cult He i s r
’
-
o lon ? Th e a n s .

a ll th a t a n d y e t h e is n ot He i s a stran ge a b stra ction create d by t h e O rga ni c S ta tute

, . .

Th e p ea sa n t i n d ee d i s fre e for h e i s m as te r of h i s own p e rso a d of hi s p os ses

‘
, , , n n

s i o s ; h e m a y go wh e r e h e w
n ts ; h e h n d s ov e r t o h is h e irs h o u se a d y rd g rd en an a n a , a

a n d o rch rd Y e t a t t h e s a me ti m e h e i s n ot fr ee for h e i s b o un d t o pe rp etu a l l b o ur

a .
, , ,
a

for t h e l a n dl ord ; a n d wh en th e re a re n o h e ir s it i s t h e l a n dl ord n ot t h e S t a t e w h o , ,

i n h e rits t h e p ea san t s h ou se a d ga rd e ’
n n .

He i s se rf i n th t s e se th a t t h e l n dlord p a rtly i n h e rits hi m a h i tes ta t a d th t

a n , a n , n a

h e i s so ld with t h e e s ta te ; t h e r es tr icti on s pl a c e d up on h is m o vin g a l m os t a m o un t t o

b on d ge But on t h e oth e r h n d h e is n ot a se rf for i n publi c matte rs h e sta d s in d ire ct
a .
, a , ,
n

re l a ti on t o t h e S ta te a n d h e ca n l ea ve t h e es tate on fulfillin g t h e pres crib ed con di ti ons

, .

‘
He i s a n e m phyt e utic h o ld e r for h e h o ld s t h e l n d in p e rp e tui ty a n d en j o ys i t s , a

produc e i n r etu n for a n a u a l d ue But h e i s n ot th a t a ltogeth e r s ( a ) i n a dditi on

r nn . , a

t o t h e a n u a l p a yme n t h e o w es p e rson a l l a b o ur ; ( b
n ) h e c n d is p ose by w ill a bi n tes ta t a

on ly p a rt of h is l a n d i e o rch a rd a n d o th e r pl a t a ti o s ; ( 0) h e can in n o c ase e s tr an ge

, . . n n

h i s pro p erty dur in g h is lifeti me ; ( d ) t h e l a n dl ord m y e d t h e p a san t s titl e e v en if

’
a n e ,

h e c o ti n u s t o p a y h i s du s
n e e .

‘
He i s a ten a n t a s s t te d in t h e law of 1 8 5 1 b e c a u se of t h e e ase with which h e
, a ,

m i ght be e j e cte d by t h e l n dl ord But for t h e r es t h e h s n on of t h e ch a r cte ri stic s a . a e a

o f t h e r e l t ena n t s ee i g th t
a ( a ) h is profess i on a l a ctivity is n e ith e r pr o vi i on l n or
, n a : s a

v olu n ta ry but p erp etu a l a d e c ess ry ; ( b) h is obli g ti on s a r e ren d e re d i n kin d s

,
n n a a , a

w e ll a s i n mon e y ; ( 6 ) t h e l a dlord h a s n o obli ga ti on t o k e e p t h e o bj e ct i n a fi t state n

for t h e purp ose for which it w a s re n te d ; ( d ) t h e p easa t tr a ns fe rs p a rt of h is right s n

t o h i s h e ir s .

‘
He i s j oi n t o w n e r i n s o fa r a s b e b s a c om m on titl e t o t h e l n d of t h e e sta te
‘
-
a a .

Y e t h e i s n ot th a t b e c a u e ( a ) h e h a s n o ri ght t o di ss olv e th t j oi n t o wn e rs h ip ; a d
, s a -
n

( b) b e c a u se t h e l n dl ord ca d e priv e h im aga i n st his will of h is re l titl e

a n , , a .

He i s a u s u fructu a ry if y o u l i k e a s h e h s t h e right t o us e a n d t o e j o y t h e ob
‘
, ,
a n

j ce t a n d b e c u se h e h s only a life titl e t o p rt of t h e o bj e ct

,
a a -
a .

F i n lly o n c ould s a y th a t h e i s a meta yer colon in th a t h e i s obli ged t o giv e

‘
a , e
’
-

t h e l a n dl rd p a rt of t h e pro duc e But hi s s t a tu s i s s i mpl e r th a n th a t of a colo

o as . n,

( )
a h i s ri g ht s t o t h e l a n d h v e th e ir ori gi n i n l w an d n o t i n a c on v en ti on b e tw een a a

t h e t w o p rti es ; ( b ) th e y a r p e rp etu a l a n d b e l on g ip so j u e t o h i s h ei rs
’
a e r .

Till h is e ma n cip ti on t h e p ea sa t c ould n ot se ll h is h ou se n or t h e vi n e ya rd s

a ,
n ,

a n d o rch rd s h e h a d pl n te d e xc e pt wh e n h e w a s e xp ll d fr o m t h e vill a ge for b e i n g

a a ,
e e

tro ubl o m e On t h e othe r h an d t h e l a dlord eould n e ith e r t a k e a w y n or ch a n ge

es
’
. ,
n
‘
a

a t h is pl a ur t h e l a n d which t h e vill ge r s l a b o ure d ( A L GOL E S CO L A b

’
oli ti on d a
’
e s e a . .
,

S ew a ge 1 8 5 6 , pp 1 3 1,
.

1
Th e u n i o n o f o ld a vi a M a nd Mu t i n en a in t h e n ew S ta te of R m an u i a w as c a rrie d
thro u gh i n 18 6 1 .
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 49

pea s a nts a ll the l a nd they then occupied the l a ndlords denounced ,

it a s comm uni stic a n d retorted w ith a counter dra ft in which

‘ ’

they offered puny holdings sm a ller even th a n those contem

,

pl a ted by the Centra l Commission whi ch the pe a s a n ts were to ,

hold in usufruct The Assembly elected by

. voters —
,
’
mostly la ndowners— p a ssed the l a ndlords bill Cuz a however .
, ,

—strengthened i n his convictions by a pea s a n t risi n g in 1 8 6 2

refu s ed to s a nction the bill b a s ing hi mself on the cle a r p r ovision s

,

of the Pa ris Conventio n a n d entrusted Kog alnicea nu with the

,

govern ment a n d with the t a sk of introducing a new bill Kog al .

’
n i c ea n u ple a ded with the Ch a mb er th a t the pe a s a nts p a st h a s ‘

’
been a nyt hi ng but h a ppy a n d their futur e must b e different ;
,

he w a rn ed his opponents not to think tha t we could with our

‘
,
’
vote drown the rights of the pe a s a nts for ever ; but a ll to no
,
~

purpose The mo n strous co a lition of Conserva tives a n d Libera ls

.

so a mended the bill a s to bri n g the proposed holdings down to

the siz e of the lowest c r e a ted by the Org a nic St a tutes ; while it
incre a sed by on e four th the compens a tion which the pe a sa nts
-

were to pa y for the a boli tion of servitudes Thereupon Cuz a a n d .

Kogalnice a nu di s solved the Assembly a n d l a unched their reform

by mea ns of a princely decree whi ch a fterw a rds wa s con firmed ,

by a plebiscite .

This h a d been the second opport unity which the Rum a ni a n

l a nded cl a ss h a d of legisl a ti n g for themselves They in a ugura ted .

the return to n a tion a l indep endence by tryi n g to complete the

work of spoli a tion b egun with the Org a ni c St a tutes a n d to kill ,

two birds with one stone If they could h a ve shut out the
.

pe a sa nt from a ccess to the l a nd they would h a ve g a ined a hold ,

commensur a tely strong on his l a bour a scheme used with gre a t —

effect in the Afric a n colo n ies in order to compel the n a tives to

,

work for the whi te pl a nters To s a ve the pe a s a nts from thus

.

b ei n g tot a lly a n d fin a lly despoiled the tempora ry ruler h a d to ,

resort to a coup d eta t All the pri vileged p eople grea t boia r s a n d
’
.
,

sm a ller fry looked upo n the reform with h a te or a t le a st with

,

suspicion They fi er cely den ounced however a n y encro a chme n t

.
, ,

upon their ow n politic a l rights gra nted them by the Pa ris Con
ve n t i on Eighteen mo n ths a fter dissol ving Pa rlia ment a plot
.

drove Cuz a out of the country for ever .

1 5 69 6 9
-

E
50 NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE
f the Refor m If Cuz a a n d Kog aln icea nu were
Th e Na tur e o .

well primed w ith libera l idea ls they were less well equi pp ed ,

with economic exp erience Their reform promulga ted on 1 4th .

,

August 1 8 64 w a s in its pra ctic a l effects to be a r the m a rk of th a t

,

s hortcomi n g deeply If the pe a s a nt problem h a d b ecome urgent .

in their eyes it w a s prim a rily in its leg a l a sp ect ; j ust a s seventy

ye a rs e a rlier the Fre n ch revolution a ry a ssemblies re a ctin g to the ,

cla mour of the p e a s a n ts thought solely of bre a kin g up the ,

seigneuri a l system Nothing coul d h a ve seemed to these men .

more a bhorrent th a n the l a ck of perso n a l freedom : thei r m a in

a mbition w a s to free the p e a s a nt from servitudes 1
To contin ue .

them would not in a n y c a se h a ve b een comp a tible w ith a system

of written Co n stitutio n It w a s for insta nce l a rgely owing to the .

introduction of w ritte n co n stitutions tha t the p ea s a nts of southern

Germ a n y were em a ncip a ted e a r lier th a n pe a s a nts elsewhere a t the ,

end of the eighteenth a n d the b egi nn in g of the n ineteenth centur y .

Though in Rum a ni a the Constitution w a s not yet down on

p a p er it w a s written l a rge in the min ds of the ruling men the
, ,

revolution a ries of yesterd a y Two hun dred boi ar s do not m a ke .

‘

a n a tion Kog alnice a n u h a d excl a imed Hence every me a sure

,
’
.
,

which hedged in the person a l liberty of the pe a s a nt w a s broken

through by the rura l la w It a bolished a ll restrictions upon his .
2

’
movements ; it did a w a y on e e a n d for a ll with a ll the dues in ,
‘
,

l a b our a n d k ind tithe included For thi s the l a ndlords were to

,
.

receive a compens a tion in St a t e bonds representing the tenf old

v a lue of the ye a rly servitudes owed by e a ch c a tegory of p e a s a nts ,

w ith 5 per cent interest ; of the tot a l one third w a s to b e borne

.
,
-

by the St a te out of p a yments received from the p e a s a nts r e

,

1 b egi n n i n g h ad b e n m ad e with t h e e m n cip ati on of t h e gips y s l a v e s w h o

A e a

f r m d t h bulk f t h e e rv ts i n a ll t h b o i a r h o u s h ld s Th re w e r
o e e o s an b ut e e o . e e a o

of t h m d ivid d i t thre c t gori s th s e b l o gi g t o t h e S t a te t t h m

e , e n o e a e te ri e
e : o e n n , o e on a s s,

a d t
n priv t i dividu l s Th fi s t t wo c t gor e s w r free d i 1 8 44 t h e third a t
o a e n a . e r a e i e e n ,

th d of 1 8 5 5
e en Th e ri g i n f th ir s ta tu i s u k
. w but gips i es v e r pp a r i n
o o e s n no n, ne a e

Rum h i t ry xc pt s l v e ( S A l G l co p
a ni an s o e e as a s . ee . o es , .

Th n u m b r f s rvile f mili e s w a s s f llo w s

2
e e o e a a o

Mu t i n en a

priv t e t t e a es a s

0 1 mo 1 tic st t na s e a es

( Al Go le s co.
, p 91. .
 EM ANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 51

settled on St a te dom a ins whil e the rem a inder w a s to b e p a id,

off by the pe a s a nts w ithin fift een ye a rs their a nnuities running ,

from 5 1 to 1 33 lei .

H a vi n g m a de the p ea s a nt free of hi s person the reform next ,

a im ed to m a ke him free in his livelih ood The former serfs were .

settled a s owners on hold ings which va ried in the two pro vi n ces
, ,

a n d which were me a sured by he a ds of c a ttle they pos s essed

1
.

L a nd under this scheme however w a s a llot t ed o nl y to the , ,

cld ca s i i e to the men bound to servitudes ; this left outside the

, . .

scop e of the reform the men who were free from servitudes
b ec a use they received nothing more th a n house a n d g a rde n a n d ,

who were obviously in need of l a nd But its m a in sin w a s th a t .

it a ggra v a ted instea d of redressed the w rong c a used to the

, ,

pe a s a nts from 1 8 05 onw a rds by the me a sures which h a d gra du

, ,

a ll y w hi ttled down their a ncient right to the use of the l a nd .

The pe a s a nts h a d a ccepted the st a te of t hi ngs a n d in the di va n ,

a d h oc h a d cl a im ed n o more th a n two thirds of the l a nd ; their -

right to this w a s still good la w a n d pra ctice in 1 8 6 4 the l a ndlords ,

h a ving to gra n t holdi n gs to newly m a rried pea s a nts from th a t -

re s erve— a custom which h a d ensured me a ns of existence to e a ch

new genera tion a n d thereby h a d prevented the excessive sp lit
,

ting up of the p a terna l hold ings The new me a sure did in fa ct

-
.

t a ke over two thi rds of the l a nd but on sm a ll est a tes only where
-

, ,
’
there w a s not enough to go roun d The l a ndlord s p a r t w a s thus .

s a fegu a rded where the pe a s a nts were too m a n y for the l a n d but ,
’
the p e a s a nts p a rt w a s not protected with equ a l c a re where it
w a s l a rger th a n the a re a i m medi a tely required for the new hold
i n gs The exce s s of Villa gers in the fi r st c a se a s well a s the newly
.
,

m a rried were to b e settled on St a te dom a ins 2 a n d not a s would

, , ,

In In Nu mb r of e Nu m b e r of
C teg ri
a o es M ld vi
o a a Mu t i n en a p s tsea an h e cta r s e

With fo ur o x e n

With t w o o x en
With o n e co w

La n d for hou se a n d ga rd e n
T t l
o a -
25

2
Th e v e ry p opul a r la w of 1 1 t h Dec 1 8 6 3, h a d
.
‘
se cula ri ze d ’
the t t d dic te d
es a es e a

E 2
 52 NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE
h a ve been j ust on the excess of p e a s a nt l a nd where the quot a s
,

set a p a rt for the loc a l vi ll a gers did not m a ke up two thirds of the -

priva te est a te The surplus on these e st a tes whi ch formed the

.
,

m a j ority w a s simply a b a ndoned to the l a n dlords ; a n d where a s

,

the l a ndlords were to be p a id for h a ving to forego a busive

privileges th a t p a trimoni a l l a nd reserve w a s lost to the pe a s a nts
,

without a n y compens a tion wh a tever This cours e is the more .

d i ffi cult to a ccount for a s offi ci a l a dvisers h a d pointed out th a t if

th a t surplus l a nd w a s to b e left to the la ndlords its v a lue should ,

b e deducted from the indem ni ties they were to receive Thi s .

serious error in the reform mea nt a double loss to the pe a s a ntry

they were deprived of priva te l a n d to which they h a d a title a n d ,

by the s ettlement of surplus vi lla gers on St a te dom a ins a grea t

sli ce of the public reserve w a s a lso lost to future genera tions of
p e a s a nts The imme di a te loss w a s felt the more a s the govern
.

ments which followed upon Guz a s a bdi c a tion neglected to c a rry ’

out the pro visions of the la w concerning those p e a sa nts who

h a d been left without l a n d in 1 8 6 4 Their settlement on St a te .

dom a in s w a s not b egun till 1 8 76 on the eve of the s e c a lled w a r ,

-

of indep endence .

Th e B ackgr oun d of th e Refor m Cuza s gre a t reform h a d not

’
.

m a tured from ch a nged economic con di tions a n d need s Neither .

the growth of popula tion nor th a t of towns a n d tra de nor yet , ,

the requirement s of the new St a te were pressing for a ch a nge t o

intensive c a pit ali st fa rming wi th rel a tions b etween l a ndow ners ,

a n d l a bourers b a sed on a w a ge b a rg a in Rum a ni a n a gricultur e .

still lingered in a primitive extensive st a ge Such m a nufa cture .

a s went on w a s from the h a nds of a rtis a ns orga nized in g uil ds ; ,

to tv
na i d fore i g m
e an s t ri es which c o v e r e d a b o ut o
n on a e fift h of t h e r bl e r a
, ne -

a a a e

a d m d e th e m i n t o S ta te pr p rty
n a Th m on a te ri es w e re i vit ed t o p ut i
o e . cl i m e s n n a a

f r c m pe
o o ti o but as th ey r efu s e d t o di cu ss or eg ti a te h pi g t o g i n m ore by
nsa n, s n o , o n a

f r
o e i g s upp
n rt t h e S t
o t e d cl
,
r e d t h e qu e s ti
a o cl ose dei 1 8 6a7 A I Go les ( pp 7 2—8
) n , n . . co .

s t t s th t mo nas tic pro p rty c o v e r d t w

a e a third s of t h e t ta l a rea i n t h t w o
e e o o e
-

pr vi n c s f r mi g t h e r ch t Church poss es i n i Chr i s te d om Th e gifts h d b e n

o e ,
o n i es s o n n . a e

m i n ly i n te d d a s ch rita bl e e d w m n t fo t h ma i ten a n c e of church e

a n e a n o fe s r e n s, o

h pit l
os d s ch ol f
a s an t h e p oo r f r t h upbri gi g of o r ph a n a n d t h e di s t r buti o
o s or , o e n n s i n

of l m s i ti m of f mm a s w ll a s fo t h e pro vi i n of h os p ta lity n d sylu m f

a n e a c, e r s o i a a or

tra v ll rs i d stres I c e rt i n c a ses t h e e xc es of re v en u e w a s to be d ed ca t e d

e e n i s . n a ,
s
”
i
’

a s a h o m ge t a m s te ri s i
o J e ru s l e m M u n t Ath s & e f
ona e n t h e pur ch s
a f , o o , .
, or a e o

c a ndl n d o i l a d t h e di tributi o f l m s But t h fore i g m k s h a d oft s ue

es a , n s n o a . e n on en

ce d e d i
e l yi g h d s on t h e wh o l e of t h re v e u e a n d R u s i a i n t e ve t on h d
n a n an e n , s n r n l a

pre v e n te d t h e R u m n i a n pri n c es from putti g a n n d t o t h at a bu se

a n e .
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 53

an intensive production a n d exch a nge of goods did not exist .

There w a s no a ccumul a tion of li qui d c a pit a l a n d no e n t r epr e ,

‘

n e ur s urging its use in w a ys th a t wo ul d bri n g in quick returns

’
.

Cl a ss orga niz a tion outside the owners of l a n d w a s loose ; a n d

, ,

the budding middle cl a ss h a d not yet the service a n d stimulus of

-

a tr a i n ed element None of the f a ctors in short required for

.
, ,

p a ssing from a n a tura l to a c a pit a listic economy were yet m a tur e

in Rum a ni a n a griculture The w a y to th a t tra nsition w a s indeed
.

further confu s ed by the reform of 1 8 6 4 The re a sons whi ch .

c a used Libera l in stitutions to spring up in Rum a ni a overnight

h a ve a lre a dy been described This is not merely a fi gur e of
.

speech for the dra ft of the origin a l con stitution copied from the
, ,

B elgi a n model w a s produced within twen ty four hours when

,
-

the Ra dic a l le a ders le a rnt th a t the stern Hohenzollern prince h a d

eschewed the Austri a n police a n d w a s driving po s t h a ste tow a rds -

the c a pita l I n the West the system of production d e fi n e d a s

.

c a pit a lism h a d conquered the eco n omic fi eld b efore the cl a ss

connected with it broke throug h the old politic a l restra ints a n d
privileges ; Libera l i n stitutions fo llowed in the w a ke of economic
c a pit a lism In the b a ckw a rd a gra ri a n countries th a t process
.

w a s reversed ; a Lib er a l org a niz a tion of the St a te w a s a dopted

under the stimulus of cont a ct w ith western Europe a n d this ,

open ed a n d cle a red a w a y for the reform of the economic org a n i

z a t i on
. When individu a l freedom a n d equ a lity before the la w
found their w a y i n to the poli tic a l re a lm the servitudes which ,

still subj ected the pe a s a nts to the l a n dlords could not survive in
the soci a l sphere Public rel a tions c a nn ot be segmented i n to
.

w a tertight comp a rtments— not lega lly th a t is ; In Rum a ni a , ,

therefore the freeing of the gipsy sl a ves a n d the em a n cip a tion of

,

the pe a s a nts h a d to b e hitched on to the round a bout of poli tic a l

reform Yet em a n cip a tion though a ccomp a nied by a d i st ribu
.
,

tion of l a nd tra n sformed the soci a l structure without a ltering

,

very much the economic w a ys of the rur a l world ; a n d especi a lly , ,

it left the n a rrower eco n omic problem of production a lt ogether

untouched .

Nothi n g could better revea l the n on economie springs of the -

’
reform tha n its a uthors complete neglect of the future of a gri
culture Ha d it been otherwise they might h a ve followed one or
.
54 NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE
two possible courses One of them might h ave b een th a t fa vour ed
.

by the l a ndlords : t o em a ncip a te the serfs wi thout giving them

l a nd which would h a ve left a sm a ll numb er of well to do p e a s a nts
,
- -

a s a rur a l middle cl a ss but the rest with no other choice th a n to

,

become w a ge l a b ourers This would a lso h a ve forced the l a rge

.

owners to equip themselves with their own live a n d dea d

stock As thin g s were a griculture w a s ca r r i e d on not merely
'

.
,
’
with the pe a s a nts ha nds but a lso with their ploughs a n d te a ms ;
,

most of the l a nd fa rmed in Molda vi a by its own ers a n d the whole

of such l a nd in Munteni a w a s tilled by this ki nd of a ll inclusive -

servile l a bour Such a n a ttempt a t putting a griculture upon the

.

ro a d to c a pit a listic production h a d it b een politic a lly possible

, ,

would still h a ve h a d to overcome the l a ck of li quid c a pit a l ; there

w a s none worth S p e a k i ng of in the country a n d the little th a t ,

coul d b e obt a ined elsewhere w a s used up in the a mbitious

modernizin g of the urb a n centres Neither were men to b e foun d .

with a n interest in such a tech ni c a l ch a nge a n d the a bility to

conduct it The l a nded cl a ss a n d in genera l the thin upp er l a yer
.
, , ,

of the popul a tion w a s soon a bsorb ed in the m a chinery of the new

,

St a te The politic a l fi eld offered them rich opportunities of

.

s a ti s fying m a teri a l a n d other a mbitions a n d to w n life invit ed ,

them with its western re finements If the l a n dl ords were a n xious .

to incre a se their revenue they were n ot a t a ll a nxious to ch a nge

,

t h e prev a iling system of production which requir ed no expert ,

supervision but merely the drivi n g whi p of b a ili ff a n d gend a rme

, .

Nor w a s there a n y other group of men c a p a ble of a cting a s

entrepreneurs in a new a gra ri a n system the i n terpol a tion over
a period of sever a l centuries of a n a lien a dmini stra tion between
,

the few l a ndlords a n d the p e a sa nt m a s s a n d the b a ckw a rdness of ,

economic life h a d left no room for the growth of a n a tion a l

,

middle cl a ss Altern a tely a second li n e of policy might h a ve

-
.
,

chosen to fa vour a system of sm a ll cultiva tion It might h a ve .

h a nded the l a nd over to the p e a s a n ts on the b a sis of their old ,

rights a ccording to their powers of working with a modera te

, ,

compen s a tio n for the l a ndlords H a ving to h n d money for p a ying

.

th a t compens a tion a n d for m a int a ining the St a te the pe a sa nt ,

proprietors could not h a ve f a iled to develop their cultiv ation ,

for which in such circumsta nce s they would h a ve h a d a mple

, ,
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 55

scope The reform of 1 8 6 4 however incli n ed tow a rds neither

.
, ,

l a rge nor sm a ll cultiva tion sim ply bec a use it w a s not concerned
,

with productio n a t a ll Those who h a d the pe a sa n ts c a use a t

.
’

’
he a rt went to the length of a coup d eta t in order to c a rry through
’

their em a ncip a tion a n d they a lso endowed them w ith a piece of

,

l a nd But the holdings of the thr ee c a tegorie s the n resettled

.

a ver a ged 6 44 a n d 24 h a
, respectively which me a nt th a t of the
.
, ,

former serfs o n ly some of the fi r st ca tegory a s A V Millo h a d , . .

conclusively s hown h a d a n y ch a nce of buil ding up a n eco n omic

, ,

self supporting holding at a ll As for l a rge sc a le cultiva tion its

-
.
-

p erm a nent interests were not necess a rily identica l w ith the gre a t
moment a ry a dva nt a ges which the l a ndowners undoubtedly got
from the reform Th a t the intere s ts of l a rge property a n d l a rge
.

se a le c ultiv a tion could a t tim es even con flict wi th e a ch other w a s

’
to b e shown by the l a ter evolution of Rum a ni a s a gra ri a n problem .

The obvious truth w a s th a t politic a l circumst a nce s h a d

dict a ted the ch a nge a n d the soci a l ide a ls set free by the French
,

Revolution h a d spurred i t e m In a circula r i s sued during the

a gr a ri a n deb a te Kog alnice a nu h a d urged priests a n d pe a s a nts to
,

pra y th a t God m ay help them to level up society to lo w er the ,

’
highly pl a ced a n d to r a ise the humble As the spri ng s of the .

reform so its flow It m a de the pe a s a nt a free m an but it did not

.
,

m a ke hi m a n independent producer If freed him of his di s .

a bilities a s a citize n but on the s a me principle it a lso deprived

,

h im of the lega l s a fegu a rds which h a d protected him a s a l a bour er .

It set him up a s full owner of a piece of l a n d but not of a piece ,

big enough for him to live by with the prev a ili ng a gricultur a l
methods ; nor did it give h im the tra i ni ng a n d me a ns by which he
might h a ve got from his holdin g a ll th a t his household needed .

S e th a t M Ga r ofli d h a s been a ble to sa y th a t i n 1 86 4 only the

‘
.

j uridica l problem of the pe a s an t who becomes free in la w w a s , ,

solved ; economic a lly only the est a tes were em a ncip a ted The ’
.

l a tter result w a s not a cciden t a l Eco n omic developme n t w a s .

h a mpered bec a use most of the l a nd the country s only we a lth ,

’
,

w a s tied One fi ft h of the whole a ra ble l a nd belonged to the

.
-

dedic a ted mona steries ; of the rest two thirds w a s either in the ,
-

possession of the serfs or reserved for their descenda nts while ,

the rem a inder included exten sive est a tes of the princes a n d of la y
56 NATION AL INDEPENDENCE AND THE
endowments so th a t only a minim a l extent of l a nd w a s a va il a ble
,

for commerci a l tra ns a ctions Kog alnicea nu hi mself in plea di ng .

,
‘
for the reform a s a l a ndowner who c a res for the p a trimony of
,
’
my children emph a sized the need of em a ncip a ting the l a rge
,
‘

prop erty from the servitude of h a vin g to reserve two thirds of its -

extent And thus we will est a blish in Rum a n i a a b solute western

.
,
’
property in the pl a ce of Sl a voni c property .

The l a ndlords indeed were rele a sed from a ll the servitudes

, ,

which h a d qu a lified their title to the l a nd includin g th a t of ,

h a ving to give preference to their own Vill a gers when lettin g the
’
l a ndlord s thir d of the est a te ; a rele a se which w a s to b e viciously
exploited by them for screwin g out of the vill a gers b oun d to ,

their plots onerous terms for the le a se of a ddition a l fi eld s

, .

Simil a rly the l a ndlords now esc a ped the el a bora te a dm in i s

,

t r a t i v e interference which h a d co n trolled the i r rel a tions with the

pe a s a n ts till then Prob a bly one of the re a sons which h a d gui ded
.

the a uthors of the reform w a s the expect a tion b a sed on the most ,

up to d a te economic doctrine th a t a free a gric ul tur e would prove

- -

a progressive a gricultur e In the West indeed em a ncip a tion

.
, ,

mea nt a loss for the p e a s a nts but a t le a st it op ened the door to ,

improved f a rming But the Rum a ni a n l a n dl ords h a d neither the

.

knowledge nor the me a n s nor indeed the inclin a tion for tech , ,

n i ca l development a n d they coul d not therefore dispense with

, , ,

compulsory l a bour Wh en it w a s seen th a t to a bo lish the present

.

s ervitudes coul d no longer b e a voided they concentra ted their ,

efforts upon h a ving the p e a s a nts e n dowed with a s little l a nd a s

possible Their c a lcul a tions proved p a infully right For when
. .

the p e a s a nt economic a lly u n pro vided a n d soci a lly unprep a red

, ,

w a s turned a drift on the s ea of la i ss ez fa i r e the l a ndl ords fo und -

it e a sy to p ull h im into the b a ckwa ters of a servil e economy

a g a in . L a bour dues a bolished a s a leg a l system continued a s a n
, ,

economic pra ctice ; but they were no longer compens a ted with
a right to us e the l a nd In a ddition the p e a s a nt now h a d to fi n d
.
,

re a dy money for p a ying the indemni ty a n d the St a te t a x As .

,

moreover he h a d no politic a l s a y wh a tever in a country a d

,

ministered by corrupt o fficia ls a n d j udges a s soon a s he w a s ,

freed from his ch a ins the p ea s a nt found himself being sucked

down into a whirlpool of r a v a ging economic a n d politic a l forces
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 57

which he could neither gra sp nor control ; a n d to whi ch in the ,

fir st ye a rs N a t ure a dded her p a rching wr a th a s if to try

, ,

the p a tient tiller of the soil to the utmost in his new free
d om .

P r a cti ca l Efi ects o
f th e Re form The c um ul a tive effect of wha t
.

wa s erroneous in the reform of 1 8 6 4 a n d of wha t w a s m a de worse ,

by unfa ir a pplica tion w a s to depress the pe a s a ntry to a level of

,

const a nt misery Genera lly the Rum a ni a n a uthorities h a ve n ot

.
,

troubled to fi n d out the effect of the m a ny rura l mea sures they

h a ve en a cted But in t hi s c a se a soli t a ry exception the very
.
, ,

a ble Ion Ionescu who h a d a cted a s neutr a l ch a irm a n of the

,

mixed commission in 1 8 48 w a s deputed to m a ke a deta iled ,

inq ui ry He did n ot come to de a l with more th a n three districts

.
,

but these were picked out by h im a s typica l of di fferent regions ,

a n d his thr ee full report s form a n inv a lu a ble guide a s to how the

reform w a s a pplied a n d wh a t c a me of it In more th a n one w a y .

,

wh a t w a s done or not done in 1 8 64 closely resembles the fa ults

of commission a n d omission of the presen t reform a n d on e m a y , ,

therefore expect th a t some of the consequences will be a r the

,

s a me likeness An d further but for the shortcomings of the

.
, ,
’
system est a bli shed in 1 864 R um a ni a s a gra ri a n problem might ,

h a ve evolved in a w a y which wo ul d not h a ve led a s it inevit a bly ,

did le a d to the need for those revolution a ry ch a n ges which took

,

pla ce in 1 9 1 7— 21 There is therefore more tha n one good rea son

.
, ,

for noting br i efl y wh a t h a ppened on the l a nd a f ter Cuz a s reform ’

h a d b ecome la w .

L a nd te n ure in genera l w a s given a f a t a l turn in 1 8 64 : more

, ,

tha n h a lf the a ra ble l a nd w a s fi n a lly given up to a sm a ll group of

l a ndlords Moreover m a ny ba d a buses were committed when
.
,

dividing a n d tra nsferring the pe a s a nt holdings In more th a n .

one pla ce the serfs were evicted before the la w c a me into force ,

or were tra nsformed by t h e s a le of a sm a ll plot into proprietors

, ,

no longer entitled to be resettled 1

Elsewhere they were .

duped into refusi n g to be resettled p a rtly by fa lse promises , ,

p a rtly by b eing m a de to fe a r the compens a tion they might h a ve

1
Io n es cu
A gr i cultur al Romd n d i n J ud e tul
, eh ed i n ti th r w ere
In 1 8 5 9 M
e e .
,

r
se fs , i n 1 8 6 4 o n ly
o g th u h
the ne wly rri d w r i clud d
ma e e e n i te rv i ng
e in the
-
n en

y r
ea s as if e e ossit w r p ibl
e for th
os e a dd d
e p p l ti
to t h e xi t W th o ut
o u a on t o e s i

w rki
o
’
ng ( pp 1 5 8 .
58 NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE
to pa y When it c a me to mea suring i t w a s done en bloc for the
.
,
°

l a nd due to a ll the serfs of one Vill a ge ; the l a ndlord s or the ’

St a te s p a rt th a t is wa s settled a t once but the p a rcellin g ou

’
, t of
, ,

the i n dividu a l p e a s a n t plots w a s in m a ny pl a ces not done by

1 8 68 though the p e a s a nts were p a ying their ann ui ties in f ull
,

a lre a dy a n d this led to much friction in the vill a ge a n d to i1 1

,

different cultiva tion V ery freque n tly it would seem good l a nd .

, ,

which the pe a s a nts h a d b een t illin g w a s t a ken a w a y a n d ba d

l a nd substituted for their new holdings ; some of the fi e ld s given
them were so ba d th a t the pe a s a nts p a id the comp ens a tion with
out t a ki n g over their new property or they left it unt illed a n d ,

rented their old plots on he a vier terms th a n before Often too .

, ,

the pe a s a nts were given plots which h a d no ro a ds le a ding to

them The l a ndlords a lso sa w to it th a t of the p e a s a nts to b e
.

res ettled on their est a tes a s few a s possible were cl a ssed in ,

the higher c a tegories a n d a s m a ny a s possible in the lowest so , ,

th a t rel a tively less l a nd w a s t a ken from them a n d to th a t extent

more from the St a te dom a ins ; which w a s a de spoilin g of the
p ublic we a lth a n d a further curt a ilment of a n essenti a l l a nd
reserve 1 .

The fi r st visible effect of these m a lpra ctices w a s gre a tly to

reduce the extent of l a nd which the p e a s a nts h a d in use ; a p a rt
from the fa ct th a t much of it w a s now worse in qu a lity Withi n2
.

one yea r so Ionescu a sserts the terms for the lea sin g of p r i s oa se
, ,

( surplus fields ) h a d doubled a n d trebled ; therefore the pe a s a nts ,

took little or none of them a n importa nt c a use of: the he a vy f a ll —

1
Ha d di stributi n b n f ir t h e rel a ti b tw een t h e v a ri u s c tegori es
the o ee a ,
on e o a

s h uld h v e b e n on priv a te e t t s s i m il r t o th a t o n t h
o a e S ta t d o ma in s But f t h e
s a e a e e . o

t t l u m b r r ese ttl d th r w e re i Put

o a n e e , e e n na

of t h fi rs t c t go ry
e 21 % on S ta te d om a i ns a n d 1 3 % on priv a t e s t a t es
a e e

with l d for h u a n d g rd 1 8 94
an o se a en )

a d i
n Me h e d m t i fi s t c a te g ry 1 0%
n r 3% o

l t c t g ry as a e o

( 1 1) J ud P a tn a , p p 8 9 ; i b, J ud
. . . . M eh ed i n ti , p .

2
1 11 D ro h iu t h e p a s n t
o o e a s h a d i n us e in 18 5 9 af e tr the r e fo rm
g rda s en fa e lc fa lee
a ra bl e n d gr i ng a az fa e lc fa lee
( Dor oh o i u p , .

In Putn a t h s r f h d i n u e i 1 8 5 9
e e fa lc i n 1 8 6 4 r c iv d a b ut
s a s n ,
e, e e e o

fa lc e .
Thi s h a pp d n t ly on priv te e sta tes ; a t B e i tia S t te d oma i n
ene o on a r z n , a , the
p e a sa n s t h d w rke d b f r a bo ut
a o p ogo s r bl l d d w r ow g v e
e o e n a a e an , an e e n i n 7 00
.

( M eh ed i n ti p p 6 1 0 , .
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 59

in sowi ngs The short a ge of gra zing l a nd especi a lly w a s to

.
1
, ,

b ecome severe Both the otherw ise rea ction a ry proj ect of the
.

Centra l Commission a n d Kogaln i cea n u s fi r s t dra ft co n templ a ted ’

the cre a tion of vill a ge commo n s but inste a d the fi n a l la w g a ve ,

the p e a s a n ts individu a l gra zing plots These were ploughed up .

,

soon to dis a ppe a r a ltogether lea ving the pea s a nt s with the ,

a ltern a tive of p a ying the l a ndlords wh a t they a sked for gr a zing ,

or of getting rid of their c a ttle Usu a lly they h a d to do both .

, .

Oxen they h a d to keep for ploughing a n d c a rting ; but a fterw a r d s

Vill a ges were found with 420 households a n d o nl y two cow s or , ,

others in which children of ten a n d twelve ye a rs did not k n ow

how cow s milk t a sted The res ul t for a time w a s a genera l
’
2
.
, ,

decline of a griculture To t h is the ba d droughts a n d t h e fa rm

3
.
,

ing la n d lor d s fea r th a t he woul d not b e a ble to get la bour fr om the

’

new p e a s a nt proprietors b oth contributed Ionescu however ,

.
, ,

gives inst a nce a fter in st a nce to show th a t where rel a tions between ,

l a n dlord a n d pea s a nts h a d been good cultiva tion w a s found ea sier , ,

better keener now th a n when it h a d b een done with ser vile la bour
,
’
.

After the reform the price of whe a t rose ra pidly a n d l a n d ,

lords a n d ten a nts were extendin g their cultiva tion Yet a t the .

s a me time the price of a gricultura l l a bour fell by one fourth t o -

one h a lf Instea d of b eing st a tutorily fi x e d a s b efore the price

-

.
,

of l a bour w a s now open to fl uct ua t e with supply a n d dem a nd

the sequence of ba d h a rvests the in suffi ci en cy of their holding s , ,

a n d the n eed for c a sh to

pa y a nn ui ties a n d t a xes which in ,

gen era l h a d doubled forced the p ea s a n ts to sell their l a bour

,

with a growing pra ctice a mong l a ndlords a n d ten a nts to m a ke

contra cts in wi n ter t ime— a n d c a used the ch a nge to weigh
1
S owi n gs i n Putn a
Mi a ze Wh e a t T ta lo

( Fa lc e ) ( F a lc e ) ( F a lc e )

( P 1 04 ; M eh ed i n ti , pp 4 78 4 8 5
a tn a —7
, pp
. .
,

2
At C or u th e y h d t o
z r i h d
a c ttl
p a y fo r g a z n g t en ea s of a e mo e an t he w o r th h l e of
th e ir o ld s rvitud e s a d p rt
e th r u u ly
n thi d I
a of e i h a y , s a l on e r ( o n e s , eh ed i n ti , p
-
. cu M .

3
In Put a n

H o rs es

228
( M eh ed i n ti , p .
60 NATION AL INDEPE NDENCE AND THE
‘

hea vily a ga in st them Thos e of Meh edin t i were a ble to pa y their

.

a nnuities in full in the fi r st ye a r but soon they w a llowed in ,

d iffi cult i e s a n d by S eptemb er 1 8 67 they were in a rre a rs with

a lmost h a lf of their a nnuities Ionescu records a s noteworthy ‘ ’
.

the solit a ry c a se of a pe a s a nt who h a d b een a ble to pa y off in a ,

lump sum the whole a mount of his i n demnity In Munteni a

, .
,

especi a lly b esides the incre a se in the p a yments in l a bour a n d

,

kind the l a ndowners i n cre a singly ind ulged in the h a bit of a skin g
,

f
r us etur i i e
‘ ’
, gifts of chickens eggs a n d other products from
. .
, ,
’
the p e a s a nts hous ehold .

Altogether the p ea s a nts were being severely pressed by

,

circumst a nces ; a n d for re a sons presently to be mentioned by

, ,

the l a ndlords a lso The rura l la w con fi r m e d wherever they h a d

.
,

existed the rights of the vill a gers to wood for fuel a n d bui l di ng
, ,

but a ll a ccounts a gree th a t in pra ctice it w a s deni ed w ithout

compens a tion M a n y writers a ccuse the l a ndlords of h a ving used
.

unfa ir me a ns for brin gin g the pe a s a nts in thei r power When .

the la nd w a s redistributed for ex a mple they shut off the vi llagers

, ,

from their w a tering pl a ces ; or they ret a in ed on the edge of the

-

Vill a ge a fi eld into which the c a ttle of the Vill a gers were b oun d to
st r a y extra cting there a fter he a vy fi n es from the o wn er s In one
,
.

Vill a ge they even took the well a n d spring th a t were within the
Vill a ge a n d ga ve drink ing wa ter for men an d b ea st s a n d for the
-

,
’
w a tering of the ga rdens ; a fterw a rds dem a ndin g twelve d a ys
’
l a bour from e a ch ma n for the w a ter he drinks in the Villa ge .

All these burdens f a ir a n d unfa ir grew more oppressive a s bold

, ,

ings were split up a mo n g descend a n ts of their fi r st owners .

Formerly if the lots were restricted a t le a st the rem a in der up to

, ,

two thirds of the e st a te w a s reserved for the newcomers a mong

-

the p e a s a ntry N ow the lots were rest r icted w ithout there being
.

an reserve a v a il a ble a n d ne w comers h a d to be provided from

y ,

wh a t the pe a s a nts h a d by dividi n g the holdings The former

,
.

individu a l limit h a d been a perm a nent st a n d a rd the n ew in d ivi ,

du a l limit w a s a tempora ry m a ximum .

A writer who ex a mined in det a il budgets of the three c a te

or i e s of pe a s a nt s resettled in 1 8 6 4 c a me to the conclusion
g
th a t a fa mily belongi n g to the fi rs t c a tegory— possessi n g four
oxen a n d one co w— w orking a ll of them children included very , ,
 EMANCIPATION OF THE PEASANTS 61

h a rd wi th the a i d of a fa rm h a nd a n d living misera bly with

,
-

, ,

me a t on not more tha n fourteen d a ys in the yea r— sueh a f a mily ,

if there were no untow a rd a ccidents could muster a surplus of ,

a bout 1 00 lei a t the end of the ye a r The other two c a tegories

.

co ul d in the best circumst a n ces not esca pe without a d efi cit of

some 200 1ei ye a rly Among the va rious rea so n s for this c a l a mity
.

w a s the worki n g of the indemnity : a s it w a s p a id for the a bolished

servitudes not for the a mount of la nd received its incidence w a s
, ,

in inverse ra tio to the me a n s of the three c a tegories of pe a s a nts .

Other writers rec a lli n g boyhood memories or genera l ob s erva

, ,

tions they h a d m a de confi r m th a t since they h a ve become pro

,

r i e t or s a n d free citizens the p e a s a nts h a ve f a llen i n to poverty

p ,

‘
I h a v e co l l e c t e d i n v a r iou s p l a ce s fa c t s s a y s I on I on e s cu wh ic h
’
, ,
‘

s h o w t h a t a m a n c a n n o t p a y w i t h s u c h l a b ou r a s h e c a n p e r fo r m i n a

y e a r e v e n t h e i n t e r e s t on t h e b o rr o w e d c a p i t a l ; fo r i n t e r e s t l ik e ca p i t a l , ,

i s p a i d i n l a b ou r . Me n h a v e d ie d w it h ou t b e in g a b l e t o p a y o ff t h e i r
d e b t ; bu t t h e i r wi d ows a n d c h i l d r e n a re fo r ce d t o l a b ou r a n d t o p a y
'
,

e v e n t h ou gh t h e y m a y h a v e
1
i n h e r i t e d n o t h i n g

Spea king ge n era lly one ca n reduce to three the motives

,

which led to the em a ncip a tion of the p ea s a nts in the West .

There w a s fi r st the tech ni c a l motive derived from the te a ching ,

of the Physiocra ts which dem a nded the economic em a ncip a tion

, ,

by a bolishing a ll servitudes of both soil a n d l a b our The second

, .

motive w a s hum a nit a ria n inspired by the s a me philosophic a l

,

sources which deprec a ted a ll restra i n ts on person a l freedom a n d

,

required the person a l em a ncip a tion of the pe a s a nts An d .

,

thirdly there wa s the politic a l motive ple a ding for the a b olition
,

of a ll politic a l a n d j udicia l cl a ss pri vileges b eca use they were ,

incomp a tible W ith the philosophy of the modern St a te a s b a s ed ,

on equ a l constitution a l rights If one surveys the Rum a ni a n .

em a ncip a tion in the light of those propositions one fi n d s th a t ,

the economic motive counted only p a rti a lly There w a s a desire .

on the p a rt of the l a ndlords for free tran s a ctions in l a n d prop erty ,

but there w a s no dem a nd a t a ll for a tec h nic a l ch a nge in the

system of cultiv a tion which h a d been the m a in i n centive in the
,

West Economic a lly therefore the pea s a nts were exp ected to
.
, ,

continue in the s a me rela tionship in which they h a d stood before

1
J ud e tul P uma , pp 99 — 1 00 . .
62 N ATIONAL I NDEPENDENCE
to the soil a n d its owners But to wh a t extent coul d their persons
.

a n d their cl a ss b e s a fely m a de free if their l a bour w a s to rem a i n

,

tied ? In comp a ring the pl a nta tion systems of Rom a ns a n d

Americ a ns of the Ancient World a n d the N ew Max Weber s a ys
, ,

th a t in both c a ses it w a s foun d th a t sl a very w a s pr ofi t a ble o nl y

when h a ndled with the most rigid disciplin e a ssoci a ted with ,

ruthless exploit a tion Muta ti s muta n d i s this e vidently is true

’
.
,

of a n y system of production which is not b a sed on a free l a bour

contra ct As the Rum a ni a n reform em a ncip a ted the pe a s a ntry
.

poli tic a lly merely in form— bec a use the electora l l a ws deb a rred
them in pra ctice from a ll fra nchis e— it w a s question a ble whether
the t h ird wi n g of the reform— p ersona l em a ncip a tion— co ul d
rem a in unclipped in the h a nds of a l a nded cl a ss which possessed
a mo n opoly of politic a l power a n d w hi ch desired to ret a in control
’
of the pe a s a nts l a bour It co ul d not h a ve been d iffi cult to fore
.

see th a t either the old a gricultura l system or the new p erson a l

freedom of the p e a s a nts would h a ve to give w a y .

The em a n cip a tion of 1 8 6 4 w a s a n ur gent reform a n d the ,

h a ndful of m en who sponsored it h a ve a cquired l a stin g merit by

seeing it t h rough in the fa ce of such wide a n d Vi olent obstruction .

It does not detra ct from the person a l side of th a t a chievement to

a dmit th a t pr a ctic a lly it w a s a f a ilur e
, , The reform c a nnot b e
.

s a id to h a ve brought economic improveme n t in its w a ke In the .

West a s Signor Ruggiero h a s poin ted out in his E ur op ea n L i ber a l

,

i s m the innov a tions of the new economic r a tion a li sm co n sisted

,

e s s e n ti a lly of s im plifi ca t i on s But in Rum a ni a the customs which

.
,

followed the reform bein g devised m a inly for elud in g it w er e more

, ,

mix ed a n d complex th a n the former tra dition a l rel a tion s hips on

the l a nd The technique of pr od uct ion a ga in w a s h a r d ly a ffect ed
. , , .

More p a lp a ble still were to prove the soci a l shortcomings of

the ch a n ge An idea l reform would h a ve m a de the pe a s a n ts both
.

economic ally a n d politic a lly independent The reform of 1 8 6 4

.

did neither It did not give them s uffi ci en t economic strength

.

to s t a nd up a ga in s t poli tic a l inequ a lity ; nor di d it give them

s uffi c i e n t politic a l power to with s t a nd economic oppression .

Subsequent hi s tory a ppe a r s to j ustify M Dobr ogea n u Gh er ea s

.
-
’

bitter epigra m— th a t the reform of 1 86 4 c a rried in its womb the

terr ible ye a r
 C H A P TE R IV

THE NEW STATE AND THE NEW SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 91 7 )

I N Ma y 1 8 6 6 when Prince C a rol of Hohenzoll ern mou n ted
,

the throne the young Rum a ni a n Sta te a cqui red re a l i n d e p en

,

dence Nomi n a lly it rem a ined under Turkish suzera inty until
.

1 8 77 But from 1 8 66 onwa rds no outside f a ctor dict a ted wh a t

.

l a ws shoul d b e m a de or w a tched how la ws were a pplied At l a st

,
.

the new ruling cl a ss found itself in undisturbed tete d tete w ith the - -

m a ss of its people ; a n d from th a t moment the pea s a ntry w a s

’
shut out from a ll di rect sh a re in Rum a ni a s politic a l life Its l a st .

’
ch a nces— until 1 91 7— o i p a rticip a ting in the country s govern
ment h a d been in the mixed commission of 1 8 48 the di va ns of ,

1 8 5 7 a n d the plebiscite of 1 8 6 4 Now the victors in the n a tiona l

.

struggle h a d the ir ha nds free to proceed to settle the soci a l

contest— a contest which they h a d w a ged sin ce discoverin g th a t
corn could not merely b e e a ten but co ul d a lso be sold .

In Rum a ni a the n ew rulin g cl a ss still consisted in the m a in of

l a nded people with a sprinkling of urb a n tra ders a n d memb ers of
,

the libera l professions The revolutio n a ry idea s of 1 8 48 which

.

preluded the movement for independence h a d foun d a n echo ,

not a mong urb a n tra di ng a n d m a n ufa ctur ing cl a ss— for th a t

cl a ss w a s sm a ll a s yet a n d consisted m a inly of stra ngers— but
they hit the e a rs of members an d scio n s of the l a nded cl a ss who
resented the politic a l m on oply of the two score grea t boia r s -

a mo n g themselves Soci a lly however gre a t an d sm a ll l a nd

.
, ,

owners were welded together by property a n d its interests by ,

the conditions of their life a n d its dependence on tithe a n d l a bour

dues After a spirited b eginnin g therefore the revolutiona ry
.
, ,

government of 1 8 48 h a stened to dissolve the j oin t a gra ri a n com

’
mission when the sittin gs beg a n to get troubled ; a n d therea fter
resettlement w a s not a ga in mentioned by the revolution a ry
lea ders When l a ter on the pea s a nt deputies c a me forw a rd with
.
, ,

their grieva nces in the Molda vi a n diva n of 1 8 5 7 they were fa ced ,

with the disple a sure a n d resist a nce of sm a ll a n d l a rge owners

a like a n d the gre a t ide a of n a tion a l union a lmost foundered on
‘
,
64 THE NE W STATE AND THE
the rock of the a gra ri a n question Hence the Grea t Powers h a d ’
.

to dem a nd a settlement of th a t question so a s to give the new ,

St a te a fa ir ch a li ce of sta bi li ty ; yet even left w ingers of the -

Libera l group still di d not thin k th a t rura l reform w a s urgent .

They severely deprec a ted the r a ising of th a t question a n d w a nted

‘
to begin ra ther with other reforms— w ith the mora l improve
ment of offi cia ls with gua ra ntees for tra de wi th credit i n
, ,

s t it ut i on s
‘
Al l were fe ud a ls , a n d a ll w a nted free tr a de , sums up
M Ga r oflid The corn tr a de w a s br ingin g r a pidly incre a sing
. .

r ofi t s , a n d l a nd v a lues were keeping p a ce with them Th e

p .

Bl a ck S ea w a s now O pen ; a Europe a n Commi s sion w a s m a kin g

the mouths of the D a nube s a fely n a viga ble ; in 1 8 6 0 the fir st
ra ilwa y w a s built by a n English comp a n y a cross the Dobrogea ,

to link up the D a n ub e corn ports to Consta n t a With the a dvent .

of Prince Ca rol a n en lightened a n d c a p a ble ruler ro a d a n d ra il

, ,

tra nsport were energetic a lly developed ; he a lso i n a ugura ted a

determined commerci a l poli cy b a s ed on tre a ties of commerce in
,

which a dva nt a ges were secured for Rum a ni a n corn Spurred on .

by the high profi ts th a t co ul d b e m a de by exportin g gra in the ,

l a n downers stra ined every me a ns to extend its cultiv a tion 1 .

They w a nted more l a nd a n d l a bour ; a n d they w a nted freedom

to tra de But for the re a sons mentioned in the previous ch a pter
.
,

they were not yet re a dy to a dmit free productio n Hence their .

bitter oppo s ition to the reform of 1 8 6 4 ; a n d thei r immedi a te

efforts to mend the bre a ch m a de by foreig n pressur e in the feud a l
w a ll a s soon a s the fi r st effects of the reform a ppea red to j ustify
,

their fea rs .

The a bsence of a ll a gr a ri a n method from the a n a tomy of the

reform n a mely queered it s progress from the very ye a r of its
, ,
’
birth The yea r s work w a s to b e ca rried on in 1 8 6 4 on the
.
, ,

strength of the old a rra ngements but in most pl a ces the p ea s a nts
,

1
A r cultiva ted
ea P e rce n tage of
H ct r s
e a e tota l a re a
1 9 90
39 8 6
-

V lu
a e of e xp orts
Le i
 N E W SERFDOM ( 1 8 64— 1 9 1 7 ) 65
’
refused to plough the l a n dl ords l a nd a n y more Offi cia l a ccoun ts
.

rendered to Pa rli a ment in 1 8 6 5 a dm itted the gra ve momen t a ry

‘

distur b a nce of the whole n a tio n a l economy p r oduced by the

ch a nge in the na ture of the former rel a tion s b etween l a n dlords
’
a n d pe a s a nts Sw a yed in turn by resentmen t for thei r former
.

oppression a n d by exult a tion in their new freedom a n d p r operty ,

the p ea s a nts were not in a mood w illi n gly to continue s ervi n g

their old m a sters or to hire themselves out a s w a ge e a rn ers j u s t
,

when they h a d become free owners But the pea s a nts pre
.
’

possession w a s soon cut short by their needs They needed more

.

l a nd urgently a n d now they a lso needed money ; a s their plots

tied them to the Villa ge they were a ltogether dep e n den t for the
,

s a tisfa ctio n of both needs on the loca l l a n down ers Mon ey how .
,

ever they h a d none ; the only thin g they h a d in a bun d a nce to

,

proffer in p a yment for a ddition a l la nd w a s thei r l a b our a n d it ,

w a s inevit a ble th a t the terms of such re n ting s houl d b e h a rder

now th a n under serfdom when they h a d b een a rmed with a right
,

to cl a im l a nd The other side of the picture w a s the l a ndlord s

.
’

doubt whether he would get a ll the l a bour he needed a t the ,

proper time During serfdom he h a d b ee n a ble to hold the

.

pea s a nts to i t u n der threa t of their forfeiting a ll cl a im to l a nd

, .

N ow the p e a s a n ts were free to give their l a bour or to refuse i t ,

b a cked a s they felt themselves to b e by their own bit of l a nd ;

a n d th a t m a de the l a n dlords feel th a t the b ottom h a d b een

knocked out of the system which h a d kept them in a life of e a s e

a n d ple n ty
. They fe a red the ch a n ge the more a s l a nd va lues a n d
r ofi t s from corn were risi n g excitingly f a st ; a n d town life w a s
p
m a king much he a vier dem a n ds on their time a n d purse th a n h a d
the p a tri a rch a l existe n ce a t their country se a ts Wh a t they .

needed w a s e a sily st a ted : more money wi th less trouble from

their est a tes Politic a lly tha t tra nsl a ted itself into a n a nxiety to
.

prevent more l a nd from getting into the h a n ds of the p e a s a n ts ;

a n d a bove a ll to m a ke sure th a t the supply of l a b our woul d fl o w
, ,

a s depend a bly a s it did b efore the em a ncip a tion .

The co n sequence wa s a lrn ost fa ted Guz a s reform h a d

.
’

’
ch a nged l an d tenure without reformin g the coun try s a gra ri a n
economy ; a gric ul tur e therefore found itself un a ble to st a nd
, ,

solidly on these mix ed founda tions a n d lea ned b a ck upon its old
 66 THE NEW STATE AND THE
feud l servile supp orts The two tenden cies which the l a n d lords
a -

h a d nursed during the p eriod of their p olitic a l impotence a n d of

n a tion a l insecurity now come freely to the surfa ce a s g ui ding
,

a im s of the i r legisl a tive a cti vity in the young St a te which they

domin a ted ; the Sta te itself b eing the l a rgest l a ndowner a n d

a lw a ys in need of funds The fi rs t of these two a ims w a s served
.

by the rules they a dopted for the s a le of the St a te s extensive ’

dom a ins And the seco n d w a s m a sterfully a chieved by me a ns of

.

the l a ws on a gricultura l contra cts which revived the old con ,

di t i on s in a ll but their j uridic a l form It is from the l a tter th a t .

’
Rum a ni a s a gra ri a n system derived the origin a l tra its th a t h a ve
distinguished it during the fi r st h a lf century of her indep endence ; -

for with mil d a llevi a tions the r egime which those l a ws crea ted
, ,

styled by a S oci a list critic the neo serfdom 1 — h a s preva iled up

‘
-
’

to the Gre a t Wa r .

L a n d P oli cy after 1 8 6 4 The l a ndlords h a d not b een a ltogether

.

u n successful in their efforts to keep the size of the holdin gs dis

tributed to the p ea s a nts in 1 8 64 a s low a s possible ; a n d wh a t
they fa iled to get into the la w they were a ble l a rgely to put
through i n its a ppli c a tion The m a in s ins of th a t reform in
.

reg a rd t o l a n d tenure h a d been to a b a ndon to the l a n dl ords the

surplu s p ea s a nt reserves le a ving m a ny pe a s a nts tempora r ily
,

without l a nd ; a n d secondly to h a ve a bolished w ithout com

, ,

p en sa t i on the right of newly m a rried pe a s a nts to a holdi ng

-
.

Articles 5 a n d 6 provided th a t l a nd for these two c a tegories of

p e a s a nts w a s to b e provided on St a te dom a ins a n d the need of ,

the fir st group w a s cle a rly urgent Yet nothing w a s done tow a rds .

c a rrying out the la w till Rum a ni a w a s fa ced with the prospect of

wa r .In the fi rs t d a ys of Octob er 1 8 76 the Rum a ni a n Premier
tra velled to Liva di a to negoti a te the conditions on which his
country might co opera te with the Russi a n s in the imp endi ng
-

c a mp a ign a ga inst Turkey On the 27t h of the s a me month the

.

Government issued a n order interpreting Articles 5 a n d 6 of th e

la w of 1 8 6 4 In the follo w ing Ma y R um a ni a procl a imed her
.
,

independence ; the a rmy w a s mobilized a n d a s the country side ,

-

seemed luk e w a i m the Gove i nm ent thought it pl ud en t to let it

,

b e known th a t l a nd would b e given to those t a king p a i t in the

1
Do brogca n u Gh e re a , eo i o b
d gia .
 N E W SERFDOM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 91 7 ) 67

w a r Fin a lly instruct i ons for the a ctu a l a pplic a tion of the two
.
,

a rticles were given in the sprin g of 1 8 78 a fter h a v i ng left ,

newly m a rried couples to exist a s l a n dl ess l a b our ers d uri n g

thir teen yea rs The new holdings were on the a vera ge somewh a t
. , ,

l a rger th a n those of 1 8 6 4 but still withi n the limits of th a t la w , .

As before the a ppli c a tion of the me a sure g a ve occ a sion for fresh
,

misca rri a ges whi ch in this c a se a la w of Febru a ry 1 8 8 7 tried to

, , ,

correct ten ye a rs l a ter

,
1
.

The a ttitude of the ruli ng cl a ss tow a rds the p ere n ni a l l a nd

hunger of the pea s a ntry need however not b e inferred indirectly , ,

from thei r remissory completing of the la w of 1 86 4 Offi cia l .

policy w a s ope nl y a n d directly expressed in the series of l a ws for

the s a le of the m a n y ext ensive dom a ins which the secula riz a tion ’

of mona stic a l est a tes h a d procured to the St a te a n d which were ,

disposed of in ever growing numbers whenever the Tre a sury h a d -

a
ga p to fill The trend of the l a ws a uthorizing these s a les un
.

mi sta k a bly f a voured the p a ssing of the l a nd into the h a nds of the
sur feited l a rge owners r a ther th a n into those of the l a nd hungry -

p e a s a ntry .

A fi rst s a le of sm a ller dom a ins wa s decreed by a la w of J uly

1 8 66 It a llowed the l a nd to b e divided out into sm a ll lots of
.

3— 25 h a but the s a le w a s to b e conducted by public a uction i n

.
, ,

Buc a rest a n d the purch a se price h a d to b e p a id in ful l within

,

one month There is no evidence th a t a n y l a nd w a s sold to

.

pe a s a nts on the strength of t hi s la w ; most of the est a tes in fa ct , ,

were sold un d ivided Two yea rs l a ter the la w of J uly 1 8 6 8 .

,

decreed a fresh s a le of St a te dom a ins a n d to m a ke biddin g ,

ea sier the a uctions were to b e a lso held in J a ssy a n d Cra iov a

, .

B ut on this occ a sion the mind of the la w m a kers w a s a llowed to -

a ppe a r without a veil Purch a sers of whole est a tes were to b e .

a sked to
p a y one t hi rd of the price w ithin one month while the
-

rem a inder w a s to b e p a id off in twelve a nn uities c a lc ula ted a t

6 p er cent in terest a n d 6 per cent c a pit a l But a n y one buyi n g
. . .

sm a ll lots of 3—25 h a — the only kind tha t c a me into question .

1
M T G . . . Buca r st 1 907 p 37 a ffir ms th t m a n y of
B i bi ces c u, Ch es ti un ea a gra f é , e , , .
, a

those titl e d l d
en r c ive d the ir h o ldin gs e ven th en aft r m ore t h n
to an h a d n ot e e , e a

f rty ye r ; but th y w e r e m a d e t o pay t h e a nn uiti s a d e v en t h e l a n d t a x for

o a s e e n -

th e m .
68 THE NEW STATE AND THE
for the p e s ts h a d to pa y within one month the whole v a lue
a an —

of his purch a se .

The fi r st sign of a ch a n ge of mind more fa voura ble to the

pe a s a nts is to b e foun d in the la w of August 1 8 76 p a ssed on the ,

eve of the w a r of indep enden ce From th a t d a te l a n d could b e .

a uctioned in the chief district to w ns a s well ; it could b e divi ded

i n to lots from 24 h a upw a rds a lw a ys t a ki n g into a ccount the

.
,
‘

dem a nds of rur a l inh a bit a nts of Rum a ni a n stock ; a n d for such ’

lots only one thi rd of the price w a s to b e p a id a t once a n d

-

the rem a inder within twenty ye a rs in h a lf ye a rly a nn ui ties a t ,

-

6 per cent interest

. Aga in there is no evidence th a t a n y
.
,

p e a s a n ts were a ble to purch a se l a nd un der this la w ; a n d the

fa cilities which it seemed to offer them were in eff ect n ullifi e d by
other conditions dem a n ded by the la w of April 1 8 8 1 a fter the w a r ,

w a s over The promi s e m a de by the Government d urin g the

.

c a mp a ign of 1 8 77 8 h a d not b een kept but it h a d a roused the

—
,

expect a tions of the l an dless p ea s a nts The new la w a llowed .

dom a ins th a t were put up for s a le to be sold in sm a ll lots a t ,

a fi x e d price but o nl y if the offers received covered the whole of

,

the e st a te ; moreover the la w i n dic a ted th a t the sm a ll er dom a ins

,

should b e sold in lots from 25 to 1 30 h a the l a rger dom a ins .

,

b ei n g indic a ted for pe a s a n t holdings which m a de it even more ,

d iffi cult to s a tisfy the other con di tion An d i n a ddition the .

, ,

buyers of s uch s m a ll plots were to b e collectively re s po n sible

for the whole purch a se price It is interesting to note th a t this
.

i s the only la w for the s ettling of p e a s a nts on the l a n d m a de by

the Lib er a l P a rty the exponen t of the u n diluted n a tion a li st ide a l
, .

If one look s a t the la w of 1 8 8 4 together w ith its a mend

ments of April 1 8 8 6 one ca n discern some of the c on fli ct ing te n d
,

e n c i es in t h e l a nd policy of the St a te Intent a pp a rently upon .

, ,

s temmi n g the growth of l a tifundi a th a t la w decided th a t St a te

dom a ins of more th a n li a should be sold in i n dividu a l plots

.

not exceeding 5 h a e a ch a n d o nl y to Rum a ni a n cultiva tors

.
, ,

vill a ge te a cher s a n d the personnel of vill a ge churche s a t twenty ,

times the a ctu a l re n t a l v a lue The a me n dments of 1 8 8 6 m a de

.

a v a il a ble for the s a me cl a ss of purch a sers two thirds of the

-

dom a in s of one to ten thou s a nd h a a n d one fourth of the a re a .

-

on dom a ins b eyond th a t size ; but if the reserved p a rt in thes e

 N E W SERFDOM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7 ) 69

ca tegories were not sold off in sm a ll plots it could b e sold in lot s ,

of 5 0 to 400 h a There is here a recognition of the need to m a ke

.

a t le a st some of the St a te l a nd a v a ila ble for the p e a s a nts ; but the

policy of extreme p a rcella tion w a s co n tin ued with rega rd to

them no one b eing a llowed to buy more th a n two plots of 5 h a
,
.

e a ch where a s the l a rge owners were permitted to roun d off their

,

possessions with a s much a s 400 h a a t a time Altogether a s . .

,

a result of these l a ws 6 41 St a te dom a ins p a ssed into the h a nds

,

of l a rge o wners a n d 39 in to those of p ea s a nts up to 1 8 8 6 ; the ,

fi r st group covered together h a sold to 760 buyers .

,

i e a n a vera ge of 200 h a p er buyer a t a n a ver a ge price of £1 3

. . .

a hect a re though some of the s a les rose to h a a n d some .

,

of the prices were a s low a s £5 per hec ta re .

L a n d P oli cy S econ d P eri od An outbre a k of pe a s a nt risings

.
,

from the sprin g of 1 8 88 to th a t of 1 8 8 9 in v a rious p a rts of the ,

country st a rtled the new St a te out of its d a y dre a m of smug

,
-

prosperity The p e a s a nts were more violen t in their a ctions th a n

.

d efi ni t e in their a ims yet there w a s much to b e le a rnt from the

,

destructive bitterness with w hi ch they a tt a cked the pos s ession s

of l a rge tena nts whil e a ctua lly protectin g from h a rm those of
,

the few owners who were still fa rming their own la nd And it .

w a s even more instructive to see the pe a s a nts rise not in the poor
mount a i nous districts but in the rich a n d underpop ul a ted pl a in
, ,

quite close to the c a pit a l Something h a d ch a n ged a fter a ll

.
, ,

in Rum a nia n a gric ul ture a fter 1 8 64 ; but less in the m a nn er of

cul tiv a tion th a n in the mode of m a n a gement Every ye a r more .

la ndow n ers a b a ndoned the country side a n d h a nded over their-

est a tes to ten a nts but in Rum a ni a w ith r a re exceptions these

, , ,

were not profession a l fa rmers tra ined for it a n d equipped with

,

a ll the stock it needed R a ther were they fa rming specul a tors

.
,

renting for short periods a t exorbit a nt rents who h a d to m a ke ,

s ure in the few yea rs a t their dispos a l of such a wide m a rgin of

returns a s would give them a good pr ofi t wh a tever the n a tura l
risks of the tra de Devoti n g themselves to the higher function
.

of orga nizing th e new St a te to their Views the Rum a n i a n upper ,

cl a ss left it to despised a liens — Greeks J ews Armeni a ns— to , ,

perform the meni a l t a sk of coining ever more money for them by

wringing the strength out oi s oil an d l a bour ers The w a y in
.
.
70 THE NEW STATE AND THE
which the p e a s a nts discrimi n a ted in their a tt a cks of 1 888 — 9
showed th a t the c a nk er of a bsent ei sm w a s b eginn in g to tell ; it
h a s never ce a sed spre a di n g till the post w a r reforms -
.

Absen t ei sm found its n a tur a l medium in the rich whe a t

growing regions of the pl a in High rents m a de it impossible for
.

the pe a s a nts to compete or keep p a ce with the movement there .

An inqui r y of the Min i stry for Home Aff a irs proved th a t it w a s

in such districts where l a nd w a s especi a lly de a r tha t most of
, ,

the p e a s a nts were to be found who h a d let their own holdings ;

a n d th a t in such regions rents for l a nd le a sed from pe a s a nts were

lowest a n d the period of the le a se longest sometim es runni ng to ,

ninety n ine ye a rs which in R um a ni a w a s a n extreme exception

-

, .

Often too the pe a s a nts were tempted or driven to enter in to

, ,

a new le a se with a fresh ten a nt wh i le the old le a se w a s still

running ; a custom whi ch w a s known a mo n g l a rge o w ners a lso .

Other fi gur e s proved th a t sm a ll holdings were more num erous

in the mounta i n ous districts where corn growin g w a s li mited ,
-

th a n in the fertil e pl a ins ; their a vera ge numb er b ein g 38 8 5 3 in -

the twelve mount a inous districts but o nl y 27 45 3 in the twenty ,

'

lowl a nd districts of the t hi rty two in which the cou n try w a s

,
-

divided These a n d other f a cts might h a ve continued to b e

1
.

ignored h a d not the risings of 1 8 8 8 9 given w a rnin g th a t the

,
—

prosperity of a gric ul ture h a d not incre a sed the well b eing of the -

p e a s a ntry .

The la w which w a s brought in by a Conserv a tive Government

’
in April 1 8 8 9 w a s the fir st to try to s a tisfy the p e a s a nts need for
l a nd It a llowed a ll the rem a ining St a te dom a in s ( 8 76 w ith
.

a n a re a of h a ) to b e sold to Rum a ni a n cul tiva tors

.
,

but o nl y in lots of 5 1 0 a n d 25 h a The two l a rger c a tegories

, , .

were to b e sold by a uction a n d the lots co ul d b e resold by their

,

purch a sers a fter h a ving b een fully p a id up The b ulk of e a ch .

est a te w a s to b e reserved for lots of 5 h a to b e sold di rectly .

, ,

without a n y prep a yment the cost to b e covered by a nn uities of

,

6 p er cent in terest a n d c a pit a l ; no individu a l might buy more

.

1
I n t h e fi rs t s di tric v r
i l r t tes i n cludi g m uch w ood l a n d
t s t h e a e a ge s z e of a ge es a ,
n ,

was 6 6 1 5 h a ,
-
. wh l
i e in th e pl i v r i r
a n t h e a e a ge s z e o s e t o24 h N R Ca p i t a e a n u -
a . . n

c
R ap e r t ul A s up m R ecen s d md n tului F i s a l d i n 1 905 ( MV nd rv e lde h as p o i te d o ut
. . a e n

c
i n L e S o i a li s me ct l A gr i cultur e t a
’
h t it r l b erv ati on t h t s ma ll h o ld in gs
i s a ge n e a o s a

pr d i t
e om n a e i n t h e oo e p r r ricultur l r i
ag a e g on s ) .
 NE W
SERFDOM ( 1 8 64—1 91 7 ) 71
th a n one of these lots nor could they b e estra nged during a p eriod
,

of thirty ye a rs ( a ccording to Ar t 1 32 of the Con stitution ) The

. .

evident purpose of the la w w a s to s a tisfy a s l a rge a n um b er of

pe a s a nts a s possible but in m a n y c a ses the results were un sa t is
,

fa ctory Exemption from prep a yment indiscrimin a te gr a n ting of

.
,

lots together with the a b sence of a ll obli ga tion for the purch a ser
,

to settle on it a n d cultiv a te it c a used much of th a t l a nd to p a ss

,

into the Wrong h a nds Moreover the pe a s a nts h a d b ought n o

.
,

l a nd a t a ll on the strength of tho s e l a ws up to 1 8 8 1 a n d even ,

the la w of th a t ye a r h a d a ttra cted no more th a n pe a s a n t

pur ch a sers who bought together 23 06 9 h a a n d purch a sers
-
.

who bought l a rger lots a mounting together to 8 228 h a ; but on .

a ccou n t of the e a sy conditions of the la w of 1 8 8 9 the dem a nd for

l a nd fa r exceeded the a v a il a ble a re a Its a ppli c a tion therefore

1
.
’

, ,

ca used much friction until a Libera l Government so a mended

,

the la w in Ma y 1 8 96 th a t St a te l a nd could b e sold no longer

except in lots of 5 h a only preference b eing given to pea s a nts
.
,

who h a d no l a nd a t a ll a n d then to those who b esides house a n d

,

g a rden did n ot own more th a n 4 h a Th a t these ch a n ges were .

dict a ted by the pressure of soci a l co n ditions r a ther th a n by a n y

eco n omic policy is shown by the curious provision th a t wo uld be -

purch a sers should b e entered on a list from which the a ctu a l ,

recipients of holdings were to b e chosen by a dr a w The pea s a nts .

m a de such a rush to buy l a nd under this la w th a t excessive

prices were offered for the la rger plots sold by a uctio n which , ,

a fterw a rds m a n y were un a ble to a even in ye a rs of good

p y ,

h a rvests The la w of M a rch 1 8 9 9 therefore a uthorized the

.
, ,

Government to reduce a s from the d a te of the s a le the price of

, ,

lots of 8 — 25 h a sold on the b a sis of the la w of 1 88 9 ; a n d the

.

rem a ini ng a nn uities were to b e p a id at 4 per cent interest within .

sixty ye a rs The l a rge purch a sers h a d a lre a dy benefi t e d from

.

a simil a r generosity in 1 8 7 9 when m a n y of them were remitted

,

a rre a rs of p a yment while b eing a ll owed to ret a in the est a tes a n d ,

even to buy further l a nd from the Sta te a few ye a rs l a ter .

1
L ots of 5 ha w ere purch a s e d by p t
e a s an s , ma ki n g ha
10
25 38 6

ha .
72 THE NE W STATE AND THE
Al together , including the reform of 1 8 6 4 pea s a nts ,

receiv ed or purch a sed l a nd to the extent of h a ; of .

these , c a me from Sta te dom a ins Duri ng the s a me .

sp a ce of time the St a te sold h a to l a rge own ers These

. .

fi gur e s do not however give a true picture of the progress of

, ,

l a nd tenure in th a t p eriod Lots were sold without discrim in a

.

tion to stop the cl a mour a n d m a n y got into the h a nds of people

, ,

who did not cultiva te them but let them to petty loc a l o ffi cia ls
or to public a ns for the a mount of the a nn ui ty At B aiceni to .
,

give a n ex a mple in the district of Ja ssy a n est a te sold in 1 904

, , ,

o nl y fi ft y fi ve purch a sers settled on their lots while eighty six

-

,
-

were a bsent ; a n d of the l a tter fi ft y two let their l a nd to others

-

When the a uthorities i n tervened it w a s not to c a ncel such ill

,

used s a les but merely to h a nd over to the fi sca l a uthorities the

,

le a si ng of plots b elo n ging to a b sentee owners by a uction ; with ,

such results a s th a t ex em plifi e d by the ten a nt who in 1 906 held , ,

in le a se a closed group of ove r hundred such plots a t a bout h a lf ,

the loc a l rent a l v a lue The prohibition to sell w a s e a sily ci rcum

.

vented by long le a ses All these me a sures therefore f a iled to

.
, ,

solve the a gra ri a n problem ; nor does the evidence suggest th a t

they were mea nt to a chieve th a t St a te l a nd w a s put on s a le
.

whenever the Trea sury w a s in a rre a rs a n d with a m a rked ,

preference for l a rge purch a sers When discontent on the l a nd

.

grew Violent enough to give w a rning th a t something must b e

done for the p e a s a nts the ruling powers a ltogether ign ored the
,
.

evident lessons of the reform of 1 8 64 a n d went on di stributing

to a s m a ny p ea s a nts a s possible plots of l a nd from which they
could never get susten a nce for themselves a n d their f a mili es .

In a ll th a t sp a n of time only 38 6 pea s a nts a cquired sound hold

i n gs of 25 h a e a ch a mounti n g in a ll to
.
,
h a The a vera ge .

resettlement lot ( including a l a rge numb er of plots s uffi ci en t

for house a n d ga rden a lone ) h a d b ee n of 3 8 7 h a ; the a ver a ge
,
.

lot sold to the p e a s a nt s h a d risen to only 4 8 8 h a As M Ga r ofi i d . .

h a s s hown in det a il in his v a lu a ble Ch es ti a Agr a r d it w a s

, ,

impo s s ible for a fa mily to live from a holding of 5 11 a The .

distributing or s a le of l a nd to the pea s a nts h a d b een a soci a l a n d

politic a l ra ther th a n a n economic me a sure ; it never a ltogether
f reed them from the need of selling their l a bour .
 NEW S ERF D OM ( 1 8 64—1
91 7 ) 73

Th e la ws Agr i cultura l Con tra cts Na tur a l co n ditions— a n

on .

extreme conti n ent a l clim a te — in Rum a nia n a gricultur e dem a n d

a spurt of intense l a bour duri n g a short p eriod of tim e Could
1
.

the pe a s a nts b e expected to devote it to the l a n dlords r a ther

tha n to their own holdin gs ? It w a s e a sy enough to get the
p ea s a nts to eng a ge their l a bour ; the l a nd reform h a d left them
hungry a n d a ba d drought h a d left them st a rving But the l a n d .

lords h a d no security th a t a rra ngements m a de in efi ect u n der ,

duress would b e c a rried out A S en a te resolution of J a n ua r y

,
.

1 8 65 s a id th a t to le a ve them to b e enforced in c a se of need by , ,

ordin a ry j u d ici a l methods would upset a griculture i n a very ‘

d a m a ging m a nn er Whi le the p a rties were a t la w the fi eld s

’
.
,

would rem a i n untill ed ; moreover it w a s little good obt a i ni ng ,

d a m a ges a ga inst a resettled pe a s a nt a s hi s house a n d la nd ,

a n d essenti a l stock could not b e sold for debts Above a ll .

,
‘
duri n g the a gricultura l sea sons one co uld not fi n d other men
whom one might eng a ge a t the expense of those under contra ct
In these words the pre a mble to the la w of 1 8 72 g a ve the true
re a son for the legisla tion th a t w a s dem a nded a s soon a s the
reform of 1 8 6 4 w a s p a ssed Rum a n i a n a griculture h a d not .

rea ched the st a te when it might work w ith free l a bour ; a s l a te

a s 1 88 2 this w a s a dm itted in the st a tement of motives for the

la w of th a t ye a r After decl a ri n g tha t it w a s yet prem a ture to

.

pla ce a gricultur a l contra cts un der the j urisdiction of the common

la w its a uthors a sserted their b elief th a t the country still needs
,

a sp eci a l la w for developin g its productive forces our a gric ulture ,

which is yet i n a rudiment a ry st a ge with undevelop ed me a n s of ,

production still need s a speci a l protection which sh a ll a ssist a n d

,

sust a in it in its efforts to b ecome prosperous In reply to a n ’

.

inquiry from the Government the district councils were una ni ,

mous in urging th a t a gricultura l contra cts should be left to b e

enfo rced by a dministra tive orga ns a n d mea ns A bill giving effect .

to this recommen d a tion w a s introduced in D ecemb er 1 8 65 a n d ,

bec a me la w in Ma r ch 1 8 6 6 — one mon th a fter the forced a b dic a tion

of Cuz a its pro visions h aving been stiffened in t h a t sh or t i n t er va l
, .

1
Ev en the r m y is u se d for
a ricul tur l l b ours
ag a a . In 19 12 ,
ldi rs
e .
g .
, so e

were l nt ‘
e
’
to t h l rg fa r me rs
e a e . Th e pra ctic e is s a id to h ve c ti u d e v a fte r
a on n e en

the Wa r .
74 THE NEW STATE AND THE
This la w on a gricultur a l contra cts wa s the fi r st of a series
which s a nctioned rel a tionshi ps on the l a nd differing little in
pra ctice a n d in effect from the r egim e of the Org a nic Sta tutes .

’
They ch a nged the trend of the St a te s interference from the
’
protection of the p ea s a nt s l a bour whil e he w a s tied to the l a nd ,

to the conscription of his l a b our now th a t he w a s free to move

,
.

The fi r st cl a use of the reform of 1 8 6 4 h a d decl a red a ll l a b our

servitudes a b olished ; two yea rs l a ter they were revived by the
fir s t N a tion a l Assembly composed in t h e m a in oi the new
,

n a tion a list a n d a nti b oi a r elements The la w a llowed l a ndown ers

-

a n d their ten a nts to commute into l a bour ob li g a tions a n s um

y
owed to them by the villa gers for a dva nces in money a n d in k ind ,

or a s rent for l a nd Debts tow a rds money lenders public a ns

.
-

, ,

& c were a lso p a ssed over in pr a ctice to l a ndown ers or ten a nts
.
,

a n d were by them tr a nsformed likewise into l a bour dues Such .

obliga tions formed a privil eged cl a im second only to ra tes a n d

,

t a xes L a bour contra cts co ul d be concluded for p eriods of not

.

more th a n fi ve yea rs ; they could b e coll ective but though the ,

la w forb a de j oint responsibility ( Art it w a s in fa ct frequently

.

stipul a ted a n d the j udici a ry enforced i t In m a ny c a ses the .

pe a s a nts were m a de j oi n tly respo n sible for the l a bour of even

those of them who r a n a w a y or fell sick The enforcement of .

these contra cts a s well a s of fi n es a n d p ena lties a risin g from

,

them were entrusted wholly to the loc a l a dm in istra tive org a ns ;

,

a n d there w a s no a pp e a l from the i r decisions ( Ar ts 30a n d .

Wh en a p ea s a nt f a iled to c a rry out his contra ct it w a s the duty ,

of vill a ge m a yor a n d coun cil fi rst to urge h im to p erform his

‘
l a b our ob lig a tions ( Art . if th a t were of no a v a il then the ,

Vill a ge m a yor using the executive me a ns a t his dispos a l will a t

, ,

once bring the defa ulter to the l a bour for which he h a s con
tra cted or he m a y eng a ge other l a b ourers a t the exp ense of the
defa ulter ( Art . The l a st provision w a s done a wa y with by
the a mending Act of 1 8 72 the r a pp orteur a dmitting th a t no
,

sp a re men could b e found during the a gricultura l se a sons .

In s tea d the Ch a mber a dded to Art 1 3 a cl a use which instructed

.

‘
the Vill age council if the debtor w a s reca lcitra nt to obt a in a t
, ,

once from the district sub prefecture a t the exp ense of the
-

defa ulter s the milit a ry a ssist a nce necess a ry for constra ini ng
,
 NEW SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7 ) 75

the Vill a gers who a r e ob dur a te or h a ve run a w a y Until then the

only me a ns by which run a wa ys co uld b e induced to surrender
w a s to p ersecute their fa mil ies ; n e w direct a ction with the a i d ,

of the mili t a ry w a s s a nctioned by P a rli a men t The other ch a nge

,
.

m a de in 1 8 72 w a s to a ll ow pe a s a nts contra cting a s a group to b e

m a de j oin tly responsible this b eing dem a nded by the Lib era ls
,

on lai ssez fa i r e grounds The Vill a ge m a yor w a s obliged to

-
.

est a bli sh the defa ult a n d to a pply the me a sur es of constra in t

on the very d a y when the compl a in t a g a inst the l a b ourer h a s
‘

b een lodged ; if he fa iled in thi s he w a s li a ble to a fi n e of 5 0— 1 00

’
,

lei a n d a lso to the p a ym ent of d a m a ges to the suffering p a rty .

Some mitig a tin g ch a n ges were m a de by the new la w of Ma y

1 882. In genera l its text w a s clea rer a n d more d efi ni t e
,
.

Contra cts it decreed were to refer to gen uine a gricultura l work

, ,

o nl y to b e performed in the pl a ce where the contra ct w a s ma de

, ,

a n d they were to b e renewed e a ch ye a r The Vill a gers were for .

bidden to contra ct for more l a bour th a n they a n d their f a mili es

co ul d rea son a bly perform Frid a ys a n d S a turd a ys were re s erved
.

’
for the pe a s a nts own needs ; they could not b e pursued for
refusing to work for the employers on those two d a ys Enforce .

ment w ith the a i d of soldiers wa s a b olished a n d j o int responsi ,

bili t y w a s n o longer p erm itted When a V illa ger f a iled to c a rry

.

‘
out his ob liga tions the m a yor will urge him to do the work ;
,
’

if he refuses still the m a yor could eng a ge other men a t loc a l

, ,
’
r a tes a n d sell such of the defa ulter s possessions a s were not
,

protected by la w in order to defra y the cost The price from .

which th a t forced s a le would st a rt w a s fi x e d by the creditor .

If other l a bourers could not b e found the employer coul d cl a im ,

d a m a ges through the Courts The a nx iety c a used by the risin gs

.

of 1 8 8 8— 9 led the people in power to think of modifying the la w

of 1 88 2 but quiet being restored the ch a nge w a s a llowed to w a it
, ,

till the la w of Ma y 1 8 93 Popul a tion w a s r a pidly in crea sing a n d

.

some of the l a rge f a rmers were introduci n g m a chines ; the need

for compulsory l a bour w a s dimi ni s h ing He n ce b esides two .
,

minor but useful m od ifi ca t ion s— gra zing contra cts were to

sp ecify the size of the l a nd a n d not merely the numb er of
a nim a ls a n d gifts or p a ym ents in kind were forbidden if they
,

were not the produce of the rented la nd— the new la w w a s

76 THE NEW STATE AND THE
rem a rk a ble esp eci a lly for its fa mous fi n a l a rticle ( Ar t 44) which .

a llowed the two p a rties it they so w ished to b a se thei r l a bour

, ,

contra cts on the comm on la w The new text a bolished execution .

of contra cts in the p erson of the p e a s a nt a uthorizin g it in hi s ,

p ossessions In th a t st a te the legisl a tion concerning a gric ul tura l

.

contra cts rem a ined till 1 907 .

If one surveys the position of the p ea s a nts under the l a ws on

a gric ul tura l contr a cts one discovers th a t it cont a ins a ll the
m a teri a l elements which ch a ra cterized their st a tus b efore
em a ncip a tion The fi r st essen ti a l a sp ect of serfdom bond a ge to
.
,

the soil w a s in p a rt cre a ted by the reform of 1 8 64 itself when it

,

decreed th a t the new holdings were i n a lien a ble ; thi s w a s con

fi r m e d by the Constitution of 1 8 66 for a p eriod of t hi r ty ye a rs ,

which in 1 8 77 w a s prolonged for a nother t hi rty two ye a rs Th a t -

.

restriction a lso w a s a pp lied to plots b ought a t the s a le of St a te

dom a ins Neither could b e sold except to a p ea s a nt a n d no
.
,

p ea s a nt could buy more th a n 5 h a of such l a nd includ ing wh a t .

,

he a lre a dy possessed No stra nger co ul d penetra te in to the

.

m a ss of the resettled pe a s a ntry a n d the pea s a nts could n ot ,

exp a nd b eyond the limits fi x e d for them Sm a ll prop erty w a s .

thus immob iliz ed a n d individu a l possessions hedged in withi n

,

a ppointed limits a s under feud a l tenure

,
But though he w a s .

tied to his in a dequ a te plot the Vill a ger or other memb ers of his
,

household might still h a ve w a ndered a w a y in se a rch of b ett e r

w a ges for their sp a re l a bour This w a s a lre a dy forest a lled in 1 8 66
.

by Art 2 of the la w on contra cts w hi ch decreed th a t only the

.
,
‘

resp ective co m mune m a y lega lize the contra cts of inh a bit a nts
within its j urisdiction ; it m a y lega li ze the contra ct of a stra nge
l a bourer only if he produces a ce r t ifi c a t e from the commune in
which he resides showing th a t he is free to enter into such e on
,

tra cts The commu n e w a s inva ri a bly the loc a l l a ndo w ner ; if
’
.
‘ ’

he w a nted a pe a s a nt s l a bour he merely h a d to see th a t he w a s

’

not c er t ifi ed And if in spite of th a t the p e a s a nt r a n a w a y the

.
,

la w of 1 8 72 g a ve the l a ndowner soldiers for whom the fugitive ,

h a d to pa y with which to bri n g him b a ck

,
.

The second burden of serfdom compulsory l a bour w a s , ,

revived in pra ctice by the l a ws on a gricultura l contra cts As .

a conce s sion t o the new democr a tic f a ca de it w a s m a de i n cum

 NE W SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4 1 9 1 7 ) —
77
bent upon the Village m a yor to b egin by urging the pe a s a n ts
‘ ’

who were di s inclined to work for the l a ndlords but ultim a tely ,

it c a me to the pe a s a nt l a bouring under the gu a rd of he a vi ly

a rmed foremen a n d Vill a ge o ffi ci a ls The e n fo r cin g of l a bour
.

contra cts with the a i d of the milit a ry w a s form a lly a bolished in

1 8 8 2 but there is n o doubt th a t it continued in use for m a ny
,

ye a rs a fter Fi n a lly the third compou n d of the s ervile sta tus

.
,

p a yments in l a bour a n d in kind w a s the very essence of the

—

methods encour a ged by the l a ws on a gricultura l cont r a cts .

With ra re exceptions the Villa gers p a id for a ddition a l l a n d or

,

for lo a n s of money in l a bour or i n produce The exception a l .

r egime of the a gricultura l co n tra cts w a s devised to secure to

l a ndowners a n d their tena n t s the l a bour they needed a n d its ,

conditions therefore nece s s a rily discoura ged progress tow a rds

money tra nsa ctions b etween a gricultura l employers a n d l a b ourers .

Th a t rea ctiona ry trilogy w a s a ptly rounded off by the fi n a l

’
a rticle of the la w of 1 8 66
‘
No other j urisdiction sa id th a t text
.
, ,

no other a uthority wh a tsoever except those n a med in the prese n t

la w m a y i n terfere in the proced ure rel a ti n g to contr a cts for
a gricultura l l a b our
.
’
B efore his em a n cip a tion the ill use d -

’
pe a s a nt could m a ke some sort of a ppe a l to the country s ruler .

Now he w a s ruled by a democratic hiera rchy but for him ,

Constitution a n d Supreme J ud i cia r y w a s to b egin a n d end with

the Villa ge m a yor Th a t mea sure p a ssed without a single voice
.
,

b eing r a ised in the new n a tion a l Pa rli a ment to protest a ga in st

such m a s s outl a wing of the p e a s a ntry .

Lega lly a n d Vi ewed a s a whole the l a ws on a gricultura l

, ,

co n tra cts could fa irly b e described in the word s of M Ghere a a s .

‘
the con fi r m a t i on of the old servitudes in contra ctu a l fo r m ’
.

Even so their full effect can b e j udged onl y by pl a cing their

’
text s a g a inst the b a ckgrou n d of Rum a ni a s public life i n th a t
period It is ch a ra cteristic of the power a n d temper of the new
.

rulers th a t their legi s l a tion comp a red b a dly with th a t decreed

by B a rbu Stirbey under serfdom in 1 8 5 1 D a m ages for fa iling
.

to perform co n tra cted l a bour were a lrea dy k n own a n d it is likely ,

th a t obdura te pe a s a nts were h a ndled somewh a t roughly but it ,

w a s left to the new la w form a lly to provide th a t he might b e

constra ined ma n u mi li ta r i ; a n d while the older text enj oined
78 THE NE W STATE AND THE
fa ir d ea ling upon both p a rties a like the new l a ws so dr a stic for , ,

the p e a s a nts cont a ined no s a nctions wh a tever for a n y fa ilur e of

,
‘

the l a ndlords to keep their p a rt of the b a rga in L a ndl ords a n d .

their ten a nts were in truth a noin ted a s a bsolute potent a tes of
the Vill a ges on their l a nds ; a ll they h a d to do w a s to get a m a n
subservi ent to them elected a s m a yor The milit a ry comm a nders .

ch a rged with quelling the rising of 1 88 8 — 9 did their duty sternly ,

but in their Reports they a dmit th a t the a dm ini stra tion is

c a llous tow a rds the p e a s a nt th a t ba d fa ith is ra mp a nt th a t the , ,

re a l la w is dict a ted to him by those who h a ve j oined h a nds for

the purpose of exploitin g h im 1
Ta x collectors a lso were
’
.

frequently the nominees of l a ndlords a n d these men by pressing , ,

’
mercilessly for the p a ymen t of ta xes when the pe a s a nts resour ces
were most stra in e d left them with no other choice tha n to b orrow
,

from l a n dl ord a n d ten a nt pledgin g in retur n their la bour in ,

a dv a nce The report of a n inqui ry conducted by the J a ssy

.

District Counc il in 1 8 62 pointed out th a t onerous l a b our c on

tra cts were often forced upon employers a s much a s upon l a bo ur
‘
ers by the ruthless collection of t a xes for the p ea s a nts try to
borrow a nywhere a n d a t a n y price a n d the cultiva tors fea ring , ,

to see their l a b ourers co n tra ctin g with two m a sters a r e oblig ed ,

’
to a ssign them a ga in a b ove their c a p a city to l a bour , .

Contra cts m a de in such circumst a nces were op en t o every

kind of a buse The evidence th a t in genera l they put the v a lue
.

of l a nd a n d corn high a n d th a t of l a bour low is c i rcum sta nti a l

, , .

‘
In the l a st qu a rter of the nineteenth centur y the tithe rose
every where but especi a lly in the corn gro w in g districts from
,
-

,
’ ‘
one in h y e to one in one I h a ve kno w n sob er ha rd workin g .
,
-

p ea s a nts writes M R a du Rosetti him self a l a ndow ner who

’
,
.
, ,
‘

l a boured fi ft e en ye a rs to pa y off a debt they contra cted in the

winter 1 8 6 6 —7 for m a ize w hi ch they h a d borrowed to feed thei r
fa milies They found it h a rd enough to c a rry out such he a vy
.
’

M ih il E mi cu i
1
a rticl R ur l H pit l
nes ( r pri t d i h i C ll t d
n an a e on
‘
a os a s
’
e n e n s o ec e

Wor ks , 1 9 14 p 5 8 1 ),
c o m pl i d th at u n d r n a t n a l s e lf go v e rn me t m ore li c e c e
. a ne e io -
n n

w s giv e n t o a bu s iv e i dividu l s th n t h ey h d e j y e d b f re He cit es t h e c a s e of

a n a a a n o e o .

a n A u tri n citi en w h
s a h d e xpl it d t h e p a san t s o gross ly th t t h e div a n of
z o a o e e s a

Grigore Ghic h a d f rbidd h i m f e v r a ft r t buy or r n t l n d or e ve n t o be

a o en
‘
or e e
’
o e a .

a b a ili ff 0 t h e l nd
11 Th a m e i dividu l h d n w b c om e a gr t l d own e r h e h d
. e sa n a a o e ea an , a

t h e p e as n ts t a k e n t o t h e fi ld s i n cr te s lik e d ogs
a e n d a t n ght h e h a d th e m s ur
a , , a i

r o u n d e d with b a rb e d fen c es so th a t the y s h ould n ot r un a wa y

,
.
 NE W
SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7 ) 79
oblig a tions a n d a lso cul tiva te prec a riously their sm a ll holdin gs .

How could they h a ve thought of t a kin g on more l a n d to fa rm

The system w a s in itself suffi ci en t to check a ll efforts of the
pe a s a nts to i mprove themselves ; in fa ct they were depressed ,

ever lower by the a buses which it m a de possible .

Thr ough the in strument of the l a ws on a gricul tura l contra cts

the Constitution a l gu a ra ntees for person a l lib erty a n d for the
s a nctity of domic ile could b e set a side for 95 per ce n t of the .

popula tion a t the will a n d whi m of a vill a ge m a yor ; a n d this

,

not in exceptiona l circumsta nces but in everyda y life in m a tters

, ,

a risin g out of the d a ily work — the o n ly me a ns of sub siste n ce

;

of the people Ra dishchev s a id of sim il a r conditions in Russi a

.

For our l a ws the pe a s a n t is dea d Yet a ll these me a sures were

.
,

a pprov e d by the new n a tion a list Liber a ls s ome of the h a rshest

like th a t of 1 8 72 which ordered the mili t a ry enforcing of con

tra cts— were a ctu a lly in iti a ted by them a n d ca rried in the fa ce
of Conserva tive dis a pprova l The o n ly possible w a y to expl a in
.

tha t conduct is by their a nxiety to prevent the rur a l m a sses

from ga ining economic a n d politica l strength a n d comp eting for
i n fluence with the new a n d n a rro w mid d le cl a ss which ruled in -

to w n a n d St a te A congeries of fa cts a sserts the Conserva tive

.
,

M Ga r ofli d poin t s to the const a nt tendency of th a t o lig a rchy to

.

im pede the form a tion of a rur a l mid dl e cl a ss The mist a kes of -

’
.

1 8 6 4 m a y h a ve bee n a n d no doubt were l a rgely due to i n ex p er i

, ,

ence a n d to the w a y in w hi ch the Ra dica l le a ders were engrossed

,

with the p oli tic a l a spect of pe a s a nt em a ncip a tion The whole .

problem rea ppe a red however in 1 88 9 a s sta rkly a s a genera tion

, ,

e a rlier yet no b etter solution w a s a ttempted th a n the old one

,

of putt ing off the cl a mouring pea s a nts w ith a piece of l a nd th a t

could never become a f a rm The Conserva tives who fa vour ed
.
,

the crea tion of a r ur a l middle cl a ss h a d in 1 8 89 provided for

-

holdi n gs of 1 0 a n d 25 h a ; but the foll owin g Libera l Governm ent

.

c a ncelled th a t provision a n d reduced a ll holdings to b e sold from

St a te dom a ins to 5 h a e a ch The genera l conditions on whi ch
. .

’
the St a te s dom a ins were sold we re strongly coloured with th a t
stepmotherly bi a s ; a n d a ll a venues of esc a p e i nto soci a l a n d
economic in dep en dence were b a rred to the p e a s a nts by the l a ws
on a gricultur a l contra cts Nor were a n y other elements th a t
.
,
80 THE NE W STATE AND THE
might h a ve roused the coun try side suffered to t a ke soli d roots
-

on the l a nd Foreigners a n d n a tive J ews who were excluded

.
—

from a ll offi cia l functions a n d from m a ny lib era l professions

were permitted to rent enormous stretches of l a nd on sp ecul a tive
terms which inevi t a bly m a de of them tra n sient exploiter s of
,

soil a n d l a b our They were not a llowed however to buy a fa rm

.
, ,

a n d settle on i t for this w hi le m a kin g them c a reful cultiv a tors

, , ,

might possibly h a ve m a de them ch a mpions of a n a dolescent

a gricultur e .

With the impecunious p e a s a nts b ound to the l a nd a n d p ossi

ble fa rmers b a r red from it the a gra ri a n sy stem fell in to a p eculi a r
,

co m pound of serfdom a n d c a pit a li s m ; from it l a ndlords a n d their

ten a n t s s ecured a ll the a dv a nt a ges of both while the pe a s a n ts
w ere s a ddled with a ll the burdens of both From serfdom the .

l a n dlord s h a d a ll the fa cili ties of servile l a bour without a n y of

the feud a l oblig a tio n s tow a rds it ; whi le from c a pit a li sm they h a d
the freedom to b a rga in with l a bour w ithout the restra i n t of a free
l a bour m a rk et The pe a s a nts however were subj ected to servi le
.
, ,

l a b our wi thout its counterp a rt in l a nd rights ; a n d from c a pit a l

ism they h a d a ll the tri a ls of w a ge e a rner s without b eing re a lly
f r ee to tra de their l a bour s where they willed One cl a ss s a ys .
,

M Ghere a h a d a chieved for itself roses without thorn s whi le

‘
.
, ,
’
the thorns a n d the thorns a lon e— were left for the p e a s a nts
—
.

It w a s n a tur a l therefore th a t em a ncip a tion a n d l a nd reform

, ,

s hould h a ve no effect on the org a niz a tion of Rum a n i a n a gr i cul

ture L a ck of ca pit a l a n d tra ining for a new technique m ight

.

h a ve b een m a de good within a short sp a ce of tim e B ut wh a t .

interest h a d l a ndlords a n d t en a nts in ch a n gin g a system w hi ch

g a ve them such a monopoly of control a n d pr ofi t a s they h a d not
e n j oyed even under serfdom a n d which they co ul d never hop e
,
’
to ret a in in a full fledged c a pit a list r egime ? Neo serfdom left
-
‘
-

the l a n dlords free to occupy them s elves w ith politics or ple a sures ,

a n d a l s o g a ve them the mea n s thereof For it a ttra cted ten a nts

.
,

who without knowledge or equipment could a fford to offer

, ,

exo r bit a nt rent s the l a nd co n tinuing to b e tilled by the pe a s a nts

,
.

All th a t these s ui gener is fa rmers h a d to do w a s to drive the

p e a s a nt a s h a rd a s his mort a l fra me w ould st a n d The l a ws on .

a gricultur a l contr a cts supplied a p erfect device to th a t end The .

 NEW SERFDOM ( 1 8 64—1 91 7 ) 81
ret urn to b e expected from a n est a te used formerly to b e ca lcu
l a ted a ccordi ng to the num b er of s ervile l a bour d a ys which the
l a n dl ord w a s entitled to cl a im ; now a n est a te s rent w a s dict a ted ’

by the rel a tion b etween give a n d t a ke in the loca l contra cts .

Not the f a tness of the l a nd but the swe a t of the p ea s a nt deter

min ed the huge pr ofi t s tha t were m a de And the pea s a nts toiled .
,

a n d sighed their helpless sorrow in the s a ying : Ma y God n ever ‘

la y upon a ma n a s much a s he ca n b e a r .

Th e P ea s a n t s B ur d ens Rum a n i a s a gr a ri a n policy foll owed

’ ’
.
,

during the fir st h a lf century of her n a tion a l i ndependence two

-

p a ra ll el lines— the endo wment of the pe a s a n ts with plots of l a nd

a d
n the impressment of the i r l a bour — which a ppe a r wholly to

contra dict e a ch other In rea lity they were corolla ries a n d they
.
,

support Lori a s genera li z a tion th a t the condi tions which c a used

’

the b indi ng of l a bo ur in fa vo ur of the est a te were free la nd a n d

’
sc a rcity of l a bo ur The tendency to reduce the l a nd a v a il a ble
.

for the pe a s a nts if successful to the end might h a ve res ul ted in

, ,

free l a bour But in the me a sure in whi ch it fa iled the other

.

tendency g ai ned strength th a t of tying the pe a s a nt to the ,

v ill a ge one completing the other so a s together to give to

, ,

the tra din g corn grower a suffi ci en t supply of l a bour It w a s the

-
.

Rum ani a n pe a s a nt s refus a l to li ve without l a nd th a t c a used him

’

to live without freedom Consciously or not the older Russi a n

.
,

revolution a ries h a d summed up soun dly the soci a l a n d economic

’ ‘
essenti a ls of the pe a s a nts c a se in their motto : L a nd a n d
Lib erty ( Z emlj a i Volj a )
’
.

S oon the Rum a ni a n a s well a s the Russi a n pe a s a nts were

, ,

to m a ke a bid for both of them Those with whose fa te we a r e .

concerned were ne a ri n g the b ottom of their cup of e a rthly

misery It w a s genera lly a greed tha t a ll those p a rts of the l a ws
.
‘

on a gric ul tura l contra cts which were designed in f a vour of the

pe a s a nts a r e fa llen into disuse M S eb a stia n Mor uzi who wr ote
,
’
. .
,

these words in 1 907 w a s spe a king from in tim a te knowledge

, ,

h a vi n g himself b een severa l times Lib era l prefect of v a rious

‘
coun ties Wh a t Vill a ge m a yor indeed would d a re to i nspect
.
, ,

closely the boia r s a ccount books ? Wh a t m a yor cl a im s respect

’

for the two d a ys left weekly for the p erson a l needs of the
villa gers ? Or a bove a ll wh a t m a yor insists on the f a ir
, ,

G
82 THE NE W STATE AND THE
me a surement of the l a nd given for l a bo ur or sold for money ? 1 ’

The minor improvements decreed in 1 8 93 were never a pp lied .

When the la w of 1 8 82 put a n end to the milit a ry execution of

contra cts the result wa s a lessening of bruta li ty s a ys M Ra du
,
‘ ’
, .

Rosetti but on the other h an d a n incre a se in fra uds The Sta te

,

itself which forty yea rs e a rlier h a d b ecome owner of one fourth

,
-

of the a r a ble a re a one third with the l a nd of endowments a n d other

-

institutions ) h a d done nothing to b etter the li fe of the p ea s a nts

,

on its l a nds Ra ther di d it welcome every opportun ity of ra ising

.

rents a n d its revenue a n d th a t ex a mple w a s followed by in st it u

,

tions under its control ; so th a t pe a s a nts on these publi c est a tes ,

s a id M Spiru H a ret— a former Lib era l Mini ster of E duc a tion a n d

.

fa mous for his a gra ri a n a ctivities a r e a t lea st a s b a dl y off a s

th ose on the est a tes of the worst of the l a rge l a ndlords From ’
.

1 8 62 to 1 9 05 the a re a un der cul tiv a tion h a d risen by 8 3 per cent

while the popul a tion h a d i ncre a sed by o nly 5 4 per cent ; yet the
price of la bour h a d rem a ined sta tion a ry b ec a use of th e depen ,

dent position in which the p ea s a nt h a d b een pl a ced a s a la bour er .

In the sixties the price of l a bour w a s double wh a t it h a d b een

during the r égime of the Org a n ic Sta tutes b eca use of the ra pid ,

exp a nsion in the cult ure of m a ize a n d whea t ; tha t exp a nsion
continued ra pidly but a high offi cia l a ffir m ed in 1 8 93— a n d
,

M .M or u z i repe a ted thi s in 1 9 07— th a t a n investig tion of l a bour

a

contra cts on va rious esta tes showed tha t the ra tes still p a id were
those fi x e d a bout 1 8 66 And the m a j ority of them never re a ched
.

even the poverty level of the custom a ry w a ges An i nquir y con .

ducted by the Min istry for Home A ffa irs showed th a t out of
la bour contra cts for 1 906 chosen a t r a ndom only 39 7 per cent , ,
-
.

were concluded a t the custom a ry w a ges ; others were lower in

v a rying degrees 1 3 2 per cent showing w ag es upw a rds of 75 p er
,
.

cent b elow the usu a l ra tes They a lso showed a widespre a d

. .

‘ ’
custom to reckon the working month a s of thirty two d a ys -
.

Most contra cts h a d pen a lizing cla uses intended to press for more
l a bour ; some contra cts in the district of Teleorma n stipula tin g
1 cc ordi ng t o M Serba n of t h e
A . c a ses of c on tra v en ti on s t o t h e la w on a gri
,

cultura l c on tra cts which c me b fore t h e c ourts i n 1 9 1 3 8 1 7 or

a e ,(i n 1 9 12 8 95 ,

or 73 h a d b e n c o mm itte d by o wn e rs a n d ten a ts 224 or 1 8 7 9 % by vill a ge

n -

e ,

ffi ci ls a n d o n ly 1 5 1 or l 2 6 7 % by p ea s a n ts ; th o ugh of c o urs e t h e n u mb e r of
~

o a ,
, ,

p ea sa n ts pa rti e s to s uch c on tra cts wa s i n fin ite ly greate r th an th a t of th e ir em pl oye rs .

 NE W S ERF D OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7 ) 83

tha t the f a ther of a f a mi ly who h a d living with h im m a rried

‘

sons or da ughters who h a d not contra cted for a gricultur a l

l a bours sh a ll be him self excluded from a ll contra ct Under the ’
.

old r égime the a uthorities h a d to enforce upon the pe a s a nts

the obliga tion to l a bour for 6 —24 da ys for the la ndlord ; under the
new r egime of free l a bour the pea s a nt h a d b ecome so dependent
on the l a ndowner th a t the legisl a tor h a d to intervene in order
,
’
to ensure th a t two d a ys were left e a ch week for the pea s a nt s own
fi eld s .

The price of l a nd on the other h a nd h a d risen fa nt a stic a lly

, , .

The severe a gra ria n crisis b etween 1 8 75 a n d 1 8 9 0h a d c a used the

price of corn to fa ll some 30 per cent in Europe ; to th a t corre .

s po n d e d a f a ll in the v a lue of the l a nd a n d of its rent a l But in .

Rum a ni a a contra ry phenomenon occ urred during th a t period :

a continuous a n d ra pid rise in l a nd rents frequently by f ully ,
’
1 00 per cent in the centur y s l a st qu a rter without a n y corre
.
,

sp e nding rise in producti vity At the s a me time however the

.
, ,

Government h a d to help the pe a s a nts with food every few ye a rs .

In this a s in m a ny other respects this wa s a p a ra llel to the

, ,

Russi a n situ a tion After the em a ncip a tion of the p ea s a nts in

.
,

1 8 6 1 Russi a n whe a t exports rose so ra pidly th a t they domin a ted

,

the western m a rkets But a t the s a me time the Governm ent h a d

.

to devote i n cre a sing sums to the relief of st a rving p ea s a nts ; from

a ye a rly a ver a ge of 8 00 roubles in the sixties reli ef rose to a n ,

a vera ge of a bout one a n d a h a lf million up to 1 8 90 to ni n eteen ,

millions b etween 1 8 90— 1 900 to 1 1 8 million roubles in 1 901 5

,
-

’
Reli ef w a s di stributed in the sixties to eight dep a rtments in ,
’
the seventies to fift een in the eighties to twenty fi ve in the
’
,
-

,
’
n ineties to twenty n ine a fter 1 900 to thirty one
-

, The only -
.

possible expl a n a tion for such discrep a ncy in the progress of the
Rum a ni a n r ur a l cl a sses is th a t the grea t a n d a bnorma l incre a se
in the revenue of l a ndlords a n d ten a nts w a s obt a ined by depress
ing the revenue of the p e a s a nts by mea ns of the l a ws on a gri
,

cultura l contra cts ; a n d th a t is c on fi r m ed by the fa ct tha t in

sp a rsely popul a ted districts where l a b ourers could not b e con
,

scripted but h a d to be a ttra cted the rent of the l a nd rose not a t

,

a ll or but sli ghtly B etween 1 8 70 a n d 1 906 th e rents p a id by

.

6 7 6 per cent of the p e a s a nt tena nts h a d risen b y 1 00 per cent ;

-
. .

G 2
84 THE NE W STATE AND THE
’

those of 1 3 8 per cent of them by more th a n 300 per cent a n d . .

,

those of 3 3 per cent by over 5 00 per cent For the la nd held i n . .

m é t a y a ge w hi ch they c ul tiva ted w ith thei r own seed a ni m a ls

, ,

a n d im plements the pe a s a nts were foun d to b e p a yin g one h a lf

,
-

to two thi rds of the h a rvest a n d a v a riety of a ddi tiona l ch a rges

-

in l a b o ur a n d in kind They found it increa singly diffi cult to .

compete for l a nd a n d bec a use of their l a ck of tra ini ng a n d me a ns

, ,

they coul d n ot get out of it a v a lue th a t wo ul d correspond to the

compulsory l a bour they h a d to give for it which thus b ec a me ,

doubly onerous for them 1 Under the pressure of such ci rcum .

st a nces the pe a s a nts were driven to borrow from the l a ndowners

a n d ten a nts M D Nen i tes cu decl a red th a t a n offi cia l i nquir y
. . .
,

co n ducted in 1 901 esta b lished th a t for such lo a ns 6 0 p er cent

, .

h a d come to b e reg a rded a s a frien dl y interest ; but th a t some

times the l a ndlords took from the p e a s a nts 1 25 25 0 36 5 a n d even , ,

5 28 per cent in the form of l a bour dues

. .

To these conditions h a d to b e a dded the burden of dis

crimin a ting t a x a tio n ; the r a ti n g census of 1 905 — 7 est im a ted the
revenue of p ea s a nt l a nd four times higher th a n th a t of l a rge
o w ners In the deb a te on a bi ll introduced in M a rch 1 907 to
.
,
‘

equ a lize the t a x a tion of pe a s a nts a n d l a rge owners the Mi ni ster ,

of Fina nce m a de it cle a r th a t it w a s not intended to rai se the l a nd

t a x p a id by the l a rge owners but merely to reduce to the s a me ,

level the t a x p a id by the p e a s a nt proprietors ; a n d even then

m a ny deputies could only vote for the bill by tre a ding on our ‘

he a rts When the pea s a nts did put in a compl a in t which w a s

’
. ,

seldom they were genera lly less fortuna te th a n those of F ant ana
,

B a nului ( Dolj county ) These h a d bought some of the l a rger .

plots from the St a te a t exorbit a nt price s a n d b eing u n a ble to

1 ccordi ng t o a n ffi ci a l publicati on Th e R i s e i n M oney a nd M ta ya ge R en ts
A o ,
'

e ,

producti on h ad i n t h e sa me p eri d f ll en r ath e r th an i n creas ed b e c a u se of ba d cultiva

o a ,

tion l ck of m a ure & 0

,
a n , .

A v e r ge pr oducti on i n h e t oh t re s p r h e cta r e
a e e

M a i ze Wh e t a

1 8 6 2—6 12 7 1 24
1 8 7 2— 6 12 4-
9 1
1 8 9 1 —5 12 8 14 0
1 901 —5 11 5. 15 8
Ma i ze l rge ly pr duc e d by t h e p ea s an ts wh ea t by t h e l a rge cultiv a t ors On e
wa s a o ,
.

mu s t a l t a k e i to a cc ou n t th t t h e p sa n ts w e r gi ven t h e w o rst l a n d a n d l eft with

so n a ea e

t h e w or s t ti me for th e ir o w n w ork .
 N E W SERFDOM ( 1 86 4—1 91 7 ) 85

a
p y their a nnuities were thre a tened by the Ministry of Fin a nce

w ith forcible e vi ction ; a petition sent by them to the S en a te

rem a ined un a nswered for two ye a rs until a cha nce enco unter on
,

the S ena te steps with the l a te D imitrie S t ur d za led to the l a tter s ’

effective intervention on their b eh a lf Genera lly the pea s a nts

.
, ,

too trod on their hea rts a n d suffered in silence U s ed up in

,
.

strength a n d riddled with dise a se exploited a n d derided they

, ,

seemed to h a ve fa llen too low even for protest or revolt .

Wa r s an d Revoluti on s In the sprin g of 1 907 distur b a nces broke

.

out in northern Mold a vi a At fir st the a tt a ck w a s concen tra ted

.

a g a in st the J ewi sh inh a bit a nts a n d looked like one of the endemic

a nti S emitic riots whi ch h a ve frequently been engineered in E u

-

m a ni a n p olitica l li fe a s a m ea n s of frightening the Government or

, , ,

c onversely of cowi ng the Opposition

,
How fa r the pe a s a nts h a d
.

a h a nd in th a t b eginni ng one c a nnot s a y ; there a r e mi lit a ry a n d

“

a dmi ni str a tive reports like th a t on the little m a rket town of

,

Bivol a ri ( Ja ssy county ) whi ch a ssert th a t the s a cking of the

,

pl a ce w a s the work of imported rowdies a n d th a t fa r from a iding

,

in thi s loc a l a n d neighbouring pea s a nts g a ve a sylum to the

,

J ewi sh Victims B ut wh a tever the men a n d the motives which

.

st a rted the a git a tion once the country side w a s roused the
,
-

pe a s a nts h a d a terrible a ccount of their own to settle All the .

pe n t up desp a ir of a bre a dless a n d rightless popula tion broke

-

loose upon the la nd The spirit of the pe a s a nts h a d b een stun g

.

not a little by the stories which h a d re a ched them a bout the

Russi a n risin g of 1 905 ( itself a consequence of the Russo
J a p a nese Wa r ) Ever since the a ppe a r a nce of Russi a n a rmi es
.

a s lib er a tors from the Turkish yoke the R um a ni a n pea s a nts

, ,

like the Russi a ns be lieved the Ts a r to b e devoted to thei r inter

,

ests a n d they rem a ined sensitive to every h a ppeni ng th a t

,

a ffected the pe a s a ntry in the neighbour ing empire Their .

em a ncip a tion in 1 8 6 4 followed the Russi a n em a n cip a tion of 1 8 6 1

a n d there is e vidence th a t when they rose in 1 88 9 they h a d been

c a rried a wa y by a rumour tha t the Ts a r h a d ord ered the big

est a tes to b e divided a mon g them Sim il a r rumours m a y h a v e
.

helped to r e use the pea s a nts in 1 907 but their revolt spra n g from
,

issue s th a t la y deep a n d were Vit a l for themselves Recently this .

h a s been confessed by the l a test le a der of th a t Pa rty which h a s

86 THE NE W S TATE AND THE
‘
domin a ted Rum a ni a sin ce her in dependence None of these .

[ a gra ri a n] reforms wr ote M V intil a Brati a nu in 1 926 h a d

’ ‘
, .
,

s uffi ci en t l e a sed the needs of the pe a s a nt cl a ss ; a n d the s a tis

y ,

fa ction of those n eeds h a ving b een del a yed p a rticul a rly in the
p eriod from 1 8 90 to 1 907 we were fa ced in th a t l a st ye a r with,
’
a gr a ve intern a l crisis From on e end of the coun try to the
.

other the p ea s a nts vented their a ccumula ted a nger upon

dwelli ngs a n d belo n gings an d occ a sion a lly a lso upon the p ersons
, ,

of l a ndlords a n d ten a nts c a refully discrimin a ti ng b etween the

,

few who h a d tre a ted them well a n d the m a ny tow a rds whom they
h a d no re a son to b e tolera nt The worst excesses a s it h a ppened .
, ,

occurred in districts which h a d few J ewi sh inh a bit a nts or none

a t a ll which b elied the supposed origin of the revolt
, .

The outbrea k a pp a rently took the ruling cl a ss by sur prise

, , .

It sc a red them a n d it e nr a ged them The rising w a s unorg a nized .

a n d in m a ny p a rts w a s
quickly checked by a little re a so n in g with

vi ll a gers ; yet so gre a t w a s the p a nic of the l a ndlords th a t some

a mong them thought of a ppe a li ng for the help of two Austri a n

a rmy corps But the Rum a ni a n milit a ry proved equ a l to the

.

t a sk by themselves The S econd Army Corp s ordered the r epr es

.

sion to b e c a rried through to its end— shooti n g the villa gers a n d

burning their houses — even where the rising h a d subsided Gun s .

were in some pl a ces brought into a ction a ga inst groups of

p e a s a nts a rmed with forks a n d scy thes who were completely
surrounded Altogether a bout ten thous a nd pe a s a nts were put
.
,

to dea th ; the re a l number m ay never become know n a s the ,

offi ci a l dossiers of these repris a ls h a ve dis a pp e a red

1
.

The p ea s a nt rising s a ys M V intil a Brati a nu roused the

, .
,
‘

conscience of the po litic a l p a rties There were two memora ble .

sittings of the Ch a mb er on the 9 t h a n d 1 3th of M a rch when the

, ,

p oli tici a ns vied with e a ch other in b e a ting their bre a sts a n d con
‘
fessing their sins A Roya l m a nifesto expressed the desire of
.

H M the King for reform a n d P a rli a ment p a ssed a series of

. .
’
,

l a ws c a ncelling others but recently ena cted mea nt to constitute

, ,

a comprehensive a gra ri a n policy which should a ssist a n d ,

D b a te i n t h e Ch a mb er 23r d of May 1 925 Th e o rd e r of t h e S e c on d Ar my Corps

1
e ,
.

w a s th e n re a d by G e n r l A v e re s cu hi ms e lf M i n i s te r of W r t t h e ti m e
e a ,
I t h as b een
a a .

s u gge s te d a s a p os s ibl e
,
xpl a n ti on of t h e me rciles s re pri s l s th a t a n e ighb ouri ng
e a a ,

e m pir e h ad threa te ne d t o i te rv en e i f t h e ri s i n g w as n ot qu e lle d a t on c e

n .
 NE W SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7) 87
encour age the pea s a nt a s a fa rmer a n d protect him a s a
l a bourer .

The la w on a gricultur a l contra cts of 23r d Decemb er 1 907 ,

a bruptly broke a w a y from its predecessors whi ch h a d protected ,

the employers a n d devoted itself to protecting the l a bourers

, .

It l a id down a numb er of principles w hi ch were to put a n e n d to

th a t intermixing of lea sin g a n d l a bour a rra ngeme n ts which con ,

fused the p e a sa nt a n d m a de hi m a n e a sy prey to every a buse ;

a n d simil a rly to pro visions for mixed p a yments in money a n d
, ,

l a b our a n d produce in one a n d the s a me contra ct Henceforwa rd .

every opera tion w a s to b e settled in a sep a ra te contra ct for ,

whi ch offi ci al forms were provided When the contra ct w a s one

.

of m é ta ya ge the h a rvest w a s to b e divided up within fifteen

,

d a ys ; so a s to put a n end to c a ses like th a t reported from Dolj ,

where the 1 906 m a iz e crop w a s sti ll in the fi eld s in M a rch 1 907 ,

the pe a s a nts not b eing a llowed to t a ke their only food home

b ec a use they h a d some remna nt of debts to pay Now if the .

l a ndlord del a yed longer th a n a llowed by la w he wa s li a ble to ,

a fi n e ; if the pe a s a nts took the crop a wa y too e a rly before h a ving ,

c a rried out a ll their obliga tions they were li a ble to imprisonm ent
,

up to one ye a r District Commissions consisti n g of two delega tes

.
,

of the l a ndow ners a n d two of the pea s a nts under the ch a irm a n
,

s h ip of the di strict a gronom were to fi x a minimum w a ge b a sed

,

on the a vera ge of the l a st t h ree ye a rs but wherea s previous l a ws

,

h a d b een a b solute this w a s a pplic a ble o nl y to written co ntr a cts

, ,

but not to verb a l a greements or to a greements m a de within

thir ty d a ys b efore the l a bours to whi ch they referred ; a n d the
Commissions were a lso to fi x a m a ximum rent which w a s not to
exceed by more th a n one thi rd the rents p a id for simi l a r soil by
-

the l a rge tena nts in th a t region Thi s put no restra int upon the
.

specula ting ten a nts who coul d contin ue to p a ss on every increa se

in rent upon their pe a s a nt sub —tena nts The food given to l a bour
.

ers w a s to conform to the st a nd a rd la id down by the Mini stry of

Hea lth S chool chi ldren were to b e employed no longer in fi eld
.

work unless in exception a l c a ses an d un der specifi ed con

,

d it i o n s .

The s a me la w tried to meet the grea t need of the pea sa nts for
gra zing by instituting commu n a l gra zing l a nds The Libera ls .
 88 THE NEW S TATE AND THE
w a nted to oblige the l a ndowners to supply l a nd for comm un a l
gra zings but the Conserva tives led by Ta ke Ionescu opposed
, , ,

this on the groun d tha t it would b e a n exprop ri a tion in d isgui se .

These commons were to b e cre a ted for e a ch Villa ge the l a nd ,

being suppli ed from St a te dom a ins or b ought from loc a l l a nd ,

o w ners owni ng more th a n 300 h a a t m a rket v a lue plus 1 0 per .

cent a n d the l a ndo w ner rem a inin g owner of the subsoil The
.
, .

cost w a s to b e defra yed by the comm un e from gra zin g ra tes

p a id by the vi ll a gers for e a ch he a d of c a ttle none of them bein g ,

entitled to keep more th a n six big a nim a ls on the village

common
‘

To a ssist in a b etter distribution of sea son a l l a bour the la w

a lso set up a n a gricultur a l emplo ment bure a u
y The whole of .

th a t medley of St a te a ssist a nce in tervention a n d control w a s

, ,

to be in the h a nds of three speci a l org a ns : ( a ) District Com

missions de a ling with w a ges rents & c ; ( 6 ) district a gro
, , .

noms ; a n d ( c) a Supreme Agricultura l Council composed of fi ve

members a ppointed for fift e en ye a rs who were to supervi se ,

the genera l a pp lic a tion of the la w a n d to control the di s trict

a
g r on o ms .

A second set of l a ws endea voured to s a tis fy in some me a sur e

the l a nd hunger of the pe a s a ntry Gre a t hopes were pl a ced on
.

the la w which crea ted the Rura l O th ee ( Ca sa Rur a lci ) h a lf of

‘

whose c a pit a l wa s to b e supplied by the St a te whi ch w a s given ,

a thirt y ye a rs monop oly for its oper a tions Its m a in purpose .

w a s to f a ci lit a te the p a ssing of l a nd b elongin g to l ar ge own ers

into the h a nds of p ea s a n ts the otfi ce either buyi ng itself or
,

a cting merely a s intermedi a ry Once more the limit of p e a sa nt

.

lots w a s fi xe d a t 5 h a a n d in the hi lls a t 3 h a though one p erson

.
, .
,

might buy a s much a s fi ve such lots o n ce the dem a nd for single lots
w a s fu lly sa t i s fi e d An import a nt pro vision w a s th a t decl a ring
.

the lots of 5 h a to be indivi sible the other heirs b eing com p en

.
,

s a ted in money the Rura l Offi ce w a s entitled to gra n t lo a ns for

this a n d other purposes This cl a use w a s j usti fied by excessive
.

division which h a d crea ted cra zy holdings such a s some th a t

,

were two metres wide a n d 700 metres long tra cks a n d dividi ng ,

m a rks swa llowing up a s much a s 30 p er cent of their a re a The . .

Rura l Otfi ce wa s a lso ch a rged with encoura ging a n d supervisin g

 NEW SERFDOM ( 1 8 64—1 91 7 ) 89
'

a better cultiv a tion of the l a nd b ought from it or through i t

a n d further with encour a ging the growt h of co opera tive pur

, ,
-

ch a se a n d m a rketing a mong the p ea s a nts Another la w decreed .

th a t St a te dom a ins a s well a s est a tes of c ul tura l reli gious

, , ,

hi la n t h r O i c a n d other endo w ments co ul d b e le a s ed to pe a s a nt

p p ,

co oper a tives only

-
not by a uction but on the b a sis of rents
, ,

fi x e d by the distri ct commissions a n d the Supreme Agric ul tur a l

Council Fi n a lly a n a ntitrust la w forb a de a n y individua l to
.
,

r ent whether him self or through intermedi a ries more th a n

, ,

h a existing contra cts b e i ng a llowed to run till 1 9 1 2 ; in

.
,

1 905 a single f a mily w a s renting in Mold a vi a h a a ra ble .

l a nd a n d a ltogether
, h a in cludi n g woodla nd . .

However soun d the theoretic a l b a sis of most of these

me a sur es in effect they were fa ted to di s a ppe a r w ithout tra ce
,
’
i n the qui cks a nd of Rum a ni a s public life Most of them depended .

to a n extreme degree for their success on the ini ti a tive a n d super

vision of public a uthorities a n d th a t left little prosp ect th a t the
,

poor a n d disfra nc hi sed pea s a nts would ga ther in even a sm a ll

‘
portion of the fruits promised them by the l a ws of 1 907 One .

can predi ct with cert a i n ty

’
a French writer ventured to sa y a t
,
‘
once th a t these texts w i ll bring nothing but di s a ppoin tment ;
,

for they tend to repl a ce by a r t ifi cia l a n d h a sty combin a tions

a n a tura l evolution w hi ch coul d resul t o nl y from a profound

ch a nge in the h a bits of the ruling cl a ss 1 Indeed the new la w .

’
,

on a gricultura l contra cts w a s delibera tely ignored a s M V ‘ ’

, . .

Br ati a nu a dmitted in 1 91 3 Diffi cult i e s were encountered in .

cre a ting the Vill a ge commons ; the Report of the Supreme

Agricultura l Council for 1 9 1 2—1 3 showed th a t comm ons
covering a tota l a rea of h a up to Octob er 1 91 3— h a d .

b een est a b lished on a ll St a te dom a in s a n d on 73 per cent of the .

esta tes b elonging to va rious institutions but o nl y on 26 p er cent , .

of the priv a te esta tes either b ec a use their owners were holding
,

b a ck or bec a use the l a nd they offered w a s too ba d or too de a r

, .

Four hundred a n d four of the offers received h a d to b e rej ected

b ec a use of the excessive price dem a nded a n d of these 90per cent , .

were those of priva te l a ndowners ; some comm unes were a ble t o

1
L é on
P oi ns a rd , La P r od ucti on , le Tr a va i l et le P r obleme s oci a l d e ns tous les P a ys
d a déb
ut d u XX S i ecle , a s , 1 907 ,
e
’ ‘

P ri 7 62 ii . .
90 THE NE W STATE AND THE

esta bli sh gra zings at one fourth or one fifth the price fi r st a sked
- -

for them Wh ere commons h a d been esta bli shed the p ea s a nts
.
,

frequently found it im possible to c a rry out the obliga tion of

growing fodder on p a rt of them b ec a use the soil w a s too poor ,

for th a t purpose Up to 1 9 1 3 the Rur a l O th ee pur ch a sed

.

h a but of these o nl y
.
, h a h a d b een p a rcelled ( in .

lots ) a n d o nl y h a h a d b een sold to pe a s a nts the

.
,

rem a inder b eing merely lea sed to them or fa rmed for its own
a ccount by the O th ee a n d of the lots of 3—5 h a sold only .

1 33 went to p e a s a nts who a lre a dy h a d more th a n 4 h a of the i r .

ow n so th a t medi um property received a s little encour a gement

,

a s b efore Its mortg a ge lo a ns to p ea s a nts a moun ted in 1 9 1 2 to

.

lei a n d in 1 9 1 3 to
, lei The Otfi ce itself a t .
,

an
y ra te did so well out of these tra ns a ctions th a t its 5 00 lei
,

sh a res h a d risen to lei by the middle of 1 9 1 2 The Sta te .

itself w a s slow in a pplying the cl a u s e whi ch ordered th a t its

dom a in s should b e le a sed to pea s a nt co opera tives an d continued -

to f a rm them for its own a ccount .

Nothing then more positive c a me of the h erce rising of 1 907

, ,

th a n a revised a n d enl a rged edition of the exist i ng a gra ri a n l a ws .

The men who were to interpret a n d a pply them rem a ined the
s a me a n d beyond a p a ssing flush the temper a n d h a bits of
, , ,
’
Rum a ni a n public li fe were h a rdly a ffected by the pe a s a nts show
of de s p a ir Occ a sion a lly some poli ticia n felt moved to confess
.

th a t in the words of the mythic a l Meck le n bur gh ia n Con st it u

—

tion— Everything rem a ins a s it w a s But none of the politica l

‘
.

groups showed signs of h a ving come to reg a rd rura l reform a s

a concern of its own In a peculi a rly a gra ri a n an d pe a s a nt coun try
.

the l a st issue th a t seemed c a p a ble of enlistin g po litic a l ze a l w a s

the problem of the pe a sa nts fa te How str a nge it is e g th a t ’
. , . .

the wise King C a rol ( 1 866 who h a d the welf a re of the

p eople truly a t hea rt should not h a ve used his gre a t i nfl uen ce
,

to bring a bout a solution of the rura l problem ; u n less it b e th a t

he knew th a t like Cuz a he would b e fa ced with the ruthless
, ,

opposition of a ll politic a l fa ctions Only some mysterious re a son .

could expl a in the b a ffling f a ct th a t in the four crowded volumes

’
in which a n Eyewitness m a king use of the ki n g s priv a te
‘ ’
,

correspondence a n d person a l notes h a s minutely describ ed the ,

 N E W SERFDOM ( 1 8 6 4—1 9 1 7 ) 91
’
fir st fift e en ye a rs of Ca rol s reign the pe a s a nt question is remem ,

b ered in not one sin gle lin e

‘ 1
.

At the b egin ni ng of the second dec a de of the twentieth

century Rum a ni a n a gricultur e w as r a pidly recovering from the
shock of 1 907 a n d from a series of ba d h a rvests Exports were .

rising a n d l a n dl ords a n d their ten a nts very li kely looked forw a rd

,

t o an ot h er p eriod of rich pr ofi t s wi th the help of the pe a s a nt s

’
'

c a p a cit y to work much a n d live on little a n d of the St a te s ,

’

compl a cency towa rds doin gs on the la nd In other words the .

,

rura l world w a s returni ng to norm a l B efore however it could .

, ,

rega in to the full its lop sided st a bility a g a in a ch a in of externa l -

events followin g e a ch other in quick succession buffeted it

, ,
’
a b out with such incre a sing Violence a s fi n a ll to knock R um a n i a s
y
a gr a ri a n system out of the p erverse b a l a nce in w hi ch it h a d b een

kept for a century .

The fir st link in th a t cha in w a s forged by the B a lk a n W a rs of

1 9 1 2— 1 3 As R um a ni a w a s expectin g to b e dr a wn in to them a t
.

‘ ’
an
y moment the mor a le of the m a sses w a s prep a red for the
,

effort by the usu a l promise tha t l a nd would b e distributed a fter

the pe a ce Rum a ni a s p a rt in the second B a lk a n Wa r proved
.
’

a mere excursion a cross the D a nube with o nl y p a rt of her forces , ,

but th a t short expedi tion h a d an un expected e fi ect on her soldiers .

H a vi n g come to h a te so to spe a k these pe a s a nts a n d sons of , ,

pe a s a nts rem a ined to envy They sa w th a t in Bulg a ri a only .

,

a short dist a nce from their ow n pl a ces there w a s a country ,

whi ch knew not wha t l a rge property a n d m a sterful l a ndlords

were ; in which every pe a s a nt h ad his holding a n d the Vill a ges ,

were better built a n d the fi eld s b etter tilled th a n their own .

After the retur n from B ul g a ri a the l a te Ionel Br ati a nu recog ni zed

in a letter p ubli shed in L I n dép end an ce Rouma i n e the need for ’

l a nd reform ; a n d his then le a der D i mitrie S t ur d za referring to , ,

the poor response of the l a ndowners to the dem a nd for l a nd for

Vill a ge common s decl a red tha t their b a ckw a rdness j ust ifi ed
,
‘

the a pp lica tion of the expropri a tion principle The dre a d word ’
.

w a s spoken a t l a st Till then the ruling cl a ss h a d fa vour ed

.

r a ther th a n di scoura ged the growth of l a rge property a n d h a d ,

1 ‘
u
A gen z e ge u ’
, A us d em L eben Kon i g Ka r la von R umd n i en , 1 8 9 4 1 900
-
. Th e
‘
e ye witn es s ’
wa s Dr ch . S affe , fo me ro to r rly tut r Pri n c e C a rol .
92 THE NEW STATE
fegu a rded it by Ar t 1 9 of the Constitution whi ch forb a de
"

sa .
,

expropri a tion except a n d solely for the requi rements of publi c

‘

tra nsport pub lic he a lth a n d the defence of the country The
, ,
’
.

le a der of the a ll powerful Libera l Pa rty now a dmitted th a t those

-

restrictions might h a ve to go How fa r were S t ur d za s words

.
’

a progra m a n d not merely a sentiment ?

,

B efore thi s query co ul d b e properly propoun ded the exist ing ,

o rder of things sust a in ed a fresh a n d more for mi d a bl e shock .

One ye a r a hn ost to the d ay a fter the sig n ing of the Pe a ce of

B uc a rest the Gre a t Wa r broke out It threw Rum a ni a s r ul ers
, .
’

i nto a welter of h a rro w ing hopes a n d fe a rs Dur in g the two ye a rs .

which it took them to m a ke up thei r minds how to get the b est

‘ ‘ ’
without risking the worst expropri a tion a n d resettlement
,
’

freely re a ched the e a rs of the w a iting p e a s a nt soldi ers Promi ses .

were fl e a ting in the a ir but no one thought of bringin g them to

,

e a rth a n d imp atience w a s met with the usu a l : a fter the Wa r

,
‘
.
’

An d then— before the rocks of w a r coul d b e s a fely rounded— the

Russi a n Revolution burst upon them Ki ng a n d Governm ent .

a n d P a r li a ment were sur prised on the edge of i t in their refuge ,

a t J a ss ca u h t in between the Germ a n gun s a n d the Russi a n

y g
fl

red fl a gs The King j our neyed to the front a n d there solem nl y

.

’
a nnounced th a t the f a therl a nd s soil would there a fter b elo ng to

those who till ed i t The wheel of History h a d s w un g ro und

.

once ag a in the coun try wa s in dire need a n d the pe a s a nt w a s

,

restored to his old yeom a n st a nding .

 PART II
THE NEW LAND REFORM
 C H A P TE R V

THE LAND LAWS

P O L I T I CA L H I S T OR Y
T H O U GH R um a ni a seemed to develop stea dily from ye a r to
ye a r the p ea s a nt problem never cea sed to ra ttle omin ously a t
,

the g a tes of the young St a te In a lmost every one of its sessions

.

Pa rli a ment h a d to p a ss some me a s ure of a gra ri a n reform but ,

these c a nnot be a dj udged to h a ve been more tha n p a lli a tives .

As M S t ur d z a poin ted out in 1 907 a ll the gre a t ch a nges in the

.
,

soci a l st a tus of the p ea s a nts h a d been m a de pe a cefully by the ,

’
instrum ent of the la w Yet a t no time a fter 1 8 64 did R um a ni a s
.

rulers t a ke their own legisl a tive efforts seriously enough to try

to mea sure the results We the le a ders decl a red one of them
.
,
’
, ,

M Bibi ces eu h a d not suffi ci en t curiosity to fi n d out the

.
,
‘

precise res ul ts of th a t work on w hi ch we h a d b a sed such gre a t

’
hopes There were no st a tistics no inquiries no groun d b ook no
.
, , ,

soci a l rese a rch ; nor in these circum st a nces a n y considered

, ,

policy of a gra ri a n reconstruction A sound remedyi ng of the .

’
pe a s a nts troubles woul d h a ve dem a nded their endowment wi th
l a nd with tra in ing a n d with credit— a bove a ll with l a nd to
, ,

which the other two co ul d b e o nl y a ccessories But except the .

h a ndful of S oci a lists— who of course were thin king of tra ns

, ,

ferring property to the St a te r a ther th a n to the p ea s a n ts

neither of the two politic a l p a rties which sh a red the p ower
b etween them a dm itted the prin ciple of expropri a tion .

The Conserva tives represented by tra dition a n d membership

the big l a nded property Even those a mong them who s a w the
.

cra cks in the a gra ri a n structur e merely thought of how to p a tch

it up so a s to strengthen the l a ndowners They a dvoc a ted fi scal .

me a sur es which should force the l a ndowners to retur n to the

country a n d f a rm their est a tes a s well a s to m a ke them co opera te
,
-

for credit purch a se a n d s a le For the pea s a nts they merely pro
, , .

pounded freedom to sell a n d mortga ge their holding s— a freedom

which would soon h a ve sifted them into well to do pea s a nts a n d - -

l a ndless l a bour ers : the fi r st to strengthen the cl a ss of l a nded

96 THE LAND LAWS
cultiva tors the second to provide this cl a ss w ith plentiful h a nds
, .

These Views were el a bora ted a s l a te a s 1 9 1 4 in a Memor a ndum

of the Union of Agricultura l Syndic a tes a n orga ni z a tion of l a rge ,

owners which considered th a t by a boli shi ng in a lien a bili ty

,
‘

a process of selection will b e set going a mon the pe s nts

g a a

whereby the l a nd of those who a r e idle will b e concen tra ted in

the h a nds of those who a r e in dustrious Thus a mid dl e siz ed
.
-

property will b e crea ted in the h a nds of the more in telligent

pea s a nts a n d we shoul d h a ve likewise a cl a ss of fr e e la bour er s
, .

The St a te shoul d a ssist this evolution wi th credits ena bling the ,

more c a p a ble p e a s a nts to purch a se middl e sized holdi ngs from -

the l a rge est a tes Soon a fter the risin g of 1 907 the Conserva tive
.
,

Government of M Grigore Ca n t a cuz in o pl a yed with the ide a of

.

expropri a ting in full a ll the mortm a in est a te s in order to fore ,

st a ll a dem a nd for a wider expropri a tion The n a tur e of the .

compens a tion w a s not mentioned But the idea encoun tered .

much opposition a n d w a s soon a b a ndoned .

Am ong the Liber a ls the a gra ri a n element w a s in a minority ,

a n d it h a d m a inly a c a pit a list interest ; in gener a l th a t p a rty s

’
,

tendency w a s merc a ntili st A m a nifesto of May 1 8 8 8 even

.

deni ed the existence of a n a gra ri a n problem Th a t View co ul d no .

longer b e m a i nt a ined a fter the distur b an ces of the followi ng

ye a r a n d the fi er c e rising of 1 9 07— the yea r a fter the trium ph a nt
’
fortieth j ubilee of the St a te s existence But in 1 909 one of the .

Lib era l le a ders form a lly a nnounced his P a rty to b e opposed

to a ll ide a of expropri a tion Spe a k ing in the Ch a mber d uring
.
,

the deb a te on the Speech from the Tlno n e he decl a red th a t ,

expropri a tion w a s a g a in st their poli tic a l creed ; a n d th a t the ‘

country s a gricultura l structure could not b e ch a nged by

’

revolution a ry methods Two yea rs l a ter a Pa rty m a ni festo

’
. ,

insisted th a t by the reforms they h a d a pplied sin ce 1 907 the

’
Libera ls h a d b een trying to uproot from the p ea s a nts minds
’ ’
precisely the f a lse a n d d a ngerous belief th a t it w a s the St a te s
‘

’
function to provide them with l a nd In 1 9 1 2 the P a rty s fore .

most pea sa n t i st Spiru H a ret wrote th a t if it were i n his power

’
, ,

to reform Rum a ni a s country side he would h a ve the pe a sa nt s

’
-

a s ten a nt s r a ther th a n a s owners of their holdings And .

M V intil a Br ati a nu con fi rm e d these v a rious st a tements in a

.
 THE LAND LAWS 97

p a mphlet publi shed in 1 9 1 3 when he denoun ced a s dem a gogic ,

’

even pre mises for the expropri a tion of mortm a in est a tes .

The tur ni n g poin t c a me a few months l a ter a fter the return

-

,
’
from Bulga ri a Ionel Br ati a nu s public letter in the semi offi cia l
.
-

I n d ep en d a n ce Rouma i n e conceded th a t it might b e neces sa ry to

’

expropri a te the l a rge owners so a s to endow the p ea s a n ts with

l a nd Wh a t a pp a rently w a s contempl a ted a t the t ime w a s the
1
.

expropri a tion of est a tes a bove h a In the followi n g ye a r .

M V intil a Br ati a nu dem a nded the expropri a tion of

. ha .
,

to b e p a id by the pea s a nts a t the r a te of lei per hect a re ,

withi n fifty to sixty ye a rs The se c a lled Conserva tive Demo .

- -

cra tic group led by Ta ke Ionescu a ccepted the prin ciple of such
, ,

a reform but the Conserv a tive P a rty rem a in ed O pposed to i t

,
.

In 1 915 a fter the outbrea k of the Gre a t Wa r a few Con serva

, ,

t i ve s un der M M Ca n t a cuzin o seceded from the lea dershi p of

. .

M Al ex a nder Ma rghilom a n a n d likewise a ccepted the principle

.

of expropria tion .

1
c on v ers i on of M I on e l Brati n u an d h is P a rty t o t h e id ea of s w e pin g l n d
Th e . a e a

a n d fra n chi s e r efo r ms w as t oo s udd e n n o t t o c a u se so m e s urpri s e a n d t o m k e p pl e a eo

as k th e m e lv e s h ow a m e r e mil it ry e xcu s i on a cr oss t h e D a n ub e c ould so gr ea tly

s a r

di stu b a s ettl e d outloo k Th e foll owi n g i s t h r e p orte d hi story of t h e e pi sod

r . e e .

A C ons e rv a tiv e G o v e r nm en t u d e r Titu M io e s e u h a d b een i n p o w e r for fe w

,
n a r , a

m o th s wh en R u m n i
n n t e r e d t h e s e c o d B lk an w a r i n 1 9 1 3
a a e Th e Lib ra l P a rty n a , . e ,

a n d t h e Brati a n u fa m i ly h a d a lw a y s c ons id e r e d it a s on e of th ir pri v il ge s fr o m t h e

, e e ,

ti m e of t h e formation of t h e n ati on a l S tate t o pre id e o v e r a ll t h e i mp rtan t e v en ts , s o

which forme d t h e m il ston es of t h e coun try s hi story I n 1 9 1 3 th e refore I o e l

e
’
.
, , n

Brati a u cla i me d p ow e r e ithe r for a Libe ra l go v rnm n t or f r a n ation a l coah t i n

n e e o o

go v e r m en t u d e r h i s pr mi e rs hip Kin g C r o l re pli d th a t h e c o uld n ot di s m i s

n ,
n e . a e s,

With o ut gr o u n ds a go v rnm e t which w as n ew t o offi e n or a sk M Ma io ese u t h

, e n c , . r , e

gr a d o ld m a o f R u ma ni a s a c a d e mi c lif t o s e rv e u n d e r a re l a tiv ly y u g p oli

‘ ’ ’
n n e, e o n

t i ei na I e l Brati an u ppa re tly took thi s r fu s l s o d ee ply t o h e a rt — a s a re b uff

. on a n e a

t o h i s fa mi ly a n d t o h i P a rty th a t h e d e p a rt e d t o t h e h e a d qu a rt e rs of o e of t h e
s — -
n

a r mi es i n t h e fi eld a s c a pta i n o f a rtill e r y fully i te d i ng fr om th r e t o a nn un c

, h is , n n e o e

r e ti re me t from p olitica l life I t w as in th a t s ta te of d es p on d n t i n dign ati o th a t h e

n . e n

w as fo un d by M C on ta n tin S t e re t h e for e m s t p eas n t i s t th e re tic a

‘ ’
. s and at th e , o a o i n,

ti m t h e é mi n en e e gri se of t h e Libe ra l Pa rty Wh y r es i gn b e c a u s e y o u c a nn ot ga i n

e
‘ ’
.
‘

fa v o ur with t h e K in g 2 s ugges te d M S te re S ta y an d b c om e t h e fa v ourite f t h e

‘ ‘
. . e o

p e opl B y di stributin g l an d an d v otes a ta tes m an c ould g i a p opul arity which n o

e .
’
s a n

m on rch m i ght with s t n d Th e a dvic e w as t k en n d M S te r e w a as k e d t o pre p re

a a . a , a . s a

drafts for t h e t w o r for ms Wh a t t t h e on e h ow v r w s a gr a t en d i n it e lf t o

e . o , e e , a e s ,

t h e oth r w s m r ly e m a ns t o a n e d Th e dr fts o f M S te re w er th o u ght t o

a e e a e n . a . e o

r dic a l a n d w re s v er ly e xpur ga te d Y e t the ir ess ce w s s till suffi ci t ly evolu

a e e e . en a en r

t i o a y i n t h e e y es of t h e fi n e but v e ry c n se rv a tiv m o a rch He to o k fr ght a d

n r o e n . i , n

ga v e M Brati an u t h e go v e r n m en t t w a rd s t h en d of t h e y ea r pres u m a bly on t h e

.
, o e ,

u n d r ta n di ng th at t h e r for m s w o uld be s h lv e d ; as i d e d th e y w e re u ti l 1 9 1 7
e s e e n e n .

—Thi s i s t h e s tory a s priv a te ly t old by M C S te re h ims e lf . . .

H
96 THE LAND L AWS
cultiva tors the second to provide thi s cl a ss with plentiful h a nds
, .

These views were el a bora ted a s l a te a s 1 9 1 4 in a Memora ndum

of the Uni on of Agric ul tur a l Syn dic a tes a n orga niz a tion of l a rge
,

owners whi ch considered tha t by a b olishi n g in a lien a bili ty

,
‘

a process of selection wi ll b e set goin g a mo n the pe s nts

g a a

whereby the l a nd of those who a r e i d le w ill b e concentra ted in

the h a nds of those who a r e in dustrious Thus a middle siz ed
.
~

prop erty wi ll b e cre a ted in the h a nds of the more i ntelligent

pea s a nts a n d we should h a ve li kewise a cl a ss of fr e e la bour er s
, .

The St a te should a ssist this evolution with credits ena bling the ,

more c a p a ble p e a s a nts to purch a se middle siz ed holdi ngs from -

the l a rge est a tes Soon a fter the risin g of 1 907 the Conserva tive
.
,

Government of M Grigore Ca n t a cuzin o pla yed w ith the ide a of

.

expropri a ting in full a ll the mortm a in est a tes in order to fore ,

st a ll a dem a nd for a wider expropri a tion The n a tur e of the .

compens a tion w a s not mentioned But the idea encoun tered .

much opposition a n d w a s soon a b a ndoned .

Among the Libera ls the a gra ri a n element w a s in a mino ri ty ,

a n d it h a d m a in ly a c a pit a list i n terest ; in gener a l th a t p a rty s

’
,

tendency w a s merc a ntili st A m a nifesto of Ma y 1 88 8 even

.

denied the existence of a n a gra ri a n problem Th a t View could no .

"

longer b e m a int a ined a fter the di stur b an ces oi the fo llowi ng

ye a r a n d the fi er ce rising of 1 907— the ye a r a fter the trium ph a nt
’
fortieth j ubilee of the St a te s existence But in 1 909 one of the .

Lib era l le a ders form a lly a nnounced his Pa rty to b e opp osed
to a ll ide a of expropri a tion Spe a kin g in the Ch a mb er during
.
,

the deb a te on the Speech from the Throne he decl a red th a t ,

expropri a tion w a s a ga in st their poli tic a l creed ; a n d th a t the ‘

country s a gricultura l structure could not be ch a nged by

’

revolution a ry methods ’
Two yea rs l a ter a Pa rty m a ni festo
.
,

insisted th a t by the reforms they h a d a pplied sin ce 1 907 the

’
Libera ls h a d been trying t o uproot from the p ea s a nts min ds
’ ’
precisely the f a lse a n d da ngerous belief th a t it w a s the St a te s
‘

’
function to provide them with l a nd In 1 9 1 2 the Pa rty s fore .

most pea sa n t i st Spiru H a ret wrote th a t if it were in his power

,

to reform Rum a ni a s cou n try side he would h a ve the p e a sa nts

’
-

a s ten a nts ra ther th a n a s owners of t heir holdi ngs An d .

‘

M V intil a Br ati a nu con fi rm e d these va rious st a tements in a

.
 THE LAND LAWS 97

p a mphl et published in 1 9 1 3 when he denoun ced a s dem a gogic ,

’

even pre mises for the expropri a tion of mortm a in est a tes .

The tur ning poin t c a me a few months l a ter a fter the return -

,
’
from Bulga ri a Ionel Br ati a nu s publi c letter in the semi offi eia l
.
-

I n d ep en d an ce R ouma i n e conceded th a t it mi ght b e n ecess a ry to

'

expropri a te the l a rge own ers so a s to endow the p ea s a nts with

l a nd 1 Wh a t a pp a rently w a s contempl a ted a t the tim e w a s the
.

expropri a tion of est a tes a bove h a In the followi n g ye a r .

M V intil a Br ati a nu dem a nded the expropri a tio n of

. ha
to b e p a id by the pea s a nts a t the ra te of lei p er hect a re ,

withi n fi ft y to sixty ye a rs The s o c a ll ed Conserva tive Demo .

- -

cra tic group led by Ta ke Ionescu a ccepted the prin ciple of such
, ,

a reform but the Conserv a tive P a rty rem a ined O pposed to i t

,
.

In 1 9 1 5 a fter the outbre a k of the Gre a t Wa r a few Conserva

, ,

t i ve s un der M M Ca nt a cuz in o seceded from the lea ders hi p of

. .

M Alex a nder Ma rghilom a n a n d li kewise a cce p ted the prin ciple

.

of expropri a tion .

1 c on ve rs i on of M Ion e l Brati a u an d h i s Pa rty t o t h e id ea of s we epi n g l d

Th e . n an

a n d fr a n chi se r e fo r ms w as t oo s udd en n t t o c u s e s m e s u pris e a n d t o m k e p pl e o a o r a eo

as k th e ms lv es h ow a m e r e m i li ta ry e xcur s i n a cr os s t h e D a ub e c o uld so gr ea tly

e o n

di s tu b a settl e d outlook Th e fo ll owin g i s t h e re p orte d hi story of t h e e pi sod

r . e .

A Cons rv a tiv e G o v e rnm e n t un d e r Titu Ma i ores e u h a d b e n i n p o w e r for

e fe w , , e a

m on th s wh en R u m a ni a e tere d t h s e c on d B a lk an w ar i n 1 9 1 3 Th Lib r a l P a rty

n e , . e e ,

a n d t h e Br ati a n u f m i ly h a d a lw a y s c ons id re d it
a s on e of th i r privi l ge s fr o m t h e
,
e a e e ,

ti me of t h e forma ti on of t h e n a ti o a l S t te t o pr s id e v er a ll t h e i m p rtan t e v ts n a , e o o en

which f rm e d t h e mi l ston es of t h e c o u try s hi story I n 1 9 1 3 th e refore I o e l

o e n
’
.
, , n

Brati a u cl ai me d p owe r e ith er for a Lib era l gove rnm e t or for a n ati ona l c a liti on
n n o

go v rn me t un d e r h i s pr mi e rs hip Kin g C a rol re pli ed th a t h e c o ul d n ot di s mi ss

e n , e .
,

With out grou n ds a go v rnm en t which w a s n e w t o office n or a sk M Ma i r es eu t h e

, e , . o ,

gr n d old ma n of R um ni a s a c a d e m ic life t o s e rv e u n d e r a re l tiv e ly y o u n g p o li

‘ ’ ’
a a , a

t ie i na I e l Brati n u a pp a ren tly took thi s refu a l s o d ee ply t o h ea rt — a s a bufi

. on a s re

t o h is fa m il y an d t o hi s P a rt y— th a t h e d e p a rte d t o t h e h a d q u a rt e rs of on e of t h e e

a r mi es i n t h e fi e ld a s c a pta in o f a rtille ry full y i n ten din g fr om th e r e t o a nn o un c e h is

, ,

re t ire me t from p olitic a l life I t w as i n th a t s tate of d es p o d e t i n dign ati on th a t h e

n . n n

w as foun d by M C o s t a n tin S t e r e t h e f re m os t p ea s t i s t th eor tici

‘ ’
. n d at th e , o an e an , a n

ti me t h e emi n e n c e gri s e of t h e Lib e ra l Pa rty Wh y r es i gn b e c a u s y o u c ot g i n

’
.
‘
e a nn a

fa vo ur with t h e Kin g s u gge s te d M S te r e S t y a n d b e c o m t h e f v o ur te of t h e

‘
. . a e a i

p eopl B y di stributin g l d d v otes a stat s ma c oul d ga i n a p pul rity which o

e .
’
an an e n o a n

m on a rch m i ght with ta d Th dvic e w a s t ke an d M S t re w a s a s ke d t o pre pa re

s n . e a a n, . e

drafts for t h e t wo refor ms W h t t o t h e on e h ow e v e r w s a grea t en d i n itse lf t o. a , , a ,

t h e oth e r w s m r ly a m ns t o n en d
a e e Th e dr a fts of M S te r e w e r e th o u ght t oo
ea a . .

ra dic a l a n d w r s v e r ly e xpu g te d Y t the ir ess n c w s s till uffi ci en tly e volu

e e e e r a . e e e a s r

t io a y i n t h
n r yes of t h e fin but v ery c o s e rva tiv e mo a rch He too k fr ght a d
e e e n n . i , n

g v e M Brati an u t h e go v rnm e t t ow a rd s t h e en d of t h y ea r pr es u m a bly on t h e

a . e n , e ,

un d r tan di ng th at t h e ref rms w ould b s h e lv e d ; a s i d ee d th e y w e re u t 1l 1 9 1 7

e s o e n n .

— Thi s i s t h e s tory a s priv a te ly told by M C S te r hi ms e lf . . e .

H
98 THE LAND LAWS
In the me a nwhi le the Lib era l Pa rty h a vin g b een c a lled to
,

p ower in Decemb er 1 9 1 3 they proceeded to elect a Constituent

,

Assembly with power to revise the a rticles of the Constitution

restricti n g expropri a tion a n d the fra n chise The new Assemb lies .

met in J une 1 9 1 4 a n d a ppointed two p a rli a ment a ry Commi ssio n s

,

to work out propos a ls for the two reforms S oon a fterw a rds the .

Wa r broke out a n d the Constituent Assemblies were not a g a in

convened to tulh l their fun ctions till thr ee ye a rs l a ter The .

Commission for l a nd reform a ccording to one of its members, ,

‘
met twice during th a t i n terva l but n o work w a s don e a t a ll, .

In 1 9 1 4— nothing ; in 1 9 1 5 — nothing ; th a t w a s a ll its prep a r a tory

work .

Rum a ni a entered the w a r in August 1 9 1 6 From th a t moment .

m a ny n e w truth s a n d doubts b eg a n to work upon the p e a s a nts ’

minds As everywhere they were extolled a s heroes in speeches

.
,

a n d a rticles w hi ch left a bitter t a s te when tested by the re a li ties

of their existence The a dva nce into Tra nsylva ni a h a d the

.

s a me e ffect on the outlook of the Rum a ni a n soldiers a s h a d the

a dv a n ce into Bulg a ri a in 1 9 1 3 The physic a l s ufi er in gs whi ch
.

they h a d to unde r go were perh a ps u n p a ra lleled in a n y other

the a tre of w a r ; a n d a s fa r a s thes e m en co ul d see a n d j udge ,

m a ny of their sufferings were due to the f a ilure of their betters

a s le a ders a n d a dministr a tors Moreover these doubts a s to the
.
,

fi t n e ss of those who r ul ed them w ere fostered for the i r own

con venience by the Germ a n a n d other m ili t a ry who occupied
, ,

two thirds of the coun try for n e a rly two ye a rs Knowin g the
-
.

a nt a gonism whi ch divided the rur a l cl a sses i n Rum a n i a the ,

Germ a ns c a me prep a red with l a rge qu a ntities of procl a m a tions ,

printed in ba d Rum a ni a n wi th w hi ch they a pp a rently i ntended

,
’
to bre a k in c a se of need the cou n try s power of resist a nce
, , .

‘
The Germ a ns s a id th a t m a nifesto h a d come to free the
’
, ,
‘

p e a s a nts from their bonda ge to the boia r s a n d to di stribute the

‘
l a nd a mo n g them It invited them to rise a n d to ch a se a wa y
’
.

their l a ndlords a n d rulers M a rsh a l M a ckensen did not fi n d it

’
.

nece ss a ry to m a ke use of this di s rupti n g instrument but the ,

se n timent therein cont a ined no doubt found other ch a nnels of

expression during the prolonged cont a ct between the foreign
troops a n d the Rum a ni a n pea s a ntry In Mold a vi a w here the .
,
 THE LAN D LAWS 99

Rum a ni a n Government a n d a l a rge p a rt of the pop ula tion h a d

t a ken refuge the old cl a ss di sti n ction contin ued to filt er through
,

even in the emergency legisl a tion destined to ea se the stress of the

moment In 1 9 1 7 the Governm ent found it nece s s a ry to decree
.

the compulsory cultiva tion of l a n d a ccording to a n est a b li s hed

,

pl a n ; l a ndowners a n d their ten a nts fa ili n g to c a rry out these

oblig a tions were thre a tened with a fi n e where a s pea s a n ts refu s i n g
,

to la b our were li a ble to b e cour t m a rtia lled a n d im prisoned from

-

one to three ye a rs .

All these incidents a n d i nfl uen ce s which were ferme n ti n g the

pe a s a n ts disconte n t were given sub sta nce by the sudden
’

colla pse of l a ndl ordship in Russi a It h a s a lr e a dy bee n men

.

’
t i on ed how sensitive R um a ni a s p e a s a n try w a s to h a ppeni n gs
in the n eighbouring Empire ; how the Russi a n em a n cip a tion of
1 8 6 1 w a s foll owed by the Rum a n i a n in 1 8 6 4 a n d the Russi a n ,

revolution of 1 9 05 by the risi n g in Rum a ni a in 1 907 I n 1 9 1 7— 1 8 .

th a t in fl uen ce m a de itself more directly felt th a n it h a d ever done

b efore The Rum a n i a n front in Mold a via n a mely w a s held
.
, ,

j ointly by Russi a n a n d Rum a ni a n forces the units of the two ,

a rmies b eing interspersed The r a n k a n d fi le of the Rus s i a n

.

reg iments like the bulk of the Russi a n a rmy a t once took m a tters
, ,

into its own h a nds when the news of the Revolution re a ched
’
them They beg a n to org a n iz e s oldiers councils a n d the
.

Rum a ni a n soldiers could he a r them a rguing for the possession of

the l a nd Such discussions touched to the qui ck wh a t w a s still
.

’
the Ruma ni a n pe a s a nts most i n gra ined beli ef None of the .

cha nges which h a d a ltered the system of l a nd tenure duri n g the

previous century co ul d era dic a te the pe a s a nts tra nsmitted ’

convi ction th a t they h a d a right to the use of the l a n d on which

they were settled The persistence of the system of sh a re
.

cultiv a tion h a d help ed to keep a live th a t b elief a s in a ppe a ra nce ,

it conti n ued with merely a ch a n ge in the respective portions

, ,

the old tithe system ; where a s a mo n ey w a ge system would h a ve

-

m a de a cle a n bre a ch b etween property a n d l a bour As things .

were the pe a s a nts took it for gra nted tha t when they h a d not
,

enough la nd the l a n d of th e St a te or of the l a ndlords h a d to b e

,

used to meet their n eeds ; this bei n g on e of the re a sons why m a ny

p eople h a d opposed the custom of pl a c a ting the pe a s a nt s w ith
11 2
1 00 THE L AND LAWS
occ a sion a l gra nts of l a nd Now the Rum ani a n sol di ers a n d .

p ea s a nts s aw the Russia n soldiers a b a ndon their regiments ,

especi a lly when Comm uni st a git a tors bega n to a rrive a n d trek ,

home to t a ke possession of the l a nd Nor di d the Com muni sts .

a llow the lesson of this ex a mple to si n k o f itself into the he a r ts of

the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nts With un restra ined revolutiona ry zea l

.

they b eg a n to a ddress their inciteme n ts to the Rum a ni a n popul a

tion a s well a n d to terrorize the Rum a ni a n a uthorities Russi a n
, .

regim ents gone red p a ra ded the streets of J a ssy ; the prison
‘ ’

w a s broken into a n d R a kowsky a n d other Communists of

Rum a ni a n origin were set free ; a n d still more d a ring a cts were
b ei n g prep a red when a t the eleventh hour they were forest a ll ed
by the Roy a l Procl a m a tion which initi a ted the gre a t reforms .

The dra m a tic story of th a t historic a ct h a s been tersely told by

Professor N Iorga in 1 925 when he rose in the Ch a mb er to
.
,

protest a g a inst the suspen sion of a n Opposition deputy from

B ess a ra bi a M Ion Buzdug a n In 1 9 1 7 M B uzdug a n w a s serving
, . . .

in the Russi a n a rmy a n d a fter the fir st revolution b ec a me

a commiss a r with one of the reg i ments on the Mold a vi a n front .

At the risk of his life s a id M Iorg a , .

h e u s e d t o s py u p on t h e m e e t in gs o f t h e B o l s h e v i k c om m i tt e e a n d e v e r y
n igh t h e c a m e t o r e p o rt t o m e for h e h a d l e a r n t t h a t t h e B o l s h e v i k s
,

w a n t e d t o c a p tu r e t h e K in g i n J a s s y .

‘
M D ue a i s h e r e n ow
. On e Th ur s d a y n igh t h e s a i d t o m e : It i s
.

t e rr ib l e t h a t a n y o n e s h ou l d ca p tu r e R um a n ia s K in g b e l o v e d by h i s ’
,

p eo p l e i n t h e ce n tr e of h is o w n C a p i t a l W h a t s h a l l w e d o
, .

‘
I n d ee d w e we r e a ll a s k in g ou r s e l v e s wh a t w e s h oul d d o A n d of a ll
, .

t h es e t h in gs M B u z duga n wh om y ou h a v e su sp e n d e d k e p t m e in fo r m e d
.
, ,
.

He us e d t o com e t o m e e v e r y n igh t a t t h e r i s k o f h i s l ife t o gi v e m e a n

, ,

a cc ou n t o f w h a t w a s h a pp e n i n g w h i l e I i n m y t ur n p a ss e d on t h e
,

i n fo r m a t ion t o t h e A m e r ic a n Min i s t e r Mr A n d r e w s A n d o n a S a tu r d a y
, . .
,

a t 1 1 o c l oc k Mr A n d r ews t o l d m e t h a t Th a n k s t o t h e p e r s on w h o
’ “
, . :

b r ough t y o u t h e in fo r m a t io n a n d t o m y in t e r v en t ion t h e d a n ge r i s
, ,
”
r emo v e d . I n fa c t o n S un d a y t h e K i n g w a s n o l on ge r i n J a s s y H e
, .

said t o m e I ca n be o f n o us e h e r e ; I a m goin g t o t h e fr on t a m on g m y
: ,

s o l d ie r s . A n d h e we n t wi t h a p r oc l a m a t io n His Ma j e s t y wil l p a r d on —

m e fo r s a y i ng i t — i n t h e w r i t in g o f w h i c h I a m p r ou d t o h a v e c o ll a b o
r a t e d : It w a s w r itt e n by m e i t w a s w r i tt e n i n t h e s tr e e t t h a t p r ocl a m a
, ,

t io n wh i ch p l e d ge d l a n d t o t h e so l d ie r s a n d t h e r igh t t o v o t e .
’

At th a t very moment , at the request of their western Allies ,

 THE LAN D LAWS 1 01

Russi a a n d Rum a ni a were prep a rin g to t a ke t h e offensive in ,

a l a st a ttempt a t checking the coll a pse of the e a stern front ;

a nd some gestur e therefore w a s a lso needed for the p urpose of

, ,

ra ising the mora le of the di scoura ged Rum a ni a n troops — to

inspire them to this new effort j ust when the insi di ous B olshevik
cry of p ea ce a n d l a nd w a s runn in g like w ild fir e a long the lines
‘ ’
.

King Ferdin a nd Visited the front e a rly in April a n d spoke to the

troops which were being reorg a ni zed in Vie w of the comi n g
offensive a s follows ,

S o n s of p ea s a n t s w h o w i t h y ou r ow n h a n d s h a v e d efe n d e d t h e so i l
‘
, , ,

on w h i c h y ou we r e b o r n on w h i c h y ou r l i v e s h a v e b e e n p a sse d I y ou r
, , ,

K in g t ell y ou t h a t b e si d e s t h e gr e a t r e com p en s e of v i c t o r y w h i c h w i l l
,

a ssu r e fo r e v e r y on e o f y ou t h e n a t i on s g r a t i t u d e y ou h a v e e a r n e d t h e
’
,

r igh t of b e in g m a st e r s i n a l a rge r m e a su r e of t h a t so i l u p on wh ic h
, ,

y ou fough t .

L an d will be gi v en y ou I y ou r K in g a m t h e fi rst t o s et t h e ex
‘
.
, ,

a m p l e ; a n d y o u wi ll a l s o t a k e a l a r ge p a rt i n p u b l i c a ffa i r s
’
.

Then a n d l a ter the Ki ng insisted in priv a te convers a tion

,

tha t the initi a tive for the l a nd reform h a d come from him .

‘ ’
I wa nt it to b e known he s a id e g to the vetera n j ourn a list , . .
,

M Cost a for u th a t a s rega rds the gra ntin g of l a n d to the

.
,
‘
,

pe a s a nts the ide a w a s mi ne I le a ve a ll modesty a side a n d sa y

, .

O penl y th a t the merit is mine Two months l a ter the principles .

,

of the reform h a d b ecome p a rt of the co untry s la w ’

.

F i xi ng the B a s i s of th e Refor m In hi s S ozi a li s mus a n d S ozi a le .

F r age Professor S om ba r t rem a rks th a t people sometimes point

out how grea t soci a l reforms were a dvoc a ted by b ourgeois
ide a li sts forgetting tha t those reforms woul d never h a ve b een
,

c a rried out without the pressure of the cl a ss interested in them .

In Rum a ni a the l a nd reform m a y b e s a id to h a ve b een brought

a bout by the p oten ti a l pressure of a p e a s a ntry roused by the

Wa r a n d by the B olshevi k revolution Though the principle of .

the reform h a d by most people been a ccepted before its d im en ,

sions a n d ch a ra cter were determined by the events of 1 9 1 7 1 8 —

.

One might put it p a ra doxica lly a n d sa y th a t it w a s j ust the

extreme vi olence of the Russi a n revolution th a t s a ved the pe a ce
in Rum ani a a s in other neighbourin g countries ; th a t the
,

horror of wh a t w a s h a ppeni ng next door c a used Rum a ni a s ’

1 02 THE LAND LAWS
rulers a n d l a n dl ords h a stily to surrender thei r s hi rts when in ,

less stormy times they might h a ve b a rg a ined h a rd for a button 1 .

Much e nli ghtenment on this p oint m ay b e g a in ed from the

conditio n s under which the a ctu a l bill c a me into b eing The .

p e a s a nt m a sses most of them b ein g un der a rms spectra lly , ,

domin a ted the situ a tion like th e ghost in Ha mlet ; but though ,

they imposed the reform they h a d no voice wh a tever in the ,

m a king of i t They were not cons ulted when it w a s b eing dr a fted

. .

In 1 8 5 6 in the d i van a d h oc which w a s to prep a re the w a y for

,

independence e a ch cou n ty h a d a p e a s a nt a mo n g its deleg a tes , .

But the Constituent Assembly of 1 91 7 a fter h a lf a century of ,

independe n ce h a d a mong its members not a single p e a s a nt who ,

1
dire ct i nfl ue ce of t h e R u i n e v n ts on t h progr ess of t h ref r m i
Th e n ss a e e e o n

R u m i a h a r p ea te dly b en a d m itte d by R u m n i
an s e p h t i c i a s of ll c o l o ur s I n
e a an o n a .

a di s cr e t w a y i n k ee pi n g with t h e p p r s s e m i o fii i l s t tu s thi s w s a t on c e con

’ ’
e , a e -
c a a , a

fes e d by t h e I n d ep en d n ce R ouma i n e i i t s l a d e r of 22 d Ma y 1 9 1 7 Th e l ea d r b g n
’

s a , n e n e e a

by yi n g th t it h a d b e e th o ught wi se r ot t o a tte m pt a n y e x t e ns iv e r eforms dur i g

sa a n n n

th W e But it h a vi g b ee n pro v e d by our e aste rn n e i ghb o ur th t o e ca s olve

ar .
,
n a n n ,

e v n duri g t h W r i n fi n i te ly m or d ffi cult n d c ompl e x pr bl e ms a n u d ers ta di g

e n e a , e i a o , n n n

c m e b o ut s p n t n u s ly b tw e n our S o v re i gn a n d t h G v e r m e t a n d t h a s
a a o a eo e e e e o n n , i

b d e cid e d th at t h e a gr ari a a n d e l ctor l r eforms m u st ot be d e l a y e d a y l on ger

een n e a n n ,

a t l ea s t i n s o f r a s r ega rd s th e ir i rti on i to o ur C o s t tuti o An d t h e p a p e r

’
a nse n n i n .

a dd d a s e nt e n c e up on which M I e rga s s t o ry fo r m s a s u gges tiv e c o mm n t ry

’ ‘
e Th e . e a :

r f r m s it s a y s wi ll b l i k e t h e p a ct of a n ew a lli a nce b etw een t h e dyn sty d t h e

e o
’
, ,
‘
e a an

p eo pl e b etwe n t h e ruli g cl as s an d t h e w orki g cl asses S pea kin g i n t h Ch m b er

, e n n .
’
e a

a t J ass y i J uly 1 9 1 7 Dr N Lupu th n a l e a d r of t h e n e wly for m e d L b ur gr o up

, n , .
, e e a o ,

c om pl a i n e d th at othi ng h ad b een d o e dur i g t h thre e y ea rs s in c e t h e C ons titu en t

n n n e

A ss m bly w a s fi r s t c o v e d i n 1 9 1 4 ; th o u gh by p a ss i g t h e r efor m b efore e n te ri n g

e n ne ,
n

t h e fr y w e s h ould h a v e put on e m ore m or a l c o victi on i to t h e s oldi e r s kn a p sa ck

‘ ’ ’
a n n .

A n d th e n h e a dd e d a n d i f on 2m d M rch 1 9 1 7 t h e grea t R u s s i a n r e v o luti on h d

‘
: a , a

n o t br o k en o ut which bru s q u e ly up s t t h ,
c ourse of hi story I d o ubt if w e w ould h a v e e , e

d o e a ythi g v en n ow I n t h e exp os ed e motifs t o t h e n e w C ons tituti on priv a te ly

n n n e .
,

circul a ted t o m mb e rs of P rli a men t i n 1 9 23 M Ch ir cul scu t h e r pp ort e ur j u ti

e a , . e , a , s

fi d t h e ch a n ge s by blu n tly s ta ti n g th a t th e y h a d t ch o os b e tw e e C o s tituti on or

e o e n n

R e v o luti on Wh a U n it a ri a n d e l g ti on fr o m U S A vi ite d R u m a n i a i n 1 9 24 t o
. en e a . . . s ,

i n quire i t t h c mpl a i ts of the ir co r e li gi on i sts M Ale x a n d r Cons t an t i n ese u t h e

n o e o n -

,
. e ,

Lib e ra l M i i st r of Agriculture to ld th e m t h t t h e gra ri a n r efor m h a d b n n cess ry

n e ,
a a ee e a

t w rd o ff B l s h vi s m Lik e wi s
o a owh en d efen di g t h e refor m b for t h C u c i l of
e . e, n e e e o n

t h L gu of N a ti on i M rch 1 9 27 M T i t ule s u th n M i i st r for F or i gn Aff ir s

e ea e s, n a , . e , e n e e a ,

i n i s te d th a t t h e r eform h a d b n a n i n stru men t f s o ci l d fe c e To m i n t i n s oci a l

s ee o a e n . a a

o rd r i n C e tr l E ur op e R u m n i a i m p s d up on h e r l a d o w n rs s c r ifi c s with o ut
e n a , a o e n e a e

p ra ll e l i hi s tory
a nI t h d b ee n a c a se of s vi ng t h e pri n cipl e of i n dividu l prop erty
. a a a

it lf A m or c om pre h e s iv e vi e w w a s e xpre ss d i n a n a rticl e which pp ea r ed i n

se .
’
e n e a

t h e Buc a re t A d evé ul on 25 t h A u gu s t 1 9 24
s I t s id th t t h e a gra ri a a d p olitic l
r ,
. a a n n a

re for m ori gi a lly a dv c t d by t h S oci li sts h a d b een o pp ose d as m uch by t h e

s, n o a e e a ,

Lib r l s a s by t h e C n e rv tiv e a d th a t th y h a v e b e n r al i d i n ful l m s ure

e a o s a s, n
‘
e e e ze ea

th nk s o n ly t o t h Wa th a k s t o t h u n i on [ with t h e n ew pr vi n c es som of w h om
a e r, n e o , e

h d b e tt r a gr ri a
a n d p litic a l c o n d ti
e a s ] a d t h n k s t o t h e gr ea t a gr a ri n t r a s
n a o i on , n a a n

for m t i on which t oo k pl c a r o u n d us duri g t h e Wa r

’

a a e n .
 THE LAND LAWS 1 03

might sp e a k for hi s fell ows i n this deb a te th a t concerned them

most of a ll There were some progressive deputies of the third
.

college a n d a bout ten of them broke a w a y from the Libera l

‘
P a rty a n d formed them s elve s i n to a L a bour group 1 These ’
.

’
deputies considered the Governm ent s propo s a ls i n a dequ a te but ,

none of them w a s consulted b efore the pre limin a ry bill w a s

dr a fted a n d they fi n a lly voted a ga inst it Nor did the bill issue
,
.

from the expert l a bours of the sp eci a l P a rli a ment a ry com

missio n s Its m a in principles represe n ted a b a rga in b etween the
.

two big p a rties worked out in priva te b etween Ion Br ati a n u a n d

,
’
Ta ke Ionescu Th a t is a s it a lw a ys h a s b een bitterly rem a rked
. ,

a deputy .

Th e d e t h r on e m e n t o f t h e n a t io n a l P r in c e Cu z a i n 1 8 6 6 t h e Con s t it u , , ,

t ion of 1 8 6 6 —t h e s e we r e t h e r e su lt s o f a b a r ga in b e twe e n t h e p a rt ie s .

Th e l a w s o n a gr i cu lt u r a l con tr a c t s o f 1 8 6 6 a n d 1 8 7 2 ; t h a t o f 1 8 8 2 ; t h a t
of P C a r p of 1 8 9 2 a n d fi n a lly M B r at ia n u s l s t la w o f 1 9 07 a ll h a v e
.
, .
’
a —

r esu lt e d fr o m a b a rga in b e t w e e n L i b e r a l a n d C on s e r v a t i v e p o l i t ici a n s ,

a n d a ll t h e se b a r ga i n s w e r e m a d e a t t h e e xp e n s e o f t h e p e a s a n t s a n d s o , ,

far fr o m t h e i r h a v i n g gi v e n t h e i r con s e n t t o t h e m t h e y w e r e m a d e w i t h ,

o ut t h e i r b e i n g e v en l i s t e n e d t o w i t h ou t t h e i r b e i n g e v e n c a l l e d i n
, .

In this c a se P a rli a ment a ry commissio n s a n d Pa rli a ment were

,

merely a s ked to register the new b a rg a in which w a s submitted ,

to them with the intim a tion th a t the a greeme n t b etween the ‘

’
p a rties must n ot b e touched To simpli fy the discussion the .
,

two Pa rli a ment a ry commis sions a ppointed i n their tur n s ub

commis sions from which by a useful coi n cide n ce two well , ,

know n professors of Buc a rest University memb ers of the ,

m a j ority were left out— the deputy B a sile seu a n d sen a tor
,

Di s s e s cu both of whom h a d l a id before the Ch a mb er dr a fts of

—

their own for the a gra ri a n a n d politic a l reforms .

This method of work w a s r e fl ect e d in the b a sis on which the

discussion proceeded As the proposed reform w a s intended to
.

effect a ch a nge in l a nd tenure i t s pra ctic a l extent might h a ve ,

been determined with some degree of sci en t ific a ccura cy by

c a lcula ting either the a re a th a t could b e m a de a va il a ble or the ,

a re a th a t would b e requir ed for providing a give n num b er of

1
Th e y w e re R a dic l s r th e r th a n S ci li ts but th y a d o pt d th t a me a pp
a a o a s , e e a n a

ren t ly i n t h e h op e th a t th e ir gro up m ight a ct as a bridge b e twe t h R us i a re volu en e s n

t i on r i es a n d t h e R u m a i n boi a s tow ard s wh m t h e R u s i a n s d s pl a ye d a

‘ ’
a n a r , o s i

c on te m ptuo u s h tre d a .
 1 04 THE LAND LAWS
pe a s a nts with hol d ings of a given size Th e prot a go n ists how .
,

ever followed neither of these two lin es in their a rgument They

, .

simply contended a round a figur e a t whi ch the a re a to b e

expropri a ted w a s to b e mech ani c a lly a n d a rbitra rily fix e d The .

Libera ls who in 1 9 1 4 w a nted to expropri a te

, h a in .
,

1 9 1 7 stood for ha The Conserva tives considered

.

th a t h a would b e a s much a s they coul d a llow an d

.

thre a tened to c a use a popul a r a git a tion if the Government went

f a rther Th e L a bour group dem a nded the expropri a tion of a ll
.

est a tes b eyond a m a x i m um of 1 00 h a per own er a vi ew whi ch .

, ,

l a ter on b ec a me the st a ndpoint of the Pe a s a nt Pa rty formed

,

a fter the Wa r According to the c a lc ul a tions of Dr Lupu the

. .
,

a pplic a tion of this propos a l would h a ve m a de it possible to endow

a ll p e a s a nt cultiv a tors wi th holdings of 5 h a e a ch l a rge property .

,

b ei n g left with a tot a l a re a of hect a res ; the Govern ment s ’

p pre os a l left in its possession h a .

The Government found itself in a qu a nd a ry A Constituent .

Assembly required a quorum of two thirds but the Government s -

,
’

supporters were fi ve short of th a t numb er a s some of the mem ,

bers of Pa rli a ment h a d rem a ined b ehi nd in occupied territory .

This a n d other circumst a nces were used by the Conserva tives a s

b a rga ining points whereby they forced a compromi se whi ch
fi x e d the a re a to b e expropri a ted a t h a Moreover .
,

they forced the Governm e n t to a b a ndon its intention of expr o

r ia t in t h e subsoil too ; though thi s w a s l a ter c a rried t hr ough
p g ,

in the Constitution of 1 9 23 Even se a Conserva tive le a der .

, ,

M Argen t oi a n u ( now a le a din g member of the Liber a l P a rty )

.

denounced the la w a s b e ing b a sed on a sentiment of cl a ss struggle -

’
I t is a la w of p ersecution directed a ga inst a whole cl a ss But
‘
.
,

the m a ss of the people a ccepted it a s one of the fi r st signs of gr a ce

a mong the men who ruled the coun try ; a n d M Mih a la ch e the .
,

present le a der of the Pe a s a nt P a rty a dmits th a t n ot wi t h st a n d , ,

ing its shortcomings the reform of 1 91 7 c a used a true w a ve of

,
‘

’
rej oici ng a mong a ll of us who were figh t in g a t the front 1
.

L egi s la ti ve E voluti on of th e P r op os a ls Duri ng the preli min a ry .

discussio n s four dr a fts were p rep a red by the Governm ent in tur n ,

1
Th e m o d ifi ca t ion of the C o s tituti on
n wa s ompr ga e ul t d by d e cre e No 7 21
the .

011 19 th J uly 19 17, publi s h e d in t he M on i tor ul Ofi cia l No 93 . of 20t h J uly 1 9 1 7 .

 THE LA ND LAWS 1 05

a ll of them b a sed on the compromise re a ched with the Conserva

t i ve s They v a ried however from e a ch other in form a n d in
.
, ,

det a ils which showed tra ces of the pressure exercised by v a rious
vested interests ; so th a t the fi n a l wording a s the Prime Minister ,

‘ ’
a dmitted w a s
,
not very eleg a nt A few of the ch a n ges helped .

to simpli fy a n d to improve the text but the bulk of them c a used ,

much un e a sin ess a mong the more progressive elements in

P a rli a ment The origin a l text of the underst a nding conceded
.

‘
th a t i n a ddition to re a sons of public utility the expropri a
tion of a ra ble l a nd is a lso a dm itted in the following me a sure ,

a n d co n ditions for the pur pose of exten di ng the a re a of pe a s a n t

,

property in l a nd The me a ni ng of this w a s cle a r a n d fra nk ;

’
.

there w a s no pretence th a t the tra nsfer of l a nd to the pe a s a nts

could be bra cketed with the severa l me a sures of public utility
mentioned in the Constitution It w a s left for a ll to underst a nd .

wh a t mos t p eople knew th a t it w a s r a ther a c a se of politic a l

,

neces s ity The fi n a l dra ft however ste a lthily a voided the point
.
, ,

a n d m a de use of a new po litic a l notion by s a yi ng th a t for re a sons

of n a ti on a l uti li ty the a re a of pe a s a nt l a nd property is enla rged

,

by the expropri a tion of a ra ble l a n d in the following mea sures ,

a n d conditions The new text like the old a rticle of the

’
.
,

Constitution which it wa s me a nt to repl a ce a ga in lim ited the ,

right of expropri a tion in genera l to fi x e d prop erty a n d then for

s e cifi c re a sons only The Professor of L a w in the Buc a rest
p .

Uni versity M B a sileseu found it especi a lly unp a rdon a ble th a t

, .
,

a n Assembly elected on the b a sis of a three cl a ss fr a nchise should -

thus hedge in the rights of fut ure Pa rli a ments which woul d b e ,

elected by uni vers a l fra nchise .

Another ch a nge concerned the f a te of the sub soil The .

origin a l dra ft h a d s a id not hi n g a bout this presum a bly me a n ing ,

tha t it should b e trea ted like the surfa ce to which it belonged .

B ut the fi n al te x t exempted from expropri a tion h a of .

l a nd est a blished to b e a r oil without indi ca ti ng how a n d by

,

whom the oil b ea rin g ch a ra cter of th a t l a nd wa s to be determ i ned

-

Nor did it gra nt simila r preferenti a l trea tment to la nd cont a i ni ng

other minera ls The ch a nge w a s genera lly reg a rded a s a con
.

cession to the Conserva tive Ca n t a cuzin o f a mily who owned ,

e xtensive properties in the more renowned oil fi e ld s -

.
 1 06 THE LAND LAWS
A further point a g a inst which much criticism w a s di rected
w a s the decision to t a ke individu a l est a tes a s the u n its to which
expropri a tion should b e a pplied ; a n a rra ngement which w a s
considered to b e ba d la w a n d worse pr a ctice Expropri a tion .

could j uridic a lly a ffect the rights of ownership of a cert a in in di

vidu a l but not the obj ect to which those rights referred a n d
,

which w a s not a j uridic a l entity Moreover the propos a l w a s

.
,

deprec a ted a s introducing a h a ph a z a rd element into the criterion

of expropri a tion ; fa vouring those who h a ppened to own a 11
h e r of est a tes a s a ga inst other s who owned a simila r or lesser
extent in one comp a ct property a n d b ein g even more p a tently
,

unfa ir to j oint owners of a n est a te who were preven ted by leg a l

circumst a nces from dividi n up the propert y The L a b o ur
g .

group therefore a n d a few other memb ers of P a rli a ment

, , ,

unsuccessfully urged th a t expropri a tio n should b e a pplied t o

e a ch subj ect in a n equ a l me a sure a n d not to the v a rious a n d
,

v a ryi n g obj ects which formed hi s possessions .

More di s turb in g th a n a ll these det a ils w a s the genera l

in d e fi n it en e s s which p erme a ted the proposed texts They di d .

not in truth constitute a reform but merely the enun ci a tion of

,

the p r inciples on which the reform w a s eventu a lly to b e c a rried

out None of the elements of the reform w a s fi n a lly fi x e d The
. .

tot a l extent , h a to b e expropri a ted from the a re a

.
,

priv a tely owned w a s indeed prescribed but not the a ction itself ;
,

a n d this w a s m a de worse by the err a tic gr a mm a r of the form u la

—
evidence of a n une a sy birth After emph a tic a lly a ffir m in g th a t
.

‘
the pe a s a nt property i s a ugme n ted by the text v a c a n tly
ch a nged its mood a n d tense in the next p a ra gra ph when it c a me ,

to s a ying how th a t incre a se w a s to b e brought a b out a n d ,

a nnou n ced th a t there wi ll be expropri a ted

‘
— though the

fi r s t opera tion could cle a rly only follow from a n d a fter the
seco n d The compl a int then m a de th a t this w a s a promise of
.
,

reform r a ther th a n the reform itself a ppe a red j ust ifi e d for t h e

, ,
’
‘
will b e expropri a ted w a s m a de dep endent on a sp eci a l
expropri a tion la w to b e p a s s ed within six months a fter the end
of the Wa r a n d — th a t w a s the er ux —w ith the two thirds m a j ority
,
-

required for a mendme n t s to the Constitution Wh a t thi s .

a mounted to in pr a ctice w a s th a t the decision m a d e in 1 9 1 7 t o ,

 THE LAND LAWS 1 07

c a rry through a sweeping l a nd reform w a s left to b e c onfi r m e d ,

by a second decision a fter the Wa r The s a me v a gueness per .

me a ted other essenti a l pro vision s of the text For inst a nce .
'

expropri a tion w a s to b e a pplied a ccor di n g to a progr essive sc a le

but this sc a le w a s not determined a n d m a de know n And the .

fi xi n g of the compens a tion to b e p a id to the l a n down er s w a s to

be ultim a tely left to the J udi cia ry— a n a rra ngement which
thre a tened to prove a s el a stic in t ime a s it w a s in sub s t a nce .

Ag a in nothing a t a ll w a s s a id a bout the price whi ch the pe a s a nts

,
’
would h a ve to pay for the l a nd There w a s merely the King s
.

‘
promise m a de a t the front th a t he would give them l a nd like
, ,

S tefa n the Gre a t which litera lly interpreted wo ul d h a ve me a n t

’
,

without a n y p a yment a t a ll For a ll these re a sons M Ga r ofli d

.
, .

ch a rged the work of the Constituent Assembly with h a vi n g b een

‘
not a piece of s ci en t ifi c reform but merely a n electora l m a ni
,

festo. It could not b e s ci en t ifi c— i n the a b sence of a ground

book of ex a ct st a tistics on the d istribution of property— to p a ss
,

a s la w a me a sure a pplic a ble to a st a te of things which w a s

’
unknown to us .

Memories oiz how interest in the pe a s a nts a lw a ys sl a cke n ed

a fter the emergency by which it w a s a roused h a d p a s s ed were ,

not c a lcul a ted to a ll a y the suspicions entert a i n ed by tho s e who

criticized the Governm ent s formul a e It h a d been d iffi cult
’
.

enough to get the reform a ccepted even in 1 9 1 7 when Rum a ni a s ,

’

rulers were b esieged on a ll sides by spirits in revolt Wo ul d it b e .

po s sible to repe a t the fe a t a fter the Wa r wi th a uthority a g a in in ,

norm a l con trol of events a t home a n d a bro a d ? Wh a t woul d h a ve

rem a ined of the Rum a n i a n reform a n d of so m a ny others— ii
—

the Allied Victory h a d b een followed by the success of their

intervention in support of counter Revolution in Rus si a ? Or -

a ltern a tely wh a t if the Ce n tr a l Powers h a d c a rried the d a

, y in ,

which c a se no new pro vinces imp a tient of a ch a nge wo ul d h a ve

, ,

b een a dded to Rum a ni a ; a n d power would inevit a bly h a ve fa llen

to the Conserva tive le a ders M Ma rghilom a n a n d M C a rp whose
, . .
,

rooted distrust of Russi a h a d c a u s ed them to oppose Rum a ni a s ’

entry into the Wa r a n d whose a tt a chmen t to l a rge property w a s

,

unsh a k a ble
The critics h a d the shock of seeing their fe a rs come true ,
1 08 THE LAN D L A WS
fortun a tely but for a p a ssing spell when the l a tter a lterna tive ,

a n d its consequences were re a lized a fter the second Russi a n

revolution The e a stern front coll a psed a ltogether a n d in

.
,

M a rch 1 9 1 8 R um a ni a w a s forced to a ccept the sep a ra te p e a ce of

Buc a rest ; M Ma rgh ilom an a s the o nl y st a tesm a n lik ely to meet
.
,

with some condescension from the Centra l Powers h a vin g in the ,

me a ntime been entrusted w ith the governm ent M Marghilom an . .

proceeded to dissolve the Constituent Assembly a n d to hold new

elections The Conserva tive lea der h a d a lwa ys opposed the ide a
.

of expropri a tion At the beginning of the new p a rli a me n t a ry

.

period he therefore took it upon himself to indica te the lines they

proposed to follow with reg a rd to a gra ri a n policy He b ega n by .

decl a ring th a t notwithst a nd ing the ch a nge in Article 1 9 of the

,

Constitution the reform w a s not yet m a de The whole a gra ri a n

, .

‘
problem must b e t a ken up a new from the beginning The .

Conserv a tive Pa rty would propose a n a gra ri a n reform whi ch

would a llow the p e a s a nts without brut a lly despoili n g the l a rge
,

owners to a cqui re fresh l a nd a n d gra du a lly to form a rur a l

, ,
’
middl e cl a ss which is indisp ens a ble to the coun try s soci a l
-

b a l a n ce The country however w a s a t the time thro w n wholly

.
, ,

upon its own b a dly depleted resources a n d these were limi ted ,

a lmost a ltogether to wh a t a griculture coul d give Therefore the .

Government beg a n by r e editing a n d system a tizin g the me a sures

-

for the compulsory cultiva tion of the soil which h a d b een in force
in Mold a vi a in 1 9 1 6 —1 7 The destruction c a used by the Wa r a n d
.

the burdens imposed by the sep a ra te Tre a ty of Pe a ce decl a red ,

the Mi nister of Agriculture were so hea vy th a t i t wi ll b e indi s

,
‘

pens a ble for us to produce in the country the l a rgest possible

a mount of the things we require : hence the necessity of a gener a l

pl a n of cultiva tion We must try to produce the utmost possible

.

qu a n tity a n d to export the utmost possible qu a ntity ; hence the

need for comp ul sory l a bour At the s a me tim e the new legisl a tive ,

me a sures ende a voured to protect the p e a s a nts by provi di n g th a t

t h ey should fi r st till their own l a nds a n d only a fterw a rds th a t of
the l a rge owners It a lso tried to ensure fa ir me a surement a n d
.

’
p a yment for the p e a s a nts l a bour ; a n d while obligin g the pe a s a nts
to work for the l a rge f a rmers it a lso obliged the l a tter on their
,

p a rt to lend to the pe a s a nts such m a chines a n d implements

 THE L AN D L A WS 1 09

as they h a d In S eptember of the s a me yea r the Govern

.
,

ment followed this up with its ow n propos a ls for l a nd r e

form .

Their a uthor M Ga r ofl id a s Mini ster of Agriculture w a s

, .
, ,

known fir mly to believe i n the necessity for reducing the l a ti

fun di a for soci a l a s well a s for economic re a sons a n d of extend
, ,

in g the middle sized p e a s a nt property ; a n d a lso th a t semi feud a l

- -

rel a tions must fi n a lly b e repl a ced by money rel a tions on the l a nd .

M Ga r ofiid h a d a cknowledged on an e a rlier occ a sio n a n d he

. ,

repe a ted this in introducin g his new bill th a t one could not ,

re a ch those ends without the expropri a tion of the l a rge e st a tes .

But he a n d his Governm ent considered tha t in the a bnorm a l

circum st a nces in which the St a te then found itself such a n ,

expropri a tion would b e bound up with tech ni c a l a n d fi n a n cia l

d iffi cult i e s which risked upsetting the whole economic life of the
’
country profoundly The reform they proposed therefore w a s
.
, ,

li mited to a bill for the compulsory lea s ing of l a n d to the pe a s a nts

a s M Ga r ofl i d put i t
‘
or, . for a genera l re di stribution of the
,

a ll otment of l a nd In M Ga r ofl id s mind this a pp a ren tly w a s

.
’
.
’
, ,

to b e the fir st ph a se of a sed a te a gra ri a n reform In the second .

ph a se the l a nd w a s to b e expropri a ted a n d le a sed to pe a s a nt

,

co oper a tives
-
The thir d a n d fin a l ph a se w a s to est a bli sh the
.

p e a s a nts a s full owners of in di vidu a l lots The whole propos a l .

’
seemed a b a l a nced scheme for the progressive reform of Rum a ni a s
a gr a ri a n structur e a n d m a
y h a ve deserved a f a ir tri a l ; but to
,

M Ga r ofl i d the ch a nce of propounding it c a me too l a t e — when

.

the a gra ri a n problem w a s a bout to solve itself by bursting the

shell of neglect in which it h a d b een a llowed to fester There is .

some doubt a s to the a re a which M Ma r ghilom a n s Governm ent .

’

intended to expropri a te M Ga r oflid it woul d seem con sidered

. .
, ,

th a t they ought to ca rry out the expropri a tion of ha .

,

a s promised in the a me n dm ent to the Constitution Other mem .

b ers of the Governm ent me an t to lea ve un touched est a tes up to

h a ; the two figur e s being of course i ncomp a tible with
.
, ,

e a ch other But the propos a l w a s not in a n y c a se destin ed to

.

t a ke effect a n d a cur ious f a te reserved to M Ga r ofiid thr ee

, .
,

ye a rs l a ter the t a sk of a pplying a la w r a dic ally di fferin g from

,

his own w ar tim e proj ects -

.
1 10 THE LAND L A WS
At the end of Octob er 1 9 1 8 the resist a nce of the Centra l
Powers broke down an d M a rsh a l M a ckensen a n d his tr 00ps of
occup a tion h a stily left Rum a n i a M Ma rghilom a n resigned a n d
. .

w a s repl a ced by a tr a nsition a l Government under Genera l

Co a nd a The elections held by the Co n serva tive Governmen t
.

during the enemy occup a tion were decl a red illeg a l P a rli a ment ,

w a s dissolved a n d a ll the l a ws it h a d p a ssed bec a me in con se

quen ce null a n d void Hence the a gr a ri a n r egime a utom a tic a lly

.

reverted to the position in which it w a s left in 1 9 1 7 It only .

rem a ined to en a ct the principles then i ntroduced into the

Constitution by me a ns of a sp eci a l la w within six months a fter ,

the e n d of the Wa r w ithout its h a vi ng b een m a de cle a r whether

’
—

th a t del a y w a s to b e counted from the end of hostili ties or from

the leg a l termin a tio n of the Wa r through the sign ing a n d r a tify
i n g of a tre a ty of pe a ce But once a g a in the will of the st a tesmen
.

w a s rushed by the stormy flood of events The e n d of w ar w a s .

no longer the self —glorifyi n g p a r a de of Victorious a uthority W hich

it h a d been formerly I n ste a d a uthority found itself f a ce to f a ce
.
,

with a popul a tion exh a usted a n d re s tless growing more imp a tient ,

with Government a s the me a ns for s a tisfyi ng its needs a pp e a red

‘ ’
s a dly in a dequ a te The thre a ds of the s a cred union sn a pped ;
.

politici a ns a n d mili t a ry tried to p a ss on to e a ch other the

respon s ibility for the m a ny f a ilures a n d excessive sufferin gs of
the Wa r In Rum a ni a Gener a l Averescu then worshipp ed by
.
, ,

his s oldiers r a ised a Cromwelli a n voice a g a in st politic a l i n effi

,

ci e n cy a n d corruption which for a moment thr e a tened to r a lly

,

a ll th a t he a ving discontent to a n a ss a ult upon the old order of

things All a round in Hu n g a ry in Austri a in Bul g a ri a not to

.
—
, , ,

spe a k of Russi a the m a sses were in ferment a n d the mon a rchs

-

in flight In the n eighbouring provinces i n h a bited by Rum a ni a n s

. ,

revolution a ry a ssemblies were t a ki n g power i n to their own h a nds ,

b e n t a s much upon soci a l a s upon n a tio n a l reforms They fou n d .

themselves a t the cross ro a ds in the progress of their politic a l

-

desti n y a n d were in s e a rch of a n ew a llegia n ce to w hich to pin

their hopes a n d f a ir expect a tio n s A syrup of deferred promises .

would h a rdly h a ve s tilled even for a moment the popul a r thirst

for a better existence On the d ay a fter th a t on w hich the
.

gener a l Armistice w a s signed therefore King Ferdin a nd issued

, ,
 THE L AND LA WS 111

a fresh procl a m a tion in whi ch he solemnly r ea ffi rm e d the pledges

he h a d given in 1 9 1 7
‘
C i r cum s t a n ce s s a i d t h e r o y a l m e s s a ge h a v e a ga i n gi v e n Me t h e
’
, ,
‘

p oss i b i l i t y of fulfi llin g wh a t I p r om is e d a n d wh a t i n m y h e a rt I h a v e

n e v e r ce a se d t o d es i r e My G o v e r n m e n t wi l l r e a l i z e t h e C o n s t i t u t i on a l
.

r e fo r m s wh i c h will s e cu r e t o a ll ci t izen s u n i v e r s a l suffr a ge a n d t o t h e

,

p ea s a n t s t h e o w n e r s h ip o f h a fr o m l a r ge p r i v a t e p r o p e rt y a s
.
,

we l l a s t h e d om a i n s of t h e C r own of t h e S t a t e a n d of t h e c h a r it a b l e
,

e n d o wm e n t s . B y m e a n s of t h es e r e fo r m s w e wil l e n s u r e t o a ll t h os e w h o
,

l a b ou r a s ocia l a n d m a t e r ia l e x is t e n c e m o r e j u s t a n d m o r e p l e n t ifu l My .

G o v e r n m e n t wi l l w i t h ou t d e l a y t a k e t h e n e ce s s a r y m e a su r e s for b r in gi n g
t h e se r efo r m s i n t o e ffe ct i n t h e o ld K in gd o m a n d i n B ess a r a b ia It is .

Ou r wi ll t h a t t h e gi v e n wo r d s h a l l be k e p t .
’

The roy a l procl a m a tion correctly referred to the old Kingdom

a n d o nl y in a ddition to Bess a r a bi a w h ich in the me a nwhile h a d,

procl a im ed its uni o n with Rum a ni a ; but not to Tra nsylva ni a

a n d the Bucovin a whose rel a tions with the motherl a nd were not
,

yet determined On D ecemb er 1 a revolution a ry Tra nsylva ni a n

.

Assembly met a t Alb a Iuli a a n d procl a imed the indep endence

-

of the provin ce At the s a me time it p a ssed a Ch a rter cont a i n i n g

.

the pri n ciples on which it wa n ted Tra n sylva n i a to b e govern ed

in future Among these the wish for a r a dic a l l a nd reform took
.
,

pride of pl a ce Th a t hu n ger for l a nd a mo n g the popul a tio n s of

.

the new provinces a dded to the other circumst a nces helped to

, ,

stimul a te the Rum a ni a n Government into prompt a ction They .

k n ew th a t they could not do otherwise th a n co n cur in the

Tra nsylva ni a n dem a nd even if such a l a nd reform h a d not in a n y
,

c a se b een desira ble a s a me a ns tow a rds curt a ili n g the power of

the a lien upper cl a ss in the new provinces a cross the C a rp a thi a n s .

Without w a itin g therefore for the moment when a j oin t

, ,

Pa rli a ment coul d be ga thered together the Governme n t brushed ,

a side the stern form a lities which it h a d itself prescribed in the

Con stitution a l a mendment of 1 9 1 7 a n d decided to en a ct the

me a sur es for the c a rrying out of the l a nd reform by me a n s of
a s o c a lled decree la w— th a t is a roy a l decree h a ving force of
- -

la w under the reserve of its subsequent r a t ifi ca t i on by P a rli a me n t .

The fi r st decree la w promulga ted on l 6 t h D ecember 1 9 1 8 w a s

-

, ,

b a sed very l a rgely on a dra ft prep a red under the c a re of M .

Fotin Enescu a former director gener a l of the Popul a r B a n ks

,
-

,
1 12 THE LAND L A WS
as Minister of Agriculture in the J a ssy Ca b inet of Genera l
Co a nd a The decree signed by M Duc a a s Min ister of Agr i cul
.
, .

ture l a id down the norms a ccording to which the l a nd w a s to b e

,

expropri a ted a t once a n d tra nsferred to pea s a nt co op er a -

t i ve s speci a lly est a blished for th a t purpose B oth these v a st .

opera tions were c a rried out dur ing the win ter of 1 9 1 8
1 9 a n d the following sprin g A series of decrees la w one
.
-

for e a ch pro vince— b eginnin g w ith th a t for B ess a ra bi a pro ,

m ulga t ed on 22n d December 1 91 8 — extended the reform to

the new provi nces With va ri a tions a d a pted to loc a l con di
,

tions .

Th e P ea s an ti s t I n ter lud e With the issui ng of these decrees

.

a n d their bre a t hl ess a ppli c a tion l a rge sc a le property irretriev a bly

,
-

p a ssed a w a y in Rum a ni a It onl y rem a ined to cl a ssify the

.

leg a tees a n d to portion out the herit a ge a mo n g them The p er .

form a n ce of this second a ct of the l a nd reform fell to the lot of

the Co a lition Government which M V a id a V oevod formed from .
-

the new poli tic a l groupings from Tr a nsylva ni a a n d B ess a ra bi a

a n d from the youn g Pe a s a nt P a rty Thi s w a s Rum a ni a s fir st.
’

p a rli a ment a ry Government the new currents h a vi ng g a in ed

.

a l a rge m a j ority in the fi r st elections whi ch were held un der

uni vers a l suffra ge in Octob er 1 9 1 9 If the decree la w of D ecem .

-

b er 1 9 1 8 represented the o nl y possible formula at the tim e a s

‘ ’
,

M Mih a la ch e a dmitted in View of the composition of Pa rli a

.
,
‘

’ ’
ment a n d of the country s situ a tion the un ion with B ess a ra bi a ,

a n d the other provinces a n d the coming of univers a l fr a nchi se

, ,

h a d strengthened the curre n t in f a vour of the r a dic a l a n d full

‘

resettlement of the pe a s a ntry By a greement a mong its mem’

.

bers the Ca b inet entrusted indeed the dr a ft ing of the la w of

,

resettlement to the Pe a s a nt P a rty which h a d a b sorb ed some ,

of the keenest memb ers of the ephemer a l J a ssy L a bour group ,

a n d whose le a der M I Mih a la ch e w a s in ch a rge of the Mi ni stry

, . .
,

of Agriculture The new P a rty e a gerly seized this O pportuni ty

.

for fulfilling its progra m M Mih a la ch e s bill bore signs of

. .
’

h a ving b een more c a refully worked out th a n the origin a l legisl a

tion It proceeded in m a ny det a ils w ith gre a ter c a ution a n d
.

a b etter gr a sp of the working of economic f a ctors ; a n d its whole

structure rested not on a b a rg a in b etween vested interests a n d

 THE LAN D L A WS 113

politica l opportuni sm but on a cle a r cut soci a l conce p tion of

,
-

a p ea sa n t i st persu a sion .

Ou r agr a r ia n legis l a t ion s a i d M Mih ala ch e is in sp i re d by t h e i d e a l

.
,

t h a t bur coun tr y i s a p e a sa n t coun t r y t h a t i s a c oun tr y wh os e ,

e con o m i c l i fe mu s t be b a s e d o n a gr i cu lt u r e wi t h s m a ll p r o p e rt y a s i t s,

t yp i ca l a gen t a n d a t t h e m os t a l im i t e d e x t en t of m i dd l e s i ze d p r o p e rt y ;
, ,
-

la r ge p r o p e rt y b e in g a b o l i s h e d a n d r e d uce d m e r e l y t o c e rt a i n m o d el
fa r m s wh i c h s h a ll s e r ve s o l e l y for e xp e r i m e n t a l p u r p os es a n d a s s c h o o l s
for t h e s m a ll cu l t i v a t o r s It i s tr ue t h a t t h is i d e a l i s l a ugh e d a t by t h e
.

S oci a l is t s a n d tr e a t e d wi t h con t um e l y by t h e p r es i d en t o f t h e A gr a r i a n
C omm i tt ee [ M Ga r ofi id a l s o P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n ion o f A gr a r ia n S y n d i
. ,

c a t es ] ; b u t i t i s a n a t u r a l i d e a l for a n y coun t r y w h i c h i s s t i l l fa r fr o m

b e in g i n dus t r ia l i ze d An d b e fo r e com in g t o t h a t dis t a n t S ocia l is t h e a v e n

.
,

of w h i c h M Ga r o fl id t oo h a s a vi s i on t h e cou n tr y mu s t fi rs t p a s s u n d e r
.
, , ,

t h e s ign of t h e P ea s a n t a ph a se u p on w h i c h a ft e r t h e W a r e v e r y a g r i
—
, ,

cul tu r a l coun tr y i s n o w e n t e r in g t h r ough t h e b r ea k i n g u p of t h e l a r ge

e s t a t e s fo r t h e ben e fi t o f t h e p e as a n t s
’
.

M Ga r ofli d obj ected th a t it w a s not a question of

'

discuss ing the phi losophy of property or of m a k ing com

‘
p a risons with the West but simply th a t in a n a dolescen t ,

society the role of the l a rge own er a s in iti a tor could not b e
de ni ed M Mih a la ch e a greed th a t cert a in elements a mong the
’
. .

l a rge o w ners could perform f unctions whi ch were not a s yet

within the me a ns of the sm a llh olders B ut he went on to sa y .
‘ ’
, ,
‘
here is the fund a ment a l difference b etween you a n d ourselves ,

tha t we w a nt to reserve to l a rge property this role of s chool of ,

mod el fa r m a lon e this a n d nothi ng more— three four ten a t the

, , ,

most in one coun ty— a n d consequently a ll the excess of la rge

ab
r o er t
p p y ove wh a t i s s tr i ctl
y n eed ed
f or th a t
p urp ose mus t b e

exp r op r i a ted i n ull f .

M . Mih alach e s
’
bill proposed in fa ct to expropri a te e a ch
in dividu a l o w ner down to a limit of 1 00 h a He a n d his friends .

reg a rded this propos a l a s the key of their bill the exp os e d e ,

motifs devotin g fi ve of its seven p a ges to it Th is w a s the b a sis .

of the Bess a ra bi a n reform a n d M Mih a la ch e contended th a t a s , .

it h a d b een gener a lly a greed th a t the legisl a tion of the v a rious

p a rts of Gre a ter Rum a n i a must b e un ifi e d one should not m a ke ,

a n exception with the b a sis of her new a gr a ri a n structure He .

a lso urged th a t it would b e d a ngerous to a llow the feeling to

grow up on the l a nd th a t the B ess a ra bi a n p e a s a n ts were

I
1 14 THE L AND \ L A WS
resettled more generously by revolution th a n the pe a s a nts
in the Ki ngdom by Constitution Ab ove a ll M Mih a la ch e .
, .

insisted th a t the a rbitra ry lim its within whi ch the reform h a d

b een corseted a t J a ssy were un tena ble Of the hi storic rights .

of the pe a s a nts no a ccoun t h a d been t a ken a t all The new .

legisl a tion merely continued the emergency r e settlements of -

1 8 8 1 a n d 1 8 8 9 in spir ed by the s a me sh a llow ide a th a t p e a ce

,

co ul d b e secured by cre a t ing a fresh b a l a nce b etween l a rge

p roperty a n d sm a ll Elsewhere the reform h a d been fra med
.

within soci a l criteri a which pur sued a n end c a ref ull y weighed
th a t of reduci ng the l a rge est a tes a n d especi a lly of cre a t ing , ,

economic a lly V i a ble pe a s a nt holdings Nowhere h a d the reform .

b een b a sed on a purely mech a ni ca l c a lcula tion It w a s a piece .

of stra nge irony th a t in Rum a ni a whi ch h a d neither ground ,

‘
b ook nor st atistics one sho uld h a ve h a d the p eculi a r ide a of
,

b uildi n g up a whole legisl a tion upon someth i ng which did not

’
exist or which existed onl y in a n unreli a ble st a te Under such .

condi tions indeed it w a s techni c ally im possible to keep the

, ,

expropri a tion ex a ctly to the fi gur e of h a Wh a t then .

, ,

would h a ppen a sked M Mih a la ch e if th a t fi gur e shoul d b e

, .
,

exceeded ? The possible consequences were re a li stic a lly sug

gested by a circ ul a r which the Union of Syndic a tes of Molda vi a n
L a ndowners sent to its members We l a ndown ers decl a red .
‘
,
’
,

th a t document a r e fi rmly determi ned to O pp ose by a ll me a ns

,
‘
,

a n d especi a lly by im pe a c hi ng b efore the Court of C a ss a tion a ll ,

those provi s ions of the decree law of 1 9 1 8 of the law for com -

mun a l gra zings a n d of a n y future la w or decree whi ch m a y ,

con fl i ct with the letter of the Constitution reg a rdi ng the

‘
An d in order to r e consecr a te the
’
expropri a tion of l a nd .
-

int a ngible right of property we dem a nd th a t a la w sh a ll b e p a ssed

,

which sh a ll punish with h a rd l a bour for lif e whosoever sh a ll

spe a k of expropri a tion a g a in The Union imposed a levy upon
’
.

its members in support of the a ction contempl a ted in th a t

c i rcula 1
. On e notes this outburst merely a s ill ust 1 a t in g how
sh a rply the temper of the l a ndowners h a d veered round a fter
the \Va r .

The essenti a l principles of M Mih a la ch e s bill were the s a me.

’

a s those of the B ess a r a bi a n la w p a ssed un a nimously by P a rli a

,
 THE LAN D LA WS 115

ment a short whi le e a rlier But a s soon a s the Pe a s a nt bill

.

bec a me pub lic the new democra tic fa ca de colla psed a t its touch
,

a s quickly a s h a d the ide a of n a tion a l u ni ty in 1 8 5 7 when the ,

a gr a ri a n question w a s forced to the a ttention of the Mold a vi a n

di van The bill h a d b een a dopted by the C a binet a n d h a d for

.

sever a l weeks been a wa iti ng the a pprova l of the K ing in order

to b e brought b efore Pa rli a ment Me a nwhile however deleg a .
, ,

tions of l a rge o w ners were denouncin g it to the Mon a rch a s a b i ll

th a t would despoil the proprietors an d destroy a griculture ; a n d
the Opposition intrigued so in fi uen t ia lly th a t during a ll those
weeks the Mini ster of Agriculture wa s un a ble to see the King .

Fin a lly the Government tried a bold c a rd On M a rch 1 2 its

,
.

followers introduced the me a sure in the Ch a mb er a s a priv a te

’
members bill Foreseeing the possible consequences of th a t step
.
,

M Mih ala ch e w a nted it to b e kno w n th a t if this P a rli a ment or

‘
.

this Government h a s to le a ve it will b e b eca use of a conspira cy

,

of the whole oli ga rchy from a ll politic a l p a rties They were not ’
.

merely di s a pprovin g the provisions of the bill ; they were a lso

a fr a id of lettin g the new P a rty a chi eve a popul a r success so e a rly

in its c a reer The cert ifi ca t e of a bility for the new Pa rties would
.

a t the s a me time h a ve been a sentence a g a in st those who h a d

’
ruled the coun try hitherto .

M V a id a Voevod s Government h a d a t th a t moment b een

’
.

only three months in power It disposed of a comfort a ble .

m a j ority in b oth Cha mbers The Premier himself w a s in London

.
,

working to obt a in from the British Government the recogni tion

of B ess a ra bia s union with Rum a ni a But in spite of the
’
.

’
Premier s a bsence a n d of the strength of his followin g the ,

Govern ment w a s in fa ct di smissed on the d a y which followed the

introduction of the a gra ri a n b ill in the Ch a mb er a n d repl a ced ,

by a Governm ent un der Genera l Averescu .

Th e S econ d E xp rop ri a ti on The coup a ga inst the Va id a

.

V oevod Government w a s c a rried to its extreme conclusion when

M Mih a la ch e s pl a ce a s M inister of Agric ul ture wa s t a ken by
.
’

M Ga r oflid The t a sk of completin g the second a ct of the reform

. .

w a s d a shed from the h a nds of the Pe a s a nt le a der to b e p a ssed

into those of the a cknowledged spokesm a n of the gre a t l a nd
owners Three yea rs e a rlier he h a d ch a rged the J a ssy reform with
.

I 2
116 THE LAN D LAWS
‘ ’
h a ving b een a n electora l m a nifesto ra ther th a n a considered
p iece of legisla tion N ow he decl a red this electora l m ani festo
.
’

to b e s a cred a n d he used it a s a shield wherewith to w a rd off the

,

more r a di c a l dem a nds of the pe a s a nts All his li fe M Ga r ofii d . .

h a d condemned a s uneconomic the system of sm a ll p e a s a nt

holdings Now he w a s c a lled upon to cre a te m a ny more of them
.
,

a n d he fr a nkly recognized th a t his own bill w a s a compromis e

‘

’
b etween differing soci a l requirements .

The det a il s of the second a ct of the reform were cont a in ed

in M Ga r ofiid s law promulg a ted on J uly 1 7 1 921 a n d in the
.
’
, , ,

corresponding l a ws for e a ch of the new provinces Their m a in .

concern w a s W ith the r ul es a n d me a ns for the resettl e ment of

the pe a s a nts B ut they a lso extended the b a sis of expropri a tion
.
,

thus a dm itting by implic a tion th a t some of the criticisms levell ed

j
a g a inst the me a sure of 1 91 7 h a d b een ust ifi e d by events The .

Premier h a d rep ea tedly decl a red th a t he wo ul d not a llow l a nd

to b e expropri a ted b eyond the limits fi x e d in 1 9 1 7 but l a ter he ,

h a d to a b a ndon th a t st a ndpo i nt The fi r st expropri a tion h a d .

f a iled n a mely to det a ch from the l a rge priva t e est a tes the
, ,

h a dem a nded by the Constitution a n d h a d f a llen

.

short of th a t figur e by some h a To m a ke good the .

d efi ci en cy the new la w a dopted the principle th a t expropri a tion

,

should b e a pplied to e a ch own er indi vidu a lly a n d not to e a ch

of his severa l est a tes— a principle which h a d b een ur ged not only
by the politic a l Opposition but on theoretic a l grounds by a , , ,

Congress of Rum a ni a n a gra ri a n economists a s well For the s a me .

purpose the la w expropri a ted cert a in a ddition a l c a tegories of

,

owners The new b ill further a dmitted th a t it would b e im

.

pra ctic a ble to le a ve the a mount of compens a tion to b e p a id to

the owners to b e fi x e d by the J ud i ci a r y a n d itself therefore l a id , , ,

down the b a sis on which it w a s to b e c a lcul a ted Fin a lly the .

,

bill a b a ndoned the method of h a nding over the l a nd pro

vision a lly to a s s oci a tions of resettlement fi r st a n d decreed
‘ ’
,

th a t individu a l lots were to b e distributed forthwith to t h e

pe a s a nts though the necess a ry me a surements were fa r from
,

being fi n ish ed M a ny of the evils in the a pplic a tion of the reform

.

m a y b e tra ced to this decision which w a s not dem a nded by t h e

,

p e a s a nts There h a d b een compl a ints a g a inst the a dministr a tion

.
 THE L AN D L A WS 117

of some of these speci a l a ssoci a tions but not a g a inst the system ,

a s such .

Other sensible in tentions or provisions — a s for inst a nce , ,

those contempl a ting a much needed conso lid a tion of the sc a ttered-

p e a s a nt fi eld s— h a d li kewi se to b e dropped b eca use of the

restlessness on the l a nd or merely b ec a use the va rious politic a l
groups were using the reform a s a stick with which to b e a t e a ch
other In 1 922 M Mih a la ch e compl a ined th a t their prop a ga nd a
. .

concerning the reform h a d a cquir ed the ch a ra cter of a n a uctio n ,

e a ch P a rty trying to outbid the other in criticizing wh a t h a d been

done an d in promising wh a t they themselves might do if they
c a me to power ; so a s l a ter to b e a ble to cl a im the credit for h a ving
given l a nd to the new pe a s a nt voters Dem agogic press ure from .

some of hi s own p a rtis a ns thus forced a conserva tive Mini ster of

Agriculture to go f a rther in cert a in di rections th a n even his
Pe a s a nt predecessor would h a ve gone Even s o M Ga r oflid s .
, .
’

bill h a d a n une a sy p a rli a ment a ry c a reer Aga inst Constitution a l .

pra ctice it w a s fir s t p a ssed through the S en a te in M a rch 1 9 21

, ,

a n d by the Ch a mber only in J u l y during an a ll night sitting,

-

when the left wingers of the m a j ority h a d to b e thre a tened

-

or c a j oled a n d Libera l a n d S oci a list votes c a lled to the

,

rescue .

B y th a t time the a ttitude of the v a rious p a rties tow a rds l a nd

reform h a d re a ched a more or less st a ble position The Pe a s a nt .

P a rty a s we h a ve seen stood for the expropri a tion of a ll est a tes

, ,

down to a li mit of 1 00 h a a n d th a t View they reitera ted in the

.
,

progra mme of 1 9 22; model f a rms a lone b eing tre a ted a s a n

exception They a lso promised a revision of misc a rri a ges in the
.

a pplic a tion of the reform a s well a s me a sures which should

,

prevent the reform i ng of l a rge est a tes The ultim a te a im of l a nd .

reform a s seen by them w a s the tr a nsfer of the l a nd to those

, ,

who tilled i t in the form of holdings li mited in gener a l by e a ch

,

f a mily s power of working The other p a rties formed a grou p

’
.

whose a gra ri a n policy w a s sh a rply O pposed to th a t of the

Pe a s a nts while showin g b a rely a n y differen ce a s b etween the
,

memb ers of the group Its most consistent ingredient w a s a

.

determined obj ection to a n y fur ther tra nsfer of l a nd from the

l a rge to the sm a ll owners by me a ns of St a te a ction Genera l .
118 THE LAN D LAWS
’
Averescu indeed when a ddr essing his People s Lea gue in 1 920
, , ,

h a d promised to the p e a s a nts holdings of 1 0 h a e a ch without .

,

st a ting how th a t w a s to b e done ; but nothin g w a s he a rd otz t hi s

when the Genera l c a me to power in 1 921 The legisl a tion then
.

p a ssed by his Government settled in f a ct the perm a nent outline

of the a gra ri a n reform except for cert a in minor det a ils In its
, .

a pplic a tion i t is true the la w suffered consider a ble ch a nges a t

, ,

the h a nds of the Lib er a l Governm ent which took p ower e a rly in
1 922; a n d in the 1 9 25 progr a mme of his P a rty a s well a s in t h e
,

progra mm atic decl a r a tion he m a de when he c a me to power for

the second tim e in 1 926 General Averescu in hi s turn promised
,

his p a rtis a ns a revision of the Lib era l revi sions On the l a tter
‘ ’
.

‘
occ a sion he further a nnounced a completion of the reform
in the wooded regions a n d in the districts li a ble to fi ooding ; ’

but none of these intention s were c a rried out a s Gener a l ,

Averescu w a s never more th a n a locum ten en s for the Lib era l

Pa rty .

Dur in g the p a st few ye a rs criticism of the reform h a s never

ce a sed to provide a d a ily topic for controversy in Pa rli a ment a n d
in the Press As the l a ws incre a sed in a ge th a t criticism w a s ever
.
,

directed less a ga inst their texts a n d more a ga inst a lleged a buses

in the w a y in which they h a d b een a pp lied From t hi s one m a y
.

deduct with some degree of s a fety the trend of Rum a n i a n l a nd

p olicy in the immedi a te future Of the two po litic a l group s
.

which sh a re in fl uen ce a t present the Lib era l Pa rty would no

,

doubt oppose a n y a ttempt to t a mper w ith the essenti a ls of

a reform who s e p a ternity they cl a im ; though p a tern a l pride

would not b e the sole motive for their opposition The N a tion a l .

Pe a s a nt P a rty on the other h a nd contempl a tes reforming so

, ,

m a ny of the institutions a n d customs now prev a iling in Rum a ni a ,

th a t they woul d h a rdly choose to use up their strength in a t once

t a ckling a n issue which is a s complex a s it is controversi a l To be .

consistent with their ste m a n d relentless criticism they m a y ,

ende a vour to correct the grosser f a ults of omission in the

expropri a tion of the l a rge e st a tes ; they would fi n d it less e a sy
to a mend mi s c a rri a ges in the distribution of hol di ngs w hose
poss ession h a s in a wa y been legitimiz ed by the p a ss a ge of ye a rs .

Moreover the principle s of the reform h a ve p a ssed into the

,
 THE L AND LAWS 119

Constitution a n d the Constitution c a nnot be a mended until the

,

Kin g comes of a ge I n their bro a d essenti a ls therefore the new

.
, ,

l a nd l a ws a r e li kely to rem a in the found a tion of Rum a ni a s

’

a gr a ri a n structure a t le a st during the lifetim e of the next

genera tion or two .

 C H A P TE R VI

THE NATURE OF THE REFORM

GE NE R A L L E G I S L A T I VE P R O V I S I ON S
IN the ye a rs b efore the Wa r the ide a of expropri a tion in
Rum a ni a w a s b a rely discussed pr a ctic a lly— a s a mea sure to b e
considered for its economi c a n d soci a l e fi e ct s— but on the whole
the chief a rg uments centred round the question of how far
a forcible tr a nsfer of l a nd woul d b e ust ifi e d by the letter of the
j
Constitution Th a t deb a te w a s brought to a n a brupt end by the
.

events of 1 9 1 7 Even b efore the Wa r the old conception of

.

prop erty b a sed on Rom a n la w w a s gra du a lly b eing displ a ced

, ,

everywhere by a nother more in keeping with the soci a l philosophy

of our time Incre a singly under the pressure of philosop hi c a l a n d
.

p olitic a l criticism property w a s comin g to b e looked upon less a s

,

a n a bsolute individu a l right a n d more a s a soci a l fun ction This .

evolution w a s spurred on by the n a ture of the l a st Wa r which ,

forced every comb a t a nt St a te to c a ll upon a ll the resources of its

n a tiona ls Th e gre a t e a se with W hich there a fter e a ch St a te
.

curt a iled the prop erty rights of its citizens whenever its needs ,

were pressing w a s in fa ct a t a cit a n d u n ivers a l recogn ition of the

,

new conception of property In It a ly it received more form a l .

s a nction in the sh a p e of a decree which a uthorized the expropri a

tion of l a nd not c ul tiva ted by its owner T h e Constitution of .

Republic a n Germ a ny w a s the fi r st to procl a i m the new View a s

‘
a n est a blished principle in its Art 1 5 3 which s a id : Property .

c a rries duties with it Its use sh a ll a t the s a me time b e a service

.

‘
for the genera l good ; a n d Ar t 1 5 5 : The c ul tiv a tion a n d
’
.

exploit a tion of the soil is a duty of the l a ndowner tow a rds the
community The Russi a n revolution h a d in the me a ntim e p ulled
.
’

the old conception out by its roots especi ally in reg a rd to l a nd ,

property a n d this w a s bound to h a ve a stro n g rep ercussion in

,

the neighb ouring pe a s a nt countries .

In Rum a ni a the new viewpoint w a s put forwa rd tersely by

the pe a s a nt le a der M Mih al a ch e when introducing his a gra ri a n
, .
,

bill in 1 920 L a nd he s a id could b e reg a rded no longer a s a

.
, ,
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 21

source of rent but a s a d efini t e a n d lim ited me a ns for employin g

,

the l a bour of a c a tegory of citiz ens whose regul a r occup a tion w a s

the tilli ng of the soil An d in a speech delivered in 1 921 he
’
.

completed the idea by a dding th a t whether l a ndlord or p e a s a nt ,

we b elieve th a t if the owner does not fulfi l the soci a l a n d economic

duties incumb ent upon property he must b e tre a ted a s a specu
,
’
l a tor a n d a ll such p eople should b e expropri a ted It w a s from
, .

a simil a r point of View th a t the principles of the R um a ni a n

reform were b orn They resemble in a striking degree the pro

.

gra m a dopted by the Russi a n Ca dets a fter a he a ted deb a te

a t their eighth Congress in Ma 1 917 It w a s then a greed th a t
,y .

’
a ll excess of l a nd property b eyond a workin g norm which w a s ,

to b e fi x ed by loc a l comm ittees should b e expropri a ted for the

,

ben efi t of p e a s a nt cultiva tors Priva te owners were to b e

.

compens ated a ccording to the norm a l revenue of their est a tes .

St a te dom a i ns were to b e broken up a ltogether In Rum a ni a.

both fa cets of the new conception of property were to b e found

in a decree issued a s e a rly a s August 1 9 1 7 It imposed upon the
.

pe a s a nts the comp ul sory p erform a nce of a gricultura l l a bours ,

a n d it imposed upon the l a n dl ords the duty of cultiv a ting their

l a nd In the Minute w ith which he submitted the decree for

.

sign a ture to the Kin g the Minister of Agricultur e s a id th a t

,
‘
property considered a s a soci a l function must serve common
interests a n d s a tisfy the needs of the whole n a tion a l com
’
munity
These new idea s a n d the events which helped them a long
beyond doubt pl a yed a l a rge p a rt in prep a ri ng the w a y for reform .

In its essence one must note the new conception of property for
, ,

use represents wh a t w a s but common pra ctice in the Rum a n i a n

provin ces before the est a b lishment of the n a tion a l St a te B oth .

in the principles it en a cted a n d in the ch a nge it c a used in the

distribution of l a nd property the Rum a ni a n reform restored
,

therefore in a l a rge mea sure the a gra ri a n conditions which pre

v a iled b efore the Org a nic S t a tutes undermin ed them .
 122 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
S E C TI O N I
E X PR O P R I A TI O N
A Th e F i rs t E xp r op r i a ti on The a gr a ri a n reform received its
.
.

fi r st legisl a tive expression in the sh a pe of successive decrees la w -

for the Old Kin gdom B ess a ra bi a Bucovin a a n d Tra nsylva ni a 1

, , , .

The decree law concerning the reform in the Old Kingdom

-

dea lt merely with the mea sur es for expropri a tion le a ving ,

resettlement to b e de a lt with l a ter by a speci a l la w Th a t .

dissection of the legisl a tive me a sur e m a de it possible to el a bora te

the la w of resettlement with more leisure a n d c a re a n d to sub
mit it direct to Pa rli a ment Politic a l c ircum st a nces m a de it .

necess a ry to h a sten wi th the fi r st p a rt of the reform a t le a st so ,

a s to forest a ll the suspicions of the pe a s a nts .

Of the four decrees la w by me a ns of which the reform w a s

-

introduced in the severa l provinces th a t concernin g Bess a ra bi a ,

w a s the simplest a n d most r a dic a l me a sure I n deed the origin a l .

,

proj ect worked out by the S fa t ul Tarii w a s even more ra dic a l

excepting Vineya rds orch a rds a n d other pl a nt a tions l a ndowners
, , ,

were to b e left with only 5 0 h a of a ra ble l a nd e a ch where a s the .

,

fi n a l decree r a ised th a t lim it to 1 00 h a .

The reform in the Old Kingdom w a s more modera te a n d th a t

for Bucovin a held a n i n termedi a te po s ition In the Old Kingdom . ,

too the minim um th a t could not b e expropri a ted w a s 1 00 h a

,
.
,

but expropri a tion w a s a pplied on a progressive sc a le which left

to the l a rge est a tes 5 00h a a ra ble l a n d in a ddition to Viney a rds
.
,

pl a nt a tions forests a n d l a nd unfi t for c ul tiva tion The text of

, ,
.

the decree la w for the Old Kingdom w a s c a tegoric a l a n d precise

-

a n d therefore e a s ily a ppli c a ble .

The purpo s e of the reform w a s describ ed v a riously in the

s ever a l a ct s Th a t for the Old Kingdom p a id less a ttention to
.

the needs of production th a n for inst a nce did the Tr a nsylv a ni a n , ,

Dc cre e Ia w c o n c e r n i n g e xpr o pri a ti on fo r r e a son s of n a ti on a l ut i lity No 36 9 7 ,

1 -

,
.

M on i to r ul Gh ota l No 21 5 of D e c e m b e r 1 6 , 1 9 1 8 D e cree la w for t h e a gra ri a n r efor m

. .
-

i n B e s s a r a bi a N o 3 7 9 1 p a s s e d by t h e S fa t ul Tarii publi s h e d i n t h e M on i to r ul Ofic ia l

.
,

No 220 o f D e c e m b e r 22 1 9 1 8
.
,
D e cree la w fo r a grar i a n r efor m i n Buc o vi n a
, .
-

No 38 7 1 publi s h e d i n t h e
.
,
M
on i tom l Ofici a l No 1 1 3 of S e pte m b e r 7 , 1 9 1 9
. D e cree .

la w fo r a gra ri a n re fo r m i n Tra n s ylv a n i a B a n a t, a n d t h e H u n ga ri an l a n d s N o 39 1 1 ,

,
.

a d o pte d by t h e Gre a t Na tion a l Co u n cil on A u gu st 1 2 1 9 1 9 , publi s h ed i n t h e ,

M on i tor ul Gh ela l No 1 1 7 of S e pte m b e r 1 2, 1 9 1 9

. .
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 23

decree The l a tter sinned by the excessive v a gueness of its pro

.

vi sions most of which though r a dic a l in prin ciple were f a cult a

, , ,

tive in a ppli ca tion or studded with numerous exceptions The .

Tra nsylv a ni a n decree however w a s b a sed on a wider economic

, ,

sta n dpoint where a s the other t h ree decrees were more n a rrowly
,

a gr a ri a n in outlook Art 1 of the Tra nsylv a ni a n decree e vi

. .

’
d en ce d the legisl a tor s c a re for production by decl a rin g th a t the
p urpose of the reform w a s to m a ke the sm a ll owners economic a lly
a utonomous to cre a te a middle siz ed property a n d model f a rms
,
~

a s well a s to fur ther the interests of industry a n d of industri a l

workers Sp eci a l a ttention w a s p a id to the problem of housing

.

a n d g a rdens for industri a l worker s ; Ar t 9 cl a use 2 a llo w ing the .

, ,

e xp ropri a tion for this pur pose of even commun a l pl a nt a tions a n d

gra zings Th a t wider outlook w a s n a tur a l enough in a pro vince
.

in which in dustry w a s much more developed th a n in the other

p a rts of Rum a ni a Anxiety for the problem of production w a s
.

a lso shown by the provision of the l a st cl a use of Art 39 th a t l a nd .

might b e t a ken b a ck from those who should prove inc a p a ble of

worki n g it Ar t 2 cl a use 1 6 expropri a ted a ll the l a ndo w ners
. .
, ,

who h a d purch a sed the i r properties a fter J uly 31 1 9 1 4 a n d ,

s,

who were not themselves c ultiva tors Art 36 provided th a t a n y . .

l a nd rem a ining a fter the needs of the pe a s a nts h a d b een sa t i sfi e d

might b e used for the est a blishment of mid dl e sized holdings a n d -

of model fa rms .

The economic Viewpoint a pp e a red likewise in the provision

of the Tra nsylva ni a n decree which exempted a p a rt of the est a te
from expropri ation for the b enefit of a son studying a griculture ;
a n exceptio n which l a ter w a s a dopted in the Old Kingdom a s

well Further in the provision which a llowed ea ch l a n downer t o

.
,

choose the p a rt which w a s to b e left h im ; this w a s copied in the

decree for Bucovin a a s well a s in th a t for B ess a ra bi a in which
,
’
w a s the proviso th a t the l a ndowner s choice should not depreci a te
the rem a inder of the est a te In the decree for the Old Kingdom .

it w a s l a id down th a t expropri a tion w a s to t a ke a ccount of the

’
economic conditions of the esta te a n d th a t the expropri a ted ‘

p a rt a s well a s the p a rt w hi ch rem a ined to the l a ndlord should

a s fa r a s possible b e consoli d a ted
’
( Ar t .

Production w a s h a rdly t a ken into a ccount in the decree for

1 24: THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
the Old Kingdom u nl ess in the v a gue st a tement of Art 10whi ch
, .

s a id th a t the Sta te coul d reserve p a rt of the ex propri a ted a ra ble

l a nd a n d devote it to some pur pose of genera l interest Ar t 46 . .

of the B ess a ra bi a n decree wa s more definite a s it prescrib ed the

est a blishm ent of a numb er of institutions destin ed to guide a n d
stimul a te production a n d it a lso decided the a re a which w a s
to be a llotted to them Thi s useful provision woul d seem to h a ve
.

been due to the presence in the B ess a ra bi a n legisl a tive b ody of

a num ber of a gric u l tur a l experts who fought h a rd to in troduce
this a n d sim i l a r points i n the origin a l dr a fts The right of the .

St a te to reserve a n extent of l a nd for gener a l needs w a s l ikewise

recogniz ed in the decree for Bucovi n a .

Perh a ps the most convincin g proof of the pra ctica l an d

cooler spirit which presided a t the el a bora tion of the Tr a n sylva
’
ni a n reform w a s its a uthors decision to c a rry out expropri a tion
and r e settlement
-
gra du a lly a ccording to loc a l needs a n d
,

dem a nds ; though of course a ll the expropri a ble a rea w a s

, ,

pl a ced from the outset a t the dispos a l of the St a te The decree .

for B ucovin a permitted the l a ndo w ner to continue to use the

l a nd unt il it w a s a ctu a lly t a ken over In the Old K i ngdom an d .

in Bess a ra bi a where the politic a l a tmosphere w a s more feverish

, ,

the whole of the expropri a ted l a nd w a s t a ken over a t once .

In the Old K i ngdom the decree la w prescrib ed the tot a l -

expropri a tion of (a ) the a ra ble l a nd on St a te dom a ins a n d on the

est a tes of public a n d priva te in stitutions ; ( 6 ) the whole extent
of est a tes b elonging to foreigners a n d to a b sentees All those .

upon whom the double l a nd t a x p a y a ble by l a ndowners living

,

a bro a d h a d b een im posed during the previous fi ve ye a rs were

,

now considered a s a bsentees From priva te est a tes the reform

.

expropri a ted h a a r a ble l a nd on a progressive sc a le

.
, ,

a s given in the t a ble on p 1 25 which exempted properties of not

.

more th a n 1 00 h a while reducing those of

.
,
h a or more .

to 5 00 h a .

All l a nd includ ing gra zing a n d p a sture which w a s fi t for culti

, ,

v a tion w a s considered a s a ra ble l a nd One of the chief ch a r a cter

.

i st ics of this decree w a s th a t it expropri a ted the est a tes a n d not

their owners so th a t a proprietor of severa l est a tes could ret a i n
,

from e a ch of them the exempted quot a of 100—5 00 h a in a ddi .

,
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 25

tion to forests pl a nt a tions a n d non a r a ble l a nd Moreover

, ,
-

.
,

a l a ndowner f a lli ng under this c a tegory w a s permitted to ret a in

his severa l quot a s in one sin gle est a te if the l a tter were situ a ted
in one of the s e c a lled regions of colo ni z a tio n In the c a se of
-
.

a j oint est a te e a ch of the p ar ticip a nts w a s entitled to ret a in

,

a full individu a l quot a so th a t in this c a se the decree ex pr opr i

a ted individu a l own ers where a s in gener a l it w a s to b e a ppli ed
,

to e a ch property .

T t l r
o a a ea Ex mpt d qu t
e e o a E x mpt d qu t e e o a

H e cta res H e cta res H e cta res

1 00 1 00 0 -

1 10 1 09 0 -

1 20 1 17 2 -

1 30 1 24 9 -

1 40 1 32 0 -

15 0 1 38 6 -
'

1 60 1 44 7 -

1 70 15 0 5 -

180 15 5 9 -

190 1 60 9 -

200 1 65 7 -

300 201 7 -

400 224 8 -

5 00 241 2 -

6 00 25 3 7 -

7 00 263 6 -

8 00 27 1 8 -

9 00 27 8 8 -

28 4 9 -

In Bucovin a a s in the other new provinces the b a sis of the

reform w a s more r a di c a l The decree for B ucovin a expropri a ted
.

in full : ( a ) est a tes of foreigners i e of those inh a bit a nt s who

, . .

were not Rum a ni a ns or who were not citizens of the country

on August 1 1 91 4 ; ( b) mortm a in est a tes ; ( 0) the est a tes of
,

a bsentees ( outside the b oun d a ries of Grea ter Rum a ni a ) ; ( d ) the

est a tes of indi vidu a ls h a ving lost their civil rights ; ( e) est a tes
f a rmed out durin g nin e consecutive ye a rs b efore 1 9 1 9 This .

l a tter provision did not exist in the decree for the Old Kingdom
a n d m a rked a more r a d ic a l tendency In the s a me w a y the .
,

expropri a tion sc a le w a s more r a dic a l th a n in the Old Kingdom ,

everyt hin g a b ove 25 0 h a being expropri a ted Moreover if

. .
,

neither the owner nor his p a rents h a d b een cultiva tors he w a s ,

not a llowed to ret a in more th a n 4 h a Further expropri a tion .

,
1 26 THE N ATURE OF THE REFORM
wa s a pp lied to e a ch individu a l proprietor so th a t even if he ,

o wned severa l est ates he could not ret a in more th a n 25 0 h a .

a ltogether As in the Old Kingdom the decree expropri a ted

.
,

a r a ble l a nd gra z ing a n d p a st ures It exempted fa rm ya rds

, , .
-

country houses ga rdens Vin eya rds a n d industri a l est a bli sh

-

, , ,

ments together with the a rea of l a nd they requir ed Comm un a l .

property w a s to b e expropri a ted a fter reserving the a re a

necess a ry for Vill a ge gra zin gs a n d for other commun a l needs .

Expropri a ted forests b eca me the property of the S t a te ; li kewise

l a nd un fit for c ultiva tion .

The Bess a r a bi a n reform displ a yed a ch a r a cteristic levelli ng

tendency It expropri a ted in full : (a ) former St a te dom a ins ;
.

( b) former Cro w n dom a ins ; ( 0) a ll mortm a in est a tes ; ( d ) est a tes

b elonging to the towns beyond the a re a needed for town
,

pl a nnin g pur poses ; ( e) est a tes of foreigners— i e of a ll those who . .

on J a nu a ry 1 1 9 1 9 eight d a ys a fter the promulg a tion of the

, ,

decree h a d not decl a red for Rum a ni a n citizenship ; (f) est a tes
,

which h a d been f a rm ed out during fi ve consecutive ye a rs B oth .

the l a tter provisions indic a te how much more r a dic a l w a s the

B ess a ra bi a n decree a s comp a red with th a t for Bucovin a .

Mon a steries W ere a llowed to ret a in h a for e a ch monk a s well .

,

a s ga rdens a n d Viney a rds From priva te property the decree

.

ordered the expropri a tion of h a everything a bove .

,

1 00 h a a ra ble l a nd b eing t a ken a w a y without exception If th a t

. .

me a sure were not to produce the gross tot a l of h a the .

,

decree a llowed expropri a tion to go even b eyond the lim it of

1 00 h a V iney a rds g a rdens a n d speci a lized model f a rms were
.
, ,

exempted As in Bucovi n a the decree expropri a ted ea ch in di

.
,

vidu a l own er down to the limit of 1 00 h a without reg a rd to the .

numb er of properties he p ossessed J oint properties were tre a ted .

a s if they were in the possession of a single o w ner Wa terw a ys .

a n d l a nd un fit for cultiv a tion p a ssed to the St a te .

In Tra nsylva ni a the r a dic a l ch a ra cter of the reform w a s

s uffi ci en t ly pronounced but it w a s softened by a whole series of
,

exceptions a n d f a c ul t a tive provisions The decree expropri a ted .

in full : ( a ) the est a tes of foreigners i e those who on the strength , . .

of a sub sequent n a tion a lity la w would opt for foreign citizenship ;

b
( ) est a tes of public a n d priva te institutions whose residence w a s
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 27
’
outside the country s frontiers ; ( c) est a tes h a ving a speci a l
interest from a sci en t ifi c point of Vie w The text di d not .

‘
expla in wh a t it reg a rded a s of speci a l interest from a s ci en t ifi c
’
p oint of View Other c a tegories of propertie s might b e e x
.

r o r ia t e d in f ll Art 2 cl a use 2) n a mely : ( a ) properties

p p u ( .
,

which h a d p a ssed i nto the h a nds of their present owners a fter

l st November 1 9 1 7 on the strength of the or d in a n ces of the
,

former Hun g a ri a n Gove r mn en t s restrictin g the tr a nsfer of re a l

est a te ; ( b) properties b elongi n g to priv a te or public i n st it u
tions even if their residence were within the frontiers of
Gre a ter Rum ani a except when these properties served dir ectly
,

a s ci en t ifi c a rtistic,
educ a tiona l s a ni t a ry phi l a nthr opic or
, , , ,

economic n a tio n a l pur pose This comprehensive ex ception w a s .

improved upon by the subsequent cla use whi ch decl a red th a t

‘
such exceptions m a y even b e cre a ted without s a ying how ’
, ,

why a n d by whom A second exception to t hi s cl a use

,
.

exempted from the expropri a tion of mortm a in est a tes the

forests mo unt a in p a stures a n d gra zings b elonging to comm unes
, ,

a n d to the s o c a lled frontier comm u ni ties or those w hi ch were

-

the j oin t property of v a rious groups of p e a s a nts A third .

exception referred to endo w ments ; a fourth to forests which

were used for fuel ; a fi fth to l a nd b elongin g to religious or
educ a tion a l a ssoci a tions It is di ffi cul t to see wh a t w a s not .

exempted The a rticle further permitted the tot a l expropri a tion

.

of properties a bove 20 j ugar s which since J ul y 31 1 9 1 4 h a d

1
,

p a ssed otherwise tha n by inh erit a nce into the h a nds of owner s
, ,

who h a d not till then occupied themselves with a griculture .

Cl a use 3 of the s a me a rticle further a llowed the tot a l expropri a

tion of a ra ble l a nd : ( a ) from properties of more th a n 30 j uga r s in
rura l commun es a n d more th a n 1 0 j uga rs in urb a n communes ,

which h a d b een let on lea se during twelve consecutive ye a rs

with a numb er of exceptions ; ( b) from a n y kind of est a tes
everything b eyond 5 00 c a d a stra l j uga r s Below 5 00 j ugar s the .

l a nd wa s to be expropri a ted b eginn i n g with a quot a of 20 p er

cent which could b e repe a ted t ill the exempted min imum of
.

1
Th G r m
e e xpr i j k h fr qu tly b
an e r d r d i t E gli h y k
e ss on oc as e en e en en e e n o n s as o e,
which i u k w i E gli h gr ri hi t ry
s n no n n n t rm f m u m t Th
s a a an s o as a e o ea s re en . e

u
R m an i n form j uga cl ose ly c onn cte d with
a r, e the o ri gin a l L ati n j uge m, i s mo r e
ru

a ccura te an d l e ss lik e ly t o c a u se c onf u s i on .

1 28 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
200 j g
u a rs wa s re a ched In brief expropri a tion d efinit e ly
.
,

a pplied in f ull to foreigners o nl y a n d to in stitutions whos e

residence w a s outside Rum a ni a On the other h a nd Art 4 of the

.
, .

decree decl a red th a t in those communes where the l a nd w a s not

s uffi ci en t for the purposes of the reform a n property might b e
, y
e xpropri a ted i e even those with a lesser a re a th a n the mi n im um
, . .

of 200 j uga r s The first cl a use a ll owin g the expropri a tion of

.

prop erties of less th a n 200 j uga r s did not indic a te how fa r this
mi ght go ; the second cl a use fi x ed a m i nim um of 5 0 j uga r s but
only for urb a n communes without i ndic a ting why it l a id down
,

no cle a r li mit for the rura l communes Art 4 then h a d the . .

foll owing severe provision

I f t h e h ou s i n g p r o b l e m c a n n o t be so l v e d w i t h t h e a i d of t h e a r e a
m a d e a v a i l a b l e t h r ough t h e s e e xp r o p r ia t i on s o n e m a y p a s s a c co r d i n g
,

t o n e e d t o a n a dd i t i on a l e xp r o p r ia t i o n of o t h e r a r e a s a s well n a m e l y i n
, :

r u r a l co mmun e s t o l a n d s i tu a t e d w i t h in a r a d iu s of a t t h e m os t 6 00 m e tr e s
fr o m t h e e d ge o f t h e co m m u n e ; a n d i n t h e ur b a n com m u n e s a s we l l a s in
m i n in g a n d i n d us tr ia l ce n tr e s a n d h e a lt h r e s o rt s wi t h i n a r a d ius o f m
’
.

The text did not in dic a te whether the 6 00 metres were to b e

me a sured once a n d for a ll on the b a sis of the st a te of thin gs
existing a t the time when the decree w a s promulg a ted Its .

v a gueness might h a ve m a de it possible to encro a ch upon suc

cessi ve r a d ii of 600 or metres It w a s only with d iffi cult y
.

th a t in 1 928 the represent a tives of the n a tion a l min orities induced

the Mi ni stry of Agriculture to a dopt the fir st in terpret a tion It .

should b e a dded th a t the W hole of Ar t 4 coul d b e a pplied o nl y

.

by the he a d of the a gricultura l dep a rtment in a greement with the

he a ds of the dep a rtments of industry fi n a n ce a n d soci a l r e , ,

form .

As in Bucovin a a n d in Bess a ra bi a the Tra nsylva ni a n decree

,

a pplied expropri a tion not to properties but to proprietors The .

decree permitted the expropri a tion of fa ctories works a n d of a n y ,

est a blishments a n d rights connected with the expropri a ted l a nd .

Thi s provision w a s not introduced in the decree for the Old

Kingdom with the result th a t in certa in c a ses the owners
,

refused to h a nd over v a rious inst a ll a tions found on the ex propr i

a ted a re a W a ter rights excise rights a n d a n y other roy a lties
. , ,

a n d privileges were expropri a ted for the b en e fi t of the St a te The .

 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 29

decree exempted from expropri a tion Vi neya rds orch a rds a n d , ,

commun a l gra zin gs except W hen needed for housing purposes

, .

B Th e S econ d E xp rop r i a ti on The expropri a tio n of the l a rge

. .

priva te property on the b a sis of the decree la w fell short by -

some h a of the required a re a of

. h a A new .

me a sure of expropri a tion bec a me therefore necess a ry This , , .

w a s e n a cted in the Old Kingdom a t the s a me t i me a s the det a il ed

resettlement by the so c a lled Ga r oflid la w of 1 9 21 The la w
,
-
.

consisted of two p a rts the fi r st b eing entitled Expropri a tion a n d

,

the second Resettlement .

The m a in cha r a cteristic of M Ga r oflid s expropri a tion .

’

mea sur e w a s the a b a ndonment of the mech a ni c a l expropri a tion

sc a le As th a t sc a le took no a ccount of economic c i rcumst a nces
.

it thre a tened to destroy even the few ra tion a l a gricultura l under

t a kin gs which Rum a ni a posses s ed ; a n d b ec a use it ignored loc a l
con di tions it h a d t a ken a w a y in s uffi ci en t l a n d where the dem a nd
for it w a s considera ble an d in other p a rts too much of it so th a t ,

gre a t extents rem a ined uncultiva ted The new la w introduced .

a n economic criterion of expropri a tion It l a id do w n a m a ximum .

region a l l imit for all est a tes but took c a re not to destroy the ,

more progress i ve a gricultura l exploit a tions a n d breedin g st a tio n s .

And it likew ise took into a ccount the loc a l dem a nd for l a nd a n d
a lso the f a ct of a l a ndown er b e i ng him self a cultiv a tor or not .

These considera tions a ppe a red cle a rly in Art 8 of the 1 9 21 .

la w It left to those l a ndowners w h o possessed their own de a d

.

stock who occupied themselves with c a ttle breedi ng or who

,

c a rried on a gricul tur a l i ndustries a l a rger unexpropri a ted a re a ,

—1 00 200 300 5 00 h a They were grouped in to c a tegories

.
, , ,

a ccording to the situ a tion of the est a tes in highl a nd or hi lly or

pl a in regions ; a n d secondly in rel a tion to the loc a l resettlement

, ,

dem a nds— whether considera ble middling or sa t i sfi ed L a nd , , .

owners W h o did not possess a proper equi pment in de a d or

live stock were a llowed to ret a in under s imila r conditions o nl y
1 00 1 5 0 200 or 25 0 h a In the second pl a ce the la w a dopted
, , , .
,

a soci a l criterion in th a t it took more l a nd in those districts

‘

where the dem a nd for l a nd on the p a rt of the p e a s a n ts w a s

grea ter As the a va il a ble a re a w a s sm a ll er in the mount a inous
.

a n d hill regions Art 1 6 invited l a ndowners in s uch r e ions to

, .
g
K
1 30 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
a llow the whole of their est a tes to b e expropri a ted offerin g them ,

in return one a n d a h a lf tim es a s much l a nd in the coloniz a tion

- - -

regions Ar t 6 8 of the ordin a nce of execution cla ssifi e d a s hi gh

. .

l a nd est a tes the properties situ a ted in the hi gh regions where the
growing of cere a l crops w a s incident a l ; a s hill est a tes the proper
ties situ a ted in the hilly region s in which orch a rds a n d V iney a rds
were the norm a l pl a nt a tions a n d whose a ra ble a re a w a s less ,

th a n 40 p er cent of the tot a l a re a of the est a te less forests

.
, .

Prop erties entering i n neither of these two c a tegories were con

s i d er e d a s lowl a nd est a tes .

The seco n d import a nt ch a r a cteristic of the 1 921 la w w a s the

exten sion of the b a si s of expropri a tion Ar t 6 reg a rded est a tes . .

a n d p a rts of est a tes situ a ted in the s a me commune or in

neighb our ing communes a n d b elonging to the s a me owner a s

forming one si n gle property No l a n downer therefore coul d .

ret a in more th a n the m a ximum l imit of 5 00 h a a r a ble l a nd n o .

,

m a tter how m a ny prop erties he possessed There would seem .

to b e a contra diction b etween t hi s genera l provi sion a n d the

text of Ar t 4 which exempted from expropri a tion prop erties of
.
,

less tha n 1 00 h a a ra ble l a nd ; so th a t a l a ndo w ner possessing

.

let us sa y ten or more prop erties of less th a n 1 00 h a e a ch mi ght .

presum a bly keep a ll of them if they were not situ a ted in the
s a me commune or in neighbour ing comm u n es The a uthorities .

entrusted with the a pplic a tion of the la w a pp a rently in terpreted

the lim it of 5 00 h a a ra ble l a nd for one individu a l l a ndo w ner a s
.

a bsolute . Thi s limit domi n a ted the text of Ar t 1 0 whi ch decreed .

the so c a lled co ordin a tion of the expropri a tion me a sur e i e the

- -

, . .

’
reduction of e a ch indi vidu a l s possessions to the s a me a b solut e
limit which a pplied to his c a tegory no m a tter how l a rge the ,

numb er of p a rts which constituted them .

The la w m a int a ined the full expropri a tion of foreigners a n d

a bsentee owners with one single difference b etween the two
,

c a tegories While exempting from expropri a tion priva te country

.

houses a n d p a rks pl a nt a tions Viney a rds woodla nds a n d i n

, , , ,

d ust r i a l est a bli s hments it obliged foreign ow n ers to sell those

,

obj ects with i n three yea rs from the promulg a tion of the la w ; no
such obliga tion w a s imposed upon Rum a ni a n a b sentee owners .

The s a me Art 7 e xpropri a ted in f ull est a tes which h a d been let
.
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 31
on le a se continuously b etween April 23 1 9 1 0 a n d April 24 1 924 , , .

Lik ewise a ll l a nd lea sed in emphyteusis or sim il a r titles were

,

expropri a ted in full for the ben efi t of the users .

The la w a lso extended the purpose of expropri a tion a dding ,

to the origin a l intentions th a t of cre a t ing comm u n a l gra zin gs

a s well a s the s a tisf a ction of gener a l economic a n d cultur a l

needs ( Ar t It d ated the begin ni n g of the reform from

.

Decemb er 1 5 1 9 1 8 th a t bein g the d a te on which the St a te w a s

, ,

considered to h a ve a cquir ed the title to the l a nd ( Ar t All .

tra nsfer of l a nd a fter August 1 5 1 9 1 6 w a s decl a red i n va lid , ,

except l a nd sold not l a ter th a n Febru a ry 1 1 921 to pe a s a nt ,

co O per a tives
-
Popul a r B a nks or to individu a l pe a s a nt culti
, ,

va t or s up to 1 0 h a e a ch ; a s we ll a s l a nd sold for buil din g or

.

fa ctories The l a nd thus sold w a s not i ncluded in the

.

h a to b e expropri a ted ( Art

. In 1 9 24 this a rticle suffered a
.

m o di fi ca t ion w hi ch recognized the v a li di ty of s a les m a de to

pe a s a nts a fter Febru ar y 1 1 921 a n d un til J a n ua r y 1 1 924 up
, , ,

to 5 h a e a ch on condition th a t l a nd sold in th a t w a y shoul d b e

.
,

deducted from the p a rt which the l an do wner w a s to ret a in .

Ar t 1 3 considered a s a r a ble l a nd for the purpose of the la w

.

a ll l a nd which up to its promulg a tion h a d b een used for cultiv a

tion for gra z ing a n d for p a stur es a s well a s a ll l a nd li a ble to

, ,

floodin g but whi ch w a s used for c ultiva tion or for gr a zing .

V iney a rds orch a rds a n d other pl a nt a tions l a id out up t o

, ,

J a n ua r y 1 1 9 1 7 a s well a s l a nd a rt ifici ally irriga ted woo dl a nds

, , , ,

& c did not enter in to the c a lcula tion of the la w B ut Art 1 4

.
, . .

expropri a ted in full ponds a n d river b eds b a rren l a nd & c -

, , .
,

w ithout reg a rd to their extent for the pur pose of their b eing ,

dra ined or a fforested by the communes or by the St a te .

The 1 921 law a dopted the idea of gra du a l expropri a tio n The .

p a rt w hi ch w a s to rem ain the ow ner s w a s to b e determin ed at ’

once but the rem a inder w a s to b e t a ken over o nl y when it could

,

be tra nsferred without del a y to the pe a s a nts Any sur plus of .

expropri a ted l an d coul d b e let on le a se to the origi na l owner for

a period of three ye a rs if it w a s not dem a nded by the p e a s a nts
,

themselves ( Ar t .

C Th e Mech an i s m of E xp mp ma ti on
'

. The st a rting point of .

-

the expropri a tion process in a ll the pro vinces w a s the l a ndow n er s ’

K2
1 32 THE NATU RE OF THE REFORM
decl a ra tion cont a ini ng a ll the det a ils referring to hi s prop erty .

The a ctu a l execution w a s then c a rried out by a numb er of com

missions whose composition a n d functions va ried in keepin g
with the stronger or milder ra dic a l tendencies of the resp ective
me a sures .

In the Old Kingdom the provision a l t a k ing over of the l a nd

w a s entrusted to loc a l comm issions consisting of the district
j udge of the interested l a n downer a n d of a delega te of the
,

p e a s a nts Its l a b ours were revised by county comm issions whi ch

.
,

consisted of a j udge a deleg a te of the Centr a l Resettlemen t

,

Otfi ce two represent a tives of the l a ndo w ners a n d two of the

, ,

p e a s a nts These co mmissions determined the a ctu a l a rea to be

.

t a ken over a n d they estim a ted the compens a tion One co ul d

, .

a pp e a l a g a inst decisions of the county commissions to region a l

commissions These were presided over by a president of the

.

region a l Cour t of App ea l or of the loc a l Tribun a l a n d in cluded ,

a deleg a te of the Centr a l Resettlement Offi c e one of the Superior ,

Agric ul tur a l Council one represent a tive of the l a ndowners a n d

, ,

one of the p e a s a nts These co mmi ssions determi ned fi n a lly a ll

.

the a spects of the issue except the compens a tion with reg a rd
, ,

to which a n ultim a te a ppe a l w a s possible b efore the Cour t of

Appe a l Where the fi n a l me a sur ement est a b lished somet hi ng
.

different from the origin a l indic a tions of the l a n downer the whole ,

work of expropri a tion w a s revised in rel a tion to the correct a re a .

In B ess a ra bi a the decree la w entrusted the work of expropri a

-

tion to commissions consistin g of a j udge a delega te of the speci a l ,

institution known a s Our O th ee a n a gric ul tur a l expert a delega te

, ,

of the a gricultura l dep a rtment a deleg a te of the l a ndowners a n d

, ,

fi ve delega tes of the pe a s a nts The ch a irm a n of the commission

.

w a s to b e chosen from a mong its members The a rr a ngement .

g a ve a prepondera nt infl uen ce to the p e a s a nt deleg a tes All the .

work of expropri a tion w a s centra li zed a n d executed by Our

O th ee Appe a ls were to b e he a rd by a Centra l Comm ission a n d
.

were to be settled in 8 — 1 5 d a ys the interested p a rties not b eing

,

leg a lly represented The whole proced ure w a s dra stic a lly simple
.

a n d expeditious .

In Bucovina the decree est a bli shed loc a l commissions a s in ,

the Old Kingdom a n d a Centr a l Commission a s in B ess a r a bi a

,
.
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 33

The loc a l comm issions comprised two in t ellectu a ls one of whom ,

w a s chosen a s ch a ir m a n by a dr a win g of lots the m a yor a l a nd , ,

owner a n d two pe a s a nts F in a l a pp ea ls were hea rd by the Centra l

, .

Agra ri a n Commission consistin g of twenty two memb ers a mong -

whom were three l a ndowners a n d six p ea s a nts .

In Tra nsylva ni a loc a l commissions consisted of a j udge the ,

offi c i a l a gricultur a l exp ert the owner of the est a te a n d two , ,

pe a s a nt delega tes They h a d to try to bring a bout a n a greement

.

between the interested p a rties with reg a rd both to the a re a to

b e expropri a ted a n d the comp ens a tio n to b e p a id for i t The .

work of the loc a l commissions w a s revised by county com

missions a n d fi n a l a ppe a ls were t a ken to the Superior Council
,

for the Agra ri a n Reform co n sisting of a president a Vice , ,

president twelve memb ers a n d twenty four a ssist a nt memb ers

, ,
-
.

Like the Centra l Commission in Bucovi n a the Tra nsylva ni a n ,

Superior Council worked in the m a in through sub committees -

.

It w a s di stin guished however from the institutions of a ppe a l in

, ,

the other provinces in th a t it consisted a ltogether of nomin a ted

members a ppoi n ted by the Governi n g Council of Tra nsylv a n i a .

This a g a in shows how the va rious a rra ngements reflected the

circumst a nces from which they h a d issued .

The whole procedure of expropri a tion w a s therefore in its , ,

genera l lines simil a r in the va rious provinces a n d the org a ns ,

entrusted with the execution of the me a sure were built upon the
s a me principles In the Old Kin gdom a n d in B ess a r a bi a however
.
, ,

the centra l org a n for the a pplic a tion of the reform w a s a St a te

institution In Buco vin a an d in Tra nsylva ni a the work w a s
.

pl a ced in the h a nds of two priva te b a n ks the Region a l B a nk of ,

Cern au ti a d the Agra ri a n B a nk of Cluj In the Old Kin gdom

n 1
.

the legisl a tor h a d before h im the un s a tisfa ctory results obt a ined
by the Rura l Ofii ce est a bli shed in 1 907 At the s a me time it w a s .
,

thought useful to lin k up the execution of the reform with

a democra tic institution known to the pe a s a ntry n a mely the , ,

Centra l Offi ce of the Popul a r B a nks a n d of the Pe a s a nt Co

1
D e cree l w for t h e cr a t i on of t h e Agra ri n B n k d sti e d t o a pply t h e gr ri a n
-
a e a a e n a a

r ef r m Tra sylv an i t h e B t a n d t h H u g ri n di stricts ( No 4 1 6 7 M i to ul

o in n a, ana , e n a a . on r
Oflci a l No 1 25 S e pte m b r 21 1 9 1 9 S t tut e of t h e R egi o l B n k of C e r au ti
.
, e , . a na a n re
o rga n i d for t h e a pplic tion of t h e a gr ri a n ref rm M o i tom l Oficia l No 1 30
ze a a o . n .
,

S e pte m b e r 27 1 9 1 9 , .
1 34 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
oper a tives which functioned a t the tim e a s a section of the
,

M inistry of Fin a nce A decree la w tra nsformed it into a n a ntono

.
-

mous institution a tt a ched to the Min istry of Agricultur e It w a s .

to consist of fi ve sections : 1 ) the Centr a l of the Popula r B a nk s ;

( 2) the Centra l of Pe a s a nt Co opera tives of Production a n d
-

Con s umption ; ( 3) the Centr a l of Co op era tives of Lea sing ; -

( 4 ) the L a nd Mortg a ge Credit O ffice ( 5 ) the Sur vey Ofii ce Th e .

fi r s t two sections were to conti n ue the work of rur a l co oper a tion -

on a bro a der b a sis The other three were to a pply the a gr a ri a n

.

reform .

In B e s s a ra bi a the centra l org a n for the execution of the

reform w a s a St a te institution known a s Our Offi ce to whi ch ,

were entrusted the s a me functions a s those performed by the

Centra l Offi ce in the Old Kin gdom The law decl a red the .

B ess a ra bi a n institution to b e a bran ch of the Cen tra l R e settle -

ment Offi ce a t B uc a rest .

In Bucovin a the reform w a s pl a ced in the h a nds of a privi

lege d priv a te institution the Region a l B a n k w hi ch w a s entitled
, ,

to c a rry out a ll t h e techni c a l a n d fi n a n cia l op er a tio n s conn ected

with the a gr a ri a n reform The b o a rd of directors included
.

memb ers a pp o i nted by the Minister for Bucovi n a a n d delega tes ,

of the co O p era tives of the v a rious n a tion a lities in the pro vin ce
-
.

The Centra l Government h a d a right of control .

In Tra nsylv a ni a the execution of the reform w a s entrusted

to the newly cre a ted Agra ri a n B a nk in which the St a te p a rtici
,

p a ted with c a pit a l a n d a lso with represent a tives on the bo a rd of

d irectors The Agr a r ia n B a n k w a s a lt oget h er a priv a te in stitution
.

h a vin g no connexion wh a tever with the Centra l Res ettlement

O th ee where a s the Region a l B a nk in Bucovin a w a s considered
,

to b e a ffi li a t e d to th a t o th e e though this w a s merely a m a tter

,

of form .

In reg a rd to the institutions entrusted with the techni c a l

execution of the reform the origin a l legisl a tion therefore differed
,

considera bly in the four provin ces The difference w a s due p a rtly
.

to loc a l needs a n d even more to loc a l idios yncr a sies a n d to the

,

desire of the new provinces to keep thi n gs in their own h a nds .

The subseque n t l a ws p a ssed in 1 9 21 m od ifi e d only sli ghtly

the procedure of expropri a tion a n d the org a ns ch a rged with
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 35

c a rrying it out in the Old Kin gdom The la w for the Old Ki n g
.

dom m a int a ined the Cen tra l Resettlement Otfi ce a s the m a in

a uthority for the executio n of the reform But Art 37 of the . .

la w a s subsequently m od ifi e d by a nother la w published i n the

,

Jll on i tom l Ofici a l No 1 6 4 of Octob er 28 1 9 22 m a de cert a in

.
, ,

import a nt ch a nges in the composition a n d a ctivity of the

Agra ri a n Committee the highest a uthority in m a tters of a gra ri a n
,

reform The membership of the Committee w a s reduced from

.

eighteen to twelve six memb ers formin g a quorum Its president

,
.

w a s the Minister of Agricultur e himself The Agra ri a n Committee .

w a s to sit i n ca mer a without c a lling the p a rties working solely ,

on the b a sis of the dossiers referrin g to the v a rious c a ses brought

b efore it Appe a ls co ul d b e lodged b efore the Agra ri a n Com mittee
.

by either of the interested p a rties a s well a s by the Ministry of

,

Agricult ure The a rra n geme n t by which the Agr a ri a n Committee

.

w a s to work b ehi n d closed doors w a s n o doubt due to the gre a t

n um b er of c a ses wi th which it h a d to de a l But it w a s severely.

criticized fi r st b ec a use it took a w a y from the Committee the

,

a pp e a ra nce of b eing a n imp a rti a l Cour t so necess a ry for givi n g

,

a uthority to decisions which were b ound to b e disliked by one

side or the other ; a n d secondly b ec a use the Committee coul d

, ,

not in such circumst a nces h a ndl e its work with a f ull gra sp of
the det a ils of e a ch c a se from a n a gra ri a n p oint of View especi a lly
, ,
’
a s with on e exceptio n
,
a ll the Committee s memb ers b elonged
,

to the j udici a ry .

More im port a nt were the ch a nges m a de in the procedure

which h a d been origi n a lly devised for the new provi n ces The .

m a in pur pose of these ch a nges w a s to uni fy the procedure by

bringin g the whole execution of the reform within the pur view
of the Centra l Resettlement O th ee The institution n a med Our
.

O th ee w a s a b olished by the a mendment to the B ess a ra bi a n la w

published in the Mon i tor ul Ofici a l No 1 2 of J a n ua r y 1 8 1 9 21 ;
.
,

a n d a subsequent a mendment publi shed in No 6 8 of th a t o ffi ci a l .

j ourn a l on M a rch 25 1 925 extended the a uthority of the

,

Agra ri a n Commi ttee to B ess a r a bi a a s well The Tra nsylv a ni a n .

la w prom ulga ted on J uly 30 1 921 tr a n s ferred the functions

, , ,

of the Agra ri a n B a nk to the Centr a l Resettlemen t Offi ce a n d ,

the a mendment published on S eptember 20 1 922 completely ,

1 36 THE N ATURE OF THE REFORM
m o d ifi e d the j udici a l p a rt of the procedure of expropri a tion Th e .

s a me t hi ng w a s done for Buco vi n a by the la w published in the

Mon i tom l Ofici a l on J uly 30 1 921 w ith the a mendment pub
, ,

li sh e d on April 20 1 9 24 , .

To these l a ws were gra du a lly a dded a num b er of ordin a nces

whi ch m a de the a ctu a l procedure conform to the a bove ch an ges
in the origina l legisl a tion .

S E C TI O N 2 . TH E R E S E TT L EME N T
A . Th e Di s tr i b
uti on o
f H ld i
The resettlement of the
o g
n s .

p e a s a nts w a s a rra nged in the new provinces sim ul t a neously wi th

the det a ils of the expropri a tion O n ly in the Old Kin gdom w a s it
.

left to P a rli a ment to work out a t a l a ter st a ge a det a iled

resettlement la w .

The prin cip a l question which the r e settlement l a ws h a d to -

decide referred to the siz e a n d n a ture of the holdin gs which the

p e a s a nts were to receive In B ess a ra bi a it w a s decided to dis
.

tribute full hold ings of 6 — 8 h a coloniz a tion holdin gs of 8 — 1 0h a

.
, .
,

a s well a s so c a lled complement a ry lots

-

The siz e of the l a tter .

w a s not determined which m a de their distribution a problem of

,

p eculi a r d iffi cul t y in the a bsence of a n y intention to prescrib e

a t the s a me time the consolid a tion of existin g pe a s a nt holdi ngs .

A second issue which cre a ted considera ble discussio n in B ess a ra bi a

w a s the est a b li sh em en t of a n order of preference a mong the
cl a im a nts to l a nd Ultim a tely the economic point of View pre
.

v a iled a n d the decree la w l a id down the fo llowin g order of

-

preference :
( )
a Those holdings were to be completed which did not
a mount to a minimum of 6 — 8 h a .

Full holdings were to be distributed to the p e a s a nts living

on the est a te a n d who h a d no l a nd a t a ll .

( )
0 Full holdings were to be distributed to l a ndless p e a s a nts

living within a ra dius of 5 versts .

d
( ) Complement a ry lots to the pe a s a nts livi n g w ithin a r a dius

of 5 versts The pe a s a n ts in this c a tegory could be tra nsferred to

.

the third c a tegory if they ceded to the St a te their exist i ng

,

properties This w a s a b eginning tow a rds consolid a tion a n d the

.

only one a ttempted .

 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 37

The B ess a ra bi a n la w reserved eight holdin gs of 25 h a e a ch .

for the crea tion of tra ini ng coll eges for te a chers a pea sa n t holding ,

for e a ch Villa ge school two holdings of 7 h a e a ch for e a ch regi

, .

ment residing in the provin ce to serve both for the i n struction

,

of the soldiers a n d for supplying their food a n d h a for , .

v a rious est a blishments of a ge n era l a gricultur a l interest .

The decree la w for Buco vin a prescrib ed the s imult a neous

-

c a rrying out of expropri a tion a n d resettlement Resettlement .

w a s to b egin on the b a sis of individu a l dem a nds j ust a s expropri a ,

’
tion w a s set going on the b a sis of the l a n do w ner s decl a ra tio n ;
the a rr a n gement h a d the a dva nt a ge th a t it est a blished the re a l
d em a n d for l a n d in the v a rious loc a lities Lik e the B ess a ra bi a n
.

decree it cre a ted three c a tegories of resettlement lots but not

, ,

in the s a me sizes : f ull lots of 4— 8 h a coloniz a tion lots of 5 h a

.
,
.
,

a n d complement a ry lots which could not b e of less th a n ha .

,

a n d were to b e given to the pe a s a n ts ow ni ng less th a n 4 h a .

Full holdin gs were to b e distributed to those p ea s a nts who h a d

no l a nd a t a ll or to those who h a ving only some l a nd were
, ,

willi n g to cede it to the St a te a n d to receive a colo ni z a tion hold

ing in ste a d Like the s imil a r B ess a r a bi a n a rra n gement this w a s
.
,

a mild a ttempt a t consolid a tion Rura l school s were to b e

.

endowed with one holdin g a n d vi ll a ge priests with two holdings

,

e a ch
.

I n Tr a nsylv a n i a a s in the other two pro vinces the decree la w

, ,
-

fores a w the distribution of full holdin gs of coloniz a tion holdings ,

a n d of complement a ry holdings without determining their siz e

,
.

It decl a red i n ste a d th a t the holdings would be given in a ccord a nce

with loc a l circumst a n ces a n d with the c a p a city of the cl a im a nt s
to work them .

As reg a rds the order of preference in which the l a n d w a s to

b e distributed the Tra nsylv a n i a n decree sought to h a rmoni z e
,

the eco n omic with the n a tio n a l point of View It therefore ga ve .

prefere n ce to loc a l residents to those who h a d suffered through

,

the Wa r to w a r inva lids c a p a ble of working the l a nd themselves

, .

I n ge n er a l those pe a s a nt s who h a d bee n mobiliz ed received

,

prefere n ce The pe a s a n ts own ing more t h a n 5 c a d a stra l j uga r s

.

were n ot e n titled to receive l a nd until the dem a nds of a ll the

other c a tegories h a d been sa t i sfi e d Those owning less th a n
.
1 38 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
5 j uga r s were to receive suffi ci en t l a nd to bring thei r holdi n gs up
to th a t figur e The decree a lso entitled a gric ul tur a l l a bourers
.

a n d serv a nts to resettlement a s well though these h a d no

,

me a ns of tillin g the l a nd .

Expropri a tion a n d resettlement were to go h a n d in h a nd in

Tra nsylv a ni a only a s much l a nd b eing t a ken over a s w a s
,

a ctu a ll y requi red a t the mome n t The l a nd w a s to b e tra nsfe rred

.

to the pe a s a nts a t once under a system of s o c a lled comp ul sory

,
-

le a ses the fi n al me a surement a n d resettlement to follow a fter

,

the necess a ry preli min a ry work h a d b een con cluded As a n .

exception however the Tra nsylv a ni a n decree p ermitted the

, ,

immedi a te division a n d distribution of l a n d wh ere the two

interested p a rties could re a ch a direct a greement ( Art .

without a n y fur t h er expert a d vice a n d decision The titles of

'

the resettled p e a s a nts were to be inscribed in the groun d b ooks

which a lre a dy existed in Hunga ry b efore the Wa r .

The decree la w for the Old Ki ngdom did not concern itself
-

with resettlement unl ess one excepts a ge n era l in dica tion a s to

,

the order of preference to b e followed cont a ined in Art 38 ,

.

Th e v i ll a ge a s s ocia t ion s s h a l l i n c l u d e w i t h in t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e s t a t e
‘

t h e p e a s a n t cu lt i v a t o r s w h o d o n ot p os ses s s uffi c i e n t l a n d of t h e i r ow n ,

p r e fe r e n ce b ein g gi v e n t o t h os e w h o h a v e t a k en p a rt i n t h e W a r a n d t o
t h ei r su cc e sso r s Th os e gu i lt y of d e s e rt ion or o f i n sub o r d in a t i on dur i n g
.

t h e W a r s h a l l be e x clu d e d fr om t h e s e a ssoci a t i on s .

The 1 921 la w for the Old Kingdom devoted its whole second
p a rt to the a rra ngements for the resettlement of the p e a s a n ts .

Art 78 determined the following order of preference : (a ) those

.

mobilized in the Wa r 1 91 6— 1 9 ; those mob ili z ed in the w a r of

1 9 1 3 ; ( 0) w a r widows for the i r children ; ( ( l) sm a ll cultiv a tors
,

w ithout l a nd ; ( e ) cultiv a tors owning less th a n 5 h a an d

f w ar .

orph a ns The next a rticle l a id down a second order of preference

.

for tho s e fa lling within one a n d the s a me c a tegory : ( a ) w a r

inv a lids ; ( b) pe a s a nts who h a d previously l a boured on the est a te ;
( 0) p e a s a nts who h a d their own stock a n d a settled f a rm ; ( d ) those
h a vi n g more children a n d ( e ) those older in ye a rs If the a v a ila ble .

a re a were to b e in s u fficient for a ll those within a c a tegory w h o

fulfille d the s a m e conditions the distribution w a s to b e settled

,

by dra wing lots ( Art The la w for the Old Kingdom recog
.
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 39

ni z e d in ddition a l a rge num ber of rur a l inh a bit a nts a s b eing

a

entitled to receive l a nd n a mely : priests te a chers a n d a ll lesser

, , ,

offi ci a ls residing i n rur a l commu n es the holders of a gricultur a l

,

degrees of wh a tever kind on condition th a t a ll these should

,

reside on the l a nd a n d cultiva te their holdings Artis a n s like .

c a rp enters t a ilors bl a cksmiths fid dl er s & c who h a d not

, , , , .

previously occupied themselves W ith a griculture public a n s a n d ,

merch a nts a s well a s a n y inh a bit a nts who used to own l a n d but
,

h a d sold it were not entitled to b e resettled u n til the cl a ims of

,

a ll the other c a tegories h a d b een s a t i sfi e d ( Art Inv a lid .

offic e r s received preference for ordin a ry holding s of 5 h a ; they .

could receive a s much a s 25 h a in coloni z a tion regions a fter the

.

resettlement of the p ea s a nts h a d b een fi n i sh ed on condition ,

th a t they cultiv a ted the l a nd themselves ( Art .

Where there w a s not enough l a nd to go round some of the ,

pe a s a nts were to b e settled in the coloni z a tion regions the choice ,

of those who were to go b eing m a de if possible by mutu a l a gree , ,

ment or otherwi se by the loc a l committees On the l a rger hold .

ings formed on the expropri a ted a re a there were to b e est a blished

model fa rms for the ben efi t of holders of a gricultura l degrees a n d
of in va li d offi cer s who undertook to cultiva te the l a nd in a c cor
d a nce with conditions imposed by the Centra l Resettlement
Otfi ce ( Ar t From a n y surplus l a nd rem a inin g a fter the
.

work of resettlement under the a b ove conditions h a d b een

fi ni sh e d a second holding could b e sold a fter the p a ssing of
a period of three ye a rs to those who h a d a lre a dy received one on

the strength of the a gra ri a n reform Preference w a s to b e given.

to those pe a s a nts who possessed stock who h a d a l a rger f a mily , ,

a n d who p a id a gre a ter p a rt of the cost in a dv a nce Art

( .

The la w for the Old Kin gdom went fa rther th a n a n y of the

others in a llowi ng other c a tegories of rura l in h a bit a nts b esides ,

pe a s a nts a cl a im to l an d Where a s the origin a l decree h a d

, .
,

i n deed spoken of pe a s a nt cultiva tors the resettlement la w

,
‘ ’
,

wi dened the expression to Rum a ni a n in h a bit a nts who cultiva te

the l a nd ’
A la w of M a rch 1 5 1 9 27 incre a sed still further the
.
,

n umb er of non pe a s a nt cl a im a nt s to l a nd by a llowi n g holdings

-

of 25 j ugar s in Tra nsylva ni a a n d of 25 h a i n the Old Kingdom .

,

B ess a r a bi a a n d Bucovin a to offi cers decor a ted with the order

, ,
1 40 THE N ATURE OF THE REFORM
of M ih a iu the Bra ve the hi ghest Rum a ni a n milit a ry decora tion
, .

L a ter still holdings i n B ess a ra bi a were a ttributed to the former

,

memb ers of the Council of the L a nd the a d h oe B ess a ra bi a n ,

Assembly which h a d procl a im ed the union with Rum a ni a ; a n d

l a n do w ners whose d a ughters m a rried offi cers of the Rum a ni a n
a rmy were a llowed to ret a in a n a ddition a l quot a b eyond the

genera l m a ximum of 1 00 h a These a rra ngements h a ve b een

.

severely criticized from a n economic point of View in a ddition ,

to the f a ct th a t they g a ve to non cul tiva tors l a nd for whi ch its

-

previous owners h a d received merely a nomin a l compens a tion .

B Th e M ech an i s m of Res ettlemen t In the Old Kingdom

. .

the la w fi x e d the size of the f ul l resettlement holdings a t 5 h a .

a n d of the coloniz a tion holdi n gs a t 7 h a b esides buil di ng lots .

,

a n d commu n a l gr a zin gs In a ddition of course there were to b e

.
, ,

distributed complement a ry lots which could not b e sm a ller th a n

,

5 h a to p e a s a n ts owning less th a n 5 h a a fter t a king in to a ccount

.
, .
,

the l a nd which they were likely to i n herit in a di rect l i ne ( Ar t .

V ill a ge a rtis a ns who occupied themselves with a gricul tur e a s well

were entitled merely to a bui ldi ng lot a n d up to 1 h a a ra ble l a nd . .

Building lots were to b e of s

q m a n d were not . .

included in the extent of the holdings .

Buildi n gs found on the expropri a ted l a nd were prefer a bly to

b e s old to the commun a l or county a uthorities or to the p e a s a nt
co oper a tives ( Art
-
.

As a n exception to the genera l trend of the a gra ri a n legisl a

tion Art 1 02 a ll owed the cre a tio n of 1 0 h a holdin gs in the
, . .

mount a i n ous a n d hilly regio n s a s well a s in those with a dense

,

popul a tion a n d of f a rms of 5 0h a in the other regio n s A decision

, . .

of the Agra ri a n Committee w a s req uired to th a t e n d These lots .

could include buildings found on the expropri a ted l a nd Their .

tot a l extent could not exceed one eighth of the a re a expropri a ted
-
.

In e a ch commu n e a list of those e n titled to receive l a nd w a s

dra wn up by a committee consisti n g of the m a yor the priest , ,

the he a d m a s ter a n d four pe a s a nt deleg a tes Appe a ls w ere

,
.

e d by a dist r ict committee which included the loc a l m a gis

j g
u d
tr a te a n d a n a gricultura l expert a s delega te of the Centra l
Re s ettlement O th ee In b oth c a s e s deci s ions w ere t a ken by
.
,

a m a j ority vote ( Art The whole procedure w a s m a de a s

.
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 41

expeditious a s possible the period of a ppe a l from decision s of

,

the loc a l committees b eing of fi ft e en d a ys a n d decisions of the ,

di strict committees h a ving to b e given within twenty d a ys .

App ea ls were a llo wed from the di strict committees to the Agra
ri a n Comm ittee .

The a ctu a l division a n d di stribution of the holdi n gs w a s

c a rried out by the org a ns of the Centra l R e settlement Otfi ce -

B efore this p a rcell a tion the Agra ri a n Committee h a d to re s erve

from the expropri a ted a re a : ( a ) the l a nd necess a ry for ge n er a l
public a n d educ a tion a l interests ; ( 6 ) l a n d for the cre a tion or
completion of Villa ge gr a zings ; ( c) the l a nd necess a ry for the
est a blishment of new Vill a ges or for the widening of existi n g
Vill a ges for ro a ds & c a s well a s for a fforest a tion in the coloniz a
, , .
,

tion regions or on l a nd unfit for cultiva tio n or gra zi n g ( Art .

If the cre a tion of those reserves reduced the a re a a va il a ble for

resettlement the n umb er of the holdi ngs to b e di stributed w a s
,

to b e restricted in the s a me pre portion .

C Commun a l Gr a zi ngs a n d Woodla n d s

. 1 ) Gr a zi ngs The . .

conception whi ch in the p a st h a d genera lly a ni m a ted the Rum a

ni a n legisl a tor under the im pression crea ted by the pr ofi t able
,

deve lopment of corn growing w a s th a t a n y l a nd t a ken a w a y from

-

the cultiva tion of cere a ls w a s an economic retrogression In the .

discussions of the J a ssy reform one could discern the persistence

of th a t outlook a n d the text of the reform itself contempl a ted
,

the r e settl ement of the p ea s a nts o nl y on a ra ble l a nd so a s to ,

m aint a in the a gricultur a l st a nd a rd of the country Likewise .

,

the decree la w of Decemb er 1 9 1 8 provided for the di stribution

-

of a ra ble l a nd but m a de no mention of gra zings In the

, .

moun t ainous regions where corn gro wing w a s not possible it

,
-

w a s a llowed by Art 1 7 of the decree to expropri a te l a nd for

.

gra zing a n d p a sture ; but th a t obviously w a s not looked upon a s

economi c a lly necess a ry but merely a s a wa y of comp ens a ting
,

the pe a s a nts of those regions for not receiving prop er a gricul tura l
l a nd And in consequence a ci rc ul a r issued on April 25 1 9 1 9
.
, , ,

by the Mini ster of Agricultur e interpreted Art 1 7 a s me a ning , .

th a t expropri a tion could in no c a se b e a pplied to properties of

less th a n 1 00 h a which wa s the genera l minim um l a id down by
.
,

the la w .
1 42 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
In the follo w ing yea r M Ga r ofli d h a d to give w a y to the
.

’
p ea s a nts insistent dem a nd for gra zing a n d to en a ct a speci a l
la w published in the M om tom l Ofici a l No 1 38 of S eptemb er 27
'

, .

1 9 20 Those who h a d insisted on the need for such a me a sure

.

p ointed out th a t it w a s more useful to cre a te gra zin g for a whole

vill a ge th a n i ndi vidu a l holdi ngs
b
for 7— 8 p e a s a nts The whole .

progress of c a ttle bree di n g d epen d ed on them If the bree di n g

~
.

st a tions which the reforms w a nted to encour a ge were to stimula te

by thei r ex a mple a n d not merely to c a use envy they h a d to
, ,

exist side by side w ith vi ll a ge gra zin gs Without such common.

l a nds the development of fodder crop s w a s not possible : they

co ul d not b e grown on the sc a ttered p e a s a nt fi e ld s whi ch were ,

not fenced in to protect the crops from the i nr o a ds of ani m a ls .

J ust in the higher regions where the keep i ng of c a ttle pl a yed

,

a more import a nt p a rt th a n cultiv a tion i n the pe a s a nt economy ,

most of the communes di d not possess vi ll a ge gra zi n gs The .

1 920 la w a llowed in the moun t a in ous districts the expropri a tion

of l a nd eve n b elow the limit of 1 00 h a for the cre a tion of com
.

m un a l gr a zings a n d extended th a t provision to the hill region a s

well Its purp ose w a s s a id to b e the completion of the p ea s a nt
.

economy by en a bli ng pe a s a nt cultiv a tors to keep two oxen a n d

a cow in the lowl a nds a n d in the hi lls ; a n d in the moun t a ins ,

where re a ring c a ttle wa s the pe a s a nts m a in occup a tion fi ve

’
,

l a rge a nim a ls in a ddition to wh a t they could gra z e on the Al pine

,

p a stur es Thi s speci a l la w w a s reg a rded in p a rt a s merely r e

.

editing the pro vi sions concernin g commun a l gra zings of the la w

, ,

on a gricultura l contra cts of 1 908 a s it a ffected in the fir st pl a ce

,

those l a ndown ers who h a d a t th a t t ime fa il ed to give from their

est a tes the a re a requir ed for comm un a l gra z ings Art 1 2 a llowed . .

the expropri a tion e ven of forests if the purpose of the la w co ul d

not b e a chieved otherwise .

The critics of this la w compl a ined of the m a ny exceptions

which confused its provi sions a n d th a t this w a s m a de worse by
,

the unsymp a thetic interpret a tion given to its texts by the

a uthorities concerned . Art 1 3 for inst a nce indi c a ted th a t the
.
, ,

a re a to b e expropri a ted w a s to be c a lcul a ted either by t a king the

numb er of the he a ds of f a milies in e a ch commu n e a n d a llowing ,

three l a rge a nima ls in the hills a n d six l a rge a nim a ls in the

 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 43

mount a ins for e a ch household ; or a ltern a tively by t a ki n g the

, ,

a ctu a l numb er of a ni m a ls a n d a llowi ng for three he a ds of c a ttle

1 h a in the hi ll s a n d 2 h a in the mou n t a i n s

. . Sub seque n t .

instructions of the Min istry of Agriculture decreed th a t o n ly the

second criterion w a s to b e used though the e ffect of the Wa r h a d
,

evide n tly b een to reduce the e x isti n g num b er of a ni m a l s b elow

the pre w a r level A second circul a r instructed the o ffi cia ls con
-
.

cerned W ith the a pplic a tion of the la w to t a ke i nto a ccou n t not

the tot a l numb er of the inh a bit a nts of a commune but only ,

those who h a d b een inscribed in the resettlemen t lists This .

w a s cle a rly in dir ect confl ict with the text of the la w It g a ve .

in suffi ci en t gra zing even for the existing inh a bit a nts of a com
mu n e a s M Mih a la ch e compl a ined ( speech on J un e 29
, .
,

inste a d of b eing far sighted e n ough to le a ve a m a rgin for new

-

comers a mong the pe a s a nt cultiv a tors .

The 1 921 la w for the Old Kingdom further extended the

provision for communa l gra z ings by its Art 23 It a llowed the . .

expropri a tion in the mount a ins of l a nd fi t o nl y for gra zing or h a y

down to a lim it of 25 h a In the mount a ins a n d in the hills the
.

expropri a tion w a s fur ther permitted of clea ri ngs of less th a n

20 a n d of 1 0 h a a s well a s of the in terme di a ry surf a ce if there
.
,

should b e two or more such clea rings a t a m a ximum di st a nce

of 200 metres from e a ch other Fi n a lly the s a id a rticle suggested
.
,

th a t in the a bsence of a n y expropri a ble property the pe a s a nts ,

might crea te from their own holdings a commun a l gra z i ng if the ,

m a j ority of the inh a bit a nts a greed to do s o .

In B ess a ra bi a the decree la w provided for the completion of

-

commun a l gra zings a t the s a me time a s the distribution of i n di

vidu a l holdings to the pea s a nts the B ess a ra bi a n legisl a tor show
,

ing much underst a ndi ng of the im port a nt role which gra z ings
pl a y in a country of pe a s a nt cultiv a tors Tra nsylva n i a a n d .

Bucovin a were on the W hole a lre a dy provided with commun a l

gra z i ngs b efore the present reform Ar t 24 of the Tra nsylva ni a n
. .

la w permi tted the expropri a tion of existing commu n a l gra zings

in so far a s they were in excess of the norm a l needs of the Villa gers .

Gra zings were to b e cre a ted or completed on the b a sis of the

numb er of households ; Art 26 a llo win g for e a ch household up
.

to 1 0 j uga r s in the mount a ins 5 in the highl a n d districts a n d

, ,
1 44 THE NATU RE OF THE REFORM
up to 2 in the lowl a nds Where c a ttle breedin g w a s the m a in
.
-

occup a tion of the Villa gers the la w a llowed up to 22 j uga r s in the

mount a ins a n d up to 1 0 in the highl a nd districts .

( 2) F or es ts In the Rum a ni a n provinces a s elsewhere

.
, ,

forests h a d origin a lly b een commun a l prop erty from w hi ch the

inh a bit a nts of the neighb ouring vill a ges h a d s a t i sfi e d their needs
for fuel a n d bui ldi ng m a teri a l The fi r st me a sure to restrict these
.

commun a l rights to the equ a l use of the a v a ila ble timb er w a s

a decree of Mor uz i of Novemb er 28 1 7 9 2 con fir m e d two ye a rs
, , ,

l a ter by Mih a iu S ut z u On the pretext th a t the pe a s a nts were

.

destroying the forests the boia r s dem a nded an d the Prin ce

, ,

gra nted th a t they should h a ve the right to gu a rd a n d to protect

,

young forests a n d pl a nt a tio n s a n d they were a lso a llowed the

,

sole right of keeping sheep a n d pigs in them a right which they ,

were entitled to sell The pe a s a nts were a llowed to t a ke freely

.

only : ( a ) de a d wood from a n y forest ; wood for fuel from a n y

where e xcept from pl a nt a tions a n d young timb er ; ( c) a n y
buildi ng timber for the needs of their own household ; ( d ) a n d ,

fi n a lly t imber of a n y kin d a n d from a n y forest for s a le a s lo ng

, ,

a s they g a ve the l a ndlord a tithe of one in ten a s they g a ve the ,

l a ndl ords in the lowl an ds from corn a n d h ay It wi ll b e seen th a t .

the l andlords were o n ly gra nted the title of protectors over the
forests on b eh a lf of the St a te wi th cert a in privileges in retur n
, ,

a n d th a t the p e a s a nt rights though restricted were still

, ,

su fficient to s a tisfy a ll their needs in wood for b uil din g a n d

fuel .

These rights were reduced a lmost to nothi ng by the Org a nic

St a tutes of 1 8 29 which tra nsformed the l a ndlords from gu a r di a ns
,

into proprietors of the forests Art 1 29 of the Mold a vi a n St a tut e

. .

decl a red th a t the l a ndowner a lone h a s the right to the use of

’
mills ponds forests a n d such things It w a s the o n ly mention
, ,
.

of forests in the Mold a vi a n St a tute a n d it summ a rily swept a w a y

,

a ll the a ncient p e a s a nt rights to the use of tim b er An a lmost .

identic a l text w a s cont a ined in Art 1 46 of the Munteni a n .

St a tute S ome of the p e a s a nt rights were however m a int a ined

. , ,

in Art 1 40 which s a id th a t on those est a tes which h a d forests

.
,

the l a ndowner s should a llow the serfs to t a ke wood for fuel from
the wood s a n d cop s es which he himself will indic a te a n d solely
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 45

for their own indi sp ens a ble needs in the w a y in which this h a s ,

been done hi therto

Dur ing the short w a ve of reform which preceded the I n d ep en
dence the pea s a nt rights to wood were restored by the Mold a vi a n
,

la w of Mih a iu S t ur d z a in 1 8 44 a n d by the Mu n teni a n la w of B a rbu

, ,

Stirbey in 1 8 5 1 B oth a llowed the pe a s a nts to t a ke de a d wood

, .

for fuel a n d a n y kind of tim ber for buildi n g a n d worki n g from

,

the pl a ces indic a ted by the l a ndlords a g a in st a ye a rly p a ymen t,

of 6 lei per household These renewed privil eges did not sur vive
.

the gre a t reform of 1 8 6 4 Ar t 9 of the rura l la w decl a red th a t

. .

‘
the right possessed by the Mold a vi a n pea s a nts to the use of
timber a ccordin g to Art 44 of the Mount a in L a w
, . a n d by

those on the M unteni a n est a tes in Virtue of Art 1 40 of the la w .

of April 23 1 8 5 1 sh a ll b e secured to them undim inished for the

, ,

futur e After fi ft een ye a rs the l a ndowners sha ll b e entitled to

.

dem a nd the freeing of the forests from t hi s servitude by frie n dly

a greement or by decision of the Courts It is genera lly a dmitted .

th a t a fter the reform the p ea s a nts were denied a ll rights to

timber nor wa s a n y me a sur e p a ssed dur ing the prescribed period
,

of fift e en ye a rs to regula te the p e a s a nt rights to wood On the .

contra ry a new Forestry Code went b eyond even the Org a ni c

,
’
St a tutes a n d completely stopped the p e a s a nts a ccess to wood ,

thus fi na lly a brog a ting a right which h a d persisted through

centur ies of foreign domi n a tion .

Neither the decree la w of 1 91 9 nor the la w of 1 921 m a de a n y

-

a ttempt to de a l with thi s old w rong a n d with the needs of the

pe a s a nts for t imber especi a lly under the circ umst a nces cre a ted
,

by the a gra ri a n reform The Pe a s a nt Pa rty a lone pressed thi s

.

question a n d pledged itself to cre a te commun a l woodla nds in

a ddition to commun a l gr a zings when it sho ul d h a ve a n o or
pp
t uni t y of do i ng so .

The more ra dica l B ess a r a bi a n reform expropri a ted a ll forests

a n d woodl a nds whenever the St a te sho uld fi n d it fin a n cia lly
,

possible to t a ke them over ( Art The Tra nsylv a n i a n decree

.

likewise a llowed the expropri a tion of forests a n d woodl a nds

wherever thi s should b e deemed to b e i n the economic interest
of the popul a tion It permitted even the cutting do wn of forests
.

when this should b e dem a nded by a genera l economic interest .

L
 1 46 THE N ATURE OF THE REFORM
From the l a ws p a ssed in 1 921 the Tra nsylva ni a n la w w a s the
,

o nl y on e to concern itself with the expropri a tion of forests in its ,

Ch a pter III entitled Commun a l Woodl a nds Articles 32— 7 of

,
‘ ’
.

the la w de a lt with the me a ns for the cre a tion or completion of

commun a l woodl a nds t a ki n g for this pur p ose fi rst the woodla nds
,

a v a il a ble on those est a es w hi ch h a d b een expropri a ted in full

t .

Wh ere this did not suffi c e the la w permitted the expropri a tion
,

of forests b elonging to institutions a n d to priva te individu a ls

down to 1 00 c a d a stra l j uga r s in the lowl a nds a n d to 200 in the
mount a ins Fina lly the la w a ll owed the expropri a tion in c a se
.
, ,

of need of com mun a l forests or of forest properties with a com

,

m un a l ch a r a cter when their a re a exceeded the limi t l a id down

,

in the la w ( 3 —5 c a d a stra l j uga rs p er household a ccording to the ,

gre a ter or lesser a gricultura l ch a ra cter of the region ) .

The neglect of this problem by the a gra ri a n l a ws for the other

three p a rts of the coun try w a s m a de good by a provi sion in tro
d uce d in Ar t 1 32 of the new Co n stitution promulg a ted on
.

M a rch 29 1 923 which decreed the expropri a tion of forests i n

, ,

the rest of the country For the c a rrying out of this constitution a l
.

‘
provision a L a w for the s a tisfa ctio n of the norm a l requi rements
in timber for fuel a n d buil ding of the rur a l popula tion in the Old
K ingdom B ess a ra bi a a n d Bucovin a w a s p a ssed in 1 924 a s
, ,
’
,

publi shed in the M on i torul Ofiei a l No 1 40 of J uly 1 1 924 The .

, .

la w consisted of seven ch a pters a n d ni neteen a rticles It pro .

vid e d for the cre a tion of commun a l woodl a nds on the b a sis
of s
q m p er household
. in
. the lowl a nds s
q m ,
. .

in the hills a n d 1 h a in the mount a in s The St a te w a s

. .

obli ged to pl a ce a t the dispos a l of the popul a tion the t i mb er

which it p ossessed within a r a dius of 20 km from the centre .

of the commune Where such St a te forests did not e xist or

. ,

were required for some genera l pub lic interest the la w a llowed ,

the expropri a tion of forests b elongin g to public or priva te

institutions a n d situ a ted like w ise within a r a dius of 20 km from .

the centre of the communes And when th a t too did not suffi ce . , , ,

priva te forests s itu a ted within th a t ra dius could b e expropri a ted

a s well . Institutions a n d priva te owners were a llowed to ret a i n
a t le a st 1 00 h a The expropri a tion wa s m a de in f a vour of the
.

Sta te .
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 47

The exploit a tion of such commu n a l woo dl a nds w a s to b e

m a de u n der the control of the St a te prefera bly through pea s a nt
,

c o op er a tives
-
Wood for fuel a n d for building w a s to b e sold by
.

the St a te to the pe a s a nts a t prices fi x ed in a ye a rly t a riff which ,

w a s to b e the s a me for St a te forests a n d for expropri a ted forests .

Ch a pter V I of this speci a l la w dea lt w ith the a dm i n i s tra tion

of commun a l forests in Tra nsylva ni a a s well a s W ith th a t of ,

communa l a n d c o opera tive forests in Bucovin a

-
.

D Colon i za ti on All the four decrees la w co n templ a ted the

. .
-

settlement in undeveloped regions of pe a s a nts who h a d no l a nd

a t a ll a n d of those who h a d in suffi ci en t l a nd a n d were willin g to

exch a nge it for a fu ll holding elsewhere .

In the Old Kingdom coloniz a tion w a s de a lt with in det a il in

Ch a pter XV Articles 1 1 4— 1 9 of the la w of 1 9 21 It entru s ted
, , .

the whole work of coloniz a tion to the Centra l Resettlement

Otfi ce which w a s to t a ke the necess a ry steps for the cre a tion of
,

new Vill a ges or for the enl a rgement of existin g vill a ges The la w .

fores a w the gra nting of colo n iz a tion holdings up to 7 h a This .

me a nt th a t they could be of only 5 or 6 h a a n d the a rra ngement .

,

w a s severely criticized the Pe a s a nt P a rty insisting th a t the

,

more c a p a ble pe a s a nts would either not a gree t o b e settled in

a new region on 5 h a or wo u l d b e un a ble to m a ke good on such
.

a holding . These undeveloped regions gener a lly h a d rem a ined

so bec a use of their less fertile soil Hence the Pea s a nt P a rty
.

a dvoc a ted the gr a nting of coloniz a tion hold i ngs of 1 0—25 h a .

,

a ccordin g to the size of the household a n d to the equipment it

possessed a n d this wa s to b e exclusive of comm un a l gra z ings

, .

For the a ssist a nce of the new settlers the Centra l Resettle ,

ment Otfi c e w a s to est a blish depots of bui lding m a teri a ls imple ,

ments a n d seed ; it wa s to gra nt credi ts a n d to execute the t e ch ni

,

c a l works necess a ry Likewise it w a s to supply pl a ns for rur a l

.

buildings a n d est im a tes of their cost eventu a lly giving a ssist a nce
,

for their execution The s ums requi red for the est a blishment of
.

such sm a llholdi n gs were to be a dva nced by the St a te h a lf of the ,

expen s es rem a ining to b e p a id by the colonists w ithin a period

of forty yea rs which w a s to begin to r un fi ve ye a rs a fter their
,

settlement ; the other h a lf w a s to rem a in a ch a rge of the St a te .

For the rest the genera l provisions of the la w in so fa r a s they

, ,

L 2
1 48 THE NATU RE OF THE REFO R M
were not in con fli ct wi th the a rticles of this sp eci a l ch a pter ,

a pplied to coloniz a tion a s well .

Th e B ess a r a bi a n decree la w a lso m a de provision for coloniz a

-

tion After a discussion a s to the b est w a y of est a blishing such

.

s ettlements preference w a s given to the crea tion of whole

,

vill a ges ra ther th a n of isol a ted f a rms a s b eing more in keeping

, ,

with the customs of the Rum a ni a n p eople a s well a s with the ,

cultura l a n d a dministra tive needs of the moment .

S E C TI O N 3 TH E P R O B L E M OF C OM P E N S A TI O N
.

In the discussion of the a gra ri a n reform the problem of ,

compens a tion pl a yed a prominent role Ap a rt from politic a l .

conditions the economic position of l a ndowners tow a rds the end

,

of the Wa r— when the short a ge of l a b our of live stock a n d of , ,

im plements b ec a me a cute — ca used most of them to resign them

selves willin gly to the necessity of giving up their l a nd If they .

showed a n y resist a nce it w a s merely in a n a ttempt to obt a in a s

,

l a rge a price a s possible for it The Constitution s a id th a t t h e .

price w a s to b e f a ir a n d p a id in a dva nce a n d th a t it w a s to b e ,

fi x e d by the j udici a ry But in t hi s respect opinion v a ried gre a tly

.
,

a n d p erh a ps not hi ng shows the ch a nge in the politic a l b a ck

ground so cle a rly a s a comp a rison b etween the ide a s w hi ch the

rulers of Rum a ni a h a d in their minds with reg a rd to compens a
tion b efore the Wa r a n d the a ctu a l a rra ngemen ts they m a de in
1 91 7 .

When in 1 9 1 4 M V i n til a Br ati a nu a dvoc a ted the expropri a

.

tion of h a he me a nt the p e a s a nts to p a y for the l a nd

.
,

a t the r a te of lei p er h a ( i e a bout £40 in gold v a lues ) . . . .

Simil a rly M Ta ke Ionescu only a ccepted the ide a of expropri a

, .

tion in 1 9 1 4 on co n dition th a t the l a ndown ers should b e p a id in

c a sh 1 e in gold As the tot a l cost would h a ve a mounted to some
, . . .

three milli a rd gold lei th a t condition m a de the reform im pr a ct i

,

c a ble After the outbre a k of the Wa r M Ta ke Ione s cu a pp a rently

. .

a greed to the a rr a ngement by which the expropri a ted owners

were to b e p a id in St a te bonds .

Dur ing th a t short i n terv a l the whole a ttitude of public

opinion tow a rds property a ltered ra pidly Everywhere the St a te .

h a d felt itself entitled to t a ke wh a t it needed from the p ossessions

 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 49

of its citizens for the pursui t of the Wa r ; a n d in the degree in

which th a t need c a used it to m a ke gre a ter dem a nds on the m a ss
of its subj ects the m a ss a cqui red a proportion a te cl a im on the
,

goodwill of the St a te If the right of the St a te to cre a te t a xes

.

for the levelli ng of priva te we a lth w a s t a citly a ccepted a ll round ,

how much more w a s it in its right to t a ke over p a rt of the we a lth

in l a nd from a few of its citizens for the purpose of solvi n g thereby
,

soci a l a n d economic problems on which the very existence of the

St a te p erh a ps depended ? The form of th a t imposition w a s di c
t a t e d by the n a ture of the problem The mere reduction of .

la t ifun d ia r y l a nd property could h a ve b een a chieved by a pro

re ssi ve l a nd t a x In th a t c a se however there woul d h a ve been
g .
, ,

no a ssur a nce th a t the l a nd wo ul d b e a cqui red by the pe a s a nts .

As this w a s the very a im of the reform for soci a l even more th a n ,

for economic rea sons expropri a tion a sserted itself a s the only
,

me a ns of a tt a ini ng th a t end .

If the reform w a s in the fi rs t pl a ce a me a sure for the a ssis

t a nce of a v a nquished soci a l cl a ss then the m a in point which ,

requi red to b e kept in mind in fi x ing the compens a tion w a s th a t

it should be j ust for the p e a s a nts Wh a t w a s soci a lly j ust in this
1
.

c a se a ppe a re d economic a lly wise The n a tur e of the compens a .

tion w a s bound to h a ve a determining effect on the success of the

new pe a s a nt proprietors to b e settled on the expropri a ted l a nd .

For a num ber of re a sons the price of l a nd a t the time of the reform
w a s exceedin gly high in rel a tion to the exception a lly hi gh price
,

of a gricultura l produce a t the end of the Wa r I t compens a tion .

were to h a ve been p a id in a ccord a nce with th a t price the l a n d ,

would h a ve b een a cquired by the pea s a nts on conditions th a t

must h a ve become oppressive when the price of a gricultura l
produce b eg a n to fa ll The new sm a llholders would in such
.

circum st a nces h a ve become bonded to the St a te a n d the ,

a nnuities wo u l d h a ve sw a llowed the whole net profi t of the i r

cultiv a tion It w a s essenti a l therefore so to fi x the price th a t
.
, ,

its p a yment should fa ll lightly on the shoulders of the new

pe a s a nt proprietors The legisl a tor h a d two a ltern a tives before
.

hi m : either to fi x the price very low or to m a ke the St a te t a ke ,

1
S ee a ch a r a cte ri s tic di s cu s s i on of thi s i ss u e by Dr . G N
. . L e on 1n the N ea mul
J
R om d n es c, un e 23 a n d 24, 1 9 1 7 .
150 THE N ATURE OF THE REFORM
p a rt of it upon itself The a rra ngements a dopted in the Rum a
.

ni a n reform were in f a ct b a sed upon b oth those possibilities .

The im p osition of a t ax on c a pit a l which in the c a se of l a nd

,

property would inevit a bly h a ve t a ken the form of a tr a nsfer of

p a rt of the prop erty to the St a te w a s discussed in the Wa r period
,

in most of the belli gerent co untries In Rum a ni a the a mendment

.

to the Constitution of 1 91 7 a n d t h e subsequent decrees la w -

which re a lized the reform contempl a ted no connexion wh a tever

b etween the a gra ri a n problem a n d the fi n an ci al problem The .

a gr a ri a n reform imposed itself quite a p a rt from a n fi n a n ci a l need

y
of the St a te ; in fa ct it w a s cle a r from the b egin ni ng th a t the St a te
,

would h a ve to b ea r some of the cost of the reform Hence the .

needs of the p e a s a nts coincided on th a t poin t with the diffi cult i es

of the St a te The problem re s olved itself therefore in to fin ding
.
, ,

a method which should t a ke a ccoun t of those im pecuni a ry

circumst a nces of both St a te a n d pe a s a nts whil e b a sin g compens a

,

tion on a criterion th a t woul d b e a s f a ir a s possible a n d genera lly

a pplic a ble . The m a rket v a lue of l a nd did not offer reli a ble
guid a nce b ec a use of the specul a tive a n d s oci a l elements w hich
entered in its form a tion ; n or did the rent a l v a lue of l a nd ,

especi a lly in Rum a ni a where a t a n y r a te b efore 1 907 it rose

, , ,

a b ove the v a lue of the revenue th a t could b e obt a ined un der

norm a l conditions from the respective est a tes Those c a ses in .

which la n d ow m er s or ten a nts invested p a rt of the re a li zed pr ofit s

in improvements which would a t le a s t h a ve m a i nt a ined if not
,

incre a sed the re a l v a lue of the l a nd were very r a re in deed ; so

,

th a t the a nnu a l pr ofi t s were genera lly hi gher th a n would nor

m a lly b e a chieved by the us e of the instrument of production
a n d the a ctivity of the entrepreneur These circum st a nces
.

lik ewi s e m a de it d iffi cult to b a s e the estim a te on a thi rd possible

‘ ’
formul a on the Germ a n theory of utiliz a tion v a lue me a n ing
, ,

the v a lue th a t could b e obt a ined by using the obj ect properly .

The only w a y to a ppro a ch a s ne a r a s possible to re a lity in

Rum a n i a wa s to b a s e the s iz e of the compens a tion on the net
v a lue of production .

All theory however went by the bo a rd in the summer of

, ,

1 9 1 7 Circum s t a nces were such th a t the St a te could not dem a nd

.

much from the pe a s a nts a n d could offer very little itself to

 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 15 1

the l a ndowners Spea king in the Ch a mb er M Ta ke Ionescu

.
, .

a ddressed a n a ppe a l to the l a ndowners to b e a r well in mi n d the

n a tur e of the vote th a t w a s b ei n g a sked of them :

‘
Th a t i s w h y s in c e Augu s t 1 9 1 4 I h a v e b e e n s a y ing t h a t it wil l n o
, ,

l on ge r be p os s ib l e t o pa y in ca s h a n d t h e r e fo r e t h a t o ur e xp r o p r ia t ion
,

wi l l h a v e t h e c h a r a c t e r a l so of a s p o l ia t io n o f a c o n fi s c a t io n — if y ou l i ke
,

— o f a r e du c t i o n o f we a lt h Th a t i s t h e t ru t h a b ou t t h e e xp r o p r i a t ion
.

wh ic h w e a r e p r o p os in g t o y ou It is a s we l l t h a t w h e n v o t in g up on t h e
.

m e a su r e w h i c h w e a re s u b m i tt in g t o y ou t h e l a n d own e r s s h ou l d k n o w ,

t h a t t h e y a r e v ot in g n ot m e r e l y fo r a t r a n s fo r m a t ion of v a l ue s bu t a t ,

t h e s a m e t im e for a r e du ct io n of v a l u e s .

A Th e E xp r op ma ti on P r i ce Even so the fi xi n g of the

'

.
. ,

comp ens a tion proved a thorny problem especi a lly in the Old ,

Kingdom where the price of l a nd a s well a s its revenue v a ried

, , ,

gre a tly from region to region a n d from ye a r to ye a r S ci en t ifi c .

inquiries on the va rious f a ctors determini n g the va lue of l a nd did

not exist There w a s no m a p of the country s rura l economy in
.
’

’
rel a tion to its geology or of the soil s fertility In co n sequence the
, .
,

a uthors of the decree la w were forced to give a n el a stic construe

-

tion to the text of Art 1 8 which indic a ted the w a ys a n d me a ns

.
,

for estim a ting the va lue of the l a nd a llowing a lmost a n y f a ctor ,

to b e t a ken into a ccount for th a t purpos e — s a le price regiona l ,

rent a l estim a tes m a de by credit i n stitutions the net revenue

, ,

per h a expert estim a tes of the qu a lity of the l a nd the l a nd t a x

.
, , ,

& c & c The only settled indic a tio n w a s tha t the price to b e
.
, .

fi x e d w a s in no c a se to b e higher th a n twenty times the region a l

rent a l fi x e d in 1 9 1 6 for a ra ble l a nd a n d fift e en times for gra zing ,

( the origin a l dra ft h a vin g t a ken the rent a l fi x e d in 1 907 which , ,

of course would h a ve b een lower ) But the division of the

, .

country into regions a n d the fi x in g of the region a l rent a l by the

Superior Agricultura l Council h a d not followed a u n it a ry a n d
scienti fic method Loc a l circumst a nces especi a lly the rel a tions
.
,

b etween l a ndowners a n d pe a s a nts frequen tly c a used est a tes of ,

a simil a r n a ture a n d qu a li ty to b e cla s sifi e d in di fferent c a tegories .

A Memora ndum of the Mold a vi a n L a ndowners pub lished in ,

1 920 a sserted th a t no l a n dow n er h a d ever let l a n d to the pe a s a nts

,

a t the fi x e d region a l rent except in return for l a b our the price

, ,

of which w a s likewise fi x ed r egion a lly B efore 1 907 the l a nd w a s .

given to the p e a s a nts in retur n for l a bour The r eform la w of .

 152 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
th a t ye a r dem a nded two sep a r a te contra cts for l a bour an d for
l a nd with v a lues c a lcul a ted in money When the contra cts were
, .

signed in the a utumn the r a tes for l a bour were 35 — 40 per cent
, .

lower th a n when the l a bour w a s a ctu a lly p erformed a n d the ,

rent a l w a s fi x e d a ccordi ngly low The Comm i ssions whi ch fi x e d .

those r a tes did not concern themselves w ith the a ctu a l v a lue of
the l a nd but merely with the rel a tion b etween price of l a nd a n d
,

cost of l a bour on the b a sis of the exch a nge th a t h a d b een

,

custom a ry in the region When the l a nd w a s let for money the.

,

rent w a s 70— 8 0 per cent higher or even double the regiona l .

,
‘ ’

rent On the other h a nd m a ny spokesmen of the p e a s a nts

.
,

a sserted th a t the region a l rent w a s seldom obt a i ned in pr a ctice ,

a n d th a t e
g none of the p e a s a nt co oper a tives of le a sing whi ch
-
. .
,

genera lly p a id high prices h a d le a ses a t the region a l rents but , ,

a lw a ys b elow them As a result the policy l a id down in Art 1 8

.
, .

cre a ted a s much diss a tisfa ction a mong the pe a s a nts a s a mong
the l a ndo w ners 1
.

The multiplying of the region a l rent by twenty corresponded

to a c a pit a liz a tion a t 5 p er cent P a ym ent w a s to ensue a s soon .

a s the fi n a l me a surement of the expropri a ted a re a h a d b een

determined The origin a l a greement a rrived a t in 1 9 1 7 be

.

tween Libera ls a n d Conserv a tives a pp a rently contempl a ted the

expropri a tion of h a wh ile the rem a ini ng ha .

were to b e purch a sed by the St a te a t 1 0 p er cent a b ove the .

expropri a tion price th a t difference rem a ini n g to b e p a id in c a sh

,
2
.

The revised dra ft of the constitutio n a l a mendment a b a ndoned

th a t ide a a n d the decree la w provided th a t p a yment w a s to -

follow in St a te b onds b e a ring 5 p er cent interest a n d p a y a ble .

in fift y yea rs This interest w a s a pp a rently to b e int a n gible

.
,

even if the St a te might l a ter b e a ble to convert on b etter terms .

Institutions were to be p a id in perpetu a l bonds The St a t e w a s .

to t a ke upon itself up to 35 per cent of the expropri a tion price .

’
i n order to lessen the burden of the resettled p e a s a nts
‘
.

This w a s con s idered good policy not only a s a me a ns for giving ,

the p e a s a nts a ch a nce to m a ke good but a lso b ec a use it dis ,

1
Th e bill pre pa re d by t h e Pe sa n t P a rty i n 1 9 20 prop os e d t o b a se t h e price on t h e
a

a v e r a ge b e tw e n t h e e s ti ma t e s of t h e t a xi ng a uth o riti es a n d t h e r e gi on a l r e n t
e This .

w o uld h a v e s implifi d t h e wh l e probl m

e o e .

2
S ec B as iles e u, op . ci t , p 85
. .
 THE NATUR E OF THE REFORM 15 3

tributed a mong a ll the soci a l cl a sses the cost of a reform con

s id e r e d esse n ti a l for the welf a re of the coun try And thir dl y .
, ,

it w a s thought j ust th a t the pe a s a nts should not pa y the whole

price a s they received only the surfa ce wh ile the subsoil p a ssed ,

into the possession of the St a te .

If the est a te concerned w a s mortg a ged the creditor w a s to ,

receive th a t p a rt of the debt which a tt a ched to the expropri a ted

a re a in expropri a tion b onds ret a ined from the compens a tio n due
,

to the proprietor .

Until the fin a l tra nsfer of the l a nd the l a ndowners were to ,

receive for the expropri a ted a re a a rent a l in a ccorda nce with the
regiona l t a riff or the rent indic a ted in lea ses where such le a ses
, ,

existed a n d the a greed rent w a s less th a n the region a l rent .

In B ess a ra bi a the price of the l a nd w a s c a lcul a ted on the

,

b a sis of the rent obt a ined by the owners in the period 1 9 1 0— 1 4 .

Th a t rent w a s c a pit a liz ed a t 5 % per cent the di fference of per .

,

ce n t corresponding to the hi gher returns on money in th a t

.

provi n ce For those est a tes which h a d not b een let out the
.
,

B ess a ra bi a n decree took the net pr ofi t reduced by h a lf one —

h a lf of the pr ofi t representing a ccord ing to the B ess a ra bi a n

,

legisl a tor the va lue of the person a l work a n d the remunera tion
,

a s entrepreneur of the former own er B oth fa ctors were to b e

.

corrobora ted by me a ns of v a rious criteri a of eva lu a tion w hi ch ,

were n a med in the decree a n d were sim il a r to those l a id down for

the Old Kingdom In gener a l the price of the l a nd w a s fix e d by
.
,

the Courts a t 8 00 1ei per h a not without m a ny protests from the

.
,

pe a s a nts who insisted th a t the l a nd h a d been given them by the

,

Revolution The St a te w a s to t a ke upon itself 25 per cent of

. .

’
the expropri a tion price Here the St a te s sh a re w a s sm a ller but
.
,

it w a s d efi n it ely fi x ed wherea s the sh a re in the Old Kingdom w a s

,

l a id down a s a m a ximum lim it P a ym ent w a s to follow a s i n the

.
,

Old Kingdom in b onds bea ring 5 per cent a n d p a y a ble in fi ft y

, .

yea rs Mortg a ges were to b e p a id off from the b onds to which the
.

l a ndowner w a s entitled a n d in the order of their inscription If .

such debts exceeded the v a lue of the bonds which the l a ndowner
w a s to receive the rem a in i ng debt w a s to b ecome a ch a rge upon
,

th a t p a rt of the property which the l a ndo w ner ret a ined .

In Bucovin a the price wa s to be est a bli shed a fter a numb er

,
15 4 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
of criteri a t a ken a t their pre w a r st a nding Rent w a s to b e one
,
-
.

of them a n d w a s to b e multipli ed a s in the Old Ki ngdom by

twenty The decree for Buco vin a h a d two i n terestin g differences
.

in th a t it l a id down the pos sibility of the l a ndown ers bein g p a id

in c a sh a s well ; it did not indic a te when a n d how this w a s to b e
done a n d it is more th a n prob a ble th a t in f a ct no c a sh w a s p a id
a t a ll .In the second pl a ce the l a ndo w ners were to receive not
,

St a te bonds but sp eci a l l a nd b onds a pp a rently gu a ra nteed with

, ,

the expropri a ted l a nd The b onds were to b e a r i n terest a t 5 p er

.

cent .

In Tra n s ylva ni a the price w a s to b e estim a ted with the help

,

of va rious f a ctors sim il a r to those indic a ted in the other decrees .

But the commissions were not bound by a rigid li mit determi ned ,

by the re a l or region a l rent but were left a gre a ter l a titude th a n

,

elsewhere in fi xin g the price As a s a fegu a rd the decree merely

.

s a id th a t if in consequence the price were to b e fix e d excessively

high or exceedingly low it could b e m od ifi e d in Virtue of strong
,

re a sons App e a ls reg a rding the expropri a tion price were settled
ultim a tely by the Court of Appe a l P a yment w a s to follow in .

Tra nsylva ni a more promptly a s the l a ndowner w a s entitled to,

it a s soon a s his l a nd h a d b een decl a red expropri a ted If the .

price w a s not fi n a lly fi x e d the l a ndowner w a s to receive a corre

,

s on d in
p g a dv a n ce p a yment from the Agr a ri a n B a nk Th e .

p e a s a nts could therefo r e b e convinced th a t a ll connexion

b etween the former owner a n d the expropri a ted l a nd h a d ce a sed ,

where a s the p a yme n t in the Old Kingdom of rent during the

intermedi a ry period v a guely m a int a ined the title of the l a nd
owner The rent due for the l a nd which h a d not b een fin a lly
.

tra nsferred to the pe a s a nts w a s to b e p a id by them to the

Agra ri a n B a nk .

The 1 921 la w introduced cert a in ch a nges in the m a tter of

compens a tion The r a pid f a ll of the Rum a ni a n exch a nge h a d
.

c a u s ed the compen s a tion previously fixed to lo s e the gre a ter

p a rt of its re a l va lue When Ge n era l Averescu c a me to power
.
,

therefore he a greed to ra ise the compens a tion to sixty times the

,

regio n a l rent fi x e d in 1 9 1 6 Opposition from within a n d from

.

out s ide his p a rty forced the G overnment t o compromise a t

forty times the rent fix e d by the region a l commissions in 1 9 1 6
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 15 5

for the period 1 91 7— 22 this b ein g the m a x imum limit The con
, .

cession w a s criticiz ed a s ra ising excessively the burden s th a t

woul d f all upon the St a te ; a n d bec a use it gra nted a d efini t e
compens a tion for a loss c a used by tempora ry circumst a nces .

At tha t tim e the Liberal Pa rty still hoped th a t the exch a nge
could b e rev a lorized a n d they preferred a n a rra n gement by which
the l a ndowners wo ul d h a ve b een given in return for the fa ll in the
exch a nge a hi gher interest for a cert a in period or a p a rt p a yment
, ,

in c a sh L a nd fi t only for gra zing a n d expropri a ted for the pur

.

pose of communa l gra z ings w a s to b e p a id a t b est with twenty

,

times the region a l rents for th a t period The l a tter provision

.

a pplied to Vin ey a rds orch a rds a n d other pl a nt a tions a s well

,

— 6 of the 1 921 la w determined the methods of

( Art . Ar ticles 6 9 7
p a yment which with i n signifi ca n t exceptions rem a ined the s a me
, ,

a s those est a blished by the decree la w The second ch a n ge of

-
.

import a nce m a de by the 1 9 21 la w w a s th a t it incre a sed the sh a re

th a t w a s to be b orne by the St a te a t 5 0per cent of the expropri a .

tion price in View of the higher level a t which it w a s t o b e

,

c a lcul a ted The third ch a nge referred to m a tters of pro

.

c e d ur e .

The price w a s to be fi x e d by the District Commissions b oth ,

p a rties h a vin g the right to a pply to the Courts of Appe a l A confi .

denti a l cir cul a r of the Ministry of J ust ice h a d given the Courts
of Appe a l freedom to go b eyond the region a l t a ri ffs in fi x in g the
price of l a nd S ome memb ers of the Courts took a dv a nt a ge of
.

this permission others stuck to the letter of the decree la w of

,
-

1 9 1 8 ; with the res ul t th a t prices v a ried gre a tly from one district
to a nother To st 0p this confusion the united Opposition sub
.

m i t t e d in December 1 920 a bill to suspend a ll a ppe a ls i n m a tters

of compens a tion till the p a ss ing of the fin a l la w Not w it h s t a n d
, .

ing a protest to the K ing from the Union of Agricultur a l

Syndic a tes the 1 921 la w did in fa ct remove the m a tter of
,

compens a tion from the j urisdiction of the Courts The J ud ici a r y .

h a d not the me a ns of inquirin g in to the det a ils of e a ch c a se ; a n d

the procedure origina lly fi x e d by the Constitution for occ a sio n a l
expropri a tions thre a tened when a pplied to a n a tion a l expropri a
,

tion to sw a mp the Courts for m a ny ye a rs to come under a flood

,

of such a ppea ls V a rious l a ndo w ners took the m a tter to the

.
15 6 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
Court of Ca ss a tion ( the Rum a n i a n supreme Court ) a skin g it to ,

condemn the ch a nge a s a bre a ch of the Constitution But i n .

a test c a se introduced by the M i nistry of Agricul tur e a f ull b ench

of this Co urt decided on April th a t it h a d no j ur i s di c

tion a n d sent a ll the c a ses to the Agra ri a n Commi ttee a s the
, ,

highest a uthority 1 n m a tters of expropri a tion .

The decrees la w further cont a ined a num ber of provisions

-

referrin g to the position of ten a nts a n d to the p a ym ent of crops

,

fo und on the expropri a ted sur fa ce The decree for the Old .

Kingdom c a ncell ed the le a se of a ten a nt in so fa r a s it referred to

the expropri a ted l a nd If th a t a re a exceeded a qu a rter of the
.

whole est a te the ten a nt w a s entitled to give up the whole le a se

, .

The s a me provision w a s included in the decree for Bucovi n a .

The Tra nsylv a ni a n decree only mentioned the c a ncelli ng of the

le a se in so fa r a s it concerned the expropri a ted a re a Accor d in g .

to the decrees for the Old Kingdom Bucovin a a n d Tra nsylvani a

, ,

the crops found on the expropri a ted p a rt were to b e t a ken over

by the p ea s a nts In B ess a ra bi a such a provision would h a ve been
.

s u er fl uous a s the l a nd w a s in f a ct a lre a dy in the h a nds of

p ,

the pe a s a nts when the decree w a s promulg a ted In Bucovi na the .

l a ndowner w a s entitled to the refun d of exp enses m a de w ith the

expropri a ted crops A simil a r provi sion g a ve much trouble in
.

the Old Kingdom either b ec a use the p a rties coul d not a gree or
,

b ec a use the pe a s a nts h a d not the me a ns wi th which to pa y for

the crop A sub sequent m odifi ca t ion a ll owed a sh a ring of the
.

crop between l a ndo w ners a n d pe a s a nts a s in the custom a ry ,

m é t a y a ge system Likewise the Tra nsylva ni a n owners were

.
,

entitled to comp ens a tion for exp enses i ncurred The s a me .

a rr a ngement w a s to b e followed for the p a yment of stock t a ken

over by the new sm a llholders .

The price of the woodl a nds expropri a ted in Vir tue of the
sp eci a l la w for the Old Kingdom B ess a ra bi a a n d Bucovin a w a s
, ,

to be c a lcul a ted a n d p a id in a w a y sim ila r to th a t for the a ra ble

l a nd The respective provisions were cont a ined in Ch a pter III
.

of the speci a l la w of 1 9 24 .

B Th e Resettlement P r ice
. In B essa 1 a bia the resettled
.

p e a s a nts g a ve in 1 e t ur n for the document 1 e cogni z ing the ir title

to the l a nd a nother by which they un d e1 t o ok to pay the a nnuities .
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 157

These were c a lcul a ted a t 5 per cent interest a n d 1 per cent . .

a mortis a tion a n d expe n ses Fa ilure to pa y within a given period

.

c a used the hol d ing to p a ss for tempora ry a dministra tion to Our

O th ee In c a se of continued fa ilure to pa y the holdi n gs were to
’
.

b e sold a t publi c a uction to c ul tiv a tors only Until the full pa y .

ment of the price the l a nd w a s un s a le a ble .

In Buco vin a the exp enses for p a rcell a tion a n d a dministra

tion were a dded to the origin a l price On the other h a nd the St a te.

took upon itself 5 0 per cent of it a s in the Old Kingdom The

.
,
.
~

p e a s a nts could pa y in whole or in p a rt the rem a ining a mount ,

becoming a mortg a ge p a y a ble in fifty ye a rs a t 5 p er cent Even ,

.

if p a id in full the holding could not b e sold or mortg a ged during

a p eriod of ten ye a rs .

In Tra nsylva ni a the holdin g could in a n y c a se not b e sold till

1 930 .

The 1 921 la w for the Old Kingdom a llowed the pe a s a nts

a period of twenty ye a rs for the p a yment of the price on condi ,

tion th a t they p a id a t the outset a t le a st 20 p er cent of the sum . .

The Agra ri a n Committee w a s empowered to w a ive this condition

in the c a se of poor pe a s a nts ( Art Pa yment for the com
.

muh a l gra zin gs cre a ted by the L a w of 1 9 20 w a s to b e m a de under

the s a me conditions by the communes concerned On t a king .

power Genera l Averescu issued a decree la w in M a rch 1 920 -

which pro vided th a t the pe a s a nts were to pay o nl y the origi n a l

cost while the in terest w a s to b e borne by the St a te Afterw a rds
, .

the Government discovered th a t the bur den would b e excessive

a n d the promise w a s rescin ded .

Everywhere therefore the pe a s a nts p a id for the l a nd less

, ,

th a n the price received by the former owners This w a s a ccepted .

by a ll Pa rties a s inevit a ble The onl y ch a nge which the Con

.

s er va t ives proposed through M Ma r h ilom an in 1 9 20 w a s one

g .
, ,

of proportion not of division They w a nted the pea s a nts to pa y

, .

the whole of the price fix ed on the b a sis of the decree la w of 1 91 8 -

a n d the owners to receive a

‘
fa ir compens a tion fix ed by the
’
,

Courts ; the difference rem a in ing to b e b orne by the St a te It is .

cle a r however a s the p e a s a nts form the bulk of the t a xp a yers

, , ,

th a t the m a j or portion of th a t p a rt of the expropri a tion price

whi ch in form h a s b een remitted them by the St a te w ill in fa ct
15 8 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
still b e p a id by the p ea s a nts themselves Most of wh a t they g a in .

on the a nnuities they wi ll lose on a nnu a l t a xes .

S E C TI O N 4 . M EAS U RES F OR P R O T E C TI O N
P R O D U C TI O N
TH E OF

A Th e A ssoci a ti on s of Resettlemen t ( Ob
. ii
s )
t To s a fegu a rd .

the continu a tion of the a gricultura l work notwithst a ndi n g the ,

disturb a nce w hi ch w a s b ound to b e c a used by the a ppli c a tion

of the reform a n d by the gener a l short a ge of live a n d de a d stock ,

the l a nd though expropri a ted a t once wa s not h a nded over in ,

the Old Kingdom direct to individu a l pe a s a nts Inste a d usin g

, .
,

a s a model the ge n era lly successful p e a s a nt co O per a tives of -

le a si n g it w a s decided to tra nsfer the l a nd in e a ch commun e in

,

the fi r st pl a ce to speci a lly cre a ted obs tii i e a ssoci a tions of those , . .

p e a s a nts who c a me within the purview of the pro vision for the
gra nting of l a nd It is interestin g to note th a t a s i mil a r prop os a l
.
,

though me a nt in pra ctice to go fa rther h a d b een m a de by the ,

l a ndowners themselves Fe a rin g prob a bly th a t they might b e

.

un a ble a fter the expropri a tion to secure enough l a b our or only ,

on he a vy conditions the Molda vi a n l a ndowners proposed in

,

1 9 1 9 th a t there should b e formed on e a ch est a te a n a ssoci a tion

of production The l a ndowner w a s to bring the rem a inder of
.

his est a te a n d such stock a s he h a d a n d the p e a s a nts theirs s o

, ,

th a t nothing should rem a in untilled .

The a ctu a l legisl a tion contempl a ted merely the est a blishment
of Vill a ge a ssoci a tions modelled on the co op era tives of le a sing -

e a ch p e a s a nt cultiva ting a n individu a l p a rt for a d ura tion of ,

some three to fi ve ye a rs so a s to g a in a respite for the gra du a l

,

c a rrying out of the res ettlement with due reg a rd to economic ,

considera tions The experience of the Rura l Offi ce cre a ted in

.

1 907 h a d shown th a t the settlement of new cultiv a tors could not b e

m a de hurriedly S ome . of such Vi lla ge a ssoci a tions were in
f a ct cre a ted on the strength of the 1 9 1 9 decree la w by the Centra l -

Resettlement O ffice They were governed by the la w for Fopu

.

la r B a n ks a n d V ill a ge Co oper a tives They took over the ex

-
.

ro r ia t e d l a nd a s soon a s it w a s det a ched from the resp ective

p p
est a te E a ch a ssoci a tion w a s in the ch a rge of a n offi cia l expert
. ,

who divided the fi eld s a mong the pe a s a nts a n d who h a d to see ,

to it th a t the necess a ry seed a nim a ls a n d m a chin es were forth

,
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 15 9

coming a n d properly used The a ssoci a tio n s thus a cted a s a

.

ch a nnel for the di stribution of the me a n s of production th a t were

l a cki n g a fter the Wa r a s well a s a n instrume n t for the economic
,

a n d technic a l educ a tion of the new sm a llh olders The somewh a t .

ch a otic st a te of thin gs which followed the expropri a tion in

B ess a ra bi a brought out the a dva nt a ges of the system used in the
Old Kin gdom In the province a cross the Pruth the resettle
.
,

ment a uthorities found it b eyond their p owers to keep in touch

with the individu a l pe a s a nts especi a lly during the e a rly period
,

of the reform .

In View of these obvious a n d considera ble a dva nt a ges the

a rr a ngement by which the l a nd w a s h a nded over to such a ssoci a

tions until the completion of the me a surement a n d of the

,

form a li ties of s a le w a s con fi rm e d by Ar ticles 66— 8 of the L a w of

,
.

1 9 21 w ith cert a in im port a nt m o difi ca t i on s The texts concerned

, .

‘
contempl a ted giving to these bodies the ch a ra cter of a ssoci a
’
tions for a gricultura l exploit a tion They were to be dire cted by .

a n a dministr a tor a ppointed by the Centr a l Resettlement O th ee

a n d by two deleg a tes elected by the pe a s a nts These ch a nges .

were m a de bec a use i n m a ny of the a ssoci a tions formed on the

strength of the decree la w the di recting offi cia l experts h a d
-

a bused their powers a n d the pe a s a nts h a d h a d no me a ns of

controlling them Th a t incre a sed the suspicion entert a in ed by

.
,

some of the p ea s a nts th a t they h a d b een freed of the l a ndlords

,

o n ly to be brought under the tutel a ge of the St a te There is .

genera l a greement th a t if the pe a s a nts compl a in ed of the m a nner

in which some of the a ssoci a tio n s were a dministered they did ,

not obj ect to the system itself This w a s a lso the O pinion of the.

m a j ority of the a gricultur a l counci llors when they were consulted

by M Ga rofli d in 1 9 20 an d it wa s then a greed to ch a nge the
.
,

n a me a n d the workin g of the a ssoci a tions But the politici a ns .

h a d discovered a fresh opportunity for p osing a s the protectors

of the pe a s a nts a n d they m agn ifi e d the spora di c compl a ints into
,

a gener a l griev a nce Under pressure from his own chief Genera l
.
,

Averescu M Ga r ofl id h a d fin a lly to d rop the whole system ; the

, .

Libera ls a fterw a rds concurring After 1 921 the l a nd w a s h a nded

.

over to indi vidu a l pe a s a nts a s soon a s it w a s t a ken from the

l a ndowners .
1 60 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
B .
f the Nem Hold i ngs Some wise a n d in
Th e Culti va ti on o .
,

p a rt dra stic pro visions for the a dva ncement of cultiv a tion were
,

l a id down by Articles 1 37—41 of the la w of 1 921 The Cen tra l .

Resettlement Office wa s empowered to devise a n d im pose

‘
me a ns for the b etter cultiva tion of sm a llholdings for the best ,

p ossible use of the comm un a l gra zin gs a s well a s for the m a rket
ing of the sm a llh olders produce All recipients of hol di ngs ’
.

situ a ted a t a dist a nce gre a ter th a n 1 5 km from their pl a ce of .

r e s i d en ce w e r e obli ged to move within three ye a rs to the com , ,

mune to which the new holdi ng b elonged .

F a ilure to ob serve these obliga tions mi ght involve the loss of

the holding a t the dem a nd of the Resettlement Offi ce a n d
,

upon a decision of the loc a l tribun a l ; the holder recei ving b a ck

wh a tever p a rt of the price he h a d p a id a lr e a dy .

S E C TI O N 5 . M EAS U RES F OR T H E S A F E G U AR D I NG OF P EASAN T

PR O P E R T Y
A . Con s olid a ti on
The pieceme a l di stribution of pe a s a nt
.

property m a de of consolid a tion a me a sur e dest i ned in the words ,

of M Mih a la ch e to revolutionize our whole system of dw a rf

.
,
‘

property He brought ex a mples from a trip through Tr a n syl

.
’

v a ni a to show th a t the p e a s a nts were not a g a inst it on prin ciple .

They disliked it where it h a d b een a bused in order to deprive

t hem of their good l a nd but wherever it h a d b een c a rried out
,

f a irly the p e a s a n ts were a sking for a second consolid a tion .

M Mih a la ch e i n sisted th a t such a complex oper a tion shoul d b e

.

c a rried out on the b a sis of a proper sur vey a n d ground b ooks -

neither of which exi sted in Rum a ni a Ou the other h a nd the .

,

reform offered a unique opportunity for initi a ting a process of

consolid a tion The me a surement a n d distribution of fi eld s h a d
.

in a n y c a se to b e undert a ken on a l a rge sc a le ; a n d whe n the

Sta te c a me with a gift in its h a nds it w a s in a better p osition to ,

impo s e a re a rra ngement of fi eld s upon the pe a s a nts w ithout

rousing their suspicions .

For these re a sons the bill prep a red by M Mih a la ch e provided .

in Art 7 1 the consolid a tion of holdings but hesit a ted to m a ke

. ,

it compulsory Existing hold ings a n d the expropri a ted a re a were

.

to b e p ooled together a n d fresh comp a ct holdings given from

 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 61

this to a ll those entitled ; but for t hi s the con sent of one h a lf of

the pea s a nt owners w a s necess a ry in e a ch vi ll a ge M Ga r ofli d . .

li kewise introduced the pri n ciple in Ar t 1 36 of his la w rem a rking

.
,

th a t consolid a tion which elsewhere h a d b een a n im provement

,

for cultiva tion in Rum a ni a would me a n a n ew a griculture

,

a ltogether But he a dmitted th a t the problem w a s a s complex

.

a s it w a s import a nt a n d he therefore a greed to de a l wi th it i n

,

a speci a l la w The bill w a s prep a red a n d the dra ft is a pp a r e n tly

.

to b e found in the a rchives of the Ce n tra l Resettlement O th ee .

But politici a ns in tervened once a g a in a n d b a rred a me a sure

whi ch they fe a red might m a ke them unpopul a r with the pe a s a nts .

The question h a s rem a ined in a bey a nce to this d a y .

In B ess a ra bi a the problem w a s discussed in the a gra ri a n com

mission a ppointed by the Council of the L a nd to prep a re the
reform but the deputies could not b e i n duced to a dopt i t In its
,
.

comm en ts upon the fi r st reform bill the Society of Agr on om s

i n sisted on the e n ormous im port a nce of the problem a n d on the
uni que opportu n ity w hi ch they now h a d of solvin g i t F a ilure .

to legisl a te such a me a sure must b e a ttributed solely to the

a nxiety of po li tici a ns to do nothing th a t might m a ke them

unpopul a r on the l a nd ; though it would b e d iffi cult to prove th a t

the p e a s a nts were re a lly a g a in st it .

B Th e M a i n ten a n ce of P easa n t Hold i ngs I n her i tan ce Th e

. . .

excessive splitti n g up of p e a s a nt holdin gs h a d b een l a rgely

-

c a used by the complete equ a lity a mong the sever a l heirs t o

a l a nd property i n Rum a ni a n civi l la w
, Hen ce the recogni tion
.
,

of the need to consoli d a te the sc a ttered p e a s a nt fi eld s g a ve rise

to the complement a ry dem a nd for a m ea s m e which should check '

i n the future th a t di sintegr a ti n g process The former a gr a ri a n

.

l a ws h a d m a de the pe a s a nt holdin gs in a lien a ble but h a d done ,

nothing to prevent their b eing broken up The a b sence of a n .

industri a l outlet for the pop ul a tion a n d the fa n a tic a tt a chment

of the p e a s a nts to the l a nd h a d in consequence led to the con
t in uous division of the p e a s a n t hold i ngs .

The 1 921 la w for the Old Kin gdom decreed by Art 1 26 th a t .

a r a ble l a nd could n ot b e divided by inh erit a nce b elow 2 h a in the .

lowl a nds a n d 1 h a in the mount a ins a n d hill s The s a me pro

. .

vision w a s l a id down by Ar t 9 5 of the la w for B ucovin a In

. .

15 69 69
M
-
1 62 THE NATURE OF THE RE F ORM
Tra nsylva ni a the indivisible m in im um w a s fix ed a t 2 j ugar s ; the
B ess a ra bi a n la w s a id nothin g a b out this No restriction w a s pl a ced .

up on the division of f a rm y a rds kitchen g a rdens Vin ey a rds -

, , ,

pl a nt a tions & c Experts considered th a t 3 h a w a s the sm a ll est

, . .

a re a on which m a chines a n d implements coul d b e r a tion a lly

used ; a n d th a t w a s the mini mum which the b ill of M Mih ala ch e .

h a d proposed to decl a re indivisible .

In the second pl a ce Art 1 27 g a ve e a ch l a n down er the right

, .
,

a s a n exception from the Civil Code to le a ve the property to one ,

of his heirs a lone the others bein g comp en s a ted by the new
,

owner in money Pro vision w a s m a de for the fi xin g of the

.

comp ens a tion in such a w a y a s to prevent excessive obli g a tions

b eing incurred by the new o w ner If the test a tor fa il ed to indi .

c a te a n heir in this m a nner a n d the division of the holding wo ul d

,

c on fl i ct with the provisions of the pre vious a rticle the la w em ,

powered the j udici a l a uthorities to desig n a te a mon g the heirs

one who should t a ke over the holdin g on the co n ditio n s fi x e d
by this Article Thirdly sm a llh olders were empowered by Ar t
.
,
.

1 34 a s a n exception to the Civil Code to le a ve the i n di visible

, ,

m i nim um to a single heir even if its v a lue exceeded th a t in di

vi d ua l s proportion a l sh a re a n d without oblig a tion for test a tor
’

or heir to contribute the difference in money .

Art 1 33 a llowed a n y l a ndowner in the Old Ki ng dom a n d in

.
,

Bucovin a to decl a re indivisible a n a re a up to 5 0 h a of his

,
.

property which thus woul d b e i nh erited under the conditions

,

l a id down in this eighteenth ch a pter of the la w An obli g a tory .

min imum of 2 h a a n d a f a cult a tive m a x i mum of 5 0 h a were

. .

thus brought by the la w into ent a il in the Old Kingdom a n d in ,

Bucov in a The Tra nsylva ni a n fi gur e s were the s a me but referred

.
,

t o c a d a stra l j uga r s .

S a le an d M or tgage of He ld i ngs All the previous a gr a ri a n l a ws

.

h a d ende a voured to protect the pe a s a nt prop erty by m a kin g it

’
ina lien a ble The pe a s a nts consequent in a bility to sell or buy
.

ch a i n ed them to their hold ings which were continuously ,

d iminished in size by inherit a nce ; a s a result their l a bour lost

v a lue with the lo s s of mobility a n d a ll selection a mong the ,

p e a s a nt cultiva tors wa s checked .

The new a gra ri a n l a ws a b a ndoned a system which ens ur ed

 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 63
’
noth ing but the pe a s a nts p overty Holdings a s we h a ve seen .
, ,

co ul d not b e broken up b elo w a cert a in minimum whi le they ,

coul d b e left a s a whole to one only of the heir s They could .

henceforw a rd b e bought a n d sold— a fter a cert a in period a n d on

cert a in conditions .

While a boli sh in g in a li en a bility so a s to give free pl a y to

,

a n a tur a l selection a mo n g cultiv a tors the legisl a tor w a nted to

,

ensur e th a t sm a llhol di n gs would rem a in in the possession of the

cla ss for which the reform h a d b een en a cted The s a fegu a rd of .

the origin a l la w b eing deemed in suffi ci en t a new me a sure w a s ,

promulga ted in M a rch 1 925 which g a ve the St a te a right of

,

pre emption on hold ings secured under the l a test reform a s well
-

a s on a ll those purch a sed in e a rlier ye a rs from the s a le of St a t e

dom a in s or through the Rura l Office If the St a te did not .

exercise its right then the pe a s a nts were free to dispose of the i r
,

lots on the follo w in g con di tions l a id do w n in Art II , .

Th pu ch a sers h a ve to b e Rum a ni a n citizens cultiv a tors

( )
a e r ,

or gra dua tes of a n a gricul tura l school residi ng a n d c a rryin g on

,

a gricultur e in the comm une in whi ch the holding is situ a ted ;

holdings could be sold a n d b ought only to the f ull exte n t

in which they were origin a lly obt a ined ;
( 0) they could onl y b e sold fi ve ye a rs a fter their own ers h a d
obt a ined the fin a l title deeds which followed the p a yment of the
-

price in full ;
d
( ) the purch a ser shou l d not own more th a n 25 h a a r a ble .

property constituted on the b a sis of the present a n d previous

l a nd l a ws ( Ar t 1 22 of the 1 9 21 la w h a d fi x e d this limit a t 25 h a
. . .

in the highl a n d a n d hill regions a n d a t 1 00 h a in the pl a in )

, . .

’
The St a te s right of pre emption w a s to b e exercised through
-

the Centra l Resettlement Offi c e The l a nd thus obt a in ed w a s

.

to be given to pe a s a nts who h a d not yet b een res ettled in the ,

order in which they were i nscribed in the resettlement lists .

The s a me la w provided th a t house g a rden a n d f a rm y a rd , ,

-

up to a m a ximum of 1 h a — co ul d not b e touched They could

. .

not b e mortga ged a n d they could not on a n y ground b e seiz ed

,

a n d sold by a th i rd p a rty The rest of the holding up to 25 h a

.
, .
,

could be mortg a ged only wi th the Centr a l Resettlement Offi ce ,

the Popul a r B a nks or some other credit institution a uthorized

,

M 2
1 64 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
by the St a te B eyond 25 h a the p e a s a nt owners could disp ose
. .

of their prop erties a s they lik ed .

In B ess a ra bi a resettlement holdings could b e sold to cul

,

t i va t or s only None of them were a ll owed to own more th a n

.

20 h a a r a ble l a nd
. .

Th e R es tr i cti on of L a rge P r op er ty The essenti a l a im of the .

reform h a d b een to tra n sform l a nd tenure from a system of l a rge

prop erty into one of sm a llholdi n gs To prevent the reviva l of .

l a rge prop erty the St a te reserved to itself a right of pre emption

,
-

on a ll l a nd s a les i nvolving more th a n 5 0 h a This provision w a s .

interpreted by its a uthor M Ga r ofl i d a s referring to tra ns a ctions

, .
,

which concern ed a n a re a of a t le a st 5 0 h a M a ny direct s a les of .

lesser lots p a ssed therefore un ch a ll enged Subsequently thi s .

,

interpret a tion w a s ch a nged by M Al Const a ntin escu to me a n . .

’
th a t the St a te s right c a me into pl a y whenever a n y l a nd w a s to
b e sold from a n est a te of more th a n 5 0 h a no m a tter how much .
,

or how little of it w a s up for s a le Th a t wo ul d a ppe a r to b e the .

’
current interpret a tion of the Sta te s right It will b e noted th a t .

the me a sur e only me a n s a lim it a tion of s a le not a limit a tion of ,

p ossession a s w a s a pplied to p ea s a nt prop erties formed from

,

resettlement holdings .

The St a te s right of pre emption on l a n d for s a le revives in

’
-

f a ct the old p ea s a nt right of p r oti mi s which g a ve the vi llagers ,

the fi r st cl a im to a n y l a nd from the vi lla ge h ota r whi ch the l a nd

lord w a nted to let or sell .

Within the l imits a n d conditions l a id dow n in these l a ws

prop erty is gu a ra nteed by Ar t 1 7 of the new Rum a ni a n Con st it u
.

tion Expropri a tion is p ermitted for rea sons of public utili ty

.

a lone a fter f a ir a n d preli min a ry comp ens a tion

,
Expropri a tion .

is s p ecifi ca lly p ermitted in the interests of publi c tra nsport ,

public hea lth milit a ry a n d c ultur a l works a n d of works requi red

, ,

by the direct genera l interests of St a te a n d public a uthorities .

’
Other c a ses of public utility w ill h a ve to b e determin ed by
‘

sp eci a l l a ws voted with a m a j ority of two thirds

,
-
.

S E C TI O N 6 V A R I A TI O N S I N T H E S E V ERA L A GRAR I AN L A W S
.

The en a ctment of the reform through the instrument of four

if erent l ws — one for the Old Kingdom a n d one for e a ch of the
d f a
 THE NATUR E OF THE REFORM 1 65

three new provin ces — w a s in the fi rst pl a ce the result of politica l

c ircum st a nces which did not synchr onize Though p a ssed in .

every c a se by pe a ceful me a ns the reform spra n g in two of the

, ,

pro vinces a t le a st from a revolution a ry st a te The ch a ra cter

, .

a n d lim its of the reform were i n such circumst a nces dict a ted by
, ,

the moment a ry situ a tion an d were p a ssed i nto la w by speci a l

revolution a ry a ssemblies All th a t could b e done l a ter by
.

norm a lly elected Pa rli a ments w a s to el a bor a te the det a ils keepi n g
a s close a s they co u l d or a s they h a d to keep to the origi n a l
, ,

principles The B ess a ra bi a n reform w a s decided upon by the

.

a d h oc revolution a ry a ssembly known a s the Council of the L a nd ,

org a ni zed in Octob er 1 9 1 7 A few months e a rli er the principle s

.

of the proposed reform h a d b een a dopted for the Old Kin gdom
by the Pa rli a ment a t J a ssy The Tra n sylv a ni a n reform di d not
.

m a teri a liz e till D ecemb er 1 9 1 8 when a revolution a ry a ssembly

,

a ssum ed power in Tr a n sylv a ni a a fter the colla pse of the Austro

,

Hunga ri a n Empire The reform for Bucovin a a lone w a s a dopted

.

during norm a l conditions a fter the end of the Wa r The v a ri a

, .

tion in t ime a n d politic a l circ umst a nces therefore expl a i n s why

the reform w a s set going by different l a ws for the v a rious p a rts
of new Rum a ni a .

In the second pl a ce these v a ri a tions were dict a ted by the

,

considera ble difference in the a gra ri a n con di tions of the severa l

Provin ces Tra nsylvani a h a d never b een linked up politic a lly
.

with the Rum a ni a n provi nces a n d h a d followed a rur a l evolution

of its ow n Bucovin a p a ssed to the Austri a n Empire in 1 774 a n d
.

B ess a ra bi a to the Russi a n Empir e in 1 8 1 2 b efore the em a n cip a ,

tion of the serfs whi ch b ein g c a rried out v a riously in these severa l
,

countries destroyed the former uniformity in the rura l structure

,

of the Rum a ni a n l an ds The upshot w a s a consider a ble difference

.

in the di stribution of property a s well a s in the l a ws governi ng

,

l a nd tenur e in the severa l provinces When the pe a s a nt le a der .

,

M Mih a la ch e a s Minister of Agriculture first brought h i s bill

.
, ,

b efore the C a binet in 1 9 20 he intended a pplyin g one a n d the

, ,

s a me me a sure to the whole of the cou n try But it b ec a me clea r .

durin g the Ca bin et discussion th a t by ena cting one principle for

the whole co untry its a pplic a tion would h a ve to b e v a ried by
innum era ble instructions so a s to a d a pt it to the needs of the
,
1 66 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
s e v e ra l p rovinces It w a s therefore concluded th a t it woul d b e
.

sim pler a n d more pra ctic a l to prep a re a t the outset a bil l for e a ch
of the new pro vinces in contin u a tion of the decrees law pr om ul
,
-

g a ted for e a ch of them a s soon a s the Wa r w a s over .

The Tr a nsylva ni a n reform w a s ini ti a ted by the resolution

which the N a tion a l Assembly of a ll the Rum a ni a ns of Hunga ry
a dopted a t Alb a J ul i a on D ecemb er 1 1 9 1 8 Point 5 of Ar ticle .
, ,
‘
III dem a nded a ra di c a l a gra ri a n reform Th e expropri a tion of .

a ll properties exp eci a lly of the l a rge est a tes

, B y a b olishing the .

ent a iled est a tes on the b a sis of th a t expropri a tion a n d by

, ,

reducin g the l a tifundi a a ccordi n g to needs the p e a s an ts sh a ll b e ,

en a bled to a cq uir e a t le a st a s much l a n d ( a ra ble gra z ing wood , ,

l a nd ) a s they ca n cultiv a te with the help of the ir f am ilies The .

guidi n g principle of thi s a gra ri a n policy is on the one h a nd the

promotion of soci a l leve lling a n d on the other h a nd the fur ther
’
ing of production On the b a sis of this revolution a ry deci
.

sion a Comm ission a pp ointed by the Tra nsylva ni a n Dir ectora te

,

dra fted the text of the decree la w which introduced the reform
-

into Tr a n sylva n ia The subsequent m odi fi ca t i on s of the Tr a n sy l

.

v a ni a n me a sure were likewise dra fted by a Commission composed

of Tra nsylv a ni a n deputies Although these dr a fts went fa rther
.

th a n the reform for the Old Kingdom they did not s a tisfy a more ,

r a di c a l group of Tr a nsylv a ni a n deputies who formed in 1 920 , , ,

a short lived N a t i on a l R a dic a l P a rty

-
The progra mm e of the Old
.

N a tion a l P a rty w a s itself revised in 1 920 w ith rega rd to l a nd

‘
reform on the pri n ciple th a t l a nd must b elong to those who
’
cultiv a te i t to the tot a l exclusion of rent without l a b our The
,
.

Pa rty pledged itself not to a ll ow a n y ch a nges to b e m a de in the

reform to the detriment of the pe a s a ntry either with reg a rd to ,

the extent or to the price of the expropri a ted a rea when the ,

reforms for Tra n s ylv a ni a a n d Bucovi n a sho uld come before

the legisl a tive a ssemblies for revision Moreover the P a rty .
,

dem a nded for the Old Kingdom a new la w more in keeping with
the needs of the p e a s a nts a n d with the democra tic Views which
h a d i n spired the reform in the new provinces The fi r st dr a ft .

prep a red for Tra n sylv a ni a by M Ga r ofl i d under the in fl uen ce of

.

these ra dic a l tendencie s evoked a protest from the n a tion a l

min orities a g a inst its dra stic provisions A second dra ft a s .
,
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 67

presented to the S ena te proved more tolera ble But whe n it

, .

c a me before the Ch a mb er the Minister in ch a rge under pressure

, ,

from the Tra nsylva ni a n deputies a ccepted sever a l new a rticles ,

which a ga in widened the powers of the L a w .

In B ess a ra bi a the reform b ega n a s p a rt a n d p a rcel of the

,

Russi a n Revolution From J uly 1 9 1 7 onw a rd s the p e a s a nts

.
,

bega n to la y h a n ds on the l a rge est a tes These spora dic a ctions .

b ec a me genera l in October a n d by the end of the ye a r two thirds

,
-

of the l a rge property h a d b een seized a s well a s much of the live ,

a n d de a d stock Oi the two currents which then tra versed the

.

revolutiona ry movement one w a nted a ll l a nd to b e given to the

,

p ea s a nts without a n y p a yment a t a ll An a rticle procl a iming

,
.

its Views decl a red th a t henceforw a rd this gift of God shoul d

‘

neither b e sold nor bought but free for a n y m an to use li ke the

, ,
’
w a ter a n d the a ir This point of View w a s r a ised into a form a l
.

dem a n d by the fi r st Pe a s a nt Co n gress held a t the b eginni n g of ,

May 1 9 1 7 The Pe a s a nt Group incli n ing soci a lly Leftw a rd s w a s

.
, ,

on the whole a verse to uni on with Rum a ni a a s it mistrusted the ,

soci a l outlook of the poli tici a ns who ruled the Old Kingdom The .

secon d cur rent w a s represented by the N a tion a l Mold a vi a n P a rty ,

whose progra m h a d a n a tion a li st r a ther th a n a soci a l bi a s .

B y a n inversion of the usu a l run of prej udices the l a rge l a nd ,

own ers h a d b ecome n a tion a list an d stood for union wit h

Rum a ni a hoping thereby to s a ve their prop erties But in the
, .

third mon th of the Revolution the N at i on a l P a rty w a s a lre a dy

forced to a dopt a r a di c a l a gra ri a n progr a m a s the pea s a nts ,
’
did not underst a n d a utonomy without l a nd .

I n M a rch 1 91 8 the v a rious groups voted fi r m ly for union

with Rum a ni a but a dded the condition th a t the g a in s through
,

the Revolution should be resp ected This condition w a s w a ived .

a t the end of Novemb er a fter the Council of the L a nd h a d fi n a ll

, y
p a ssed the a gra ri a n law for B ess a ra bi a The la w w a s r a t ifi e d by .

the decree la w of December 22 1 9 1 8 Oi the seventy three

-

, .
-

Articles composin g the me a sure p a ssed by the Council of the

L a nd fourty seven Articles were m odifi e d by the la w for
,
-

Bess a ra bi a a dopted by the Rum a ni a n Pa rli a ment in 1 9 20 In .

keeping with these circumst a nces the Bess a ra bi a n reform ,

p a ssed through three st a ges At fi rst the l a rge prop erties were
.
1 68 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
completely swept a w a y by the Revolution w ithout a n y compens a ,

tion S ubsequently the le a ders of the Council of the L a nd suc

.
,

ce e d e d i n getting 5 0 h a retur ned to e a ch owner .Fin a lly un der .

,

pressure from the Old Ki ngdom whose rulers were a nxious to ,

est a bli sh some equi librium between the v a rious reforms the ,

exempted minim um w a s w ith d i ffi cul t y r a ised to 1 00h a for e a ch .

owner The genera l compens a tion w a s fi x ed by the Courts a t

.

8 00 lei per h a A Memor a ndum of the B ess a r a bi a n Cultiv a tors

.
‘

O wni ng More th a n 25 issued in 1 921 dem a nded for its ,

a uthors equ a lity of tre a tment with the l a ndown ers in the Old

Kingdom Th a t dem a nd w a s reitera ted by a Congress of B ess

.

a r a bi a n owners held a t Chi s in au in Febru a ry 1 9 23 ; by th a t time ,

it h a d become a ltogether im pra ctic a ble .

In B uco vin a the ch a nge to the new r egim e h a pp ened qui etly ,

a fter the end of the Wa r A genera l Congress of the pro vin ce met
.

on N ovem ber a t Cern a u t i a n d voted the uni on of the

province with Rum a ni a This decision w a s t a ken uncondi tio n a lly

.
,

a n d the Co n gress m a de no a ttempt to procl a im a t the s a me tim e the

soci a l principles on which the provi nce w a s to b e governed in the

futur e The reform w a s ini ti a ted by a decree la w of 1 91 9 when
.
-

, ,

the province stood u n der the in fl uen ce of the D emocra tic

Uni onist Pa rty led by M I Nistor The fi n a l La w of J uly 1 921 . . .
,

p a ssed by the Government of Genera l Averescu m o difi ed the ,

pro visions of the decree in f a vour of the l a ndo w ners ; it reduced

the e xtent to b e expropri a ted a n d h a rdened the procedur e of
expropri a tio n a n d resettlement .

Th e M a i n Difi er e nces b etween th e S evera l L a ws

-

A comp a rison .

of the la w of the Old Kingdom with the l a ws for the new Provinces
shows the following m a in differences b etween them .

1 The a gra ri a n la w for the Old Kingdom expropri a ted in

.

full through Art 7 o n ly the a ra ble l a nd of crown dom a i ns of the

.
,

Rura l O th ee a n d of a ll public a n d priva te institutio n s The la w .

for Tra n sylva ni a m a de a distinction b etween publi c a n d priva te

institutions Art 6 expropri a ted in full the whole of the proper
. .

ties belonging to institutions which pursue a public i n terest

such a s corpora tions endowments churches a n d mon a steries
, , ,

universities a n d schools hospit a ls loc a l a uthorities & c ; , , , .

where a s Art 7 expropri a ted in full only the a ra ble p a rt of l a nd

.
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 69

properties b elongin g to institutions w ith a priva te i nterest

such a s b a nks lim ited comp a n ies profes s ion a l s y ndica tes 10111 12
, , ,

holdings & c ,
.

It so h a ppened th a t in Tra n sylva ni a the property b elongin g

to institutions w a s a n import a nt f a ctor a n d covered a b out 40 per
cent of the whole a re a The expropri a tion of l a nd b elo n gin g to
. .

churches a n d schools di d not a ffect merely the gre a t est a tes of

the Ca tholic bishoprics but a lso the lesser properties of the
,

va rious religious commun ities The fir st cl a use of Ar t 6 exempted

. .

from expropri a tion a m a xim um of 32 j uga r s from the a ra ble l a nd

of the p a rishes ; 8 for the p a rish priests ; 1 6 for the schools In .

j
a ddition the la w a ll owed 1 0 uga r s for the gener a l needs of e a ch

church a n d 5 for the tra in ing fa rms in forestry a tt a ched to the

,

public schools The la w further exempted from expropri a tion

.

200 j uga r s for e a ch a rchbishopric 1 00 for e a ch b ishopric a n d

, ,

30 for e a ch m on a stery It is not yet possible to know ex a ctly

.

how much l a nd h a s been expropri a ted from the possessio n s of

the Tra nsylva ni a n churches but the tot a l extent must b e con
,

s id era ble a s the four tee n Luther a n p a rishes of the Br a s ov

,

district a lone h a ve lost j uga r s of their l a nd Ap a rt from .

the c ul tur a l co n sequences of this loss the me a sur e w a s criticiz ed

,

bec a use much of the church est a te h a d b een constituted p a rtly

by free contributions in l a nd from the memb ers a s w a s often the ,

c a se with the Luthera n comm unities for the purpose of cre a t ing
,

a n est a te from the revenue of whi ch the work of chur ches a n d

schools could b e supported but which rem a ined in the use of the
,

pe a s a nt members themselves .

The la w a lso a ffected the commun a l properties of the v a rious

n a tion a l communi ties in Tra nsylva n i a These properties con .

sisted of considera ble p a stur es a n d forests for gener a l use the ,

revenue formin g the budget of commun a l orga ni z a tions a n d

a ctivities The la w a llowed the expropri a tion of such comm un a l
.

p a stur es in so fa r a s they exte n ded b eyond the a vera ge l a id down

by the law for e a ch household .

In a ddition to the properties of n a tion a l commu ni ties there ,

were in Tra nsylva ni a a num ber of other forms of j oint properties ,

formed either d uring the process of consolid a tion or by co ,

opera tive purch a se & c Genera lly the p a rt of e a ch memb er of

, .
,
1 70 THE NATURE OF THE R EFORM

these a ssoci a tions w a s registered sep a ra tely but the obj ect w a s ,

used j ointly In a ddition there were the properties of the former

.
,

frontier regiments All these kinds of j oint holdi n gs c a me un der

.

the provisions which rel a ted to commun a l properties Th a t is t o .

sa
y they could b e expropri a ted if the i r a re a were l a rger th a n t h e
needs of the members a s estim a ted in the provi sions of the la w
, .

2 The la w for the Old Kingdom expropri a ted in f ull the

.

est a tes which h a d b een le a sed out a n d cultiv a ted by ten a nts from
April 23 1 9 1 0 till April 24 1 920 without interruption Art 8
, , , , . .

of the Tra nsylva n i a n la w expropri a ted o nl y the a r a ble l a nd ,

whether rura l or urb a n of priv a te owners whose prop erties h a d

,

b een le a sed out during a period of ten a gricultur a l ye a rs b etween

1 9 04 a n d 1 9 1 8 ; exempti n g from expropri a tion 30 c a d a str a l j uga r s
from properties situ a ted in rura l communes a n d 1 0 from pro
p er t i e s in urb a n communes .

The la w for the Old Kingdom a pp a rently went f a rther th a n

the Tra n sylv a ni a n la w But where a s the l a tter ex empted from
.

the effect of this provision only the properties of min ors the fi r st ,

exempted the prop erties of women a s well of publi c offi ci als a n d ,

of offi cer s on a ctive service The p eriod inscrib ed in the la w for

.

the Old Kingdom moreover though shorter h a d to b e con

, , ,

t in uous a n d r a n up to the time of the reform ; where a s the Tr a n

s lva ni a n a rr a ngement left room for such ill ogic a l possibili tie s
y
a s for inst a nce the expropri a tion of a n est a te which h a d b een let
, ,

to a ten a nt up to 1 9 1 4 but w a s a ft erw a rds cultiv a ted by it s

,

owner till the expropri a tion It would seem th a t the l a ndowner

.

who h a d bought a property in 1 9 1 4 a n d h a d since f a rmed it

h imself could nevertheless b e expropri a ted b e ca use the property
,

m a y h a ve b een let on le a se by i t s previous owner b etween 1 904 ,

a nd 1 9 14 The efforts m a de by represent a tives of the n a tion a l

.

minorities during the discussion of the la w to h a ve this cl a us e

a mended rem a ined un s uccessful .

Oi gre a t import a nce in this connexion is the di fference be

tween the me a ning a ttributed by the la w for the Old K in gdom
to the term let on lea se a n d the interpret a tion pl a ced upon it
‘ ’
,

in Tra n sylva ni a Art 1 7 of the ordina nce for the a pplic a tion of
. .

the reform in the Old Kingdom expl a ined th a t the provision for
the expropri a tion of est a t es which h a d b een let on le a se did not
 THE NATURE OF THE RE F ORM 1 71

a pply to those est a tes which h a d b een let by their owners di rect
to the pe a s a nts The Tr a n sylva ni a n la w di d not m a ke this very
.

n a tur a l con cession .

In Bucovina the a gra ri a n la w expropri a ted in f ull the a ra ble

l a nd of rura l est a tes which h a d b een let on le a se during more th a n
ni ne yea rs th a t is over ten h a rvests a t le a st b etween J a n 1
, , , .
,

1 905 an d
J an 1 , 1 9 1 9 . .

3 The la w for the

. Old Kin gdom by its Art 8 expropri a ted .

the a r a ble l a nd b eyon d 1 00 h a of priva te est a tes which were let

.

on le a se a n d cultiva ted by ten a nts on April 23 1 920 A simil a r ,

.

pro vision a pplied to the Tra nsylva ni a n est a tes let on le a se on

Ma y 1 1 9 21 n a mely to wh a tever exceeded 5 0 c a d a str a l j uga r s
, , ,

in the highl a nds a n d in the hi lls a n d 1 00 in the pl a ins , .

4 The la w for the Old Kingdom expropri a ted the a r a ble l a nd

.

of p riva te est a tes cultiva ted by their o w ners b eyond the foll owing
a re a s

1 00 h a in the highl a nds a n d in the hills

. .

1 5 0 h a in the pl a ins where the dem a nd for l a nd w a s gre a t

.
, .

200 h a in the pl a ins where the dem a nd for l a nd w a s mode

.
,

ra te : a n d
25 0h a in the pl a ins where the dem a nd for l a nd w a s s a tis fied
.
, .

Those o wners who on Febru a ry 1 1 921 h a d considera ble , ,

investments in live a n d de a d stock in a gric ul tur a l b uil di n gs or in

,

inst a ll a tions for a gricul tur a l industries were a llowed to ret a in ,

instea d of the a bove quot a s 1 00 200 300 a n d 5 00h a resp ectively

, , , . .

The Tr a nsylv a n i a n la w m a de no di stinction b etween the

owners who cultiva ted their own est a tes a n d those who in the
s a me conditions possessed considera ble investments in live a n d
dea d stock It o nl y took a ccount of the regions in which the
.

est a tes were situ a ted a n d it expropri a ted them b eyond the
followi ng a rea s
5 0 c a d a str a l j uga r s in the mount a ins ;
1 00 c a d a str a l j uga r s in the hill s ;
200 c a d a stra l j uga r s in the pl a i n s where the dem a nd for l a nd
,

w a s moder a te ; a n d
5 00 c a d a str a l j uga r s in the pl a ins where the dem a nd for l a nd
,

wa s sa t i sfi e d .
1 72 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
The Agra ri a n Commi ttee w a s entitled however to keep the , ,

exempted quot a do w n to 200j uga rs for purposes of coloni z a tion , .

It would seem th a t in fa ct 200 j uga r s w a s the a re a norm a ll y

exempted in Tra nsylva ni a It is true th a t the Tra nsylva ni a n la w
.

( Art 22) likewise p ermitted the exemption of 5 00 j ugar s from

.

model fa rms but only in the regions where the dem a nd for l a nd
,

w a s moder a te or s a tisfied ; a n d this w a s t o b e a n exception

requi ring in e a ch c a se the consent of the Agra ri a n Commi ttee .

Moreover this co n cession w a s rescinded for a ll pr a ctic a l pur poses

,

by a decree of the Minister of Agricultur e of S eptember 20 1 9 22 , .

It instructed the a uthorities concerned to a pply in Tra nsylva ni a the

genera l norms of the la w ; the o w ner of a model f a rm coul d receive
wh a t exceeded those norms a n d up to 5 00j uga r s merely on le a se
, , .

The effect of these differences between the two l a ws w a s the

more w eighty a s most of the Tra n sy lva n ia n l a nd w a s cla s sifi e d a s
belonging to mount a in or highl a nd regions where a s in the Old ,

Kingdom most of the a re a w a s lowl a nd .

The la w for Bucovin a distin guished b etween l a ndo w ners who

a t its promulg a tion or on August 1 1 9 1 4 h a d i mport a nt a gr i cul , ,

tura l e s t a blish em en t s breedin g f a rms or a gric ul tur a l industries

, ,

a n d those l a ndowners who did n o t p ossess such i nvestments .

The l a tter were to be expropri a ted of their a ra ble l a nd b eyond

1 00 h a ; the former were to be expropri a ted a ccordin g to a pro
.

re ss i ve sc a le which reduced e g to 1 00 h a a ll the prop erties

g . . .

between 1 00 a n d 1 05 h a those between 200 a n d 21 0 h a to

.
,
.

1 6 5 h a those b etween 300 a n d 320to 201 h a those b etween 400

.
,
.
,

a n d 420 h a to 224 h a
. those b etween 5 00 a n d 5 25 h a to 241 h a
.
,
. .

a n d those a bove 600 h a to 25 0 h a . .

The la w for B ess a ra bi a expropri a ted from priva te est a tes a ll

the a ra ble l a nd a b ove 1 00 h a .

5 The a re a of the e s t a tes to b e expropri a ted w a s a ssumed

.

by the la w for the Old Kingdom to b e th a t which they leg a lly

h a d on August 1 5 1 9 1 6 ( the d a te when Rum a ni a entered the
,

Wa r ) ; a ll tra nsfers of l a nd m a de a fter th a t d a t e were considered

inv a lid for the purposes of the a gra ri a n reform The Tr a n syl .

va ni a n la w w a s b a sed on the leg a l position of the est a tes on

Decemb er 1 1 9 1 8 ; a n d the law for Buco vin a on their leg a l
,

position on S eptember 6 1 91 9 ,
.
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 73

6 .The siz e of the typic a l resettlement holding w a s fix e d a t

a m a xim um of 5 h a in the Old Kingdom with 7 h a for colo ni z a
.
, .

tion holdings in B ess a ra bi a they were of 6 a n d 8 h a in Bucovin a .

of 4 a n d 6 h a ; while in Tra nsylva ni a the m a ximum w a s of

.

7 j uga r s a n d of 1 6 for coloniz a tion purposes

,
.

7 There w a s a cert a in di fference b etween the a uthorities

.

ch a rged with the a pplic a tion of the seve r a l l a ws The la w for the .

Old Kingdom ( Art 1 04) entrusted the work of e xecution to ( a )

.

loc a l committees a n d ( 6 ) district comm ittees ; w ith p owers for

,

the Centra l Resettleme n t Offi ce to provoke a fresh decision of

the di strict comm ittees if the r e settlement li sts a ppe a red to b e -

in a ccura te .

Article 1 01 of the Tra nsylv a ni a n La w cre a ted three a ut h or i

ties for the c a rrying out of the resettlement : ( a ) loc a l com
mi tt e es , di strict comm ittees a n d ( c) county committees , .

Like the Tra nsylva ni a n la w th a t of Buco vi n a est a bli shed ,

thr ee resettlement a uthorities with however a Region a l Com

, , ,

mission inste a d of the county comm ittees .

8 The origin a l l a ws for the Old Kingdom Buco vin a a n d

.
,

B ess a ra bi a left the forests untouched They were expropri a ted

, .
,

however by the speci a l la w of J uly 1 1 924

, ,
.

The expropri a tion of forests for the p urpose of crea tin g or

complet ing comm un a l forests w a s in the Tr a n sylva ni a n c a s e
decreed by Ar t 32 of the la w down to a n exempted quot a of
.
‘

1 00 j uga r s in the lowl a nds a n d highl a nds a n d 200 in the moun ,

t a in s In the Old Kingdom the expropri a ted o w ners were t o

.
,

ret a in from e a ch forest a mi ni m um of 1 00h a so th a t a pp a rently .

,

the s a me own er could ret a in a s m a ny quot a s a s the severa l wood

l a nds he possessed Moreover youn g pl a nt a tions or l a nd which
.
,

w a s under process of b ein g a fforested were exempted from e x

propri a tion in the Old Kingdom .

9 In reg a rd to compe n s a tion the la w for the Old Ki ngdom

.
,

fi x e d a s m a xim um the regiona l rent a l for the period 1 9 1 7— 22 ,

multip lied by forty The Tra nsylva ni a n la w took a s guidin g

.

criteri a the rent a l the l a nd t a x & c for the fi ve ye a rs before

, , .
,

1 9 1 3 c a pit a lized a t 5 per cent The compens a tion co uld in no

, .

c a se exceed the price of l a nd in 1 9 1 3 ; or in the c a se of forests , ,

the a vera ge price in the quinquenni a l period be for e 1 9 1 3 For the .

1 74 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
purp oses of the la w one Hunga ri a n crown w a s t a ken a s equ a l to
one leu ( their v a lue a t pa r b eing a bout the s a me ) As a n ex c ep .

tion two cro w ns were t a ken a s equ a l to one leu for the p a yment
,

of l a nd expropri a ted for the cre a tion or completion of commun a l

gr a z mgs .

The method of p a yment w a s in Tr a nsylva n i a the s a me a s in

the Old K ingdom An exception w a s m a de only for l a nd ex
.

pr opr i a t e d on the strength of Art 9 of the Tr a nsylv a n i a n la w

.

down to 5 0 j uga r s or in the c a se of non cultiv a tors even to

,
-

1 0 j uga r s for the s a tisf a ction of speci a l c a tegories of cl a im a nts

,

a n d of Art 1 4— for the solvi n g of the housin g problem The

. .

price in these two c a ses w a s to be p a id in c a sh .

In genera l therefore the Tr a nsylva ni a n la w offered in pa y

, ,

ment twenty times the pre w a r rent a l ; the la w for the Old-

Kingdom gra nted forty tim es the rent a l o ffi cia lly fi x e d in 1 9 1 6 ,

w hi ch no doubt w a s lower th a n the m a rket v a lue N 0 such .

a rra ngement for the fi x in of rent h d existed in Tr a nsylv a ni a

g a ,

a n d this w a s one re a son why P a rli a ment rej ected the propos a l ,

m a de by the Tra nsylva ni a n Minorities th a t the expropri a tion ,

price sho ul d b e c a lcul a ted in the s a me m a nner a s in the Old

Kingdom .

1 0 The Tr a nsylv a ni a n la w h a d some sp eci a l pro visions con

.

cernin g the le a sin g of l a nd Ar t 45 decided th a t l a n d whi ch h a d

. .

not b een expropri a ted could not b e let on le a se fer less th a n seven
ye a rs preference h a ving to b e given on equ a l conditions to loc a l
,

cul tiv a tors a n d to co op era tives of le a sing ; Th a t a pplied even to

-

properties of no more th a n ten j uga r s .

The St a te reserved for itself the s a me right of pre e mption -

a s in the Old Kingdom for a ll s a les of l a nd in volvin g more th a n

5 0 j uga r s ; except when the tr a ns a ction took pl a ce a mong close

rel a tions Likewise the St a te h a d a right of pre emption on a ll
.
,
-

holdings a cquired through the a gra ri a n reform ( la w of M a rch 1 1 ,

If the Centra l O th ee m a de no use of th a t right on beh a lf of

the St a te within sixty d a ys the holdi ng could b e sold priva tely on
,

the following conditions : ( a ) the p ur ch a ser h a d to b e a Rum a ni a n

citiz en a n d to cultiva te the soil h imself ; ( b) or he must hold
a n a gricultur a l degree a n d reside in the commune in which the

holding w a s situ a ted ; ( 0) the s a le could not t a ke pl a ce unt il fi ve

 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 75

e a rs a fter the p a ym ent of the full resettlement price ; ( d ) the

y
pur ch a ser must in no c a se own more th a n 25 h a a ra ble l a nd .
,

i ncludin g the a re a to b e sold These provisions resembled those

.

l a id down in the Old Kingdom .

Na ti ona li s t Ten den ci es i n th e Reform S ome provisions of the .

reform a pp e a r to h a ve been devised a ga inst the interests of non

Rum a n i a n l a ndowners The followi n g a r e the m a in inst a nces
.

1 1 Art 7 cl a use ( 0) of the Tr a nsylv a ni a n la w expropri a t ed

. .
,

the whole a ra ble l a nd of priva te est a tes purch a sed b etween

August 1 1 9 1 4 a n d J uly 30 1 921 the d a y on W hich the la w w a s
, , , ,

prom ulg a ted Are a s up to 1 00 c a d a stra l j uga r s were exempted

.

if purch a sed by priests te a chers or their depend a nts ; if pur

, ,

c h a sed for the s a ke of more intensive cultiv a tion from l a nd

ow ners who sold their est a tes in th a t s a me period — such pur

ch a ses being expropri a ted in a ccord a nce with the provisio n s of

Art 8 App a re n tly the me a sur e cont a ined in cl a use ( 0) of Ar t 7
. . .

w a s di rected a g a inst w a r pr ofi t e er s but it w a s a pplied in ,

Tra nsylva ni a only .

1 2 Cl a use ( d ) of Art 7 a llowed the tot a l expropri a tion of l a nd

. .

a cquired by their new own ers a fter Novemb er 1 1 9 1 7 on the , ,

strength of the w ar me a sur e decreed on th a t d a te by the then

Hunga ri a n Governm ent E a ch s a le of l a nd h a d to b e s a nctioned
.

by a speci a l commission ; the decree g a ve the Min istry of

Agric ul ture a right of pre emption w ithin the condi tions of
-

the intended contr a ct on a ll l a nd for which p ermission to sell

,

h a d b een refused The me a sure w a s a pplied to t hir ty fi ve

.
-

coun ties of which a ll but one were l a rgely Slov a k or R um a ni a n

, .

It w a s excused a s b eing a imed a t w a r pr ofi t e er s ( j ust a s the

R um a ni a ns a fterwa rds excused the me a sur e described in the
previous p a ra gra ph ) a n d a s a me a s ure which l a ter w a s a ppli ed
,

to a ll Hunga ry ; but the Hun g a ri a n figures show th a t it w a s

a pplied with gre a ter severity in Tr a nsylv a ni a th a n elsewhere in

Hung a ry The effect of the a b ove pro vision w a s to rescind the

.

a ction of the former Hung a ri a n Government wherever it m a

y ,

h a ve pur sued n a tion a list ends ; the a pplic a tion of the Rum a ni a n
text w a s a ccordin gly m a de fa cult a tive b eing left to the discretion ,

of the Agra ri a n Committee .

1 3 Art 1 0 of the Tra nsylva ni a n la w expropri a ted the l a nd

. .
1 76 THE NATURE OF THE RE F ORM
of colonists settled a fter 1 8 8 5 up to the li mi t of the hol d ings
, ,

a ll otted by the reform to cl a im a nts in the respective districts .

This me a sur e w a s di rected a ga in st the Hun g a ri a n p ea s a n ts wh o

’
since the eighties h a d purch a sed from the Hun ga ri a n St a te
holdin gs of a bout 1 6 j uga r s e a ch a n d settled on them it w a s to
,

b e a pplied even to settlers who h a d b een n a tives of the pl a ce .

The purpose w a s to a cquir e l a nd for di stribution to Rum a ni a n

p e a s a nts a n d thus to bring the a vera ge holdings of the di strict
,

to a b out the s a me level The settlers woul d seem to h a ve been

.

left with 4— 7 j ugar s ea ch A num b er of them a ppe a led to

.
, ,

the Le a gue of N a tions which a pproved a compromise ultim a tely

,

offered by the Rum a ni a n Government on the strength of whi ch ,

the settlers were to receive gold fra ncs in ste a d of th e

expropri a tion price of gold fra n cs for the j uga r s
of l a nd they h a d lost Such a me a sure a ppli ed to sm a llh olders
.
,

who owned much less th a n the mi ni mum genera lly exempted

from expropri a tion could h a ve h a d onl y a n a tion a list
,

1 4 The reform l a ws de a lt very severely with a bsentee

.

owners Art 7 cl a use

. .
,
of the la w for the Old K i ngdom
expropri a ted thei r whole prop erty ; though cl a use (g) a llowed the
St a te to restore to them forests Vin ey a rds coun try houses a n d , ,

p a rks if the owners dem a nded it an d the Agra ri a n Commi ttee

,

a pproved i t ; pro vided th a t such prop erties were not requi red for

some public in terest of a n economic s a ni t a ry or cultur a l n a tur e ,

.

Here the la w m a de a cle a r distin ction b etween foreign a bsentee

o w ners who were obli ged to sell such exempted heredit a ments
,

w ithin a period of three ye a rs a n d Rum a ni a n a bsentee owners

, ,

upon whom no such oblig a tion w a s i mposed .

The la w for B ucovin a Ar t 5 expropri a ted in full the

,
.
,

a bsentees who owned more th a n 25 h a l a nd Art 6 of the . . .

Tr a nsylva ni a n la w likewise decreed the tot a l expropri a tion of

est a tes belonging to a b sentee owners who p ossessed more th a n
5 0 j uga r s This exemption w a s in troduced in the l a ws for
.

Bucovin a a n d Tra nsylva ni a in f a vour of p ea s a nts who h a d

tempora rily migra ted to Americ a .

The chief difference b etween the severa l l a ws la y in the d efi ni

tion of a b sentees The la w for the Old K ingdom tre a ted a s
.

a b sentees tho s e l a ndowners who h a d h a d to pa y during the fi ve ,

 THE NATUR E OF THE REFORM 1 77
ye a rs whi ch preceded the promulg a tion of the reform the double ,

l a nd t ax in Virtue of the specia l fi s ca l la w for h a ving lived

, ,

unin terruptedly a broa d during th a t period The B ucovini a n .

la w reg a rded a s a bsen tees those l a ndowners who in the period ,

from August 1 1 909 to August 1 1 9 1 9 h a d duri n g fi ve con

, , ,

secut i ve ye a rs sp ent more th a n six months ye a rly outside the

bounda ries of Gre a ter Rum a n i a or of Austri a without impera tive ,

re a sons ; an d those l a ndowners who without bein g a bsent on

some offi cia l mission di d not reside withi n the frontiers of Gre a ter
Rum a ni a from November 28 1 9 1 8 a n d till the prom ulga tion , ,

of the la w The l a tter a rr a ngement formed likewise the b a sis of

.

the Tra nsylva n i a n d efi ni t i on the respective p eriod run ni n g from

,

D ecember 1 1 9 1 8 when Tra nsylva ni a procl a im ed its union

, ,

with Rum a ni a to M a rch 23 1 921 on which d a y the law w a s

, , ,

submitted to P a rli a ment .

1 5 A speci a l group of l a ndowners a ffected by the provision

.

of the Tra nsylv ani a n reform rel a ting to a bsentees were the
s o c a lled opt a nts
-
i e H ung a ri a n inh a bit a nts of Tr a nsylv a ni a
, . .

who a fter the w a r Opted for Hun g a ri a n citiz enship Art 63 of .

the Tre a ty of Tri a non g a ve them one ye a r within which they

mi ght do so If they m a de use of th a t right they h a d to tra nsfer
.
,

their residence together with thei r a llegi a nce but were entitled ,
‘
to ret a in their immova ble prop erty in Rum a ni a n territory ’
.

The Tra nsylv a ni a n le a ders who h a d de vised the fir st tenour

of the reform h a d b een c a ref ul to le a ve the wo ul d be opt a nts -

ou tside its scop e their property rem a ining to b e tre a ted a s the
,

Tre a ty of pe a ce which w a s then under discussion might decide

, , .

The Tri a non Tre a ty h a vi ng p ermitted them to ret a in their

immova ble property this right w a s a cknowledged by the a uthor
,

of the 1 921 la w M Ga r ofli d by mea ns of an offi cia l interpret a

, .
,

tion issued on November 4 1 921 It expl a in ed th a t the cl a use

, .

rel a tin g to the expropri a tion of a bsentee o w ners di d not a pply

to those who h a d been a bro a d on offi cia l duty a n d t o foreigners
This resp ected the letter a n d spirit of the Tre a ty ; nor w a s it a n y
more th a n f a ir a s H ung a ri a n n a tion a ls h a d b een refused Vis a s
,

for enterin g Rum a ni a from the time of the dissolution of the

H a psburg Mon a rchy till the sprin g of 1 9 21 a f a ct est a blished -

by the Collection of documents rel ating to the c a se of the opt a nts

N
1 78 THE N ATURE OF THE REFORM
issued by the H unga ri a n Foreign O ffi ce In J uly 1 922 however .
, ,

M AI Const a nt i nescu a s Minister of Agriculture in the followi ng

. .
,

Libera l Govern ment issued a new ordi n a nce whi ch decl a red th a t
,
‘
a n a bsentee is one who w a s a bsent from D ecember 1 1 91 8 till
, ,

M a rch 3 1 921 wh a tever his n a tion a lity or present domicile

, ,
’
.

Thi s completely reversed the former in terpret a tion a n d c a used

the opt a nts to be expropri a ted of a ll their prop ert y Their c a se .

w a s thereupon t a ken by the Hung a ri a n Governm ent to the

Le a gue of Na t i on s in whose a nn a ls it is li kely to rem a in f a mous
,

for the protra cted a n d eloquent a rgum ents to whi ch it g a ve rise .

The c a se h a s b een before the Council of the Le a gue sin ce the

spring se a son of 1 9 23 but h a s not yet b een solved, .

1 6 Foreign o w ners who were n ot a bsentees were ex pr Opr i

.

a ted of a ll their property in the Old K i ngdom a n d B ess a r a bi a ,

whether they were a liens by birth by m a rri a ge or from a n y , ,

other re a son As Art 7 of the old Rum a ni a n Constitution di d

. .

not permit a li ens to own rura l property such c a ses coul d h a ve ,

a risen only through a t a cit disreg a rd of the Constitution On the .

other h a nd Ar t 1 1 of the Constitution pla ce d i or eign citizens on

, .

a n equ a l footing w ith Rum a ni a n citizens in the eyes of the la w ,

an d an discrim in a ting legisl a tion c on fl i c t e d in gener a l w ith th at

y
principle Moreover it w a s a rgued th a t the a mendment to
.
,

Art 1 9 of the Constitution p a ssed a t J a ssy referred merely t o

.
, ,

a r a ble l a nd a n d th a t in consequence foreign l a ndown ers co u

,
ld
not leg a lly be expropri a ted of a ll their rura l possessions A con .

cess s i on in th a t sense w a s m a de l a ter a pp a rently a t the i nst a nce ,

of M Ta ke Ionescu a s w a s mentioned under poin t 1 4

.
,
.

The l a ws for Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a tre a ted foreigners

in the s a me w a y a s Rum a ni a ns expropri a tin g them p a rti a lly , ,

if they did not fa ll under the c a tegory of a bsentees in genera l

a n d of opt a nt s in sp eci a l .

In pra ctice some foreign owners h a d the ben efi t of a fa voured

tre a tment It would a ppe a r th a t while M Ta ke Ionescu w a s
. .

trying to obt a i n the consent of the Western Powers to the union

of B ess a ra bi a w ith Rum a ni a he w a s prev a iled up on by the ,

French a n d British Governm ents to promise full p a yment to

a few of their subj ects who h a d a cquired through m a rri a ge , ,

est a tes in B ess a ra bi a The a rra ngement wa s kept secret but it

. ,
 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM 1 79

exists in w ritin g It is cert a in th a t under it a num b er of

.

French a n d British citizens h a ve received the full va lue of their

expropri a ted est a tes not through the open a n d successful
1
,

a ffi r m a t i on of intern a tion a l principles but th a nks to those ,

’ ’
governments a bility to use a s a lever Rum an i a s moment a ry
need of diplom a tic support .

1 7 The c a se of southern Dobroge a i e of the st r ip of terri

. , . .

tory k n own a s the Qu a dril a ter a l whi ch Bulga ri a ceded to

Rum a ni a a fter the second B a lk a n Wa r of 1 91 3 is in a c a tegory ,

of its own Most of the l a nd a ccordin g to Ottom a n la w a n d

.
,

custom w a s form a lly the property of the St a te It w a s held by

,
.

the pe a s a nts in a kind of emphyteutic tenure known a s mi r te , ,

which h a d often left a holding in the h a nds of the s a me f a mily

for centuries a g ai nst a n a nnu a l p a yment in kind Only a n
,
.

inconsidera ble p a rt of the l a nd w a s held in freehold a n d w a s ,

known a s mulk After the a nnex a tion of the district M Al

.
, . .

Const a ntinescu a s M in ister of Agricultur e in the then Libera l

,

Government p a ssed a la w on April 1 1 9 1 4 dem a nding a ll l a nd

, , ,

owners to prove their titles a n d then to sur render to the St a te ,

one third of the l a nd to which they h a d thus est a b lished a cl a im

-

or to pa y its v a lue in c a sh It will b e seen th a t the me a sur e w a s

.

modelled on the a rra ngement m a de in Rum a ni a when the serfs

were em a ncip a ted when two thi rds of the est a te w a s reserved for
,
-

the pe a s a nts while one third bec a me the prop erty of the l a ndlord
-
.

In this c a se the Rum a ni a n St a te considered itself a s h a ving

a cquired the title of ownership formerly en o e d by the Ottom a n
j y ,

a n d l a ter by the Bul g a ri a n St a te ; though B ulg a ri a h a d c on fi r m e d

,

b efore the a nn ex a tion the title of the holders The a pplic a tion .

of th a t me a s ure w a s interrupted by the outbrea k of the Grea t

Wa r .

In 1 921 the government of Genera l Averescu on the sugges ,

tion of M I Ca ma r ases cu who wa s Prefect of the district p a ssed

. .
, ,

a fresh la w w hi ch upset the me a sur e of 1 9 1 4 The rights of the .

inh a bit a nts were recogni zed in f ull provided th a t they could ,

prove their title ; a dem a nd which w a s complic a ted by the f a ct

th a t m a ny title deeds deposited with the R um a ni a n a uthorities
-

1
S ee t h e p a p e r re a d by i s s Lucy T e xtor M b efore t h e A glo Ame rican H i storic a l
n -

V
C ongress, R ichm on d , ir gi n i a , an uary , 1 9 25 J .

N2
1 80 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
and conveyed by them together with m a ny other t hi ngs to , ,

Moscow for s a fekeeping W hen the Centra l Empires in va ded

Rum a ni a could not now b e recovered
, .

The Libera l P a rty h a vin g ret urned to power M Const a ntinescu , .

c a me in 1 9 22 with a new la w which a brog a ted th a t of 1 921 a n d

reverted to the me a sure he h a d p a ssed in 1 9 1 4 The a rr a n gements .

for the provin g of titles were somewh a t sim plifi e d but those ,

holders who p a ssed the test successfully h a d to sur render one

third of their hol di ng ; p a ym ent in c a sh w a s no longer a llowed ,

a s the l a nd w a s w a nted for coloniz a tion Holders who could not .

prove their title to l a nd previ ously considered a s the prop erty

of the Ottom a n a n d Bulg a ri a n St a tes risked losing their entire ,

holdings .

Protests a g a inst this me a sur e were num erous even from the ,

ra nks of the Libera l Pa rty It w a s p ointed out th a t it would b e .

d iffi cul t to a pply it : in the Dur o st or county most of the hol di ngs
were sm a ll ; in the coun ty of Ca li a cr a they were medium siz ed -

but were genera lly held on a f a mily b a sis The p a rtition would .

be a complic a ted a ffa ir a n d the cre a tion of 1 0 h a holdin gs a s

, .
,

contempl a ted by the la w would require a n el a bora te process ,

of consolid a tion Moreover there w a s no loc a l dem a nd for

.
,
“

resettlement We need a Rum a ni a n gu a rd there w a s the

.
‘
,
’

expl a n a tion of Dr N Ha sn a s dur in g a deb a te in the Sen a te on

.

M a rch 4 1 926 Oi the popul a tion 45 per cent were B ul ga ri a ns

,
. .
,

35 p er cent Turks a n d the rem a inder Rum a ni a ns a n d others

.
, .

The me a sure h a d a purely n a tion a list pur pose .

On coming into power in the a utum n of 1 9 28 the N a tion a l , ,

Pe a s a nt P a rty set a bout redeeming a promise m a de in opposi

tion M I Mih a la ch e a s Minister of Agriculture issued a st a te
. . .
, ,

ment to the effect th a t the whole question of l a nd tenure a n d

expropri a tion in southern D obroge a would b e revi sed so a s to ,

meet the j ust compl a ints of the Bulg a ri a n a n d other sm a llholders .

In December 1 928 M Mih a la ch e a ppointed a commission to de a l

.

with this problem .

The Rum a ni a n l a nd l a ws h a ving b een a ppli ed extensively in

provinces like Tra nsylva ni a a n d B ess a ra bi a in which a l a rge ,

p a rt of the popul a tion wa s non Rum a n i a n it h a s not unn a tura lly -

b een widely a ffirmed or a ssum ed th a t one of the m a insprings of

 THE NATUR E OF THE REFORM 181

the reform h a d been a desire to use it for na tiona list ends And .

it would b e e a sy to support such a View by culling from speeches

a n d a rticles a whole list of st a tements of the kin d m a de by

M Oct a vi a n Gog a in 1 920: We rega rd the a gr a ri a n reform a s the

.

most potent in strument in the Hum a niz a tion of Tra nsylv a ni a .

’

It is not a mere ch a nce th a t M Goga a Tra nsylva n i a n himself

.
, ,

h a s since t urned in enmity from his Tr a nsylva ni a n f r iends a n d

j oined h a nds with the poli tici a ns of the Old Kin gdom Among .

these ra ther th a n a mong Tra nsylva ni a n a n d B ess a ra bi a n le a ders

were to be found the men who sa w eye to eye w ith M Goga on .

tha t point But put in t hi s w a y the a rgument is both ex a ggera ted

.

a n d out of focus .It is a genera lly a scert a in a ble fa ct th a t a rdent

n a tion a lists m a ke indifferent soci a l reformers In Rum a ni a those
.

few politici a ns who spoke in the s a me temper a s M Gog a were .

out of tune with the grea t p urpose from which the reform spr a ng .

To sa y th a t they w ished for such a sweepin g reform b ec a use they

would use it to a n a rrow n a tion a list end is cle a rly p a ra doxic a l ;
,

the truth be ing r a ther th a t b ec a use the reform w a s a ccomplished ,

they strove to m a ke the most of it to th a t end And b eing men .

w ith in fluen ce in the country they provoked some of the di s

,

crim in a ting texts of which mention h a s been m a de b efore .

There a r e in this connexion a few points which it is useful to

cle a r up In the fir s t pl a ce there is nothin g to w a rra nt the View
.
,

th a t the reform could h a ve stop p ed short a t Tra nsylva ni a It is .

a nother question— which will b e discussed in the next ch a pter

whether its a pplic a tion there w a s j ust ifi e d by the e x isting

distribution of l a nd property or not ; but it w a s cert a inly
un a voida ble in the politic a l con di tions which preva iled a t the
end of the Wa r J ust a s the Russi a n Revolution of which the
.
,

B ess a ra bi a n reform w a s p a rt a n d p a rcel im posed the reform

,

up on the Old Kin gdom so it would h a ve b een out of the question

,

to distribute l a nd to the pe a s a nts in two th irds of the country

-

a n d deny it to them in the rem a inder And further it is a stra nge

.
, ,

f a ncy to suppose th a t the Rum a ni a n l a ndowners voted the reform

a t J a ssy in 1 9 1 7 for the purpose of drivi ng a n a tion a list wedge
, ,

into the neighb ouring foreign pop ul a tions If they were so .

s a n gui n e a s to look forw a rd to a d a y when with th a t reform they

might cut off the hea ds of the Hung a ri a n l a ndlords the o n ly ,
1 82 THE NATURE OF THE REFORM
thing of which they could b e cert a in a t the time w a s th a t they
must b egin by dec a p it a ting themselves .

Indeed it is s a fe to say th a t the B ess a ra bi a n a n d Tr a n syl

,

v a ni a n le a ders woul d h a ve c a rried through a bro a d l a nd reform

even if no one h a d thought of it in the Old Kingdom Th a t a lso .

suggests why the l a ws of those two provin ces were di fferent a n d

more d ra stic th a n the one p a ssed in Old Rum a ni a If the l a tter
.

went a s fa r a s it did though gra nted by K i ng a n d P a rli a ment

,

themselves is it to b e wondered a t th a t m a tters went much

,

f a rther in Tr a nsylva ni a a n d B ess a ra bi a where Dyn a sty a n d

,

Government h a d foundered a n d where the reform w a s c a rried

on the crest of a revolutiona ry w a ve ? It is prob a ble enough th a t
the reform would nevertheless h a ve turned out more mildl y in the
two provinces if the l a rge owners h a d b een of the s a me stock a s
the m a ss of the pea s a nts there Yet it must b e noted th a t the
.

outlook of the Tra nsylv a ni a n lea ders is more ra di c a l in every

other resp ect an d not merely in m a tters of l a nd reform th a n is
, ,

th a t of the p olitici a ns in the Old Kingdom— l a rgely no doubt a s

the result of the st a te of suppressed opposition in which they
h a d been kept by the former Hung a ri a n r égime ; j ust a s the
B ess a ra bi a n le a ders who were b orn a n d bred un der a utocra cy
, ,

struck still more to the Left in their fi r st a ct of freedom p a ssing ,

a reform which w a s much more stringent th a n th a t of Tr a n sy l

v a ni a j ust a s the l a tter exceeded in strin gency the reform of the

,

Old Kingdom .

The m a nner in w hi ch the reform w a s executed will b e dis

cussed in subsequent ch a pters ; a n d one hopes th a t it m a y soon
b e possible to express its n a tion a li st effects in precise figur e s .

Until then it is but true to say th a t the rea l c a rriers of the reform
, ,

the m a ss of p ea s a ntry were concerned merely with gettin g the

,

l a nd a n d c a red little whence it c a me A sm a ll minority a mong

.

the ruling cl a ss especi a lly in the Old Kingdom were a nim a ted
, ,

by n a tion a list prej udices a n d instilled them into the reform a s

far a s they could Yet the differences b etween the sever a l l a ws
.

b eing so much fa inter an d fewer th a n their simil a rities the worst ,

th a t could s a fely b e a ffi rm ed is th a t one edge only of a very big

piece of soci a l legisl a tion h a s been t a inted with a n a tion a list bi a s .
 PART III
THE APPLICATION OF THE REFORM AND ITS RESULTS
 C H A P TE R VI I

THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE

DISTRIBUTION OF LAN D PROPERTY

S E CTI O N 1

TH E CHANGE IN T H E OL D K I NG D O M
TH E discussion a n d the legisl a tive evolution of the reform
a s well a s the l a ck of a ll system a tic inquiry a n d the a rit hm etic a l ,

b a sis of execution— a ll produce the unmitig a ted impression th a t

the a gra ri a n problem w a s never considered in its m a ny economic
complex ities Onl y the soci a l a ngle of the problem w a s t a ken
.

a ccount o i i e the pe a s a nt s hunger for l a nd a n d in consequence

’
. .
, ,

the solution contempl a ted never went b eyond a wish to meet th a t

dem a nd by tra nsferrin g a cert a in extent of l a nd from the big
own ers to the pe a s a nts .

Restricted within th a t simpler fra me the reform h a s h a d ,

a revolution a ry effect M B a sileseu in pressing for a generous

. .
,

solution urged his fellow deputies in 1 9 1 7 to b e qui te cle a r th a t

,

wh a t we a r e do ing to d a y is a re a l revolution— the upsettin g of

-

one st a te of thi ngs which we repl a ce with a tot a lly different

,

st a te of things M Ga r oflid the a uthor of the la w of 1 921

’
. .
, ,

though not a ltogether in sym p a thy w ith it coul d not refra in ,

from excl a imin g with a me a sure of pride in introducing his bill

‘
th a t this is the mightiest soci a l revolution ever recorded in
hi story I t le a ves in the sh a dow even the historic a gra ri a n revo
.

lut ion c a rried through in Fr a nce a fter 1 793 for n ot wit h st a n d

ing the Gre a t Revolution l a rge prop erty still ret a ined in Fr a nce
,
’
30 per cent of the l a nd . In Rum a ni a l a rge property a b ove
.

1 00 h a h a d covered 48 69 per cent of the a ra ble a re a ; a fter the

.
-
.

reform its sh a re fell to 7 78 p er cent a ccording to offi cia l -

.
,

figur es .

It is essenti a l whenever usin g a gra ri a n st a tistics in this study ,

to w a rn the re a der tha t they a r e merely a ppro xim a te Especi ally .

is this necess a ry in the c a se of figur es rel a tin g to l a nd property ,

a s Rum a ni a h a s no ground book a n d a s very few est a tes h a ve

186 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
surveys a n d pl a ns of their own The distribution of l a nd .

prop erty w a s in f a ct merely guessed a t un til in 1 9 05 M R , , . .

Capit an ea n u of the Min istry of Fin a nce extra cted from the
, ,

a v a il a ble fi s ca l d a t a an estim a te of the extent of l an d which w a s

owned by l a rge o w ners a n d by pe a s a nts Then only w a s the .

excessive spre a ding of l a rge prop erty re a li zed a n d the in tense

deb a te which prep a red the groun d for reform b eg un In 1 906
, , .
,

Dr Cre a ng a compiled in his turn st a tistic a l t a bles on the d ist ribu

.

tion of l a nd property in Rum a ni a which h a ve since b een used by

a lmost every writer a n d sp e a ker on the subj ect But M Ga r ofli d . .

a n d others m a int a ined th a t neither of the two sets of fi ur es w a s

g
quite reli a ble those of the Ministry of Fin a n ce a ttributing to the
,

pe a s a nts the possession of h a more th a n the fi gur es of

.

Dr Cre a ng a Nor were these serious differences composed on the

. .

occ a sion of the reform The Centra l Resettlement Offi ce e g

.
, . .
,

g a ve in i t s st a tistics h a less to l a rge prop erty th a n the

.

figur e s of the Ministry of Fin a nce .

Usin g therefore the va rious fi gur es with a cert a in a ppr oxi

, ,

m a tion one fi n d s th a t l a nd property w a s distributed in

,

1 9 05 a ccording to the figur e s of the Ministry of F i n a nce a s

, ,

follows

C tegori e s
a E xten t of tota l Cl as s of prop erty

40 29 %
-

1 1 02%
-

l a rge 1 0 4 3%
-

la t ifun d iary 38 26 % -

T ot a l 1 00 00
-
1 0000%

This t a ble m a kes a n a ttempt to system a tize the cla s sifi cat ion
of the v a rious prop erties In common us a ge however properties
.
, ,

below h a were a lw a ys rega rded a s sm a ll est a tes which sug

. ,

gests a somewh a t medieva l notion of siz e The a bove tot a l refers .

only to the a r a ble s ur fa ce To this would h a ve to b e a dded

.

h a viney a rds a n d orch a rds b elonging in a consider a ble

. ,
 DISTRIBUTION OF LAN D PROPERTY 187
degree to sm a ll owners ; a n d h a forests a n d w a stes .
,

which with insignifi c a nt exceptions were in the possession of

, ,

l a rge owners Up to 1 907 therefore. p e a sa nt fa milies , ,

representing 92 per cent of the pop ul a tion o w ned 40 29 per cent.

,
-
.

of the a ra ble a re a ; medium sized owners repre s enting 4 01 per ,

-

cent of the popula tion det a in ed 1 1 per cent ; a n d l a rge o w ners

.
, .

with properties a b ove 1 00h a h a d i n their h a nds 48 6 8 per cent .

-
.
,

though they themselves only formed 0 5 6 per cent of the -

.

’
coun try s popul a tion .

The moder a te reforms a dopted a fter the rising of 1 907 some

wh a t a ltered the proportion of the l a nd held by the two extreme
cl a sses of own ers— those with prop erties of less th a n 1 0 h a a n d .

those o wn in g more th a n 1 00h a The tot a l effect of these ch a nges .

w a s a s follows :

H e cta res H cta res

e

To t h e prop e rty up t o 1 0 h a which i n 1 907 a moun ted t o

.
,

Th ere w ere a dd e d
S a l es thr ou gh R ura l O ffic e
C omm u n a l gra i n gs e sta bli s he d by t h e law on agricultur a l
.

c n tra cts of 1 9 08
o

S l e s fro m S t te d o ma
a ins be t w eeh 1 907 1 8
a .

Dire ct purch a se s from l a rge o wn ers b e tw een 1 907 1 8 —

So th t prop erty of 0—10 h a c ov ere d a t t h e b eginn in g of t h e

a .

l n d refor m a tota l a rea of

a

E l a rge pro pe rty a b ov e 1 00 h a which in 1 9 07 c ov e re d

0111 .
,

a tot a l a r a bl e a r ea o f

Th ere w e re d e ta ch ed a s s h own a b ov e dur i n g t h e peri od

, ,

1 907—1 9 1 8

So th a t i t s tota l a re a w as at the mo men t Wh e n th e l an d

reform b egan

To su m up, r ble l a nd a t the beginning of the

a a a gra ri a n
reform wa s distributed a s follows

Pr op e rty up t o 1 0 h a .

Pro pe rty from 1 0—1 00 h a .

Pro p rty a b o ve 1 00 h a
e .

To t a l 100 0 -

A The E xp rop ri a ti on
. . The fi r st expropri ation c a rried out ,
188 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
on the strength of the decree la w of Decemb er 1 91 8 , produced
the followi n g res ul ts
Fr om S ta te
d oma ins
Fr om Crown d oma ins a n d mort ma i n t t
es a e s
From fore ign o wn e rs
F rom a b s en tee own e rs
Fro m priva te o w e rs n

Tota l -
50

As the a mendment to the Constitution dem a nded the exprop ri a

tion of h a from priva te owners a lone the fi r st res ult
.
,

fell short by a bout h a of the req uired a re a Thi s d efi . .

ci en c w a s m a de good through the second expropri a tion decreed

y ,

by the la w of 1 921 .

On the streng th of the two legisl a tive me a s ures for the

expropri a tion of l a nd the a re a given in the t a ble b elow w a s
det a ched from the a ra ble l a nd owned by l a rge proprietors in the
Old Kin gdom :
No . t t
of e s a e s

e xpr o pri a te d o n Tota l a rea

b as i s of a gr ari an e xpr o pri a te d

la w of 1 921

1 . F ro m priva te own e rs
2 . From S ta te d m a i ns o

3 . F rom mortma in es ta tes

4 . F r om fore ign o wn rs e

5 . From a b s en tee own r e s

T ot l a -
43

After sett ing a side the v a rious extents required for comm un a l
forests commun a l gra zi n gs & c the use to which the e x pr o
, , .
,

ria t e d l a nd w a s put showed the foll owing di stribution on

p ,

S eptemb er 1 1 9 27 ,

1 . Di stribute d t o i dividua l ow rs
n ne

2 C omm u na l gra z i gs n

d
.

3 . For sts a d mi n i stere d by t h e S ta te

e an

a b ut t o b
o e a ll tt d o e .

;
s L n d u ns uit bl e f r di stributi on
a a o
n
e R e s e rv s of gene ra l i te re s t
e n

T ota l e xpropri a ted -

43
 DISTRIBUTION OF LAN D PROPERTY 1 89

The B ess a ra bi a n la w specifi ca lly provided ( Ar t 44) th a t a certa in .

a re a should b e set a side from the expropri a ted l a nd for v a rious

public requi rements In the la w for the Old Kingdom there wa s

.

‘ ’
a v a gue reference to Sta te needs but by a n oversight no ,

d efi n it e provision w a s m a de for the i r s a tisfa ctio n The omission .

h a d to b e m a de good by a dmi ni str a tive me a sur es a n d a tot a l ,

a re a of h a a s shown in the a bove t a ble w a s reserved

.
, ,

for v a rious public needs— such a s the extension of town s a n d

vi lla ges the buildin g of ro a ds a n d r a ilwa ys the est a bli shment
, ,

of m ilit a ry shooting ra nges of a eropl a ne fa ctories & c For these , , .

reserves the St a te p a id the s a me compens a tion a s for l a nd

di stributed to the pe a s a nts .

The tra nsfer of the expropri a ted a re a produced the follo wi ng

ch a nges in the extent of l a nd held by the v a rious c a tegories of
o w ners
H e cta res P er c en t .

To prop erty up t o 1 0 h a co v e ri ng .

there we re a dd e d thr ou gh t h e r for m e

8 1 43
-

Pro pe rty of 1 0 1 00 h a rema i n e d u n ch a ge d

— . n

W ith a n r aof ea 10 80
-

Fr om prop rt y b o ve 1 00 h a t h e refor m
e a .

d ta ch e d
e h l e a vi n g it with
a .

These offi cia l figur es a r e not a ccepted a s correct by every

body Durin g the discussion of the la w M Mih a la ch e quoted
.
, .

M Ga r ofi i d a s m a int aini ng th a t the two expropri a tions woul d

.

le a ve in the h a nds of the l a rge owners h a a r a ble l a nd ; .

Mih a la ch e himself cited figur e s which showed th a t on a modera te ,

c a lcul a tion the l a rge owners would ret a in a t le a st

, ha .
,

representing 1 3 6 per cent of the a r a ble surfa ce

-
. .

Wh a tever the precise fi gur e s neither p a rty w a s fully s a tisfied ,

wi th the e xt ent of the expropri a tion M Ga r ofl id spea k ing in . .

,

the Ch a mb er decl a red th a t the l a rge own ers did not obj ect to the
,

prin ciple of the expropri a tion but condemned its extent The , .

reform h a d gone too far a n d th a t w a s the more unfortun a te a s

,

l a rge prop erty h a d to pl a y a more import a nt role th a n b efore

a fter a reform which m a de extensive cultiv a tion no longer

p ossible To b e economic a lly pr ofi t a ble a n a gricultura l exploit a

.
,

tion shoul d ret a in a t lea st 200 h a in the densely pop ul a ted .

regions 300 h a in regions less densely popula ted a n d 5 00 h a

, .
,
.
1 90 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
in regions sp a rsely pop ula ted Otherwise the result would b e .
‘

dis a strous economi c a lly a s est a tes too reduced in e xt ent coul d ,

b e used o nl y for intensive a gric ul tur e But in our soci a l a n d .

economic circum st a nces the regions of intensive a gricultur e a r e ,

very restricted All those sm a ll est a tes wi ll gra vit a te tow a rds
.

sm a ll property an d will dis a ppea r in less th a n a genera tio n The

Memora ndum of the Mold a vi a n L a ndown ers pointed out th a t a ll
the c a lcul a tions necessit a ted by the la w h a d b een b a sed on the
st a te of things existing in 1 9 1 6 a n d they therefore cl a im ed th a t ,

l a nd bought by the p e a s a nts b etween 1 9 1 6 an d 1 920 shoul d b e

included in the a rea to b e expropri a ted .

The spokesmen of the p e a s a ntry m a i nt a in ed on the contra ry , ,

tha t the reform w a s w a nting in f a irness tow a rds the p ea s an ts .

M B a sile se u compl a in ed th a t no a ccount h a d b een t a ken of the

.

pe a s a nts historic rights From 1 8 6 4 to the end of the Gre a t Wa r

’
.
,

a n a re a of h a h a d b een distributed on v a rious occ a .

sions to pe a s a nts Assum in g tha t the a ra ble sur fa ce w a s .

on th a t d a te h a the pe a s a nts woul d b e entitled .

, ,

a ccording to old custom to two thirds of th a t a re a i e to a b out ,

-

, . .

h a Inste a d of which the reform only g a ve them little

.

more th a n h a lf of th a t extent 1
.

The Pe a s a nt P a rty a s we h a ve seen in a n e a rli er ch a pter , ,

w a nted to a pply in the Old Kin gdom the s a me norm a s the

B ess a ra bi a n law a n d to expropri a te a ll the a ra ble l a nd up to
‘

a limit of 1 00 h a per owner ; they estim a ted th a t they woul d

.

obt a in thereby 6 h a more th a n w a s secur ed through the .

Ga r ofli d la w not including forests a n d l a nd li a ble to fl oo di ng

,
.

Altogether their propos a ls woul d h a ve expropri a ted a ccordi ng

, ,

to their own estim a te not more th a n h a together ,

.
,

with common gra zings Here a g a in there is much dis a greement .

a s to the fi gur e s co n cerned ; but i n his Memora ndum to the King

M Ga r ofli d m a int a ined th a t the Pe a s a nt propos a l would le a ve

.

1 rgu m nt i s me ti on e d he re a s s how in g h ow u n c mpromi s in gly e v en a

Th e a e n o

l ea r n d s pokes ma n of t h e pea s n ts fe lt i n 1 9 1 7 But M B s iles u s fi gur es refe r onl y

e a . . a c
’

t o wh a t t h e p e s n ts h d r c e iv d s i n c e 1 8 6 4 ; th e y d o n o t i n clud e wh a t t h e p ea s a n ts
a a a e e

purch a se d d re ctly s i c e th a t d te n or th a t p ea s an t pro pe rty wh s e o wn e rs for

i n a ,
o ,

v ri o u s re as n s w e re n ot f u n d t o be e ntitl d t o r e c e ive l n d i n 1 8 64 a n d on s ub s e qu e t
a o ,
o e a n

o cc as i son E ve n a cce pti g M Mih a la ch e s fi gure it h as b e en seen th a t t h e t ota l

. n .
’
,

a ra bl e a re re ta n e d by t h e l rge ow n rs did n ot e xc e d a fte r t h e re for m

a i a e ha e .
,

which is v e ry fa r from M Bas il scu s i mpli ed s urplu s of a b out

. e
’
ha .
 DISTRIBUTION OF LAND PROPERTY 1 91

merely h a 1 e 4 6 per cent of the a r a ble l a nd in the

.
, . .
-
.

h a nds of the l a rge o w ners a n d M Mih a lach e concurred in th a t

, .

estim a te The pe a s a nts spokesm a n moreover m a int a i ned th a t

.
’
, ,

the reform w a s bound to err on the side of the l a rge o wners a s ,

it w a s b a sed on their own decl a ra tions ; in his speech in the

Ch a mb er in 1 921 M Mih a la ch e mentioned the a dmission of
, , .

M E n asescu a l a rge owner himself th a t m a ny decl a ra tions were

.
, ,
‘
incorrect a n d th a t a s a res ul t there were est a tes left a fter the
expropri a tion of an d h a where a s a ccordin g to the .
,
’
la w they could not h a ve b een l a rger th a n 5 00 h a .

B The Res ettlemen t

. In the Old Kingdom res ettlement
.

bega n on the strength of a decree la w fi r st through the ch a nnel-

of the a ssoci a tions of resettlement the whole opera tion bein g ,

a fterw a rds revised a s soon a s the a gr a ri a n la w w a s p a ssed The .

la w est a bli shed a preferenti a l cl a im to resettlement in the order ,

of the c a tegories mentioned below :

1 War inv a lids
. .

2 Minor children of soldiers killed in the w a r a n d w a r

. ,

orph a ns b orn not l a ter th a n 1 903 p ossessing a gricultura l ,

equipment .

3
9 V ill a ge priests a n d te a chers .

9
2 Those h a vi ng t a ken p a rt in the c a mp a ign 1 9 1 6— 1 8 .
1

7
9 Those h a ving t a ken p a rt in the c a mp a ign 1 9 1 3 .

9 Childr en of soldiers kill ed in the w a r who were not of a ge

a t the time of the reform a n d who do not own a gricul tur a l
,

equipment .

7 Sm a ll cultiv a tors without l a nd of the i r own

. .

8 Cultiv a tors owning less th a n 5 h a l a nd

. . .

9 Wa r orph a ns who were not of a ge on August 1 5 1 9 1 6

.
, .

On the b a sis of this preferenti a l order t a bles of those entitled

to receive l a nd were dra wn u p in e a ch comm une by a loc a l com
mission These t a bles were revi s ed by di strict commissions a n d
.
,

a ppe a ls provoked by th a t re vision were fi na ll a dj udged by the

y
Agra ri a n Committee .

As a result of th a t prelimin a ry opera tion indi ,

vid uals were registered a s being entitled to receive l a nd Oi th a t .

number individu als received up to S eptember 1 1 927 , , ,

1 92 THE EFFE CTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
holdings coverin g a tot a l a rea of 04 h a ; in a ddition -
.

there were a llotted to them 8 7 h a a s comm un a l gr a zings -

. .

The det a iled a pp lica tion of the l a w s genera l principles w a s ’

even more sternl y criticized Wh en so m a ny p ea s a nt cultiv a tors

.

h a d to b e left without l a nd it w a s felt to b e wr ong in prin ciple

,

a n d economic a lly un r ofi t a b le th a t l a nd should b e given to

p
‘
a rtis a ns a lso to b i nd them to the soil a s well a s to petty
,
’
,

o ffi ci a ls a s e to those on the St a te Ra i lw a ys L a nd used i

, g
, . .
, n .

th a t w a y w a s clea rly lost for the new conception of property of

production Moreover these holdings were often severa l kilo
.
,

metres dist a nt from the st a tion where their owners were a t work
a n d where a s in western Eur op e the a ll otments of workers took

a sub ordin a te pl a ce in their a ctivity the Rum a ni a n r a ilw a y ,

worker & c still h a d the p ea s a nt ment ality in him He thought

, .
, .

fi r st of his l a nd a n d therefore li ved in the V illa ge spendin g hi s ,

lim ited leisure in j ourneying to a n d fr o a n d in tilli ng hi s fi eld .

To th a t doub ling of hi s a ctivity a n d the resultin g f a tigue a n ,

imp ort a nt offi cia l h a s a ttributed m a ny of the frequent a ccidents

on the Rum a ni a n ra ilw a ys ; he pointed out th a t the a rra ngement
a lso m a de it impossible to move the r a ilw a y workers a n d lesser

o ffi ci a ls a bout a ccording to their a bili ty a n d to the needs of the

service Much criticism h a s been likewise directed a g a i nst the

.

gra nting of l a nd to gipsies who h a d served in the Wa r b ec a use ,

they very r a rely eng a ged in a gricultur e a n d merely b ec a me

a b sentee owners on a sm a ll sc a le Fin a lly M Ga r ofii d criticized
.
,
.

the bri n ging of mount a ineers into the lowl a n ds who never ,

b ec a me good cultiv a tors thus restrictin g the a re a a v a il a ble for

,

the re a l f a rmers It is the s a me policy of settlement whi ch h a s

.

impoverished the l a rge vill a ges of the pl a in situ a ted on the ,

St a te s dom a ins when these est a tes were broken up to b e di vided

’
,
’
into lots of 5 h a .

Most critics wh a tever side they represent a gree in decl a ring

, ,

th a t the hold ings di stributed were too sm a ll In 1 8 6 4 some .

a ccount w a s t a ken a t le a st of the me a ns of production owned by

the v a rious pe a s a nts who received l a nd who were divided into ,

three c a tegories a ccording to the num b er of dra ught a ni m a ls they

possessed Subsequent r e settlements on St a te dom ai ns gra nted
.
-

stereotyped holdings of 5 h a e a ch wi th the excep tion of the .

,
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 1 93

me a sure of 1 8 8 9 which a lso provided lots of 1 0 a n d 25 h a .

Altogether a fter 1 8 6 4
,
h a were di s tributed in lots of less
,
.

th a n 1 0 h a e a ch a n d only
. h a in l a rger holdings As the . .

pe a s a nt holdings were divisible w ithout li mit by succession or

s a le they were split up in tim e to a degree which m a de of most
,

of them mere a llotments The followin g t a ble i n di c a tes the

.

ch a ra cter a n d distribution of pe a s a nt holdings shortly b efore the

Wa r

E xt t ien n P er c t of
en .

Ca t e go ri es H e ct res
a to ta l a rea

T ot l a 9 5 40
-
40 29
- 1

The a gra ri a n la w for the Old Kin gdom ende a vour ed to check
th a t pul veriz a tion of property by fi x in g the minimum holding
to b e distributed to those w ithout a n y la nd a t a ll a t 2 h a B ut .

so a nxious were the a uthorities to s a tisfy a s m a n y cl a im a nts a s

possible th a t in pra ctice th a t provision w a s di s rega rded a n d
,

m a ny lots of a lesser size were distributed Rum a ni a n a gricultur a l .

economists genera lly a gree th a t 5 h a a r e not suffi ci en t for a .

pea s a n t f a mily M Ga r ofl id sets the lowest limit a t 7 h a ; a n d

. . .

while th a t would ensure the existence of a p ea s a nt fa mily it ,

would not exh a ust its l a bour power Th a t a ccording to M .

, .

Ga r ofli d wo ul d require for a f a mi ly of four p erso n s a holdi n g of

,

1 5 5 — 1 6 h a — w hi ch one a ssumes to refer to the conditions which

.

preva iled a bout 1 907 when his b ook w a s written a n d which

, ,

im posed upon the pe a s a nts a p r imitive exte n sive cultiv a tion .

The eco n omic siz e of a pea s a n t holding v a ries i n deed wi th the

qu a lity of the l a nd its situ a tion a n d the kind of fa rmin g for
, ,

which it is used In Germ a ny R os ch er pl a ced the minimum a t

.
,

1
M Se rb a n
.
, op . ci t , p 20
. .

0
1 94 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
6— 7 morgen l a nd of good qu a lity a n d 24 morgen l a nd of medi ocre
qu a lity ; the gre a t It a li a n a gricultura l in qui r y of 1 8 79 8 2 con —

cluded th a t hold ings should v a ry b etween 7— 1 5 h a ; in Fr a nce .

,

S o uch on in L a P r op ri é té P a ys an n e suggested a min i mum of

, ,

5 5 h a even for prolifi c cultures while Ca z i ot in L a Terre d la

-

.
, , ,

F a mi lle P a ys a n n e suggested 8 20 h a a ccordin g to region ,

—
.
, ,

fertility a n d ch a ra cter of the crops In Rum a ni a the Pe a s a nt

, .

Pa rty proj ect h a d in View indivisible minimum holdings of 3 h a .

in the highl a nd s 5 h a in the lowl a n ds a n d 1 0 li a in the regions , .

, .

to b e newly settled .

The reform did not of course distribute onl y complete hold

i n gs but a l s o m a n y s o c a lled complement a ry lots to p e a s a nts
,
-

a lr e a dy owning less th a n 5 h a l a nd Accordi n g to loc a l needs . .

a n d po s sibilities the siz e of the lots thus distributed w a s fi x e d ,

by the Centr a l Res ettlement O th ee b etween 0 5 a n d 5 h a S o fa r -

.

no fi gur es exist to s how how m a n y lots of the v a rious kinds were

given a n d to wh a t c a tegories of pe a s a nts so th a t it is not yet ,

possible to know how the p e a s a n t properties a r e cla ssifi e d a t

present 1
.

Cr i ti ci s m of App li ca ti on Writin g in 1 91 9 M Ionescu Sise s ti . .

-

urged the n eed of a pplying with impl a c a ble fa irness t hi s decisive

me a sure The re a l kernel of the problem lies in this much more ,

th a n in the principles a n d det a ils of the la w Our a gra ri a n pro .

blem for h a lf a century h a s been one long story of good in tentions

’
a n d mediocre execution If some of the prin ciples a dopted by the .

legisl a tor for the tra nsfer of l a nd were not of the b est for soci a l
s election a n d economic development it is genera lly a dmitted th a t ,

their a pplic a tion w a s more d efi ci en t th a n the principles them

s elves Th a t w a s p a rtly due to the politic a l c i rcumst a nces of the
.

p eriod ; for the rest to the l a ck of re li a ble st a tistic a l m a teria l a n d

,

1
tte mpt t o s cur so m i dicati on of t h e n e w s ta te of thin gs from t h
An a e e e n n e co

t n ts of l o c l public ti on s m re ly e d e d i n t h c pture of a tra ge e x mpl e of l o c l

e a a e n e a s n a a

s ta ti s tic I n 1 9 28 t h Ch m b e r of C o mme rc e of B otos n i i n M o ld vi

s . e a publi h d a , a a, s e a

y a r b k with l a b ra t c n m ic fi g u e re f rri g t o t h fo ur c ou ti s of Botos i

e -
oo e o e e o o r s e n e n e an ,

D o roh i Falt i n i a d H ti Th e ye a r b o k c on ta i n e d th re e ta bl es n t h e d is t r i bu
o , ce ,
n o n .
-
o o

ti o of l n d ith e r f which w a s c om p tibl e with t h e th r t w o Th e third ta bl e

n a , ne o a o e .

ga v t
e h n u m b r o
e f o w r i t h v a ri o u s c t gori es o f pro p rty a n d t h
e ne s p rc
n en t a gee a e e e e

th y r e pres nte d fr m t h tot l n u m b e r of l n d own e rs i n t h e fo ur c o u ti es but

e e o e a a n ,

e v n by
e ttr buti g t h l e s t p ibl a re t t h n u m b e r of o w e rs i
a i n e a ch c a tegory
oss e a o e n n ea

t h e m i n i m u m t ta l fa r e xc d e d t h e t ta l a rea of t h e fo ur c o u n ti es a s giv e n i
o ee the o ,
n

fi t t a bl
rs e .
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 1 95

of a per s onnel prep a red technic a lly a n d mora lly for the proper
execution of s uch a n extensive reform The t a s k im po s ed upon
.

’
the coun t i y s j udici a l a n d a gricultura l a uthorities w a s t 1 uly
imm en s e In most c a ses a ll the three exp r opri a tion a uthorities
.

were c a lled upo n to give a decision co n cerni n g the p 1 oper

ties whi ch were exprop r i a ted ; a bout of which c a me up for
a second t i me before the expropri a tion bodies .

The fi r st d iffi cult y w a s crea ted by the exceedin g h a s te of the

reform Court a n d po litici a ns who h a d been in refuge a t J a s sy
.

retur ned to Buc a rest in N ove m ber 1 9 1 8 Within ten d a ys a n e w

.

Governm en t w a s formed— on the 1 s t of December a n d eighteen —

d a ys l a ter the decree for the a ppli c a tion of the reform w a s i s sued .

In the fi r st d a y s of J a n ua r y the expropri a tion commissions w ere

a t work . The fi r st po s t w a r C a binet of M Io n el Brati a nu
-
.

rem a in ed in power ten months ; durin g th a t period fi ve sixths of -

the a re a to be expropri a ted h a d been t a ke n over Th a t feverish .

h a ste h a s been severely criticiz ed a n d m a de responsible for much

th a t is f a ulty in the reform Even the Pe a s a nt Pa rty proposed
.

th a t expropri a tion shoul d proceed only gra du a lly a n d step by ,

s tep with resettlement ; expropri a tion should in their O pinion, ,

h a ve been procl a imed a t once in pri nciple but a p eriod of fi ve

,

or even ten ye a rs sho ul d h a ve been set for the a ctu a l t a king over
of the l an d The Government defen ded the li ne they a dopted a s
.

c a lcula ted to prevent the pe a s a nts suspectin g th a t the provision

of the Constitution might rem a in a de a d letter S ome a gricultura l
.

exp erts i n deed be lieve th a t the ra pid a pplic a tion of the reform
h a s h a d a s a lut a ry effect by enlisti n g a t once a ll the me a ns a n d
e n ergy of the pe a s a n ts in the service of a gric ul tura l r e con st r uc
tion The l a rge owners needed cre di t a n d the l a bour of the
.

pe a s a nts n either of which they could h a ve got e a sily a s lo n g a s

,

the fa te of the reform rem a ined uncert a in ; so th a t a t a given

moment the interests of Sta te la n do w ners a n d pe a s a nts
, ,

coincided this a lone m a king possible the quick execution of such

,

a r a dic a l me a sure .

A second a n d considera ble d iffi cult y w a s c a used by the i ma de

qu a te mea n s a va il a ble for the me a surement of the l a nd There .

w a s no gr oun d book a n d h a rdly a n y priva te est a te pl a ns The .

number of tra ined surveyors w a s very lim ited a n d a surveying

o2
1 96 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
school h a d to b e im pro vised for the occ a sion Simil a rly the .
,

a v a il a ble sur veying instrum ents were a ltogether in a dequ a te for

the needs of the reform a n d a s they were costly an d the St a te

,

w a s short of money a n e ffort h a d to b e m a de to m a nufa cture

,

them on the spot In the Old Kin gdom the det a iled me a sure
.

ment for resettlement pur poses w a s a lmost everyw here m a de

with the ch a in a n d o nl y occ a sion a lly by mea ns of a n a lytic a l
'

p a rcell a tion The results were boun d to show errors

. .

Th e me a ns for choosing the l a nd to b e expropri a ted were a s

rudim ent a ry a s those for its me a surement The loc a l com .

missions who were the chief f a ctor in m a kin g th a t choice did not
, ,

h a ve a t their dispos a l a n y det a iled a n d precise m a teri a l concern

i n g the n a tur e a n d qu a lity of the l a nd in their di stricts B eing .

in a gre a t hur ry they h a d inevit a bly to rely in m a ny c a ses on

,

the st a tements of the p a rties interested a n d so it c a me a bout ,

th a t much a ra ble l a nd w a s exempted a s gr a zin g or a s b eing li a ble

to floo d ing As a consequence the fi r st expropri a tion di d not
.

secure the h a dem a nded by the Constitution while

.
,

some of the l a nd expropri a ted w a s of little use Th e genera l .

figur e s given a b ove show th a t of the a re a t a ken over ha .

were a ltogether un fi t for cultiva tion a n d th a t gives some po i nt

,

to the compl a i nt of Dr Lupu th a t cert a in l a ndown ers h a ve given

.

b a rren a n d stony w a stes whil e ret a in in g the fertil e soil for

,

themselves .

The need of c a rryin g out in grea t h a ste a technic a l work of

’
a l a sting ch a r a cter n a tur a lly str a ined to the utmost the coun try s

resources in perso n n el a n d m a teri a l a n d the gre a t d efi ci en cy of

m a teri a l pl a ced a corre s pondin gly gre a ter bur den on the
personnel The merits of their unusu a l p erform a nce therefore
.
, ,

a r e the more enh a n ced The res ul ts of their work form a v a lu a ble
.

found a tion for the eventu a l est a blishment of a sur vey The work .

w a s b egun in 1 9 1 9 with twenty surveyi n g te a ms ; their num ber

re a ched 300 eng a ged in fi eld work by 1 9 25 a ssisted by a n
, , ,

o th ee e s t a bli s hment of a b out 200 c a lcul a tors a n d dra ughtsmen .

The l a nd w a s di vided up in a provision a l m a nn er on the strength

of the decisions of the lower a uthoritie s a n d w a s h a nded ,

over to the pe a s a nts to b e used fi r s t through the a ssoci a tions of

r esettlement a n d then in individu a l holdings on a prel i min a ry ,
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 1 97

resettlement The fi n a l resettlement w a s c a rried out in the

.

me a sure in which the technic a l work a dva nced The develop .

ment of this work a ppe a rs from the followin g fi gi ue s : ‘

19 19 a rea meas ur e d ha and pa rc e ll d o ut

e ha
1 9 20
1 9 21
1 922
1 923
1 9 24
1 9 25

T t lo a ha . ha .

Th e tota l e xpropri a te d a rea w s a , ha .

with t h e rea t o be e xpropri a te d i n

a S o uth e r n
D obrog ea

T ot l a

Mea ure d till

s 5
192

R e mai n i g t o be me as ure d
n ha .

To be p a rc e ll e d ut o ha
Pa rc ll d out ti ll 1 9 25
e e

i n i ng t o be mea ure d a d p a rc e ll e d out

R e ma s n h a .

Th e l a t es t fi gu es of t h e S urv e y Dir e ct o ra t e c on c e r ni n g t h e w o rk e x e cut e d by

r it s
o rga ns fr o m 1 9 19 till D c e m b e r 3 1 1 9 28 a r e c on t a in e d i n t h e fo ll o win g t a bl e
e , ,

M ure d a rea
ea s

i
R e g on H e cta res H e ct res
a H e cta res
O ld Ki gd n o m

Tr ans ylvani a
Be ssa ar bi a
Buc ovi n a
T ota l

Bec a use of the h a sty a ppli c a tion a g a in the org a ns entrusted , ,

with it h a d to b e gre a tly decentra lized The execution of the .

me a sure w a s prim a rily in the h a n ds of speci a l loc a l bodies whose

composition a n d fun ctions h a ve b een describ ed in the previous
ch a pter The procedure under the Duc a decree w a s simple a n d
.

expeditious The loc a l commissions h a d the ch a ra cter of b odies

.
1 98 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
whose t a s k it w a s to bring a bout a n underst a n di ng r a ther th a n
a j udgement — the j udge b eing more in the position of a friendly

a rbiter . These commiss i ons i n most c a ses in f a ct re a ched

a frien dl y a greement ; a s the extent to b e expropri a ted w a s

rigidly fi x e d the respective provisions were e a sy to a pply a n d

,

discussion centred m a i n ly roun d the choice of the spot where

the l a n d w a s to b e t a ken Appe a ls from these decisions were a s
.

a result few a n d most of them were settled in f a vour of the

pea s a nts The Ga r ofli d la w however by introducing more

.
, ,

complex economic criteri a of expropri a tion required a ppropri ,

a tely l a rger a n d more el a bor a te org a ns of a pplic a tio n a n d li ke ,

wise more el a bora te courts of a ppe a l However well intentioned

.

the new commissions m a y h a ve b een their decisions were ra ther

,

in the n a ture of a j udgement a fter ple a dings by both sides

, ,

e a ch of cours e putting forth a n extreme c a se ; a n d where in the

fi r st c a se the decision h a d ge n er a lly me a nt a n a greement in the ,

s eco n d it frequently disple a sed both p a rties to the c a se The .

second system produced a l a rge crop of a pp ea ls a n d most oi .

them were settled in f a vour of the l a ndowners Th a t disclosed .

a s i n ifi ca n t ch a nge of p s ychology : in the former p eriod public

g
symp a thy w a s on the side of the p e a s a nts who h a d suffered so ,

long ; a fter the fi r st expropri a tion symp a thy veered to the side
of the dispossessed owners especi a lly a fter the colla pse of the
,

exch a n ge .

While expropria tion on the whole proceeded smoot hl y the ,

second p a rt of the reform h a s given rise to m a ny a buses a n d to

consequent 111 f e elin g The li sts of those entitled to receive l a nd
-
.

were prep a red by loc a l committees who would seem to h a ve b een

to a n unfortuna te degree imposed upo n by the more greedy a n d
vociferous vill a gers The re a l conditions were d iffi cult to est a b
.

lish b ec a use the t a x a tion registers were not up to d a te Expropri a .

tion a ppe a ls moreover were dea lt with by the county tribun a ls

, , ,

but in the c a se of resettlement a ppe a ls the loc a l j udge considered

the issue on the s pot a ssisted by experts a n d deleg a tes of the
,

p a rtie s s o th a t the proceedings were no lon gel conducted in the

,

j uridic a l a tmosphere which surrounded the cou 1 ts The j u di ci a l .

p a i t w a s n ot s uffi cien t ly sep a ra ted from the a dmi ni str a tive p a rt

in the seco n d c a se Mor eovei the fi n a l a uthority the Agra ri a n
.
, ,
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 1 99

Committee worked b ehi nd closed doors the p a rties not b ei ng

, ,

presen t a t the proceedi ngs ; a n d in quiries on beha lf of the

Committee were conducted in a simil a r executive m a nner by
— a ll of which w
offic i a ls of the Mini stry of Agricultur e a s a t to
p
le a ve in the minds of those d i ssa t i sfi e d with the decision a
suspicion tha t there m a y h a ve b een something wro n g in the
p rocedure .

Whether delibera te fra ud or unfortun a te error the list of ,

compl a ints a ga inst the det a iled a pplic a tion of both p a rt s of

the reform is very formid a ble An y on e m a y co llect from the .

Pa rli a ment a ry deb a tes a whole volum e of well documented -

c a ses a n d high offi ci als do not deny th a t a good m a n y of these

,

compl a ints must be j ust ifi e d The only excuse which one of them
1
.

‘
a ttempted w a s merely to insist th a t such fr a uds represented
only a percent a ge of the whole mea sure— W h a t elsewhere m a y
’
h a ve been 1 per cen t is perh a ps 1 0 per cent here The Pe a s a n t
. . .

Pa rty especi a lly h a s b een unsp a ring in its denunci a tion of such
, ,

a buses a n d h a s pledged itself to redress them when com ing into

power Ag a inst such a n i n tention a ll Rum a ni a n a gricultur a l

.

experts seem to b e united They a dmit th a t mist a kes h a ve been

.

m a de but contend th a t they were inevit a ble in such a h a sty

,

a pp lic at ion of an imm ense me a sur e of reform To try to a mend .

them would b e useless a s errors a n d fra uds would b e a s possible

,

now a s they were a few ye a rs a go a n d a revision of the reform

would at the s a me time b e economic a lly ruinous a s it would
me a n a prolonged st a te of insecurity for the whole a gric ul tura l
industry Yet security a n d st a bili ty a r e essenti a l if a gric ul ture
.

is to a dv a nce technic a lly Agricultur e h a s suffered during the

.

p a st ten ye a rs j ust beca use it found itself in an un st a ble period

of tr a nsition To cre a te a nother such period through a n a ttempt
.

to revise the a pplic a tion of the reform would b e dis a strous The .

reform w a s c a rried out on a soci a l politic a l b a sis which politici a ns -

co n tinued to keep to the fore But the technic a l experts being .

interested merely in the economic a spect they a r e a ll of them ,

a ga inst a n a ttempt a t revision

y .

1
c ompr he ns iv e t bl e on p 227 s ho ws e g t h e c uri ou s fa ct th t ma n y
Th e e a .
, . .
, a

pr per ti es b o v e 25 0 h still xi st i n B ess r bi th ou gh t h e B ss ra bi a n la w w s

o a a . e a a a, e a a

s upp ose d t e xpro pri t e e v rythi g a b o v e 100 h

o a e n a .
200 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
While doin g full j ust ic e to the st a ndpoint of the a gric ul tura l
exp erts summ a riz ed a bove from st a tements hea rd from m a n y
—

of them in a hn ost identic a l words— o n e must record the fa ct th a t

the a ppli c a tion of the reform h a s left b ehin d in a lm ost every
Vill a ge one or more disputes which in cert a in c a ses h a ve devel
oped into conflicts Whether a revision is pra ctic a lly possible
.
,

except in a restricted numb er of fl a gra n t c a ses must rem a in , ,

questiona ble M N egur a decl a red in the Ch a mb er in Ma y 1 9 24

. .
, ,

th a t the Agra ri a n Com mi ttee h a d to de a l w ithi n a period of

twelve months with 5 00 a pp e a ls a g a inst expropri a tion decisions
an d a g a inst resettlement decisions— which worked out

a t a r a te of s ome 200 c a ses e a ch d a

y A decision to .re vise
the a pplic a tion of the reform woul d b eyond doubt c a ll forth
a n a v a l a nche of compl a ints At best therefore the re vision
.
, ,

would b e a very long a ffa ir ; a n d the experience a lr e a dy m a de

with procedure suggests th a t it would be hum a nly imp ossible to
dispense pondered j ustice especi a lly a s m a ny ii not most
,
—

c a se s if they were to b e h a n dled w ith c a re wo uld necessit a te a n

, ,

exp ert inqui ry on the spot .

S E C TI O N II
TH E E F F E CTS OF T H E R E F O R M I N T H E NE W P R O V I NC E S
A . B es sa r a b
ia The distribution of l a nd property in Bess a
.

r a bi a w a s a ffected a s in the w hole of the Russi a n Empire by the

, ,

reform s of 1 8 6 1 6 when the p e a s a nts were em a ncip a ted a n d

—
,

provided with l a nd in the collective form of the mi r a n d a fter ,

w a rds by the so c a lled Stolypin la w of 1 906 which w a s intended

-

to further the e s t a bli s hment of indi vidu a l p ea s a nt holdin gs The .

l a tter purpose w a s fi n a n ce d by the Pe a s a nt B a nk cre a ted in

“

1 8 8 2 ; to it were tr a n s ferred in 1 906 considera ble Crown dom a in s

which were to b e sold to the p e a s a nts To check the spec ul a tions
.

of intermedi a rie s a n uk a z e of Novemb er 1 908 crea ted a gra ri a n

,

commi s sions whose function w a s to f a cilit a te the tra nsfer of

e s t a te s from the l a rge owners to the Pe a sa nt B a n k a n d there a fter ,

from the Pe a s a n t B a nk to the pe a s a nts The tot a l a re a of .

B e ss a ra bi a a ccording to the figure s of the Russi a n Centra l

,

St a tistic a l Committee w a s of ,
dessi a t ines Oi these .
,
 DISTRIBUTION OF LAN D PROPERTY 201

dess i e 43 per cent belo n ged to priva te own ers ;

.
, . .

dess i e 48 6 per cent were n a dyel l a n d a llotted

.
, . .
-
.
, ,

to the p e a s a nts when they were em a ncip a ted or through the

Pe a s a nt B a nk under simil a r s a fegu a rds reg a rding mortg a ges
, ,

debts & c ; wh i le St a te Chur ch a n d other institutions possessed

, .
, ,

dess i e 8 2 per cent .

, . .
-
.

The genera l distribution of l a nd property b efore the a gra ri a n

reform a ccordi ng to offi cial Rum a ni a n st a tistics m a y b e see n
, ,

i n the t a ble b elow 1

Nu mb e r of Tot l a r a ea A v e rage a r ea P er c t f
en . o

C teg ria o es Pr p rti s H ct r s

o e e e a e H ct res
e a t ot a l a r e a
Nobl e s

Pri es ts
Priv t a eM rch a ts 81 0 e n .

1 . i d vidu l Pea an ts
n i a s

prop erti es F ore ign rs e

Va ri o u s
L rg o w n e r s a e

2 . J i t h ld i
o n o n
gs
O
O Na d y e l land
S t t d o m a i ns
~

P
P a e
I
J
C Church es a n d Mon a steri es
3
0 T w prop e rt i s
o n e
1
~ Priv a t e i ns tituti ons
1 00 0
-

It wi ll b e seen th a t B ess a ra bi a h a d a gre a ter va riety of

c ategories of pr operties a ccording to the soci a l st a ndi n g of their ,

own ers th a n the other p a rts of new Rum a ni a If one excepted

,
.

the so c a lled n a dyel l a nd the l a rgest c a tegory w a s th a t of noble

-

est a tes W ith a tot a l a re a of h a prev a lent m a inl y in the .

,

centre a n d in the north of the province Their tot a l numb er w a s .

which ga ve a n a ver a ge of 5 5 5 4 h a p er est a te ; though in -

.

the northern region they re a ch ed a n a vera ge of h a in , .

the Tighin a coun ty The other c a tegories of priv a te properties .

were much sm a ller l a rge property not belongin g to the nobility ,

b eing represented by 275 est a tes wi th a tot a l of and an

a ver a ge of 6 1 6 3 h a A speci a l c a tegory which pl a yed a n

-
.
,

import a nt p a rt in the discussion s on the compens a tion to b e p a id

1
E . Giurge a i n B uleti n ul S ta t isti c , 19 1 9 , No 2, pp 324—7
. . .
202 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
for the expropri a ted l a nd w a s th a t of the foreign o wners ; they
,

held thir teen est a tes covering a tot a l a re a of h a with a n .

,

a ver a ge extent of 6 ha -
.

A noteworthy f a ct w as the sm a ll numb er of pe a s a nts who

owned individu a l hol di n gs They were merely possess ing
.

a tot a l a re a of h a which g a ve a n a ver a ge of 1 7 5 per

.
,
-

owner This pe a s a nt property w a s to b e found especi a lly in the

.

southern districts which corre s ponded to the lesser a re a held by

,

est a tes of nobles a n d a lso with the numerous colo ni es of foreign

,

cultiv a tors est a bli shed in the southern region a t v a rious periods .

The a vera ge of 1 34 h a per pea s a nt own er in the county of

.

Cet a te a Alb a shows how prosp erous some of these colonies were .

The n a dyel l a nd w a s the l a rgest kind of property w ith ,

h a divided into
. properties the l a rgest a vera ge ,

being a ga in found in the coun ty of Cet a te a Al b a with 5 ha -

.

per property ; the a vera ge p er p e a s a nt f a mil y w a s 7 08 h a .

Ta ken a s a whole l a nd properties were distributed a ccording to

,

their siz e a s follo ws

,

T t l re
o a a a P er c nt of
e . Nu m b e r of c e t of
P er n .

H cta res
e tot l rea
a a o w n e rs ow n e rs

1 0094
,

Expropri a tion w a s a pplied in B ess a ra bi a to l a ndowners ,

from whom a tot a l a re a of h a w a s t a ken This a re a . .

w a s put to the following use

1 . F or r es ttl e me nt
e

2 . Fo r e s t s
3 . L a n d u fi t f di stributi on
n or

4 . R s e rv es for ge e ra l
e ed n ne s

T ta l
o -
24

The B e s s a ra bi a n la w determined the following c a tegories of

cultiv a tors a s b eing entitled to receive l a nd
1 ) cultiv a tors who lived on the est a t e a n d owned less
th a n the a re a fi x e d for a resettlement holding in th a t
region
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA ND PROPERTY 203

( 2) cultiva tors who lived on the est a te an d own ed no l a nd

a t a ll ;

( 3) cultiva tors wh o lived wit h in a r a di us of5 k m fr om the est a te .

a n d h a d less l a nd th a n the fi x e d r e s ettlement hold i ng ; -

4 cultiv tors who lived ithin r a di us of 5 km from the

( ) a w a .

esta te a n d own ed no l a nd a t all .

The list of those entitled to receive l a nd w a s to b e est a bli s hed by

loc a l com missions on the b a sis of the a b ove norms a n d to be
, ,

fi n a lly settled by the Centr a l Commissio n which a lso determined ,

the size of the resettlement holdi ngs In re a lity no resettle .

ment lists were dra wn up a t a ll but the a uthorities concerned ,

s imply confi rm e d in their possession those who h a d seized the

l a nd In Bess a ra bi a one m a y sa y th a t a ll the pe a s a nts were
.

resettled the size of the lots b ei n g empiric a lly determined

,

by loc a l reserves a n d needs They v a ried w ith these loc a l

.

circumst a nce s b etween 1 — 6 h a As a result were resettled .

Rum a ni a ns
other n a tio n a li ties
individu a ls who received a ltogether
, ha .

Up to the revolution of 1 91 7 the pe a s a n ts owned

H ct r es
e a

Purch a e d s and di tribute d by t h e P

s e asa n t Ba n k
Tota l
The refo r m procured the following incre a se in the l a nd
pea s a nts
F r m priv t w r r bl l d
o a e o ne s , a a e an

L d pu ch d by t h P
an r tB k but
as e t y t e ea sa n a 11 , no e

by
d i s t r l but ed 19 17
L d
an r rG r
o f fo m e Bul ri co l i sts
e ma n a n d ga an on

L d
an t ri
of m o n a s e r i wn rs
e s a n d fo e gn o e

r u drc
A ea n e u l r dw y
o mm n a oa a s

Bui di l d rd r rly b l g g
l n g a n an d ga en s , fo me e on in .
)
r
to
priv ate o wn ers
Po d s a d w a te rw y s
n n a

Tot l a
1

1
P V S yn a d in o, I n s emn d ta tea R efor me i A gra r e p
. . , . 9 .
204 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
The l a nd reform c a used the followi ng ch a nges in the d ist ribu
tion of rura l properties

H e cta res H e cta res H e ct res

a

-
00

-
24
-
24
-
00
-

00

-
24 -
76

T ot a l -
00 1 00 00
-

B . B ucovi n a
Accordin g to the ground book the tot a l a re a
.
-

of the province covered h a B efore the reform the

'

l a nd w a s di vided a mong properties of whi ch ,

b elonged to the St a te to Churches a n d to other in stitutions

, ,
.

The distribution of these properties a ccording to siz e w a s a s

follows

Nu m b r of e rea i
A n

C te gori
a es prop erti s e P er c t en . H e cta re s P er c ent .

T ot a l 1 00 00 -
1 00 00 1
-

Among the 25 7 l a rge est a tes there were 6 3 with a n extent of

more th a n h a e a ch covering together 30 21 p er cent of
.
,
-
.

the province An a r e a of 7 . 35 h a w a s expropri a ted from -

.

5 6 1 l a ndowners a n d used for the following purposes

1
Af te r Liviu s L a za r , L a M i se eu Gy uvr e d e la R éfor me A gra i r e, p 6 4
’
. .
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 205

1 . F or rese ttle me t n
0
1 Co mm u l gra z i gs na n
3
0 Comm u l fo re ts na s
3
11 F or ests r m i i g t o be di stribute d
e a n n
1
0 L n d unfi t fo di stributi on
a r

R e s e rv e s for ge n ral n ee d s
5
0 e

To t l a -
63

The la w for Bucovin a est a blished the followin g order of

preference a mon g those cl a imi ng l a nd
1 p e s nt cu l tiv a tors w a r i nv a lids ( or their f a m i lies ) who
( ) a a , ,

h a d less l a nd th a n the siz e of the lot fi x e d for their

comm une ;
2
( ) pe a s a nt cultiv a tors who served or h a d served in the a rmy

a n d who h a d less l a nd th a n the t y pic a l lot ;

( 3) pe a s a nt cultiva tors with less l a nd th a n the typic a l lot

a n d whose possessions h a d b een d a m a ged in the w a r ;

( 4) the Orthodox p a rishes ;

( 5 ) r ur a l schools ;
( 6 ) pe a s a nt cultiva tors w a r inva li ds ( or their f a mi lies ) who
, ,

h a d no l a nd a t a ll ;
( 7 ) pe a s a nt cultiva tors who served or h a d served in the a rmy
a n d h a d no l a nd ;

( 8 ) p e a s a nt c ul tiv a tors whose possessions h a d b een d a m a ged

in the w a r a n d who owned no l a n d a t a ll .

The list of those entitled to receive l a nd w a s est a b li shed by

va rious com missions on the strength of the a bove indi c a tions ,

a n d the Region a l Commission fi x e d typic a l lots v a rying b etween

h a As a result there were inscribed on the list

.

u
R ma n ia s n and

o th e r n a t i o n a li t i e s ,
l

a lt o
ge the r i n d vidua l s or fa mi li
i es .

Oi these were resettled up to S eptemb er 1 , 1 9 27,

H e ct res
a

on a tot l a rea of
a -
25
i n a dditi on t o whi ch w e re gra te d as c o mm u l gr i ngs n na az -
85
a n d a s c omm u l forest na s -
70

so th a t t h e tot l a rea llotted t o the m w s

a a 80
a -

1
Ah a rticl e i n E oo mi a N ti ona ld A u gu s t 1 9 27 ga v e t h e f ll o wi g n u m b e rs of
no a , , o n
n on R u m
-
i a s s h a vi g r c e iv e d l n d R uth e i s
an n a n e G erm n s
a : n an a
, ,

H u ngari a ns 8 6 8 ; Je w s 4 93 ; Gips i e s 406 ; R u ss i a s 9 8 ; oth er n a ti on a liti es

, , , n , ,
206 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
The effect of the l a nd reform w a s to ch a nge the di stribution
of property in Bucovin a a s follows :
H e c t a r es P er c e n t of .

t ot l a re a
a
To s ma ll pro p rty e of ha . th e re w e re a dd e d
ha .
9 2 49
Fr om l rg pro p rty
a e e of ha . th r e e w as e x pr o

pr i a t ed ha . l ea vi n g
T t l
o a 1 00 00 -

C Tr a nsylva n i a
. The modern a gra ri a n structure of Tr an syl
.

v a ni a h a d its origin in the reform which follo w ed the revolution

of 1 8 48 .

S erfdom h a d been ge n era l in the Hun g a ri a n l a nds A cert a in .

mitig a tion of its h a rdshi ps b eg a n w ith the p a ssing of Tr a n syl

v a ni a under the r ul e of the H a psburgs in 1 69 1 E a rly in 1 71 4 .

the Diet which met a t Sibiu a dopted regula tions under pressure ,

from V ienn a which forb a de the l a n dl ords to force the serfs to

,
‘

l a bour more th a n 208 d a ys ye a rly for them A further step w a s ’

.

m a de by the letters p a tent issued by M a ri a Theres a in 1 769

-

forbiddin g the imposition of un fa ir t a xes a n d fi n e s a n d limit ing ,

corpora l pun ishment to twenty four bir ch strokes for men a n d -

twenty four strokes of the wh ip for women a t the most Most

-

,
.

of these regul a tions seem to h a ve b een di sreg a rded by the l a nd

lords Their a ttitude provoked the a nger of J os eph 1 1 who in
.
,

1 765 wrote in a Memor a ndum th a t politics ca n h a ve one foun d a

tion o nl y a n d th a t is the people t h e m a sses— for they supply
,
;

the soldiers a n d pa y the t a xes Hence it is the mi ssion of the .

St a te a n d of the ruler especi a lly to protect the p eople a g ai nst

, ,

the pri vileged cl a sses One should not skin 200 pe a s a nts for the
.

s a ke of a l a zy l a ndlord This w a s followed by a decree given

a t Sibiu in 1 773— J os eph II tra velled a gre a t de a l— whi ch
,

a llowed the serfs to m a rry without p a yment of a t a x to le a rn h a ndi ,

cra fts a n d to move a bout freely Life co uld not h a ve im proved

,
.

much a t a n y ra te for the Rum a n i a n serfs a s they a ttempted

, ,

a desper a tely futile risi n g i n 1 78 4 Their lea ders Hori a Closca —

.
, ,

a n d Cri s a n who h a ve rem a ined legend a ry in popula r a n n a ls

—
,

were broken on the wheel As l a te a s 1 8 47 a la w w a s p a ssed i n

.

Tra n sylva ni a regul a ting the dues in kind a n d l a bour which the
serfs h a d to pa y : tithe from fi eld a n d ga rden from fl a x an d ,
 DISTRIBUTION OF LAN D PROPERTY 207

wool & c a n d a ye a rly service of fift y two d a ys with oxen a n d 1 04

,
.
,
-

da ys with their h a n ds from those who h a d the use of a norm a l

holdin g ; the zi ler i who h a d but a house a n d g a rden were to give ,

eighteen d a ys l a bour a n d the pe a s a nt s who h a d not eve n a house

’
, ,

six d a ys M a ny histori a n s reg a rd th a t la w a s the m a i n loc a l c a use

.

of the revolt which followed The n a tiona l a s s embly which .

‘
g a thered a t Alb a J uli a in 1 8 48 decl a red th a t the Rum a ni a n
na tion con s cious a t l a st of the i n di vidu a l rights of m a n dem a n ds
, ,

the immedi a te a bolition of serfdom without a n y p a yme n t from ,

the s ervile pea s a n ts .

The reform which followed a bolished serfdom compen sa tio n —

bei n g p a id by the St a te — a n d ga ve the servile pe a s a nts t h e

ownershi p of some of the l a n d which they h a d b een cultiv a tin g .

Considera ble co n fusion a n d friction a rose out of the v a riety of

titles to the l a nd a n d a whole series of l a ws begi n n ing with th a t
, ,

of 1 8 8 0 e n de a voured to regula te l a nd tenure a n d to reorg a n iz e

,

it on a more eco n omic b a sis by s egr egr a t ion on the one h a n d

,

a n d by consolid a tion on the other Pa stur es a n d forests were.

i n volved in th a t regroupi n g But while the centr a l ide a of the

.

me a s ure w a s sound e n ough its a pp lic a tion w a s b a dly Viti a ted

,

by a buses a t the expen se of the former serfs who were given ba d ,

l a nd in exch a nge for goo d On a ll these occ a sions the Rum a ni a n

.

pe a s a nts a ppea r to h a ve suffered a dditiona l losses through

n a tion a l d iscri min a tion The fa mous Memora ndum a ddressed to
.

the Emp eror in 1 8 92 det a iled some of their compl a in ts showing ,

how they h a d been deprived of a ncient rights especi a lly in ,

reg a rd to gra zing a n d wood a n d how m a ny l a wsui ts between ,

l a ndlords a n d former serfs a ris ing out of the reform of 1 8 48

, ,

were still b efore the Cour ts a fter the p a ssi n g of forty four ye a rs
,
-
.

At the wish of the Hung a ri a n Governme n t the Memora nd um

w a s return ed from V ienn a unopened but its a uthors were tried ,

a n d sent to prison It is undoubtedly true th a t u n til l a tely the

.

H ung a ri a n S a xon a n d other vill a ges were better pro vided with
, ,

gra zin g a n d forests th a n most of the Rum a ni a n Villa ges ; the

gra z ing a n d wood rights of the former serfs h a vi ng been tra ns
formed in to comm u n a l rights on the occ a sion of these reforms .

The distribution of property a fter these ch a nges w a s est a b

lish e d for the fi r st time in 1 8 95 The st a tistics g a thered in th a t
.
208 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
ye a r offered evidence of a considera ble disproportion between the
a re a occupied by sm a ll cultiv a tors a n d th a t in the h a nds of l a rge

owners

Ca tegori e s

9 9 01 -
5 2 34 -

47 6 6 -

Holdings of less th a n 5 c a d a stra l j uga r s m a de up therefore

5 2 02 p er cent of the tot a l rur a l prop erties but covered merely
-
.
,

5 8 4 per cent of the tot a l a re a ; while properties a bove 5 00 j uga r s

-
.

m a de up only 0 1 9 per cent of the tot a l but covered 32 29 p er

-
.
,
-

cent of the l a nd The considera ble difference b etween the a ver

. .

a ge extent of the two middle c a tegories showed th a t the a scent

w a s not gr a du a ted thr ough a ch a in of well b a l a nced medium -

sized fa rms .

The st a tistics of 1 9 1 5 indic a ted a slow improvement in the

distribution of property Sm a ll prop erty h a d ga in ed in th a t .

period of twenty ye a rs 2 26 of the tot a l a re a a s in dica ted in the

-

t a ble below °

C t a e go ri es

The l a test fi gure s referring to the situ a tion b efore the reform
were those collected by the S ecret a ri a t of the s o c a lled Governin g -

Council ( the Provision a l Governm ent of Tra nsylva ni a ) in 1 9 1 9 ,

.

The t a ble b elow is b a sed on them a n d gives the n umb er of

properties in the v a rious c a tegories a n d the tot al a re a occupied
by e a ch c a tegory
Afte r Liviu s L r I b, p 5 0
—9 2
1 a za , op . ci t , pp.4 8 . . . .
 DISTRIBUTION OF LAND PROPERTY 209

P er c ent . of to t l a r ea a
Ca te gor l es
0

T ta l o T ot a l r a ea

n u m b e r of o ccupi ed

prope rti es

5 2 34
-
5 4 60 -
5 8 75 + 6 41

47 6 6 45 40-
412 5

There w a s a s triking incre a s e by per ce n t of the tot a l ,

.
,

extent of l a nd in the posse s sion of sm a llholder s between 1 9 1 5 ,

an d 1 9 1 9 I n so fa r a s these figure s were correct th a t i n cre a se

.
,

must h a ve been due to the rel a tive well b ei n g of the pe a s a nts -

dur i n g the Wa r a n d to the l a nd purch a s e s they m a de in con s e

q u en ce . Possibly l a ndowner s in Hung a ry a s in other countries , ,

exploited the high price of l a nd a n d forced their ten a nts to

purch a se or to quit L a rge ow n ers in Hun g a ry occupied a privi
.

ledged politica l a n d soci a l position yet on e note s th a t here a s , ,

elsewhere they were const a ntly losi n g ground

, .

The reform a pplied in Tra nsylva ni a a fter the union of the pro
vi n ce with Rum a ni a expropri a ted a tot a l a re a of 03 h a -

from est a tes situ a ted in communes The ex pr o .

pr i a t e d l a nd w a s put to the following use :

—
a

C
w
r ttl
u l
F or ese e me n
r
om m n a
t
g az in gs
wC u l r t
om m n a fo es s

p F ore s ts n p oss e ss i on of t h e S ta t e
i a nd r e ma i n i n
g
t o be di s tribut d e .

L an d unfi t for r ese ttle me t n

R ese rv s fo g e r l e e d s
e r en a n

T ot a l -
03

The Tra nsylva ni a n reform la w fi x e d the followi n g order of

preference for the distribution of l a n d
1 ) w a r inva lids he a ds of f a milie s ; or the widows a n d f a mi
,

lies of those killed in the Wa r ;

1
Afte r Livius La za r , op . ci t .
, pp 5 4 5
.
-

15 69 69
-

P
21 0 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
2) demob ilized soldiers who were he a d s of fa milies
3 ) w a r inv a li ds without f a mily
4) demobilized soldiers without f a mily
5 ) those mob i lized by order of the Governing Council
6 ) he a ds of f a milies who h a d not been mobili zed
7) men wi thout fa mily a n d who h a d not been mobilized ;
8) returned emigra nts .

Ou the b a sis of these indic a tions t a bles of those entitled to ,

receive l a nd were dra wn up by loc a l committees ; they were

revised if compl a i n ts h a d been lodged by di strict co mmissions
a n d fi n a ll
y by county com m i s sions The l a tter a lso determin ed .

the com mun a l needs in gr a zing a n d woodl a nd .

The size of the lots to b e distributed in e a ch region w a s fi x e d

by the county commission s a n d v a ried between 1 — 7 j uga r s .

Altogether indi vidu a ls of whom were Rum a ni a ns

,

and of other n a tion a lities were found to b e entitled to ,

l a nd Oi these were re s ettled till S eptember 1 1 927

.
, ,

Rum ani a ns a n d other n a tiona lities Tot a l They .

received a ra ble l a nd coverin g 96 h a to which were a dded -

.
,

commu n a l gra zin g s 43 h a a n d comm un a l woodl a nds

-

.
,

24 h a m a ki n g a tot a l a lloc a tion of

-
.
, 63 h a .

Ara ble l a nd w a s distributed here in a much lower a vera ge

th a n in the Old Ki n gdom but gra zing w a s given more generously ;
,

th a t w a s in keepi n g with the highl a n d ch a ra cter of the pro vince

a n d the predomin a nt position of c a ttle breedi n g in its economic -

The effect of the reform on the distribution of l a nd a mong

the va rious c a tegories of owners h a s been a s follow s a ccordin g ,

to the o ffici a l fi gure s of the Centra l Resettlement Offi ce

( )a Be f or e th e f
r e or m

P er c nt e . of Nu mb r of e P er c n t of
e .

C t
a e o
g rie s H ct re
e a s t ot l r
a a ea ow rs ne tota l u m b r
n e

T t l
o a
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 21 1

( b) After the re or f m

H e ct r a es

Prop erty up t o 1 0 h a .

E xpropri te d a r ea a

5 6 45 -

Prop e rty of 1 0—1 00 h a rema i ne d .

u ch n g d with
n a e 28 9 4 -

Prop erty a b o ve 1 00 h a .

Expro pri te d a

14 6 1 -

T ta l
o 1 00 00 1 -

D Th e Cha nge i n the Di s tr i b

. uti on of La n d a mong th e var i ous

Na ti on a li ti es The Rum a ni a n l a nd reform h a s proved a

. thorny
bra nch of the minorities problem in the new St a te Its rulers .

fi r st l a id themselves op en to a suspicion of h a ving pursued

n a tion a list ends through h a ving en a cted l a ws differing from
e a ch other for the severa l p a rts of the country The repro a ch .
,

a s we h a ve seen is v a lid only in p a rt The situ a tion in the severa l

,
.

provinces a t the end of the Wa r m a de th a t differenti a tion

un a void a ble a n d to some extent a t a n y ra te it c a me a bout
, , ,

in dependently of the wi ll of the rulers Nor is it e a s y to a ccept .

a s ust ifi e d the suggestion m a de by some critics th a t the v a gue

j
ness of the Tr a nsylv a ni a n la w w a s deli bera te a n d w a s me a nt to
le a ve the offi ci a ls with a free h a nd to do the kind of th ing
for which the legisl a tor s could not O penl y a ssume responsibili ty .

Whet her delib era te or not however the l a ck of precision i n m a n y , ,

cl a uses of t h e Tra nsylva ni a n la w no doubt ga ve u n desira ble

1
Th e a b v e fi gu es like all th ose giv en i n thi ch a pt r t o illu tra te t h e re s ults of
o r ,
s e s

r r w ere s uppli e d by t h e C n tr l R es e ttl e m n t Offi ce a d h a v the refor e

t h e efo m , e a e n e

an o fli c i a l ch a ra ct r I t m u s t be r m rk ed h ow v r th t th ere h v e u n d o ubt dly

e . e a , e e , a a e

b een quite a n u m b e r f c s s i which l d w s e xpro pri a te d i n Tr n sylv n i fr m

o a e n an a a a a o

prop rti e s of l ss th a 200 j ug s which c rres p d r u ghly t o 1 00 h Th r i s

e e n ar — o on s o a . e e no

m ean s of e ta bli s hi n g y et h w m y s uch pr o p rti e w e r e to uch d by t h r f r m a d

s o an e s e e e o n

h w m uch l d th e y l t thr u gh i t But t h e fi gur e i t h e t bl a b o v which g iv e

o an os o . n a e e, s

t h e t o ta l a rea c o v re d by pr p e rti e s of 1 0 1 00 h a a h vi ng r m i
e o d u ch ged — . s a e a ne n an ,

ca nn o t be m r e th a n a ppro xi m tely c rr e ct a n d m u t b a g ra l sti m a te r ath e r

o a o , s e e ne e

th n a re a l c a lcul ati on of t h e a ctu a l s ta te of thi n gs M ore ov r t h e t bl e cre di ts s ma ll

a . e , a

prop erty with ll t h e l an d e xpropri a te d Whe reas in f ct s h own hi ghe r up o v e r

a , a , a s ,

h a w e re s till in t h e h a n d s of t h e a uth oriti e s a t t h en d of 1 927 a n d s o m e

. e ,

h w re res rve d or unfi t for di s tributi on

a . e e .

P 2
21 2 THE EFFECTS OF THE RE F ORM ON THE
l a titude to those who h a d to a pply a sweeping reform in gre a t
h a ste in a provi nce whose mixed popul a tion s h a d not b een on
,

the best of terms with e a ch other .

The repro a ch levelled a ga inst the a uthors of the reform th a t

they h a ve a llowed their n a tion a l bi a s to a ppe a r more st a rkly in
the execution of the mea sure must rem a in un a nswered un til the
d a y when the a uthoritie s ca n supply fi gur es det a iled a n d d efi ni t e
enough for a n imp a rti a l observer to check the st a n dpoint of the
reformers a n d of their critics As fa r a s B ess a ra bi a is concerned
.
,

o n e might t a ke it for gr a n ted th a t n a tio n a l di s crim i n a tion could

h a ve occurred merely in a very limited degree a s the l a nd w a s ,

in fa ct t a ken over an d divided by the p e a s a nts themselves .

S ome fi ft y thou s a n d a cre s of l a nd were lost to Germ a n a n d B ul

g a ri a n coloni s t s ; th a t prob a bly h a ppened b efore the reform a s ,

a re s ult of some Russi a n Wa r me a sure b ec a use those colonists ,

b elonged to enemy n a tions Discrimin a tion must h a ve occurred

.

a s a m a tter of f a ct in southern Dobroge a where the reform w a s ,

m a i n ly concerned with coloni zing the a re a expropri a ted for the

ben e fi t of the Rum a n i a n St a te Oi the . h a which were .

a v a il a ble some
,
h a ve b een distributed t o fa mili es
’
up to the end of 1 927 The la w pre s cribed th a t the St a te s third
.

should be t a ken over on the b a sis of speci a l rules co n cerning the

me a surement a n d the divi s ion of the l a nd But the deputy .
,

M P e n cov a s s ert ed in the Ch a mb er on J ul y 28 1 9 29 th a t those

.
, , , ,

rules h a d not yet bee n dra fted the ver ifi ca t i on of the deeds not
,

yet fi n i sh e d a n d the l a nd not yet surveyed but th a t nevertheless ,

t h e S t a t e s third w a s being forcibly t a ken over by the loc a l

’

a uthorities From this a l a rge num b er of l a wsuits expensive a n d

.
,

dil a tory h a s re s ulted between owners a n d St a te S ome of the

,
.

coloni sts c a me from the Old Ki n gdom but a n other p a rt were ,

V l a chs from M a cedoni a brought over in pursu a nce of some

,

extra v a g a n t n a tiona li s t idea One suspects th a t the temper of

.

these M a cedoni a n h a lf nom a ds w a s not c a lcul a ted to reconcile

-

the e s t a bli s hed popul a tion to the loss of s ome of their l a n d ; a n d

the qu a rteri n g of the newcomers upon the loc a l Bulg a ri a n
p ea s a nts often for severa l ye a rs bec a use of the a b sence of
, ,

credits for building a n d fa rmi n g h a s c a used serious friction a n d

,

even bloodshed Worse still m a ny of these people c a me without

.
,
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA ND PROPE R TY 21 3

being a sked a ttra cted by the rumour of free l a nd a n d squ a tted

, ,

in groups on l a nd th a t no one h a d a s signed to them The .

director of the Centra l Resettlemen t Offi ce found during a

tour of inquiry in the a ut umn of 1 9 27 tha t a bout one h a lf of
, ,
-

the colonist s h a d come without the s a n ction of the O th ee a n d ,

th a t most of the s e h a d settled in districts where there w a s n o

surplus l a nd a va il a ble In southern Dobroge a therefore a
.
, ,

somewha t ir ra tion a l scheme of colon iz a tion h a s been m a de wor s e

by its erra tic a pplic a tion a n d psychologic a l f a ctors h a ve deep
ened the feeling a mo n g the minorities th a t they were bei n g
deprived of some of thei r l a nd b ec a use of n a tion a l prej udice .

The m a in fi eld to which the contention refer s however w a s , ,

Tra n sylva n ia There the extent of the reform h a s been con

.

sid er a b ,le a n d in th a t province the number a n d inextric a ble

a dmixtur e of n a tion a lities gives the m i norities problem intern a

t i on a l import a n ce To cle a r the i s sue in so fa r a s this is pos s i b

.
, le
before the det a iled a ccounts of the reform a r e closed one mu s t ,

begin by looking into the distribution of l a nd a mong the va rious

na tio n a lities before the reform One of the circumst a nces which
.

offered a serious d iffi cult y to the redistribution of l a nd so a s t o ,

meet the needs of sm a ll cultiva tors w a s the l a rge a re a which in

,

one form or a nother w a s for pra ctic a l purposes t a ken out of the
re a l est a te m a rket a s sho w n by the follo w ing fi gur es
,

S ta t e d o ma i ns
C o m m u n a l pro pe rti e s
E n d o w m e n ts , chur ch e s , s ch oo l s

S o ci eti es a n d c orp o ra ti ons

J o i n t pro p e rti es o f t h e i n h a bita n ts co m
m u n es
E n ta i l

Pri v te pro p rty

a e 60 95
-

Well over one third therefore of the tot a l a re a w a s in the h a nds

-

, ,

of loc a l bodies in stitutions a n d v a rious org a niz a tions ; a n d given

, ,

the politic a l a n d soci a l subj ection in which the Rum a n i a n

popul a tion w a s held in Hung a ry b efore the Wa r it is not i m ,

prob a ble th a t the bulk of such possessions must h a ve belonged

to n on Rum a ni a n bodies
-
.

The fi gure s comp iled in 1 9 1 9 by the provisiona l Tra nsylva ni a n

214 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
Government g a ve the tot a l a rea of the tra nsferred districts a s of
j uga r s , of which were a ra ble soil The tot a l .

w a s divided b etween Rum ani a ns a n d the other n a tio n a li ties

i n h a biting Tra nsylv a ni a a s foll ows

Prop e rt y Pr p e rty
o T ot l
a

Tota l n u mb e r b e l o w 1 00 a b v e 1 00
o prop rty
e

N ti on lity
a a of p o pul a ti o
n j ugars j uga r s j ugars

u
R m an i s
an

O th r n ti on liti es
e a a

Therefore the Rum a ni a n popul a tion owned little more th a n

1 j ug a r per he a d where a s the other n a tion a l groups possessed
,

ne a rly 6 j uga r s for e a ch of their memb ers More import a nt w a s .

the fa ct th a t a mong the proprietors owning more th a n

1 00 j uga r s e a ch there were o nl y 209 Rum a ni a n s with a ltogether ,

j uga r s an d a mong the 1 1 90 1a n d ow n er s with more th a n

,

j g
u a r s 27 o n ly were Rum a ni a ns
, .

In other words cl a ss di visio n in Tra nsylv a ni a h a d l a rgely

,

coincided with n a tion a l di vision Any me a sure a ltering the

.

soci a l st r ucture of the country w a s bound to a ffect on e n a tion

a lity more th a n a nother a n d no l a nd reform coul d h a ve a voided
,

h a ving a lso a n a tion a list effect Even if a simila r reform h a d

.

been a pplied by a Hunga ri a n Govern ment they could not h a ve ,

prevented it from fo llo w ing n a tion a lly the s a me trend— i e of . .

t a king the l a nd m a inly from M a gy a r S a xon a n d other such , ,

owners a n d of tr a n sferring it l a rgely to Rum a ni a n p e a s a nts .

Th a t st a te of thi n g s could h a rdly h a ve resulted a ltogether from

the worki n g of norm a l economic fa ctor s Without going f a rther .

into the history of the a bu s es committed du r ing the proce s s of

consolid a tion a n d on other occ a sions one ca n fi n d tra ces of the
,

c a u s e s which g a ve n a tion a l colour to the distribution of l a nd in

the s ettleme n t policy pursued by Hung a ry b efore the Wa r I n .

1 8 9 4 a s ettleme n t fund of florin s w a s cre a ted for the

purpose of s ettling pe a s a n ts on est a tes in those districts of Tra n
sylv a n i a which h a d a co n sidera ble non M a gy a r popul a tion It w a s
-
.

estim a ted th a t in 1 9 1 1 the fund h a d properties v a lued a t more

 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 21 5

th a n fi ori n s in va rious Tra nsylva ni a n di stricts .

Bec a use of the politica l friction which th a t policy c a used the ,

Hunga ri a n Government tra nsferred the posse ss ions a n d the

a ctivities of the settlement fund to the so c a ll ed Altruist B a nk
-

It is a ffir m e d th a t the offers of Rum a ni a n pe a s a nts inh a biting

neighbouri n g communes were disreg a rded on pri n ciple whe n
St a te dom a ins were p a rcelled out or when est a tes were sold
through the Altrui s t B a n k a n d Hunga ri a n settler s were brought
,

from elsewhere The Rum a ni a ns defe n ded themselve s a s be s t

.

they could by following a simil a r policy of a cquisitio n through

speci a l b a nks In Ma y 1 91 3 i n a speech delivered a t Cluj Cou n t
. , ,

Stephen B et hlen spoke a nxiously of the m a ny l a rge Hunga ri a n

est a tes which were being bought by Rum a n i a n s He estim a ted.

their purch a ses a t some flori ms ye a rly He promised

.

th a t if they should come into power the Co a lition which he

represen ted would give fl or i n s ye a rly for purposes of
settlement .

It w a s to b e expected th a t the memory of th a t competition in ,

which the Rum a ni a ns were bound to b e a t a dis a dva nt a ge might ,

in fl uen c e those offici a ls a n d priv a te indi vidu a ls in whose h a nds

la y the execution of the new reform It w a s of course fooli sh to
.

punish the present citizens of Rum a n i a for the misdeeds of their

former rulers ; a n d even more so to puni sh Hung a ri a n s m a ll
holders for the policy of m a gn a tes who h a d shown little kindness
to the m a ss of their own kinsmen But the wisdom of forgetting
.

the p a st h a s seemingly not been a ble a ltogether to restra in those

who a pplied the new reform This is evident e g from the
.
, . .
,

w a y in which they de a lt with the j oin t properties which formed a

’
va lua ble fe a ture in Tra nsylva ni a s a gra ri a n economy .

There were severa l kinds of j oint hol d ings in Tra nsylva n i a .

One group included those est a blished in cer t a in frontier regions

during the reign of M a ri a Theres a ( 1 740 when those regions
were milita rized a n d the i n ha bit a n ts of the respective communes
were bou n d to cert a in mili t a ry services The Tra nsylv a ni a n
.

milit a rized territory est a blished in 1 76 4 ra n from the Iron G a tes

, ,

to the bound a ry of Bucovin a a n d w a s divided into fi ve regiment a l

districts Two of the regiments were Rum a n i a n a n d three were
.

regime n ts of Sz eklers In return for their milit a ry services the

.
,
21 6 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
inh a bit a nts of these frontier regions received l a nd a n d forests for
j oint possession a n d use the title to them being ra ther di fferent
,

in the c a s e of noble s from th a t a llowed to former serfs In .

a dditio n these mili t a rized popula tio n s h a d the use of the com
,

m un a l woodl a nds a n d p a stures When for v a rious re a sons they

.
, ,

did not use these j oin t possessions themselves the l a n d w a s let ,

a n d the rent p a id into the commun a l tre a sury or into a j o i nt ,

fund in the c a se of possessions of the severa l mili t a ry di stricts .

L a nd prop erty w a s gra du a lly in di vidua liz ed through a num ber

of leg a l me a sures even in these frontier regions but a cert a in
, ,

proportion of j oint holdings rem a ined in bein g a n d were a dmi ni s

t e re d by speci a l org a ns ; e g the j oint property of the co m m un i
. .

ties of the former seco n d R um a ni a n frontier regiment a t N a s a ud ,

the Szekler frontier communitie s a s well a s the Ca r a severin

,

community in the B a n a t A second kind of j oint property w a s

, .

th a t cre a ted during the proce s s of consolid a tio n within the l a st ,

fift y ye a rs Pe a sa nts inh a biting a cert a in commune a n d belong

.

ing to the s a me n a tion a l group i n m a ny c a ses surrendered

,

some p a rt of their individu a l holdings a n d a cqui red inste a d a

s h a re in a common gr a zing or p a stur e This w a s merely a
.

community of use a s the title of e a ch member w a s sep a ra tely

,

regi stered .

It h a s been est im a ted th a t a bout 30 per cent of the Tr a n syl .

v a ni a n popul a tion h a d a s ha re in one or the other of these j oint

holdin gs N eve r t h eless it w a s fi r st inte n ded to tre a t the s e j oint
.
,

properties a s l a rge est a te s b elonging to priv a te institutions a n d

in consequence to expropri a te them completely Only the fi erce .

resist a n ce of tho s e co n cerned preve n ted th a t intention from b ei n g

c a rried out In the end however some of the j oin t holdi ngs
.
, , ,

even those belo n gi n g to Rum a n i a n comm unities h a d to s uffer , .

There h a ve been sugge stio n s th a t the T r a n sy lva n i a n intellectu a ls

were e s peci a lly i n censed a ga inst the S a xo n University a n d th a t ,

in order to b e a ble to deprive it of i ts considera ble possessions ,

they did not he s it a te to p a s s decisio n s which d a m a ged the inter

e s ts of Rum a ni a n j oint properties a s well Though M Ga r ofli d. .

h a d form a lly recognized i n Pa rli a ment th a t the possessions of

the S a xon Univer s ity represented a commun a l property which ,

should h a ve exempted its forests from expropri a tio n the Uni ,

 DISTRIBUTION OF LAN D PROPERTY 17

ver s ity lost j uga rs woodl a nd a n d gra zi n g in the T a lmesch

district The a gra ri a n la w for Tra nsylv a ni a expres s ly exempted
1
.

from expropri a tio n by Ar t 24 cl a use 2 ( c) the commun a l

,
.
, ,

p a stur es a n d by Art 32 ( c) the woo dl a nds belo n gi n g to the

, .
,

communi ties of the former s e co n d Rum a ni a n fro n tier regime n t

a t N a s a ud During the a ppli c a tio n of the reform the j oint
.
,

propertie s of the B a n a t fr on tier reg imen ts were lik ewi s e a lto

gether exempted from expropri a tion On the other h a n d the .
,

Agra r i a n Committee decided to expropri a te in full a n d without ,

an compens a tion wh a tever the j oint prop erties of the Szekler

y ,

frontier communi ties on the ple a th a t the l a n d w a s St a te

,

property which h a d b een given to the Sz ekler commu n itie s for

use in return for cert a in ser vices As those services we 1 e no .

lo n ger per fm m e d the St a te w a s entitled to cl a im b a ck i t s

,

possess i ons One might perh a ps a dm it the va lidity of th a t

.
‘
.

a rgument but then it a pplied w ith equ a l fO1 c e to the Rum a ni a n

,
’
frontier commu n ities 2
.

The s pokesmen of the n a tiona l minorities in Tra nsylva ni a

were loud in a sserting th a t the n a tion a list bi a s w a s shown
especi a lly in the m a nn er in which the reform w a s a pplied They .

decl a red th a t in m a ny c a ses even sm a llh olders were expropri a ted

for the buildi n g of schools or churches i e of Rum a n i a n schools , . .

a n d churches a n d th a t they were given in exch a n ge either the

,

expropri a tion price or a piece of ba d l a nd The S a xon People s .

’

Council for Tra nsylv a ni a— a t its plen a ry meeting Novemb er ,

1 8 1 9 22— p a ssed a resolution which decl a red th a t a fter cr i t i ci z

,

ing cert a in provisions of the origin a l bill they h a d loy a lly ,

a ccepted the la w in its fi n a l form But they dem a nded th a t the .

la w sho ul d b e re s pected by the a uthorities a s well 3 As to the .

a ll eged corruption of o ffi ci a ls o n e c a n only sa

y th a t it cut both ,

w a ys A corrupt offi cia l w a s if a nyt hi ng more a men a ble to the

.

w ishes of a rich l a ndowner th a n to those of a poor pe a s a nt .

Among the c a ses brought before Pa rli a ment there were quite
1
F ritz Coun er t ticl e i S i eben bzl gi sch D ut ch es T bla tt A u gu s t 24 1 9 22
’

, ar n r e s a ge , , .

F rit z Con n e r t ,
‘
Zur F ra ge d er Agr rre fo r m i n S i b
a e en bti r gen
’

Na t ion a n d S ta a t
’

, ,

Vi enna , D c e mbe r
e 1 9 27 , p 26 2 . .

3
S ee N v b r
K ron s ta d ter Z ei tung, o e m e 21 , 1 9 22 A n m e o f fl a gr a n t m s a . u b r i c rri ages
in th e pplic ti
a a ro n o f t h e e fo m a re esr e d crib d
on p p 25 6 — 6 4 of t h e 1 m por t a n t . a rticle

publi s h d by H rr F rit
e e z Co n n er t i n t h e e e Na tion a n d S ta a t
r vi w .
21 8 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
a num b er showing tha t rich H ung a ri a n l a ndown ers h a d been
a ble to ev a de the provisions of the l a n d l a ws The Tr a n syl .

v a ni a n deputy M Io a n I a cob a speci a list on the subj ect w rote

, .
, ,

in the b ook he published in 1 9 24 th a t the Rum a ni a n l a ndown ers

were subj ected to a rigorous expropri a tion where a s the T r a n syl ,

v a n i a n counts a n d b a rons those gre a t m a gn a tes of the l a n d ( a ll

,

of them M a gy a rs ) h a ve a lr e a dy reconstructed their dom a ins by

,

other me a n s The time w ill come when I sh a ll publish some

.

st a tistics of th a t s a d st a te of a ffa irs ’

.

If the fi gur es or r a ther estim a tes publi s hed so fa r ca n b e

, ,

a ccepted it would seem th a t the minorities were b etter tre a ted

,

when it c a me to resettleme n t To the Americ a n U ni t a ri a n

.

delega tion which Vi sited Rum a ni a in 1 924 M AI Const a ntinescu , . .

,

a s Mini s ter of Agriculture decl a red th a t ,

non Rum a ni a n -

p e a s a nts h a d received l a nd in Tra n s ylva ni a There m ay b e .

a mi s underst a nding a t the b a sis of the s t a tement which a pp e a red

to this end in the Commissio n s Report A det a iled list of those

’
.

entitled to receive l a nd i n Tra nsylva ni a published by the ,

Buca rest A rgus on D ecemb er 26 1 923 ga ve the fol lowing

, , ,

figur e s :

P er c en t .

u
R ma n i a ns ( r o u ghly ) 75
H u ga ri a s
n n 16
Saxo s n 6
S rb s Cr oa ts
e ,

J wse 330
O th er n a ti ona liti es

T ot l a

It will b e s een th a t the figur e of repre s ented the tot a l

numb er of i n dividu a ls b elonging t o n a tion a l mi n orities who h a d
been found to b e entitled to receive l a nd No a uthorit a tive d a t a .

a r e a v a il a ble s o fa r to s how how m a ny of them h a ve a ctu a lly

received l a nd a n d how much of i t A S a xon writer Herr M . , .

Englisch a ffi rm e d th a t the S a xon communitie s in the Né sn e rga u

,

lo s t through expropri a tion j g

u a r s of which were ,

commun a l l a nd were church property a n d

,
w ere
p riva te property At the resettlement 1 34 cl a im a nts belonging
.
,

to these communities received together 1 77 5 j uga r s M de S z as z -

. .
 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 21 9

quote s from a Hung a ri a n public a tion the followi n g number s

h a ving received l a n d in fi ft een counties of Tr a n s ylva ni a :
,

P e r en c t .

( ro u ghly ) 72 9 -

14 7 -

8 3 -

4 1 -

Tota l 1 00 0 -

This wo ul d show th a t of those en titled to b e resettled a ,

l a rger percent a ge a ctu a lly received l a n d up to 1 925 a mo n g the

, ,

mi n orities th a n a mong Rum a ni a ns It does not cle a r up the

.

que s tion a s to whether the resettlement li st s were dra wn up

f a irly ; n or doe s it indic a te how much l a nd w a s give n to the
v a riou s n a tion a l groups Only det a iled figur es wi ll m a ke it
.

po s sible to check the a ssertions of one side a n d the deni a l s of the

other th a t the a gra ri a n reform w a s perme a ted by a n a tion a list
bi a s It is a s well to remember a t the outset th a t the w hole reform
.

spr a n g from a revolution a ry temp er ; th a t it w a s a pplied in a

region whi ch h a d b een the very centre of the n a tio n a l friction
wh ich provoked the Grea t Wa r ; a n d th a t it w a s c a rried out
dur ing a period when E urope a n n a tion a lism w a s celebra ti n g one
of its supreme orgies even in the more m a ture a n d sed a te West
, .

Wh a tever the ex a ct figur es they wi ll n ot a ffect the conclusion

,

th a t bec a use of the w a y i n which l a n d w a s pre viously distributed

, ,

the reform h a s reduced the extent of l a nd in the h a nds of the

minorities ; but tha t for the s a me rea son it h a s incre a sed a mo n g
the minorities the number of pe a s a nts who ow n some l a nd of
their own M Io a n I a cob who h a d been ra pporteur of the la w
. .
,

for Tra nsylva ni a in 1 921 compl a ined in his book th a t the

,
‘

a gr a ri a n reform not only did no h a rm to the min orities element ,

but on the contra ry it strengthened it For if its pra ctic a l effect

, , .

h a s been to reduce the est a tes of a few hundred Hu n g a ri a n

m a gna tes it h a s given l a nd to thous a nds of Hung a ri a n pe a s a n t s
, .
’

From a gen era l st a ndpoint the truth cert a inly is th a t the l a nd

reform h a s in a l a rge me a sure di ssolved the provoki n gly a r t ifi cia l
n a tion a l b a rrier which formerly sep a r a ted rich a n d poor a mong

the rura l popul a tions of Tra n s ylva ni a a n d Bes s a r a bi a .

220 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
S E C TI O N 3 .

S U M M AR Y OF T H E E FFE C T OF T H E L AN D R E F O R M ON THE
D I S T R I B UTI O N or PR O P E R TY
The followi ng t a ble gives the tot a l a re a expropri a ted in
Gre a ter Rum a ni a on the strength of the four sep a ra te a gra ri a n
l a ws :
P R OVI N C E

O ld Ki gd n o m Tr a ns y lva n i a l Buc ovi n a B e ss a r bi

a a T ot l a

H e cta r es H ct r
e a es H e cta res H e cta res H e cta res
27 - -
56 -
64 -
20 5 3 67
-

27 , 38 6 9 4 - -
60 -
63 -
17
68 - -
50 -
69 -
87
10 - -
24 -
54 -
60 -
48

-
18 -
07 -
25

-
62
-
44 -
99

T ot a l -
43 -
03 -
35 -
24 -
05

Not a ll of th a t a re a h a s b een h a nded over to i n di vi du a l

s m a llholders A considera ble p ortion of it h a s been used for the
.

est a bli shment of commun a l gra zi n gs a n d woodla nds a s well a s ,

for the cre a tion of a l a nd reserve from which public needs

such a s the bui lding of ro a ds town exten sions model fa rms & c , , , .

—might be sa t i s fi e d The foll owing t a ble show s the extent of

.

l a n d devoted to these v a rious p urposes

In In
Buc vin ao B es a r bi
s a a

Di str but d t o t h p s a t
i e e ea n s

C mm un l gra z i g
o a n s

C mm u l w odl d
o na o an s

F r t
o es s d mi n i t r d by
a s e e

S t t a d re m i n i n g t o
a e n a

be di tri bute d
s -
90 -
00 -
84 -
60
5 . L d u fi t for rese ttl
an n e

me n t
R rve s f g n r l n d s
e se or e e a ee

To t a l e x pro pr i a t c d
-
43 -
03 -

35 -
24
 DISTRIBUTION OF LAN D PROPERTY 221
The work of resettlement showed the followi ng summ a ry
results on S eptemb er 1 1 927 ,

N o of
. No . of A r ea
peas a ts n p ea sa n ts Ar e a iv e n sg a r
A ea
e n titl e d re di stribute d c m m u n l
o a iv
g en s a
to la d n se ttl de to p n ts
ea s a
gra i g z n r ts
fo es

H e ct res
a H ct r
e a es H e ct resa

In the O ld Ki gd n o m -
04 -
87
In Tr ylv an i a
ans -
96 -
43 -
24
In Buc vi n a
o -
25 -
85 -
72
In B ra bi
es sa a -
50

Tota l -
75 -
15 -
96

The ch a nge in the distribution of l a nd a mong the v a rious

c a t egor i e s o f ow n er s i s summ a r ily d es cr i be d in t h e t w o t a ble s b elow
Be fo e the R fo m
r e r

Pr ope rty up t o 1 00
h ct r s e a e h ct r
e a es

H e ct res a c t en .

In t he O ld Ki gd n om

B ra bi a
I n e ssa
r ylva n i a
I n T a ns
In Buc vi n a
o

T t l
o a 12

The a r a ble a re a of the country wa s therefore divide d

follows
l property
S ma l
La rg prop erty
e

T t l o a 1 00 00 -

f
A ter the Re for m
Pro p rt y up t o
e 1 00 Prop e rty a b o v e 1 00
h ctare s e h e cta res

H e cta r es ce tn . H e cta res c t

en .

In the O ld Ki gd n om

B ra bi
I n es s a a

T ylv n i a
I n ra n s a

In Buc vi n
o a

T ot l
a
222 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
The a ra ble la nd of the whole coun try is therefore divided as
follow s
S ma ll pro p t y er

L a rge pro pe rty

To t l
a 1 00 00 -

( a ) One of the fi rs t poin ts whi ch a rise out of these fi gur e s is

th a t not a ll the p ea s a nts who were found to b e e n titled to receive
l a nd were a ctu a lly provided w ith it Not w ithst a nding the .

r a di c a l extent of the expropri a tion of the individu a ls

,

whose n a mes were pl a ced on the resettleme n t li sts over ,

were a ltogether left out of this whole s a le distribution of

l a nd It should of course b e remembered th a t preference w a s
.

give n to those pe a s a n ts who h a d n o l a n d a t a ll Hence it is .

prob a ble th a t m a n y or most of those who rem a in ed outside the

reform owned some l a n d of their ow n though not enough for ,

indepen dent fa rm ing .

( b) The more fortun a te two third s of the cl a im a nts who

-

received some me a sure of l a nd di d not get a s much a s w a s

,

origi n a lly i n tended to give them It is prob a ble th a t in a m a j ority

.

of c a s es the min imum lot fi x e d by the v a rious executive org a ns

h a d i n pr a ctice to b e reduced Dr Aurel V l a d a sserts th a t none
. .

of the holdin gs distributed in Tr a nsylva ni a w a s l a rger th a n

3 j uga r s The o ffi ci a l sum m a ries cited a bove show th a t a n a ver
.

a ge of 2 65 h a a r a ble l a nd w a s distributed p er he a d ; to which

-
.

would h a ve to b e a dded a n individu a l a vera ge of 0 6 1 h a in the -

.

sh a pe of commun a l gra zi n gs a n d 0 35 h a a s comm un a l wood .

l a nd s .

( c) Rum a n i a s l a nd problem h a d been a compoun d of two

’

oppo s ite evil s— o u the one side excessively l a rge est a tes a n d on
the other side exces s ively sm a ll p e a s a nt holdin gs The reform .

h a s remedied only one of the s e two a spects of the problem : l a rge

prope r ty h a s been a boli shed But sm a ll p r operty h a s not b een
.

r a i s ed to a level w here it might become eco n omic a lly a ut onomous .

N 0 fi gur es h a ve been collected a s yet to show the new d is t r i bu

tion of pe a s a n t property It is cle a r th a t the reform h a s in cre a sed
.

the numb er of fa milies o w n ing l a nd but not in the s a me propor ,

tion the number of those who could derive a n existence from

 DISTRIBUTION OF LA ND PROPERTY 223

their holdings a lone M a ny l a ndless l a bo urers h a ve been m a de

.

poor ow n er s but n ot independent cultiva tors Even less h a s the

,
.

reform cre a ted th a t medium sized property which by genera l -

a greement could initi a te a n a dv a nce in tech n ique duri n g a period

,

of tr nsition
a
1
.

d I cert in me a sure the reform h a s a ggr a v a ted the

( ) n a a

uneconomic org a n iz a tion of sm a ll property in Rum a n i a The .

reform h a s n ot been complemented by a sim ult a neou s proces s

of conso lid a tion ; hence the reform h a s multiplied in tho s e c a ses ,

in which the cl a im a n ts were entitled merely to a ddition a l l a nd

a n d not to a fu ll new holdi n g the number of sm a ll fi eld s which ,

ge n era lly form a pe a s a nt property .

The ge n er a l l a nd problem h a s therefore not been fi n a ll

( )
e y , ,

solved Nor could the dem a nds of those who h a ve rem a in ed

.

a ltogether l a ndless or of tho s e with i n s uffi ci en t holding s be met

, ,

through a new expropri a tion In a nswer to a question put to him .

in the Ch a mber on Decemb er 1 2 1 9 27 M Ar ge n t oia n u the

, , , .
,

Minister for Agriculture replied th a t the St a te h a d no further ,

reserve for those who h a d rem a ined wi thout l a n d On the other .

h a nd in the a utumn of 1 928 a cir cul a r from the Ministry of

,

Agriculture i n structed it s subordin a te a uthorities to h a sten the

execution of those expropri a tion c a ses which h a d rem a i ned
pe n d ing s o th a t the cl a im a nts might be a ble to t a ke over the
,

holdin gs to which they were entitled Th a t me a n s th a t a cert a in .

exte n t of l a nd st ill rem a ined to b e tra nsferred from the l a rge

owners to the pe a s a nts Moreover it wo ul d s eem th a t by .
,

cir cum venting the provision of the reform l a ws a number of ,

l a rge est a tes h a ve been reconstituted— either by purch a se u n der

a fi ct it i ous n a me or by puttin g together p a rt s of a n est a te
,

belonging to members of one fa mily or by successive s a les to ,

the s a me individu a l of lots of less th a n 5 0 h a e a ch from the s a me .

e s t a te Offi cia ls of the Min i stry of Agriculture con fi r m ed th a t

2
.

in the stepp e regio n of the B ar ag a n n ewly formed est a tes ca n ,

1
Th e Na tio a l Pe a san t G o v e rn me n t is en d ea v o ur in g t o m k e good th t
n ew n -
a a

d e fic i en y by m eans of a n A c t p a sse d i n 1 9 29 which c an c e ls t h e r s tricti on t o e ll

c , , e s

h oldin gs o bt i e d u n de r t h e l n d re for m S uch h o ldin gs ma y n ow be s old fr e ly t o

a n a . e ,

p eas n t cultiva tors up t o n a r a of 25 h e cta res pe r i n dividu a l

a , a e .

2
Th S t t e h as a ri ght of p e e m pti on o n a ll s a l s of 5 0 h
e a r -
a d m o re ; h r th e re e a . n e e

s em
e st o be g p i n t h l w which onl y l ega l pro c ee din gs c o ul d fill but o ffi c ia ls of
a a e a ,

t h e C en t r a l Offi c e a re d o ubtful wh e th e r s uch pr o c ee di n gs c oul d s ucc ee d .

224 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
b e found ru n ning up to h a Yet t a ki n g together these two
.
,

c a tegories of est a tes which m ay still b e a v a il a ble the tot a l a re a ,

c a nnot be otherwise th a n in sign ifi ca n t in rel a tion to wh a t wo ul d

b e n eeded to s a tisfy the rem a in in g pe a s a nt dem a n d for l a nd .

One might a d d to the two sources of l a n d n a med a bove a third

—
n a mely volunt a ry s a les from the rem a inin g l a rge est a tes
, .

Either bec a use they m a y b e a fra id of a further expropri a tion ,

on a ccount of the growi n g politic a l s trength of the Pe a s a nt

current or b ec a use they fi n d l a rge sc a le c ul tiva tion un der the
,

new conditions un pr ofi t a ble m a ny l a rge owners h a ve been

,

selling the l a n d which the reform left them ; especi a lly a s the
pe a s a n ts seem willing to pa y a lmost a n y price for such l a nd a s
still comes into the m a rket being a fra id perh a ps to lose the l a st
,

ch a nce of getting l a nd in their ow n loc a lities With the a ssist a n ce .

of dummy bidders the l a ndowners force up the price a n d m a ke

it d iffi cult for the Cent r a l Resettlement O th ee to compete The .

A urora st a ted on F e br ua r y 4 1 926 th a t in the Ilfov coun ty

, ,

a lone n i n eteen e s t a tes h a d so fa r b een sold to the pe a s a nts a t ,

fa bulou s price s ra ngi n g from lei p er h a upw a rds The . .

Ce n tra l Offi ce wo uld seem to h a ve purch a sed u n til the end of

1 928 on the strength of the St a te s right of pre emption a b out
’
-

, ,

h a a t a n a ver a ge price of
. lei per h a a n d a bout .
,

j g
u a r s a t a n a ve r a ge price of 8 000 1ei
p j g
er u ar ; i n a ddition
,

to buildi n g s mills & c The bul k of th a t l a nd h a s b een h a nded

, , .

over to pe a s a nt co oper a tives of le a si n g a n d purch a se

-

(f Altogether the exten t of l a rge property still a va il a ble for

,

eventu a l tra n s fer to the pe a s a n ts is very reduced Nor co ul d it .

for the time being b e subj ected to further expropri a tion The .

expropri a tio n la w h a s a constitution a l ch a r a cter a n d provision s ,

of the Con s titution c a n not b e ch a nged until the King come s of

a e
g . As Ki n g Mih a iu is seven ye a r s old eleven ye a rs must p a ss ,

before the Con stitution could b e touched No n e of the present .

p olitic a l p a rties would thi n k of bre a king th a t rule ; the Pe a s a n t

le a der s who a r e pledged to a bolish l a rge sc a le property a lto
,

gether con s ider the i s s ue a s shelved for the time b ei n g Wh a t

,
.

t hey might a ttempt i s to revise the grosser a buses in the a pplic a

t io n of the la w For the re s t the Pe a s a nt spokesmen hop e to
.
,

s olve the a gr a ri a n problem r a ther by the i n t en sifi c a t i on of

 DISTRIBUTION OF LA N D PROPERTY 225

a griculture a full fl ed ged system of co opera tion a n d the

,
- -

development of loc a l i n dustries using a gricultura l a n d other r a w

m a teri a ls a va il a ble on the spot a n d the s urplus of pe a s a nt
l a bour .

(g) Until such a comprehensive progr a m ca n b e a pplied ,

a n d begins to b e a r fruit the l a n d problem will rem a in a cute,

.

For the m a ss of the pea s a nts still reg a rd it a s a duty of the Sta te
to pro vide them wi th l a nd whenever they need i t The l a st .

expropri a tion i n their opinion h a s merely recognized a n d ap

, ,

plied th a t a ncient right a n d in a ddition h a s freed them of , ,

cert a in obliga tions tow a rd s the l a ndlords On e of the Villa ge .

elders of B u s et g a ve it a s his View th a t the l a nd would h a ve ‘

b een his eve n w ithout the reform for if he ga ve h a lf of the crop ,

he could a lwa ys t a ke from the est a te a s much l a nd a s he w a nted

to till And it w a s fa irer in th a t w a y a s everyo n e took a ccordi n g
.
,

to the numb er of souls in his fa mily a ccordi n g to needs a n d to ,

powe r a n d not a s is b ei n g done now fi ve hect a res to e a ch a n d

, ,
’
everyo n e a like 1
The new gen era tio n h a s n ot the le a st doubt
.
‘

th a t in their turn they will receive l a nd They therefore look .

’
lo n gingly a t every piece of l a nd still a va il a ble Nor a r e tho s e .

pea s a n ts who a lre a dy h a ve been given somet hi n g a n d who form ,

the m a ss of the Vill a gers a ltogether s a t i sfi e d They h a ve the , .

‘

’
owner s egoism towa rds their own piece of l a nd but look with ,

the covet ing eyes of l a ndles s serfs upon the l a nd of the boi a r .
’

This a ttitude h a s not been a ssu a ged by the gra n ti n g of l a n d

to offi cia ls to gipsies a n d to others who a r e not cultiv a to r s For
, .

the pea s a nts will not a dmit tha t l a n d h a s been given a s a r e com
p ense for bra very i n the Wa r but ra ther in recogn itio n of the ,

a ncient pe a s a nt right to the l a n d on which they live The Wa r .

h a s been merely the occ a sion but not the c a use for the d is t r i bu ,

tio n of l a nd M St a hl j ustly rem a rks th a t wher e the use of

. .
‘

l a bour in a c a pit a list form on a mo n ey w a ge b a sis is n ot wide -

s pre a d the tiller of the soil a lw a ys looks upon himself in a con

,

fused w a y a s h a vi n g a title to the l a n d The pe a sa n t con siders ’

.
,

th a t is th a t he h a s a right to a piece of l a nd which should provide

,

1
Thi s ll o wi n g qu otati ons ar from ma u cript n ot s m a d e by M H n ry
an d t h e fo e n s e . e
S t hl i n 1 9 27 dur i ng a s oci ol gic a l i n quiry u n d r t h e l ea d rs hip of Pr fesso r Di m itri e
a , o e e o

G u ti n d ki n dly c omm u ic t d by t h e l tt r
s , a n a e a e .

Q
226 THE EFFECTS OF THE RE F ORM ON THE
him with the me a ns of existence And the fa ct th a t economica lly
.

the old servile tithe system p a ssed into the present d a y méta yage
-

system— which a ppe a red to the pe a s a nt to i nvolve merely

a ch a nge in the siz e of the resp ective sh a res but no ch a nge of

form— h a s help ed to perpetu a te th a t propriet a ry outlook of the

p ea s a nts tow a rds the l a n d As long a s a n y l a nd rem a in s in the
.

h a nds of l a rge owners— a n d especi a lly in the h a n ds of o wners

, , ,

l a rge a n d sm a ll who do not cultiva te it themselves— the

,
’
p e a s a nts relentless cl a im to the l a nd will not b e subdued .
 C H A P TE R V III

THE EFFECTS OFTHE REFORM ON THE OR G A NI ZA

TION OF FARMING
W H E N p a ssing to a n estim a te of the effect the reform pro
d uce d on the economics of Rum a ni a n a gricultur e one must ,

begin by pressi n g the point th a t the recent legisl a tive ch a n ges

were not conceived either in their origi n or in their texts or in
—

their a pplic a tion a s a reform of a gricultur e They were di s

—
.

cu s s ed a n d decreed a s a reform of l a nd tenur e a n d such con se ,

u en c es a s followed from them in Rum a ni a n a gric u l tur e a re

q
i n direct a n d on the whole still rudi ment a ry I n such circum
, , .

s t a nce s a n a ttempt to prep a re a s ci e n t ifi c survey of the

y
eco n omic effects of the reform would be prem a ture Yet it is .

de s ira ble to try a t le a st to di scern the ir begi n ni ngs in order to ,

rou n d off the picture presented so fa r But it will b e cle a r from

.

the n a ture of the c a s e th a t a n y views put forw a rd in the ch a pters

w hich follow must b e t a ken a s t e n t a t iv e a s indic a ti n g tenden
g

cie s ra ther th a n settled curren ts ; a n d a s continui ng the illustra

tio n of some of the con fli ct in g s oci a l tendencies a n d policies out of
whi ch the Rum a n i a n a gra ri a n problem h a s issued .

Even l a ter w hen time h a s cry s t a lli z ed the new ch a ra cter of

,

Rum a n i a n a griculture it will still rem a in d iffi cult for a number

, ,

of re a son s to provide a n a ccura te s tudy of the economic effects

,

of the g r e a t l a nd reform There is in the fi r st pl a ce the obst a cle

.
, ,

c a used by the a bsence of comprehensive a n d reli a ble st a tistic a l

m a te r i a l As Lev a s seur s a id in a s peech b efore the S oci ét é
.

N a tio n a le d Agri cult ur e a s reg a rds reli a bility a gricult ur a l

’

,
‘
,

s t a ti s tics a r e the mo s t frequently compl a ined oi

’
I n Rum a ni a .

a g r icultur a l st a tistics h a ve been neglected in a m a nner which

m a y well d r ive the s tudent of eco n omics to desp a ir Rum a ni a .

h a s no ground book ; the figur e s concerni n g the distribution of

p r operty a re collected by loc a l o ffici a ls vill a ge m a yors & c
, , .
,

from the st a teme n ts of the p a rtie s co n cerned from t a x a tion ,

return s or from le a s e s a n d a cts of s a le The s a me method is

,
.
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 229

used for mea suring the distribution of the v a rious crops a n d their
a nn u a l production The d a ta is t a ken from questionn a ires com
.

let d by vi ll ge ffi i l in the c a se of pe a s a nt cultiv a tors a n d

p e a o c a s , ,

by the fa rmers themselves in the c a se of fa rms a bove 1 00 h a .

For these re a so n s one fin d s frequent discrep a ncies between the

,

figur e s given by v a rious a uthorities — or even by severa l Govern

ment dep a rtments — on a p a rticul a r point When the difference .

is serious speci a l a ttention will be dra wn in this study to the

,

fa ct But in genera l we sh a ll h a ve to a ssume th a t while the

.
, ,

figures a r e a pproxim a te they a r e rel a tively true enough to a llo w

,

v a lid conclusions to be dra wn concern i n g tendencies in Ruma ni a n

a griculture before a n d a fter the reform .

A second a n d more disconcerting d iffi cult y for such a study

of effects is presented by the sequence or even concurrence in ,

t ime of the Wa r a n d of the reform In the c a se of Rum a ni a

, .
,

especi a lly where two thirds of the country h a d during a pro

— -

longed period been un der enemy occup a tion a n d where much ,

of the offi cia l a rchives were lost du r i n g the Rum a ni a n ret r e a t

a n d then a g a in during the h a sty dep a rture of the enemy — i t is

a n a ltogether impossible t a s k to try to dise n t a ngle with a n

y
precision t h e effects of the reform from the effects of the Wa r .

One fi n d s a good illustra tio n of this d iffi cult y in Yugosl a vi a ,

where one self cont a ined a dmini stra tive district the old S erbi a n
-

Kin gdom did not come within the scop e of the a gra ri a n reform
,

a t a ll a s the l a nd w a s in the h a nds of the pe a s a n ts a lre a dy

, Yet .

in th a t district production suffered a serious decline a s m a y b e ,

seen from the followin g figures :

r a
A e Ar ea
cultiv te da Pr ducti on
o cultiv te d
a Producti o n
i n h e cta r es i n quin t a l s i n h ct r s
e a e i n q ui n ta ls

The tot a l decrea se in the a rea cultiva ted with these fi ve crops
a mounted the refore to h a a n d the f a ll in production
.
,
230 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
to quint a ls On the other h a nd the figur es for Cro a ti a
.

a nd Sl a voni a show a n unexp ected rise

Y rly v r
ea a e a ge 1 9 1 1 —1 4

H e cta r es H e cta res

Yet in Cro a tia a n d Sl a voni a the l a nd reform w a s not only

,

a pplied on a very wide sc a le but it w a s a lso mis a pplied wi th

, ,

the re s ult th a t m a ny progressive l a rge fa rms were completely

d isorg a nized a s I h a d occ a sion to see during my j our neys ; w hi le
,

m a ny of the n ewly resettled pe a s a n ts n eglected their holdi ngs ,

being in doubt whether they themselves woul d b e fin ally

c o n fi r m e d a s owners . Only the h a voc c a used by the Wa r a mong
the m a nhood a n d possessions of the S erbi a n p e a s a ntry could
expl a in this p a ra dox .

Fin a lly a thi rd d iffi cult y springs from the economic poli cy
,

a dopted by the Governments which rul ed in Rum a ni a from the

end of the Wa r till November 1 928 For re a sons a n d by me a ns .

wh ich will be described in a l a ter ch a pter those Governm ents ,

devoted the resources a n d fa vours which the St a te coul d com

m a nd to the crea tion of a n a tion a l industry Agricultur e w a s .

st a rved of a ll support j ust in th a t period in which it h a d to try

both to overcome the destruction c a used by the Wa r a n d the
inevita ble tempora ry disturb a nce c a used by the reform I n other .

words some of the phenome n a which wi ll b e noted in the follow

,

ing cha pters — a s fa r a s possible st a tistic a lly— a r e not the effects

of the reform On the contra ry they m a y b e s a id to be the pro
.
,

duct of circum s t a nces which prevented those effects from worki n g

themselve s out in a norm a l economic evolution The upshot of the .

’
reform h a s b een Vitia ted by Rum a ni a s a ttempt to c a rry thr ough
s imult a neously two different a n d in p a rt c on fl i ct i n tr a n sform a
, ,g ,

tions of her economic life : in a griculture a ch a nge from l a rge ,

to s m a ll ownership a n d productio n ; a n d a t the s a me time , ,

’
a subst a nti a l tra n s fer of the n a tion s c a pit a l a n d energies from

a griculture to industry To which must b e a dded a s a s upple

.
,
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 231

ment a ry complic a ting fa ctor the a dvent of severa l new provinces ,

differing from the Old Ki n gdom a n d from ea ch other in economic

equipment a n d needs .

One other word ma y b e a llowed by w a y of introduction in ,

order to defi ne the st a ndpoint of thi s study The Rum a ni a n .

reform h a s not rem a ined unnoticed by we s tern econ omists If its .

principles a n d progress h a ve b een somewh a t severely tre a ted by

them tha t is no doubt bec a use in ge n era l they h a ve di s cussed
,

it merely from the a ngle of production ; a n d th a t in a per i od when

the problem of a gricultura l s uppplie s w a s grea tly worrying some
of the Continent a l St a tes But for this circumst a nce it should .
,

h a rdly h a ve been n ecess a ry to point out th a t in Rum a ni a a n d —

in e a stern Europe genera lly— the reform impo s ed itself a s a

pressing soci a l need Its whole structure a n d progress mu s t b e
.

studied therefore a s a m a ny s ided soci a l reform a n d economic

, ,
-

critici s m must b e tempered by t a king into a ccount the wider

fa ctors which c a used the reform a n d which the reform in its , ,

turn is me a n t to correct
, .

Nor is the economic a spect of the question simply a m a tter of

gross production a n d of a surplus for export In a griculture .
,

sm a ll sc a le a n d l a rge sc a le cultiva tion do not differ solely in the

- -

technique of production but even more profoun dly in the ends ,

of production L a rge fa rms a n d sm a llh oldings e a ch h a ve crops

.

a n d products which a re peculi a r to them which a re b est pro

.
,

d uce d i e in the i r respective type of a gricultura l un dert a king

, . . .

A cha nge from one dim ension of farm to a nother genera lly
involves a cha n ge of the whole ch a ra cter of fa rming S o th a t .

before one a ttempts to c a lcul a te the effect of the reform on

production a s such one must endea vour to clea r the w a y by
,

a process of elimin a tion It is necess a ry to fi n d out in wh a t

.

mea sur e a n d in wh a t m a nner the system of production h a s

a ltered : fi r s t a s reg a rds the siz e of a gricultur a l undert a kin gs ;
,

secondly a s reg a rds equipment a n d technique ; a n d thirdly a s

, , ,

reg a rds the n a ture of the products to which they a r e devoted .

Only by a prelimin a ry discussion of these delibera te ch a nge s in

the orga ni z a tion of production will the fi n a l estim a te of the
effect of the reform on volume a n d qu a lity of the produce con
duce to a true conclusion .
232 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
S E C TI O N 1

CHANGES IN TH E S CA L E OF A G R I C U L T U R A L E X P L O IT A TI O N S
If one Views the Rum a ni a n l a nd reform from the a ngle of
a gricultur a l economics its s i n ifi ca n ce woul d seem to b e a bove
g ,

a ll a v a st exp erim ent in tr a nsition from l a rge sc a le to sm a ll sc a le - -

cultiva tion As such the experiment m a y co n t a in va lu a ble

.
,

lessons for rura l economics in gen era l But if thes e lessons a r e .

not to be misinterpreted one must fi r st a ttempt to est a blish the

,

extent to which the revolution a ry ch a nge in the distribution of

prope r ty h a s a lso me a nt a ch a n ge in the units of fa rming a n d —
,

therefore in the methods of fa rming

, .

’
On e of the domi n a nt ch a ra cteristics of Rum a n i a s a gr a ri a n
structure before the Wa r w a s the wide discrep a ncy between the
a re a owned by l a rge proprietors a n d th a t covered by l a rge sc a le -

a gricultura l exploit a tion s The respective distribution of proper

.

ties a n d f a rms a ccord ing to c a tegories m a y b e seen from the

following t a ble 1

D i s t r 1 but ion of pr o p e rt y Di stributio f l d a m ong n o an

i n 1 8 9 6 1 902 1 905
, , f r ms i 1 9 1 3 ( wi t h o ut
a n

( a ra bl e gr a z i n g a n d
, p stur s pl a t ti o s nd
a e , n a n a

b r re n l d )
a an b a rre n l n d ) a

P er ce t n . P er ce t n .

051 13638 0 1 1 9 3 of t ota l of t ota l

T ot la 1 00 0-
1 00 0 -

The difference of ne a rly h a bet w een the t w o .

column s i s due to the a bse n ce from the a gricultura l st a tistics of

a bout h a of b a rren l a nd a n d of
. ha .

of perm a nent gra zings The l a tter especi a lly belo n ged a lmost
.
, ,

completely to l a rge owners ; in 1 9 1 0 only h a 1 e 2 4 per , . .

-

M i i try f Agricul t ur Ag i ull i i { R p li

1
n s o e, P i md l ului C ult i v l i 1 9 1 3
r c or
°

11 e ar za rea c n a n ,

Buc a r s te , 1 9 15 .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 233

cent of the perm a nent gra zin gs belonged to sm a ll owners

. .

Hence 6 1 7 p er cent of the a ra ble a re a w a s occupied by

,
-
.

properties below 5 00 h a a n d 38 3 per ce n t by prop erties a bove

. .

5 00 h a Agricultura l exploit a tions of less th a n 5 00 h a covered

. .
,

however 8 1 3 p er cent of the tot a l a ra ble l a nd a n d those of

,
-
.
,

more th a n 5 00 h a only 1 8 7 per cent of th a t a re a

. . .

Th a t difference w a s not c a used by the division of l a rge est a tes

into a num ber of f a rms in keepin g with the needs of sound ,

a gricultur a l pr a ctice Ou the contra ry Rum a ni a n f a rming dis

.
,

pl a yed a n excessive concentra tion of a gricultura l u ni ts Proper .

ties a n d f a rms a bove 1 00 h a were distributed in the following .

proportions a ccordi ng to number

Nu mb e r of Nu mb e r of
Ca tegori es pro perti es fa r ms 1

With the exception of the fi r st c a tegory therefore in which the , ,

number of fa rms w a s higher th a n the number of properties the ,

in verse rel a tio n w a s found throughout Rum a ni a n a griculture ,

in a me a sure whi ch rose with the extent of the exploit a tion .

This a nom a ly could only a rise from the fa ct th a t some of the

l a rger fa rms were formed by putting together a number of
n eighbouring properties inste a d of the l a rge est a tes being
,

divided up into a number of sm a ller fa rms This p eculi a rity of .

Rum a ni a n fa rming is even more striking when comp a red with

co n ditio n s in Grea t Brit a in a n d the United St a tes both of them ,

reputedly countries of l a rge sc a le a griculture Where a s one .

found in E n gl a nd est a tes a bove a cres with a n a ver ,

a ge of a cres there were o n ly 6 03 f a rms a bove

, a cres ,

with a n a vera ge of a cres —or 5 20h a Rum a ni a n properties .

a bove 5 00 h a numbered . with a n a vera ge extent of

h a which ne a rly equ a lled the a ver a ge of the Engli sh
.
,

properties ; but Rum a ni a n fa rms a bove 5 00 h a were with .

a n a ver a ge of h a th a t i s more th a n double the E n glish

.
,

1
C Ga rofl i d , Ch es ti a A gr a r a , pp 1 6 4— 5
'

. . .
234 THE EFFECTS OF THE REF ORM ON THE
a ver a ge ( And the Engli sh figur es prob a bly included p a stur es
.
,

where a s the Rum a nia n fi gur e s did not ) One might ext end the .

comp a rison to the Uni ted St a tes where f a rms a bove 1 00 h a h a d , .

a n a ver a ge extent of only 208 h a M Ga r ofii d mentioned . .

the c a se of a h a est a te in the county of I a lomi t a ; .

it w a s divided into thr ee fa rms but the thr ee were worked ,

j ointly .

The expl a n a tio n of th a t sta te of things must b e sought for in

the considera ble proportion of l a rge property whi ch w a s let to
ten a nts In 1 9 1 7 the deputy M M Ca rp a ffi r m e d in the Ja ssy
. . .

Pa rli a ment th a t 6 4 per cen t of a ll a ra ble l a nd a bove 1 00 h a

, . .
,

w a s let out— a percent a ge which in cert a in coun ties rose to

72— 75 per cent a n d in one coun ty to over 9 2 per cent More
.
, .

d efi n i t e a n d det a iled fi gur e s concerni ng the a re a let out from the

v a rious c a tegories of properties were suppli ed by the a gra ri a n
inquiry which w a s instituted a fter the risi n g of 1 907 At th a t .

time the a rea held in ten a n cy in the four Rum a ni a n provinces

w a s a s follows

A r ea h e ld by ten a n ts
Ca te gori es of r
fa ms M ld vi
o a a Mu tn e ni a Olt e n i a D o broge a R ma n u i a

St a tistics collected in 1 91 3 showed th a t of the tot a l a re a

cultiv a ted in th a t yea r 6 0 p er cent w a s fa rmed by own ers a n d
, .

40 per cent by ten a nts .

F r h ld l d
ee o an

Leas e h ld o a nd meta ya ge
'

These proportions va ry with the v a rious geogra phi c a l

regions Cultiva tion by ow n ers prepondera ted in the highl a nds
.
,

where sm a ll holdings were more num erous where a s tena ncy w a s ,

1
M $e r ba n
.
,
op . ci t , p 29
. .
2
Mi n i stry of Ag riculture , op . ci t , p 28. .
 ORG ANIZATION OF F A RM IN G 235

more widespre a d in the pl a ins where l a rge est a tes under cere a l ,

crops predomin a ted a s m a y be seen from the following t a ble

,

Pe rc ent a ge o f cultiv a te d a rea

R eg i on F ree ho ld
M ld vi
o a an hi ghla d s
n

D o brogea
M u n te ni n highlads a n

Lowl d s of S iret a d Pruth

.

an n

L owl d s of t h e D a ub e
an n

The ten dency of Rum a ni a n l a n downers to let out their l a nd

is con fi r m e d from a different a ngle by the rel a tive growth of the
va rious cl a sses forming the rura l popul a tion There a r e un .
,

fortun a tely no fi gur es which might en a ble us to follow th a t

,

evolution gra du a lly The only reli a ble st a tistics before those of
.
,

1 91 3 a r e those collected by D M a r ti a n in the A n a lele S ta ti s ti ce

, .

for 1 8 60 The l a tter referred only to Mu n te n i a a n d Olt en i a a n d

.

the comp a rison therefore h a s to be limited to those two provinces .

The confrontin g of the two sets of figur e s reve a ls a decline in the

proportion of owner c ultiva tors notwi th s t a n ding the severa l
-

distributions of l a nd from 1 8 6 4 onw a rds a n d a gre a t increa se in ,

the proportion of ten a nt cultiv a tors : -

C a te gori es 19 13 1

O w r cultiv t r
ne a o s

T n ts
e an

Tot l u mb e r h e a d s
a n of fa m ily
( rura l )

( P ercen t a ge = t h a t o f tota l n u m b e r of rura l h ead s of f a mi li es )

.

These da t a do not s uffi ci en t ly j ustify the conclusion th a t there

h a d been a concentr a tion in l a nd property during th a t period
especi a lly a s genera l conditions a n d the methods of cl a ssific a tion
1
M i i try f Agricultu p i t p 29
n s o r e, o . c , . .

2
Ib id , op ci t , p 1 2
. . . .

3
Th e fi rs t fi gur e i n s o thi c lu
mn i s e on e o s g en i n t h e o g n a rr u ly iv ri i l a s
th rd
and t h e i as Th e fi gur e s e e se , o es on h r u d w h ich c rr p d
to the pe rc e tage s n ,

h v b
a e c rr ct d r
een o e e f o m t h e e a s of t h e o g n a a e d t il ri i l t bl .
236 THE EFFECTS OF THE RE F ORM ON THE
h ad ch a nged Cert a in figur es a va il a ble for
. 1 905 m a ke possible
the follo w ing comp a rison :
C a tegori es 19 13 1

Nu m b e r of cultiva tors
O wn e r s
Ten ts ( mo e y or meta ya ge)
an n
’

During th a t short period therefore the numb er of owner , ,

cultiva tors incre a sed rela tively more ra pi d ly th a n the num b er

of ten a nts In genera l however Rum a ni a n a gricultur a l st a tistics
.
, ,

rel a t ing to in dividu a l ye a rs a r e not reli a ble m ateri a l for comp a ri

son The gre a tly v a rying clim a tic a n d economic conditions
.

frequently induce st a rt ling ch a nges from ye a r to ye a r in the a re a

cultiva ted a n d consequently in the a mount of l a nd rented by
, ,

the p e a s a nts In this p a rtic ul a r inst a n ce the 1 91 3 fi gur e rel a t in g

.

to own er cultiva tors w a s u n doubtedly i n fl uen c e d by the tra n sfer

-

of l a nd to the pe a s a n ts a fter the risin g of 1 907 .

As i n teresting a s the r a pid rise in the numb er of te n a nts from

1 8 6 0 to 1 9 1 3 w a s the contr a ry tendency in the number of
a gricultur a l l a bourers The tot a l a rea brought u n der the plough
.
,

a n d the cultiv a tion of whe a t incre a sed enormously dur in g th a t ,

sp a ce of time Yet the proportion of a gricultura l l a bo urers

.

a mong the tot a l number of he a ds of rur a l hou s eholds o n ly rose

from 1 1 9 per ce n t to 1 3 6 p er cent —a much slower gro w th th a n

-
.
1

th a t of the rura l popul a tio n a s a whole

NU M B E R OF L A B O U RERS ( AN D O T H E R P R OF E S S I O N S ) 2

Of
/0

11 9
-

13 6

This curious st a gna tion w a s by no me a ns due— a s the un

initi a ted p erh a ps might b elieve— to the extensive use of el a bora te
m a chines ; quite the co n tra r y Pl a cing the ra pid i n cre a se in the .

number of ten a n t s side by s ide with the slow incre a se in the

numb er of l a bourers one discovers a further ch a ra cteristic of
,

the Rum a ni a n a gr a ri a n s ystem Not only w a s a considera ble .

1
Mm is t ry of Ag riculture , op . ci t , p 13
. .

1
I bid .
, op . ci t , p 12
. .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 237

proportion of l a nd let out from the l a rge est a tes but moreove r , , ,

much of it w a s let to sm a ll c ultiva tors In the a gricul tura l .

sta tistics for 1 9 07 publi shed by M L Golescu the a re a let to

, . .
,

s m a ll cultiv a tor s from properties a bove 1 00 h a w a s given a s .

h a to which h a d to b e a dded gr a zings a b out

.
, ,

h a m a king a tot a l
.
, h a — th a t me a n t a bout 48 per cent . .

of a ll the a ra ble l a nd owned by l a rge proprietors M S erb a n . .

cites the following t a ble from the Rep or t on the App li ca ti on of

th e L a w mcultum l Con tr acts
’

on A
g

H e cta res H e ct res

a H cta res
e H cta res
e

L n d le t t o p s n ts 0 1 a mo y
a ea a 1 ne

r t en

L n d le t t o p e s ts i n meta y ge
a a an
’

Gr i g l t t o p s n ts by t h h a
az n e ea a e .

Gr in g l t t o p s ts by h e d s
az e ea a n a

o f c a ttl ( n o of i m ls )
e . an a

These figur e s o n ly referred to l a nd let to the pe a s a nts on the b a sis

of written a n d duly registered contra ct s but not to such l a nd ,

a s w a s let merely on a verb a l a greement — a widespre a d custom

which en a bled l a rge owners or ten a n ts to impose upon the

pe a s a n ts higher prices th a n those offi cia lly fi x e d Ara ble l a nd .

a n d gr a zing let to the pe a s a nts by verb a l a greeme n ts rose in

cert a in ye a rs to h a ; a n d to this would h a ve to b e a dded

.

perm a nent a n d a r t ifi cia l p a stures In 1 9 1 0 a lone when the num .

,

b er of written contra cts w a s the a uthorities were a ble to

tra ck 8 6 4 verb a l a greements ; but a l a rge n umber rem a i n ed
undiscovered freque n tly with the conniv a nce of the pe a s a n ts
,

themselves who were a fra id of being refused l a nd in the future

,

if they disclosed the h a rd b a rg a ins which l a rge owners or ten a nts

h a d extr a cted from them .

The st a te of things thus reve a led in the offi ci a l reports w a s

con fi r m e d by a priva te inqui ry conducte d by M $ er ba n .
,

m a i n ly in 1 9 1 1 He investiga ted in det a il the situ a tion on twenty

.

e s t a tes from va riou s p a rts of the cou n try a n d representing

,

v a rious ki n d s of a gricultura l undert a kings a Crown dom a in ,

1
Op . ci t
.
, p 35. .
238 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
being included a mong them He foun d th a t of these est a tes only
.

three did not let l a nd to the pe a s a nts— a n d two of them were

f a rmed on progressive li nes quite exception a l in Rum a ni a n
a griculture . Of the tot a l a re a of h a covered by these .

est a tes , h a w a s a ra ble l a nd From t hi s the pe a s a n ts

. .

rented h a in méta yage a n d

. h a on the b a sis of: .

a gricultur a l contr a cts ; i e a ltogether h a or 47 31 per ce n t

. . . .

of the tot a l a ra ble l a nd The fi r st two t a bles given in this section

.

h a d shown th a t 1 9 6 per cent out of a tot a l a re a of 38 2 per cent

-
.
-
.

covered by est a tes a bove 5 00h a were worked in fa rms of a lesser .

size ; a n d a s the c a tegories of fa rms betwee n 1 0 a n d 5 00h a were .

,

on the whole i n sign ifi ca n t in number a n d exten t it followed th a t

, ,

h a lf of the l a rge property a bove 5 00 h a w a s before the w a r .

f a rmed in sm a ll holdings up to 1 0 h a e a ch This genera l con . .

elusion coincides with tha t re a ched by M $ er ba n s speci a l .

’

investig a tion M G M a n tu h a s st a ted th a t the extent of the

. . .

cultiv a ted a re a rose but little between 1 906 a n d 1 9 1 5 but th a t ,

the a rea in the h a nds of the sm a ll cultiva tors incre a sed from
6 5 per cent to 73 88 per ce n t of the a r a ble l a nd These fi gur es
.
-
. .

a re not e a sy to check ; but it is prob a ble th a t pe a s a n t cultiv a tion

inc r e a sed subst a nti a lly a fter the rising of 1 907 p a rtly through ,

the a pplic a tion of the legisl a tive me a sur es describ ed in Ch a pter

I V a n d p a rtly through the volu n t a ry a ction of the l a rge owners
,

a n d ten a nts S ome of them must h a ve found th a t f a rming no

.

longer a ttra cted them whe n the new l a ws in a ugur a ted a stricter
supervision of the w a ges which the pe a s a n ts received for their
l a bour a n d of the prices they p a id for the l a nd they rented .

Thi s forced m a n y l a ndowners e ither to sell out or to cultiva te

more intensively them s elves by investing more c a pit a l whi ch , ,

very few of them were in a position to do In Rum a ni a the move .

1
ment w a s not so a ccentu a ted a s in Russi a especi a lly a s the legisl a ,

tion of 1 907 rem a ined on the whole a de a d letter But one ca n .

tra ce a simil a r effect of the 1 907 rising in the figur e s give n by

M M a ntu a s we ll a s in the growing ch a nge from metayage to
’

.
,

money rent for l a nd t a ken over by pea s a nts from l a rge owners .

1
u i tr ri i
I n R ss a , a f e t h e s ng of 1 9 05 — 6 , s ome cres pa sse d by pur ch as e
a

i nt
o t he h d
a n s of t h e p t
ea s a n s n o t o n e a se o f t h e S
, ly b c u ’
tolypi n l egi s l at i on but a lso ,

bec u
a se of t h e ri
se in w
a e s a n d t h e fa
g i n t h e en 0 1 a n ll r t l d .
 ORGANIZATION OF P ARMIN G 239

This a ppe a rs from the t a ble M S erb a n quotes from the Rep or t
.

ca ti on o th e L a w on Agr i cultum l Con tr a cts a n d even

on th e A
pp li f ,

more cle a rly from the t a ble below which refers to fa rms of less
th a n 1 00 h a : .

Ar ea Area
h e ld on cultiva te d
mo e y re n t in meta ya ge
’

In a study of Rum a ni a s a gra ri a n problem recently published

’

in the second issue of the Agra m a P r obleme— the Bulletin of the

Intern a tion a l Agricultur a l Institute in Moscow the a uthor —
,

M Tim ow ch a r a cteristic a lly dra ws from the a bove t a ble the con
.
,

elusion th a t c a pit a list fa rmin g w a s on the incre a se in Rum a ni a .

Th a t of course is in keeping with the strict Comm uni s t View

, ,

th a t a n y pea s a nt who owns l a nd is a c a pit a list A more c a tholic .

rea di n g of rura l economics will see in these fa cts ra ther the tra ce
of a contra ry development— the gro wth of pe a s a nt f a rmin g a t
the expense of the c a pit a li st fa rmer Th a t a pplies with speci a l
.

force to Rum a ni a where the l a rge sc a le tena nt seldom h a d either

,
-

knowledge or equipment for f a rm i ng a n d litera lly brought n o ,

other contribution to the process of production th a n the c a sh or

credit he could comm a nd M Tim ow s Vie w might h a ve h a d
. .
’

s ome found a tion if the ch a n ge h a d been solely one from rent in

k ind to rent in money But th a t w a s o n ly one side of the

.

evolution The second a n d evidently the more s ign ifi ca n t side

.
, ,

w a s a ch a nge from l a rge sc a le to sm a ll sc a le renting

-

a ch a n ge - —

which incre a sin gly excluded the c a pit a list Moreover M Tim ow .
, .

h a s dra wn his conclusion from the fi gur e s without t a k ing suffi

ci en t l into a ccount some of the peculi a r cir cum st a nces which
y
u a lifi e d those fi gur es a n d ga ve them their true me a ning The
q .

money rent mentioned in the contra cts w a s genera lly merely

a nomin a l f a ctor used a s a me a ns of me a surement a n d tr a ns
, ,

formed in pra ctice into l a bour oblig a tions which in their turn , ,

M i i t y f Agricultur p i t p 35
1
n s r o e, o . c , . .
240 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
were reckoned on a money b a sis Th a t a rr a ngement w a s m a de .

necess a ry by the legisl a tion of 1 907 which dem a nded sep a r a te ,

co n tra cts on a money b a sis for l a b our a n d for rentin g ; but the
, ,

mut a tion w a s a llowed by the la w on Agricultur a l Contra cts ,

a n d the Supreme Agric u l tur a l Coun cil itself st a ted th a t it w a s

a dopted by m a ny l a rge cultiv a tors a s a n a rr a n gement more

pr o t a be to them
fi l 1
.

To c a rry on the a rgum ent a s to the rel a tive p a rt pl a yed by

l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiv a tors in Rum a ni a n a gric ul ture one m a y ,

note the figur e s given b elow which show the distribution of

cultiva tors fa rming for their own a ccount without reg a rd to ,

the form of their te n ure

Pe rc t ge
en a

C ategori es of f rm e rsa Nu m b e r fr o m t t l o a

With

B oth the tot a l a n d the rel a tive number of sm a ll cultiv a tors w a s ,

therefore overwhelming a n d fa r in excess of the simil a r rel a tion

,

i n other Europe a n countrie s Accord ing to fi gur es cited in .

Rum a ni a n st a tistic a l public a tions th a t rel a tion w a s elsewhere ,

a s follows
0 !

/ O

I n R u ma n i a fa r me rs b e l o w 5 h a
,
. 8 1 00
-

( 1 9 1 3)
I n Ge r m a n y fa r m e r s b e l o w 5 h a . 7 6 40
-

( 1 9 07 )
I n H u n ga ry ( up t o 5 7 h a ) . 7 2 70
-

( 18 95 )
I n F ra n c e ( up t o 5 h a ) . 7 1 29
-

( 1 8 9 2)
I n B e l giu m ( up t o 5 h a ) . 68 9 1
-

( 1 904 )
I n D e n ma rk ( up t o 5 h a ) . 53 50
-

( 1 903 )
E
I n n gl a n d ( up t o 8 h a ) . 5 1 48
-

( 1895 )
I n H o ll a n d ( up t o 5 h a ) . 46 70
-

( 18 9 5 )

Th ev a lidity of thi s comp a ri s on is only rel a tive a s a ll these ,

countries Hung a ry excepted were countries of intensive cultiv a

, ,

tion in which a l a rge n umb er of s m a ll cultiv a tors w a s in keepi n g

,

1
Sec M .
Se rb a n , P roblemele n oa s tr e S oc i a le si A gra re, 19 14 p 35 ,
. .

2
Mi n i stry of Agriculture , op . ci t.
, p 15. .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 241

with the n a ture of their a griculture itself ; where a s Rum a ni a n

a griculture w a s prim itively exte n s ive A bro a der cl a ssi fic a tion .

of Rum a ni a n fa rm s m a y be seen in the followi n g t a ble

Ca tegori es of fa ms r Nu mb e r P rc en tage
e

Dwa rf h oldi ngs b e l ow 2 h a ,

.

S m ll h oldin gs 2 1 0 h a
a ,
— .

M ediu m h o ldi g 1 0 100 h a

n s, — .

La rge fa r ms bo v e 1 00 h a
a .

1 00 0 1
-

F our fift h s of the Rum a ni a n cultiv a tors f a rmi n g for their own
-

a ccount therefore held less th a n 5 h a ; 4 7 per ce n t a lone

, ,
.
-
.

fa rmed more th a n 1 0 h a a n d o n ly 0 3 per cent fa rmed over .

-
.

1 00 h a We fi n d in this c a se t h e u s u a l geogra phic a l v a ri a tion

.

a ga in sma llholders predomin a ting in the highl a nd s a n d the

,

l a rger fa rmers in the lowl a n d s where cere a l crops were grown , .

Another a spect of this point n a mely the exte n t of a ra ble l a n d ,

which w a s in the h a nd s of the s e v a riou s c a tegorie s of fa rmers ,

ca n be followed in the t a ble b elow :

P erce n t ge A v r ge
a e a

Cat e go ri e s of of t ot l of t h e
a

fa m s r Nu m b er ra ea c ategory

Tota l 1 00 0 -

1 00 0 -

Fa rms up to 1 0h a th a t is covered or 45 7 per cent , ha .

-
.

of a ll the l a nd cultiva ted which ga ve a n a vera ge of 4 42 11 a per ,

-
.

fa r m in this c a tegory— the most n umerous bei n g ne a r the lower

limit Altogether therefore fa rms with less th a n 1 0 h a r epr e
.
, , .

Mi i try f Agricultu p it p 1 9
1
n s o re, o . c .
, . .

2
Ibid .
, op . ci t .
, p 23 . .

R
242 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
sented no less th a n 9 5 3 p er cen t of the tot a l number of f a rms
-
.

a n d covered 5 5 4 of the tot a l a r a ble l a nd

-
.

Fina lly one might go a s tep further a n d note from the t a ble
,

b elow the proportion of freehold a n d le a sehold l a n d in e a ch

c a tegory of fa rms
Cult i va t e d Ar ea

C a t egori es of f r msa Fre e h old Le ase ho ld

00

The two modes of tenure were n ot equ a lly distributed in the

v a rious c a tegorie s of fa rm s The bulk of the sm a ll exploit a tions
.

consisted of freehold l a nd where a s the l a rger fa rms were to

,

a consider a ble extent composed of rented l a n d Above 1 00 h a . .

,

the rented a re a exceeded th a t held in freehold

520
54 7 -

The s a me phenomenon is illustra ted perh a ps more cle a rly by the

next t a ble which shows wh a t p ercent age of a ll the freehold
,

( a r a ble ) l a nd a n d w h a t of a ll the le a s ehold ( a ra ble ) l a nd w a s

included in the m a in c a tegorie s of a gric ul tura l un dert a k in gs :

F rm
o o f T ure
en

1
M i i try
n s Agof riculture , op . cit , p 30
. .

2
Ibid .
, op ci t , p 34
. . .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 243

Here a ga in the distribution va ried a ccordi n g to regions In the

,
.

Mold avi a n lowl a nds 60 6 per ce n t of the a re a occupied by f a rms

-
.

a bove 5 00 h a w a s re n ted a n d i n the Munteni a n lowl a n ds 5 2 7

-
.
,

per cent These region a l peculi a rities m a y b e followed in the

.

ta ble below which gives the re gion a l percent a ges of the a re a

,

cultiv a ted by its owners

L wl a do n s

of the L wl n d s
o a

C a teg ri es
o S iret n d a of the M ld vi
o a an Mu t i
n en a n

of fa r ms u
R man i a Pruth D ub an e highl an d s highl a d
n s D o broge a

There w a s therefore a gre a t simila rity in the co n ditions which

, ,

prev a iled i n the pla i n s of the severa l provi n ces a s well a s in ,

their moun t a inous regions The difference between highl a n ds .

a n d lowl a nds a rose from th a t competition for l a nd in the

corn growi n g districts to which a ttention h a s been dra w n
-

before .

There is no m a teri a l to show from which c a tegories of property

the ten a nted l a nd w a s obt a in ed But a comp a rison with the .

di stribution of property m a ke s it cle a r th a t the bulk of the l a n d

rented by the sm a ll a n d medium sized fa rmers c a me from the -

l a rge ow n ers a n d not from the mutu a l lettin g of l a nd a mo n g

,

sm a ll a n d medium sized owners S o th a t the pre s e n t o r g a ni z a

-
.
‘

tion of Rum a ni a n a griculture does n ot re fl e ct the prese n t d i st r ibu

tion of property but on the contra ry there is a considera ble
, , ,

tra n s fer of l a n d from the l a rge owners to the medium sized a n d -

’
especi a lly to the sm a ll cultiva tors 1
.

The Rum a n i a n a gra ri a n problem consequently resolved

it s elf l a rgely in to the need for est a bli shi n g a more direct con
n e x i on betwee n ownership a n d f a rming on the l a nd In spite of .

t hi s no a gricultura l census h a s been u n derta ken so fa r to a scer

,

M i i try f Agricultur p i t p 30
1
n s o e, o . c .
, . .

R 2
 244 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
ta in the precise efl e ct s of the reform in th a t respect A grea t .

de a l m a y nevertheless b e le a rnt from the figur es prep a red for

, ,

the purp ose of this study from the fi sca l census for 1 927 of the
Ministry of Fin nce They show th a t in the lower c a tegories of
a
1
.

prop erty o nl y a very sm a ll proportion of the l a nd is now let out ,

the bulk being therefore used by the own ers In the hi gher .

c a tegories the proportion of l a nd let out is still considera ble

, .

It is unlikely however th a t such l a nd is sti ll rented by spee n

, ,

l a ting c a pit a list ten a nts of the kind who fl our i sh e d before the
,

reform but r a ther by p e a s a nts who work the l a nd in meta yage

’

, .

Its p ersist a nce w a s est a bli shed by the in qui ry which the
Mi n istry of Agric ul tur e co n ducted in 1 922 into the extent of the
v a rious sy s tems of cultiva tion in use
A r ea cultiv a te d i n
Pro vi n c e M éta ya ge

T t l
o a 1 1 02 -

In s upport of the point m a de b efore it shoul d b e noted th a t sh a re

cultiva tion w a s previously unknown in Molda vi a where a s ,

renting on a l a rge sca le w a s widespre a d ; a fter the reform of the ,

l a nd ret a ined by the l a rge owners much w a s let i nste a d to

p e a s a nts in méta yage
,
.

Th e h a which the inqui ry of 1 9 22 foun d to h a ve

.

been worked in meta yage fa r exceeded the a re a let out in 1 927 ;

’

a ccordi n g to the fi s c a l ce n su s the l a tter re a ched a tot a l of only

11 a The expl a n a tion of this a pp a rent discrep a ncy is no

.

doubt th a t in 1 922 a p a rt of the expropri a ted l a nd h a d not yet

been tra n s ferred to the pe a s a nts in a fi n al form but w a s used by ,

t hem tempora rily in meta yage ( a n a rr a n gement to which refer

’

ence h a s been m a de in Ch a pter V I in the section on compens a ,

1
S ec T bla es o n pp .246 —7 .

2
G . I o n e cu s -
ti c
S i se s , S tr u t ure A gra i r e ct P rod uc ti on A gr i cole, p 24 . .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 245

tion ) Sh a re cultiva tion w a s still extensive in Munte ni a where

.
,

it predomin a ted before the reform a s well It h a d decre a s ed .

gre a tly in Olt eni a where l a rge ow n ers a n d pe a s a nts a lwa ys

,
-

reputed to b e more enterpris ing th a n other s ections of the

country h a d quickly orga ni zed their fa rmi n g on a n a utonomous
—

footi n g a s w a s most pra ctic a l a fter the reform In Tra n s ylv a ni a

,
.

a n d in Bucovin a the a pplic a tion of the reform w a s still in pro

gress in 1 922 a n d sh a re cultiva tion w a s correspondingly

,

preva lent The lowest percenta ge w a s found in Bess a ra bi a ; there

.

the reform h a d been quick a n d dra stic le a ving the former l a nd ,

owners with merely 1 00 h a e a ch . .

Sh a re cultiva tion— which of course mea nt cultiva tion by the , ,

pe a s a nts w a s used therefore on

—
h a in 1 9 22 or on
, , .
,

1 1 per ce n t of a ll the cultiv a ted l a nd An a re a a bout h a lf a s

. .

l a rge w a s rented by the pe a s a n ts on the b a sis of a n nu a l l a b our

contra cts c a lcul a ted in money The rest of the
,
ha . .

c ul tiva ted in 1 922 consisting m a inly of the sm a ll a n d medium

,

sized pe a s a nt property w a s fa rmed by its owners , .

The figur es obt a ined from the fi s ca l census for 1 9 27 showing ,

the distribution of a ra ble l a n d a mong the v a rious c a tegories of

properties a l s o indic a te how much of th a t l a nd w a s let out in
,

e a ch c a tegory ( see Ta bles pp 246 , .

Oi the sm a l lholdings up to 5 h a which covered a lmost h a lf of .

,

the a r a ble l a nd in the Old Kingdom h a rdly a n ything w a s let a t ,

a ll of the sm a ll properties up to 1 0 h a which a mong them i n .

,

cluded a lmost two thirds of a ll the a ra ble l a nd only 1 44 p er

-

,
-

cent w a s let out a n d of the medium sized property only a mode

.
,
-

ra te proportion But of the l a rger properties a bove 5 0h a a s much

. .

a s 28 7 per cent
-
of thei r a ra ble l a nd w a s let out I n every
. .

c a tegory the percent a ge of the l a nd let out w a s gre a ter th a n the

percent a ge of its owners which suggests th a t it w a s the l a rger ,

properties which in e a ch c a se were not fa rmed by their owners

themselves .

The position a fter the reform is m a de cle a rer by the t a ble on

p. 24 8 which summ a rizes the proportion of a ra ble let out in the
,

four m a in provin ces .

Everywhere therefore a hn ost the whole of the a ra ble l a nd

, ,

held by sm a ll owners w a s worked directly by them ; where a s the

246 THE EFFECTS OF THE RE F ORM

6 e
.
5
6 2
.

: e a
a : .
m o
o m
3 31 n
u
m
l
mm o
s s m .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 247

m m m
o
m f w
fl

E w
w a h w m
o
a
e
u fi d §d fi
o o m w m
o m ; h mm
a
248 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
l a rger proprietors still let out a considera ble proportion of their
est a tes especia lly in the Old Kin gdom a n d in Bucovin a
, .

P E R C ENTA G E S or A R A LE B L AN D L E T O U T F RO M THE VA R OU S I CAT E G O R I E S or

P R O P E R TI E S
1 0— 5 0 5 0— 25 0 IA b o v e Tota l re a a

Pro vi n c es ha . ha. 25 0 h a . le t out

1 . O ld K i gd n o m
2 . Tr ns ylv n i
a a a

3 . B ss ra bi
e a a

4 . Buco vi n a

W h ol e c o u ntry 1 02-

The comp a rison with the pre w a r situ a tion suffers to some -

extent from a diff ere n ce in the n a ture of our m a teri a l The t a bles .

which h a d been give n on ea rli er p a ges to show the distribution

of le a sehold b efore the reform referred to the extent of l a nd
rented by va rious c a tegories of cultiva tors ; where a s the figur e s
of the Min istry of Fin a nce for 1 927 refer to l a nd let out by the
v a rious c a tegories of l an down ers But by t a k ing for the period .

before the reform the p ortion of the cul tiva ted a rea which w a s
re n ted a n d for t h e period a fter the reform th a t portion of the
,

cultiva ted a re a which w a s let out one is e n a bled to est a blish ,

a s uffi ci en t l close comp a ri s on of the a re a which in the two

y
p eriods w a s fa r med not by its owners themselves but by ,

te a nts
n
1
.

While spe a king on the l a n d problem in the Sena te on M a rch ,

6 1 907 M D A S t ur d z a a former le a der of the Liber a l

, , . . .
,

Pa rty decla red th a t the l a rge ow n ers held

, ha i e .
, . .

48 6 9 p er cent of a ll a ra ble l a nd a n d th a t they were letting out

-
.
,

h a i e 6 0 2 per cent M Coles cu s figur e s

’
f r om the s e .
, . .
-
. .

for the s a me ye a r g a ve h a a s be ing rented by p e a s a nts .

1
On e i cid e t l ffe cts f t h e refor m h s b ee t h e di a ppea ra c f l rge
of t he n n a e o a n s n e o a

e s t a t e s wh w er liv e d a broa d 1 1 1 9 26 t h e u m b er of o wn ers 1 i g a br a d a n d

ose o n s . 1 n 1V n o ,

th e a r a of t h l n d th ey h ld w a s foll ows
e e a e , as :

O ld K i gd m 5 6 9 o w e rs h oldi g
n o h n n a

Tr ylv n i a ns a a

B e a r bi ss 407 a a

Buc o vi n 1 48 a

T ot a l
Th e a v e ra g s i of t h h ld m gs h vi ng b een m e re ly 20 h
e ze it i s cl e r th a t ma n y
e o a a .
, a

o w n rs w e r e p a s a t s w h
e h d pr o b a bly m i gr t e d but m ea n t t o re tur
e n , o a a n .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 249

from est a tes of more th a n 1 00 h a which mea nt th a t only some .

,

h a were let to l a rge ten a nts As not a few of these

. .

ten a nts r e let some of the l a nd to the pe a s a n ts it is re a son a ble

-

to a ssume tha t on the whole the pe a s a n t s h a d been rent i ng

a bout two mi llion h a a r a ble l a n d from the l a rge e s t a tes
. Th a t .

is j ust a bout the a re a which the reform h a s t a ken from est a tes
a bove 1 00 h a i n the Old K i ngdom ; hence to th a t extent the
. , ,

ch a nge in ownership h a s not mea nt a n y ch a n ge in the cl a ss of

the users In the Old Kingdom only the other
. h a a r a ble .

distributed to the pe a s a nts h a ve re a lly p a ssed from l a rge sc a le -

to sm a ll s c a le cultiva tors ; with such a dditio n a l l a n d a s the l a rge

-

ow n ers m a y now be lettin g to them .

The extent of a ra ble l a nd fa rmed out a fter the reform ca n

be de r ived from the figur e s of the fisc a l census for 1 927 The .

census employed a different sc a le of c a tegories so th a t l a rge ,

property will be t a ken to in clude a ll properties a bove 5 0 h a .

F rom these , h a were let out of a tot a l of . ha

which mea nt 28 7 per cent The drop from 60 2 to 28 7 per cent
-
.
- -
.

( which would b e grea ter still if the cen sus fi gur e s too h a d , ,

referred to prop erties from 1 00 h a upw a rds ) in the a re a n ot .

fa rmed by the o w ners of l a rge a n d medium properties themselves

represents one of the direct e ffects of the reform Further M .
, .

S t ur d z a put the a r a ble a re a covered by properties up to 1 0 h a .

at h a a n d th a t covered by properties of 1 0— 1 00 h a
.
, .

at h a ; he did not st a te how much of them w a s let out ,

but by a pplyi n g to them the percent a ges est a b lished for their
c a tegories in the 1 927 census h a a ppe a r to h a ve been , .

let out from the fi r st a n d h a from the seco n d of the two .

c a tego r ies n a med a bove Together these m a ke up a tot a l of .

h a i e 31 42 p er cent of a ll the a r a ble l a nd a s h a vin g

.
, . .
-
.

been fa rmed out before the reform ; in 1 9 27 the tot a l fa rmed out
was h a or 8 4 per ce n t Therefore the drop from 31 42
.
-
.
-

to 8 4 p er cen t of a ll a ra ble l a nd let out in the Old Ki n gdom

-
.

con s titutes one of the d efi ni t e a n d s ign ifi ca n t effects of the reform .

The proportion is more fa voura ble sti ll when the new

provinces a r e i n cluded Inform a tion on this point is not a va il a ble
.

for a ll of them M P V S yn a d in o who dislikes the reform h a s

. . . .
, ,

given figur es for Bess a ra bi a to show tha t before the reform the
25 0 THE EFFECTS OF THE RE F ORM ON THE
p e a s a nts used to rent a bout 40 p er cent of the ha . .

exprop r i a ted from the l a rge owners a n d h a lf of the ha , .

t a ken from mon a steries a n d foreig n owners whi ch gives a tot al ,

of some h a or a lmo s t 42 per ce n t of the l a nd t a ken from

. .

the s a id c a tegories ; to which if on e a dds the h a foun d .

a t the time of the reform in the h a nd s of the Pe a s a nt B a n k a n d

h a expropri a ted f r om colonists b elo n gin g to ex enemy

.
-

n a tion s it follows th a t of the

, h a n ow dist r ibuted to .

the B e ss a ra bi a n pe a s a nts 11 a or fully 5 0 per cent h a d

, . .

b een f a rmed by them even before the reform The fi gur e s of the .

Mini s try of F in a n ce give h a a s h a ving b een let out in .

1 927 from the h a a ra ble covered by Bess a r a bi a n .

prop erties a b ove 5 0 h a or 1 6 8 p er cen t ; a n d the tot a l a re a

. ,
-
.

then let out w a s h a or merely 3 4 p er cent of a ll the .

-
.

a ra ble l a n d of the province .

In the whole of Gre a ter Rum a ni a h a were let out in .

1 927 or 23 64 per cent of the

-
. h a a ra ble l a n d i ncluded .

in properties of more th a n 5 0 h a From a ll prop erties l a rge a n d .

,

s m a ll
, h a were let out ; which in other words me a nt th a t
.

of a ll the a r a ble l a nd merely 6 p er cent w a s not fa rmed by the .

ow n ers themselves .

From wh a t h a s b een s a id in the foregoin g p a ges it is cle a r

th a t the gre a t extensio n of l a rge property before the reform h a d
not me a nt th a t fa rming on a l a rge sc a le w a s wi despre a d The .

gre a ter p a rt of the a rea covered by l a rge est a tes w a s let out a n d ,

the bulk of it w a s let to p ea s a nt s Together with such l a n d a s .

they themselves owned the p e a s a nts f a rmed for their own

a ccount a t le a st two thirds a n d possibly three qu a rters of a ll
-

,
-

the a ra ble l a n d in the Old Kingdom The comp a ri s ons a ttempted .

a bove show th a t the tr a nsfer of l a nd is much reduced in the new

s t a te of things The reform h a s led to wh a t one m a y c a ll

.

a s ymbio s is of owner s hip a n d cultiv a tion a n d th a t is a process

which is a lw a ys a dopted when encoura gin g a more in tensive

st a nd a rd of a griculture .

While the reform therefore a s described in the previous

, ,

ch a pter h a s c a used a n e n ormous ch a n ge in the distribution of

,

property it h a s not on the strength of the f a cts a n d fi gur es

, ,

d iscus s ed in thi s s ection c a used a n y subst a nti a l ch a nge in the

,
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 25 1

org a niz a tion of fa rmi ng a s w a s re a dily a n d ra shly a ssumed by

—

most we stern critic s Th a t is the fi r s t proposition which it is

.

necess a ry to keep i n mind in trying to deter mine wh a t effect s the

’
reform h a s h a d on production The reform s m a in result in th a t.

respect h a s b een to produce a n a pproxim a tio n b etween the

distribution of property a n d the di stributio n of a gricultura l
undert a kings in the sphere of l a rge sc a le cultiva tion a s well a s
,
-

in th a t of pe a s an t fa rmin g a consequence which m a rks a grea t

—

a dv a nce on the e a rlier conditions The pe a s a nt who ow n s .

a tolera ble holding h a s a b etter ch a n ce a n d a gre a ter stimulus

to cultiv a te effi ci en t ly th a n h a s the p e a s a n t who rents th a t l a n d

from ye a r to ye a r a n d h a s to b a rter h is b e s t l a bour for it This .

a sp ect of the ch a nge h a s been welcomed even by Professor Ma x

S er i n g who i n other respects h a s frow n ed s everely on the post

,

w a r reforms The pl a cin g of the e a ste r n Europe a n a gra ri a n

.

structure upon a s ystem of p ea s a nt ow n ers hip he co n sider s is n ot , ,

merely a n a dv a nce on wh a t existed before but a l s o in itself ,

‘

a n im rovement on conditions in western Europe where the

p ,

a gr a ri a n system is b a sed upon pe a s a nt te n a n cie s supporti n g a

mostly unproductive cl a ss of l a rge l a ndowners The pr e d om in .

a nce of p e a s a nt ownership though it m a y h a ve dra wb a ck s for

,

the present permits us to hop e th a t in the me a sure in which

,

educ a tion fa rmin g a n d comm unic a tions gra du a lly i mprove dur
,
’
ing the next few dec a des the pe a s a nts h a rd work will ra ise
,

a griculture to a fl our i s hi n
’

g s t a te
1
.

These considera tions a pply not le s s strongly to such l a rge

s c a le property a s is left in Rum a ni a The figur e s we h a ve cited .

show th a t the bulk of the l a rge owners a r e a t present fa rmin g

their l a n d themselves which mea n s a r a dic a l bre a k with the p a st
, .

Through the new conditions of ownership a n d of l a bour which

it h a s brought a bout the reform h a s opened the w a y tow a rds
,

gre a ter economic a utonomy a mong the v a rious cl a s s e s of

fa r ming Hitherto a cra mping in terdependence of l a rge a n d sm a ll
.

cultiv a tors h a s b een one of the domin a nt tra its of R um a n i a s ’

a gr a ri a n system The pea s a nts were to a n oppressive degree

’

dependent on the l a rge owners or ten a nts for l a nd ; a n d the l a rge

cultiva to r s a lmost a ltogether depe n ded on the pe a s a n ts for
1
I ntr ducti
o on t o Th e A gra r i a n R evoluti on i n E ur op e, ed . Prof . Ma x S e ri n g , p 20
. .
25 2 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
me a ns of production Now the l a rge fa rmers h a ve little or no
.

surplus l a nd to give a n d the sm a ll cultiva tors a s they progress

, ,

in technique wi ll h a ve no stock a n d l a bour to sp a re The two

, .

kin ds of fa rmin g a r e being thrown b a ck upon their own resour ces ,

a n d th a t must gr a du a lly le a d them to org a niz e their production

a fter the m a nner which h a s b een found b est for their kind in the

regions where a griculture st a nds on a high level of a chi evement .

For hitherto the work ing a rra n gements in Rum a ni a n a griculture

h a ve been s o peculia r th a t the reform notwi thst a n d ing its ,

va stness h a s c a u s ed a s till lesser ch a nge in the me a ns of cultiva

,

tion th a n it h a s in the sc a le of cultiv a tion .

S E C TI O N 2

TH E CHANGE IN T H E M EANS
PR O D U C TI O N
or

The circum st a nces discussed in the previous sectio n est a b

li sh e d the f a ct tha t a l a rge proportion of the big est a tes h a d
a lw a ys b een in the h a nds of sm a ll cultiv a tors a n d th a t i n c on s e ,

u e n ce the l a nd reform h a s c a used a much lesser ch a nge in the

q
orga niz a tion of f a rmin g th a n in the di vision of prop erty To .

complete th a t picture one must go fur ther a n d con s ider besides

, ,

the ch a nge in the size of f a rms the ch a nge in the methods of

,

fa rmi n g ; the tra n sformi n g effect of the l a nd reform will then

a ppe a r still more reduced .

Duri n g the discu s sion of the reform its critics frequently ,

a rgued th a t if l a rge property w a s useless l a rge sc a le cultiv a tion

,
-

w a s still necess a ry ; especi a lly in a country with so b a ckw a rd a n

’
a griculture a s Rum a n i a s The a rgument touches on the perenn i a l
.

a n d seemingly inexh a u s tible questio n a s to the respective merits

of l a rge a n d sm a ll sc a le cultiv a tion Though ra ised a lre a dy in

-
.

the eighteenth cen tury by the Physiocra t s— w hen the Ac a demy

,

of Arra s offered a priz e for the a blest reply to the question

‘
Which i s the be s t rep a rtition of the soil ?— the problem is fa r ’

from h a vi n g been solved The Physiocra t s of course were

.
, ,

prot a gonists of l a rge sc a le production ; though there were e x ce p

-

tions eve n in their own c a mp The old Libera l school took the
.

s a me s t a n dpoint ; a n d so did a number of Con s erv a tive w riters ,

l a rgely for politic a l re a s o n s If Ad a m Smith J e a n B a ptiste S a y

.
, ,
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 25 3

R a u an d other econ omists drew a ttention to the import a nce of

s m a llholders it w a s to point out th a t they g a ve a l a rger tot a l

output th a n the big fa rmers though they a dm itted th a t the net ,

output of the l a tter might be higher ; a circumst a n ce from which ,

in their opinion s ociety derived considera ble economi c a n d soci a l

,

a dv a nt a ges .

Th e s m a ll ow n e y s P h ilippo vi ch w h o t o a l a r ge e x t en t con
r sa ,

su m e s h i s o w n p r o d u ce mu s t co n s i d e r a b o v e a ll h i s t o t a l ou t p u t
,
Th at .
,

howe v e r m a y be sa i d t o be a p o in t wh i c h con ce r n s t h e n a t ion s e co n o m y

,
’

a s we ll i t i s t o i t s i n t e r e s t t h a t a s l a r ge a n ou t p u t a s p o s s i b l e s h ou l d b
: e

o b t a i n e d fr o m t h e s o i l r a t h e r t h a n t h a t t h e d iffe r e n ce b e twe en co s t o f
,

p r o du c t i on a n d ma r k e t p r ice wh ic h co n s t itut e s t h e n et r e tu r n s h ou l d
— —

be r e d u c e d Th a t i s w h y t h e old P opula t i on i st s l ik e S ii s s m ilch a n d S on n e n

.
,

fe l d s p r a i se d s m a ll p r o p e rt y a s fa v ou r in g t h e i n c r e a s e o f p o pu l a t io n
, ,

w h e r e a s l a r ge p r o p e rt y con tr i bu t es t o d e p o pu l a t i on j u s t b e ca u se a wi d e ,

e x t en t o f la n d i s d i s tr i b u t e d a m on
g a s m a l l n u m b e r o f o wn e r s
1
.

In genera l economists looked a t the issue from the a n gle of

,

industry a n d of the r a pidly growi n g i n dustri a l centre s which

requ i red a generous supply of che a p corn ; a n d there is no doubt
th a t their a ttitude w a s l a rgely in fl uen c e d by wh a t the n s eemed
a n un a lt e r a ble a n a logy between industry a n d a griculture They .

took it for gra nted th a t the conce n tra tion a n d mech a niz a tio n
which were giving such m a rvellous results in one field of produc
tio n would a chieve the s a me wo n ders whe n a dopted in the other .

For both re a so n s M a rxists a n d Soci a lists in gener a l not o n ly

, , ,

a greed with them but went even further a n d plunged for a

progr a m of n a tion a l own ership a n d l a rge sc a le cul tiva tion by -

a rmies of l a bourers
( Co m mu ni s t M a n ifesto ) on the a ssumption ,

th a t the pe a s a nt produced m a in ly for himself but the l a rge est a te

m ai n ly for the m a rket .

Two developmen ts h a ve in the m a in help ed to i n v a lid a te

these a ssumptions in the fi eld of Europe a n a gricultur e The fi rs t .

h a s been the f a bulous exp a nsion of corn growin g in the Vir gin -

l a nds a cross the se a s which h a s put the Eur op ea n corn grower

,
-

out of competitio n Th a t w a s j ust the fi eld in which l a rge sc a le

.
-

fa rmers coul d show cert a in a dva nt a ges over the sm a ll fa rmers ,

a n d the consequence h a s been th a t since the severe a gricultur a l

1
P h ili ppovi ch , A gra rp oli ti k , P a rt I , Oh 2 . .
25 4 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
crisi s in the seventies of l a st century m a ny l a rge est a te s a n d
fa rms h a ve p a ssed into the h a n ds of sm a ll o w ners a n d ten a nts .

Nor h a s th a t ch a n ge me a nt a loss to the n a tion a l economy of the

v a rious countries For the second developmen t the progress in
.
,

the science of a gricultur e h a s shown th a t the l a ws of in dustri a l

,

production do not a lso hold good for the productio n of food stuffs -
.

In a griculture production follows a n a tur a l process which does

not a llow a n in d efi n i t e division of l a bour but o nl y a n a ccumul a
,

tion of l a bour ; a n d this form of intensifying production h a s been

proved to bring in return s which for a number of re a sons , ,

di mi n i s h in the proportion in which the siz e of the a gric ul tura l

undert a king incre a ses a s illustra ted by the s o c a ll ed circles of
,
-

Th ii n en More recen t i n qu i ries h a ve shown th a t this is true not

.

o n ly of the tot a l output which w a s often conceded but a lso of

, ,

net p r oduction It might be useful to quote here one inqu i ry

.
,

bec a use of its cle a r results a n d of the gre a t comp etence of its
a uthor . The director of the Swiss Pe a s a nt S ecret a ri a t Professor ,

Ern e s t L a ur who is a member of the Le a gue of N a tions Com

,
’

m itt ee on Agricultur a l Questions h a v i ng worked out returns on

,

c a pit a l for va rious c a tegories of S wiss f a rms over a p eriod of

twe n ty ye a r s ( 1 901 h a s obt a i n ed the follow i ng a vera ges in ,

Swiss fra ncs :

S ize of r
fa m

This i s not the pl a ce to j oin issues with the prot a go n ists of

one or the other school especi a lly a s the theoretic a l b a sis of the
,

discu s sion is not yet s uffi c i en t ly stren gthened with experime n t .

It is undeni a ble however th a t c a pit a list society h a s regula rly

, ,

followed the dict a tes of its economic intere sts — i n the mech a nized
nineteenth century more th a n ever— a n d th a t it wo ul d inevit a bly
h a ve steered t owa rds a concentra tion of prop erty a n d production
if it h a d found th a t form a s pr ofit a ble in a griculture a s it did in
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 25 5

i n du stry St a tistics show inste a d th a t everywhere the trend h a s

.

bee n a w a y from the l a rge unit of production— a unique inst a n ce

of the devi a tio n of a whole industry from the despotic progress
of the l a rge economic unit in the c a pit a list er a .

But in Rum a ni a th a t evolution h a s b een a ltogether differe n t

very l a rge a gricultur a l undert a kin g s persisted a n d prospered .

On the f a ce of things it w a s therefore pl a usible to a rgue th a t they

persisted bec a use they still h a d a function to fulfi l ; even if the
a rgument in f a vour of l a rge owners a n d cultiv a tors w a s qu a li
’
fie d by a reference to the b a ckw a rd st a te of the country s
a griculture It w a s implied th a t wh a tever economic progress
.
,

the pe a sa nts might a chieve in a ne a r or mo r e di s t a nt future they ,

h a d s till to b e guided tow a rds it by the l a rge cultiv a tor s And .

tho s e who m a de use of thi s a rgument for the purpose of opposing

exprop r i a tion or of ple a din g for a limited reform b a sed it on the ,

p a rt which the l a rge cultiva tor s h a d pl a yed in ope n i n g up

Rum a ni a s unploughed soil All the economic prosperity a n d the
’
.

civiliz a tion of Rum a ni a a ffi r m e d M Ga r ofli d w a s due to the

, .
,

l a rge cultiv a tors ; it w a s they who a fter the Trea ty of Adri a nople
a n d l a ter a ft e r the denunci a tion of the t a riff convention with
, ,

Au stri a forced the pe a s a nts to ch a n ge from p a stora l to a gr icul

,

tura l pursuits A n other economist who t a kes a symp a thetic

.
,

interest in the pea s a nt s priva tely a dmitted th a t t h e much ,

a bused ten a nts h a d been a n import a n t a ge n t in such progre s s

a s Rum a ni a n a griculture h a d m a de though the contr a ry Vie w ,

h a d ge er a lly been expres ed for soci a l or n a tiona list prop a ga nd a

n s
1
.

The ten a nts he pointed out were en tr ep r en eur s whose o n ly

, , ,

interest w a s to obt a in the gre a test net return from the l a n d they
rented Hen ce their c a pit a l investme n ts we n t into productive
.

cha nnels— de a d a n d li ve stock selected seed & c —a n d they , , .

super vised cultiva tion themselves often livi n g throughout the ,

period of a gricultura l l a bours in a pea s a nt hut The l a rge owners .

,

on the contra ry led a p a tria rch a l life ; their m a in i n vestmen ts

,

were in roomy cou n try houses a n d other a menitie s for their -

priv a te life a n d most of their time w a s spent a w a y from their

,

est a te s not i n freque n tly a bro a d Ten a n ts who a fter ye a rs of

, .

1
Of t h e t w o m l o n h a a a e a n i li . r bl l d which t h e l a rg e ow n e sr u sed t o le t o ut , o ver
ha w r
e e le t t o
. e w s a n d t o fo J re i gne rs .
25 6 THE EFFECTS OF THE RE F ORM ON THE
h a rd work h a d become owners themselves not seldom fell into ,

the s a me w a steful w a ys .

A Conserva tive writer M R Ma n d r e a put the a rgum ent for

, . .
,

the l a rge cul tiva tors on a wi der b a sis a n d m a int a ined th a t the
whole system they represented could not yet b e dispensed w ith
for re a sons of St a te We b elieve th a t a t present l a rge property
.

’
is still the only productive f a ctor in our country Extensive .

fa rming w a s still needed for the p a yment of in dispens a ble

imports ; a n d though two thirds of the l a nd w a s in the h an ds of
-

sm a ll cultiv a tors yet the only produce th a t is exported the

,
‘
,

o n ly one which ca n comp ete in the foreign m a rkets is sti ll the ,

produce of the l a rge est a tes a lo n e The pe a s a nt l a nds were ’

.

misera ble their cultiva tion primitive a n d their produce

, , ,

when they h a d a surplus u n s a le a ble unless mix ed with corn

, ,

from the l a rge fa rmers M Ga r ofli d used a simila r a rg u ment in

. .

‘
the Memora n dum of the L a rge Cul tiva tors presented to the ’

King in 1 920 It beg a n by pointing out th a t the org a nism of

, .

the St a te w a s m a i n t a i n ed with resources obt a ined from exp orts ,

a n d th a t in Rum a ni a such resources could b e supplied by

a griculture a lone In the West it h a d b een possible for the l a nd

.

to p a ss without d a n ger to the p e a s a nts : economic exp a nsion

cre a ted town s which offered a m a rket for a gric ul tura l produce ,

while exports were kept up by industry In Rum a ni a however .

, ,

condition s limited export for a long time to a gricultura l r a w

m a teri a ls but their export w a s pr ofi t a ble o n ly a s long a s t hey
,

were produced e xte n sively S o fa r the profession a l tra ining a n d

.
,

the economic impulse of the pea s a nts h a d not re a ched a point

where sm a ll cultiva tion might t a ke the pl a ce of the l a rge
extensive cultiva tion in supplying a surplus for export .

Even the defenders of l a rge cultiva tion in Rum a ni a there ,

fore did n ot cl a im for it a n enduring superiority They sup

, .

ported it with the historic a l a rgument of its useful p a st a n d with

the politic a l a rgument of its immedi a te s ervices to the St a te .

But whe n it c a me to the technic a l a rgumen t they merely ,

dem a n ded a st a y of execution until sm a ll cultiva tion should h a ve

fi n i s h e d i t s a pprenticeship This discussion on the rel a tive
.

merits of l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiv a tion in Rum a n i a h a s more th a n

a mere theoretic a l v a lue for the purpose of our study O n ly by .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARM I NG 25 7
’
elucid a tin g the ch a ra cteristic a spects of Rum a nia s former
a gr a ri a n struct ure which a r e in themselves of gre a t in terest for
,

the r ura l sociologist c a n one help the re a der to a proper under

,

st a ndi n g of the new reform O nl y a study of those e a rlier condi .

tions could expl a in how such a revolutiona ry redi stribution of

property— revolution a ry in extent a n d in speed co uld pos si bly —

h a ve come to p a ss without upsettin g for a prolonged period the

economi c a ctivities of the co untryside .

The former orga ni z a tion of Rum a ni a n a griculture di spl a yed

fe a tures which h a d not existed a t a ll or h a d long dis a ppe a red
elsewhere For tha t re a son the weighin g of the respective merits
.

of l a rge a n d sma ll cultiva tion coul d not in this c a se be me a sured

by the usu a l st a nda rds Neither form of f a rming w a s com .

p a ra ble to its western co unterp a rt B oth of them were still .

tethered to a primitive technique sm a ll cultiva tion being ,

exte n sive an d l a rge cultiva tion la t i fun di a r y An ill um ina ting .

di scussion of the l a tter form of exploita tion which ga ve Rum a ,

ni a n a gricult ure its distin ctiveness is to b e found in M Ga r ofi i d s

’
.
,

Ch es ti a A gr a r d ( 1 9 20 edi tio n pp 1 63 , .

M Ga r ofli d st a rted by e s t a blish ing th a t where a s elsewhere

.

l a nd properties were being broken up Rum a ni a displ a yed a ,

‘
co n tr a ry phenomenon Concentra tion of a gricultura l exploit a
.

tion is growi ng a n d l a rge sc a le fa rm i ng is overcoming sm a ll -

c ul tiva tion We h a ve here a pec uli a r economic org a ni z a tion

.

’
which ena bles excessively l a rge exploit a tio n s to b e profi t a ble 1
.

The a dva n t a ges of la t ifun di a ry exploit a tion were rooted i n the

’
bel a ted unfolding of Rum a n i a s a gra ri a n problem a n d not a s , ,

might seem a t a dist a nce in the superior out fi t of the l a rge sc a le

,
-

producer F or in the fi r st pl a ce la t ifun d ia r y exploit a tion w a s

.
, ,

not j ust ifi e d by a better o r g a niz a tion for production The few .

fa rmers who a bout the turn of the century a ttempted to c a rry

, ,

on such a n exploit a tion wi th the usu a l c a pit a list me a n s especi a lly ,

in the steppes of the I a lomit a a n d Brail a counties fa il ed in fa ct ,

b a dly Nor w a s the succe s s of th a t system in Rum a ni a expl a i n ed

.

by a gre a ter fertility of the so il ; the much higher fertility of the

1
I t h uld be ot d th a t M G ofl id s b oo k w a s ori gi a lly publi s he d i 1 9 08
s o n e . ar
’
n n .

We h a ve p i te d out th t a fte r t h e ri i g of 1 907 t h ge e ra l te d e cy t w a rd s t h e

o n a s n e n n n o

brea k up of l rge e sta t s b eg t o m k e it elf fe lt i n R u m a i a a w e ll a d i n a v e ry

-
a e an a s n s , n

pr ou n c ed d gre e i t h e n e ighb uri ng R u ss i an e m pir

on e n o e .

S
25 8 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
virgin Americ a n soil h a s not produced a nythi ng s imi l a r Nor .
,

fi n a lly w a s it expl a ined by the che a pness of rent The a ver a ge

, .

revenues given in M R Ca pit an ea n u s Recen sd md n tul F i s ca l

. .
’

( Fisc a l Census ) 1 905 were, ,

Lei 30 41 -
p er ha . for prop erties of 1 00— 5 00 h a . and

26 1 6 -
a bove 5 00 h a .

Rent therefore decrea sed with the gre a ter extent of the
, ,

property but the difference w a s not suffi cie n t ly gre a t to expl a in

,

the a dva nt a ges enj oyed by la t ifun di a r y cultiva tion None of .

these fa ctors offered a clue to its existence in Rum a ni a n or did

they m a ke cle a r the re a so n why the te n dency of a ll Rum a ni a n ‘

l a rge sc a le cultiva tion w a s to i n cre a se its revenue by concentra

-

’
ting exploit a tion a n d not by ra is ing production .

T 0 get to the bottom of th a t economic p a ra dox one must begin

by noting tha t the essenti a l fea ture of fa rmin g on such a l a rge
sc a le w a s the perform a nce of a gricultur a l l a bour s a t a gre a t
dist a nce The possibility of such l a bour s expl a ins the existence
.

of la t ifun di a r y fa rmin g Now this phe n omenon w a s peculi a r to

.
,

Rum a ni a n a gric ulture ; it a pplied not only to the a re a exploited

on a l a rge sc a le but like wise to the l a nd which the pe a s a nts
,

rented from the l a rge property a n d even to a con sid er a ble p ort i on ,

of their own sm a ll property frequently situ a ted a t a dista nce of ,

severa l kilometres from the V i ll a ge As th a t form of cultiva tion .

involved a n enormous wa st a ge of t ime this h a d to b e compens a ted

by a n excessive num b er of te a ms the va rious l a bours h a ving to ,

b e p erformed within li mited p eriods In 1 900 the num b er of .

,

dra ught a nim a ls employed on the l a nd w a s oxen

a nd horses together ,
a ni m a ls which g a ve a n ,

a ver a ge of one a nim a l to 2 79 h a of cultiv a ted a re a ; a n d reckon

-
.

in g four a nim a ls to e a ch te a m the proportion w a s one te a m or ,

plough to 1 1 1 6 h a Tha t coin cided with the num b er of ploughs

.

working h a in 1 9 05 In the opini on of .

, .

Kra fft the economic m a rgin in a three fi eld system woul d b e

,
-

three ploughs to 1 00 11 a It is true th a t in a system of sm a ll

.

holdings the numb er of cultiva tors determ ines the numb er of

ploughs a n d te a ms but in Rum a nia their excess w a s due n o
,

doubt a s much to the gre a t dist a nce a t which the l a bours h a d

 ORG ANIZATION OF FARMING 25 9

to be performed In Fra n ce e g where sm a ll culture pr e d om i

.
, . .
,

ma ted a n d where the a vera ge size of a holdi n g w a s a bout the

s a me a s in Rum a ni a the a vera ge worked out in 1 8 92 a t one
,

a ni m a l to 6 5 h a ; a n d th a t w a s gener a lly considered excessive

.
.

It is a lso true tha t one must t a ke into a ccou n t the qu a lity of the
a ni m a ls ; but the poor qu a lity of the Rum a n i a n stock w a s off s et

1 0— 1 2 ce n tim etre s deep a s

by the light n a ture of the ploughi g n ,

a g a i n st 20—25 centimetres in Fr a nce Moreover the rel a tively .

,

l a rge number of te a ms in Fra nce w a s due to her intensive a gri

culture which required rep e a ted l a bours ; though the element a ry
,

ch a ra cter of Rum a n i a n fa rming w a s in its turn p a rtly o ffset by

the widespre a d cultiva tion of corn which c a used a grea t rush ,

of c a rting dem a nd ing m a ny te a ms in J uly Ta kin g a ll in a ll

, , .
,

there is no doubt th a t the excessive n umber of te a ms in Rum a ni a

w a s due to la t ifun d i a r y cultiva tion to m a ke u p for the dist a nce ,

a t which the v a rious l a bours we r e c a rried out And a s a ll a gri .

cultura l economists a gree th a t l a bours performed even a t a

modera te dist a nce a r e a pt to sw a ll ow up the whole profi t it is ,

undeni a ble th a t la t ifun d ia ry cultiv a tion is uneconomic a n d th a t

it forms a n imp a ss a ble obst a cle to the in t en sifi ca t ion of fa rming
For in the me a sure in whi ch fa rming becomes more intensive the
va rious a gricultur a l l a bo urs become hea vier a n d more frequent ,

the contin uous c a re of the crop a necessity a n d the m a sses to be ,

tra n sported more bulk y Hen ce such in t en sifica t ion w a s b a rred

.
,

a s long a s f a rm i ng w a s c a rried on a t a gre a t dist a nce i e a s long , . .

a s th a t form of nom a d cultiva tion a s M Ga r ofli d c a ll ed i t

‘ ’
, .
,

which kept men a n d be a sts during weeks on end in the fi e ld s ,

continued .

The obnoxious effects of th a t form of cultiva tion were

indirectly est a b li s hed by cert a in hypothetic a l c a lcul a tio n s u n der
ta ken by M Ga r ofli d If th a t form of cultiva tion h a d dis a ppe a red
. .

a n d the a ver a ge num ber of a nim a ls h a d become the s a me a s in

Fra nce , a n i m a ls would h a ve been s uffi ci en t for the needs

of Rum a ni a n a gric ul ture Th a t would h a ve me a nt a n economy

.

of a n i m a ls which were s imply used to overcome the

,

dist a nce a n d would a t once h a ve set free either for crops or for
, ,

c a ttle breeding the whole of the a re a used for the feeding of tha t
,

excess of tea ms The whole system w a s m a de worse by the long

.

8 2
 26 0 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
sh a p e of most Rum a ni a n est a tes a h er it a ge from the old p a stora l ,

fa rm On a n a vera ge est a te of
. h a the di st a nce from the .
,

home fa rm to its extremities woul d h a ve been a bout 1 2 5 kilo -

metres Assum ing th a t no more th a n 8 kilometres h a d to b e

.

covered for e a ch kind of l a bour th a t the norm a l speed of a n ,

o x te a m is 2—2 5 kilometres per hour a n d th a t the summ er d a

y
- - -

l a sts a b out fourteen hour s— it woul d a pp e a r th a t with modera te ,

h a lts for resting a n d feeding there could ha ve been left onl y ,

four to fi ve worki ng hours e a ch d a y One must a d d to th a t the .

Very ba d st a te of the ro a ds so th a t the a ni m a ls— a s a n e a rlier

,

economist M M a ior h a d pointed out— a rrive h a lf tired a t the

, .
,
‘

pl a ce where they h a ve to begin their l a bours

These conclusions were evidently a pplic a ble to a ll a gr i cul
t ur a l l a bours performed under such condi tions How then .
, ,

could the system persi s t ? It is profit a ble only b eca use the whole
of such l a bour is performed with the a nim a ls the implements , ,

a n d the h a nds of the pe a s a nts Th i s is the tech n i ca l mea n s of.

r od ucti on of l a rge sc a le cultiv a tion ; a n d the whole loss resultin g

p
-

from the un economic org a niz a tion of l a bour fa lls ent i rely upon
’
the p e a s a nts The pe a s a nts were in need of l a nd a n d the l a rge
.
,

cultiva tors entered into a gricultur a l contra cts onl y with those
p ea s a nts who h a d te a ms of thei r ow n The inquiry conducted .

by the M ini stry of Agriculture in 1 8 99 est a blished th a t 9 2 per

cent of a ll the dra ught a nim a ls b elonged to the p ea s a nts a n d
.

8 p er cent to the l a rge c ul tiva tors ; while 9 3 7 per cent belonged

.
-
.

to the pe a s a nts a n d 6 3 per cent to the l a rge cul tiv a tors a ccord
-
.

i n g to the st a tistics of 1 903 Likewise the inquiry of 1 907 found

.
,

th a t the p ea s a nts owned 92 6 7 of a ll the ploughs a n d 95 8 per - -

cent of a ll the c a rts while the l a rge f a rmers owned merely

.

7 4 per cent of the ploughs a n d 4 2 per cent of the c a rts As

-
.
-
. .
,

therefore most te a ms a n d im plements b elonged to the pe a s a nts

, ,

the loss resultin g from their u n economic use fell i n the s a me

proportion upon the pe a s a n ts too , .

On a n y kind of c a lcula tion it w a s evident th a t l a rge sc al e -

cultiv a tion would h a ve dis a ppe a red long a go if it h a d b een c a rried

on with its own tea ms As the l a rge c ultiva tors exploited .

h a they woul d h a ve requir ed

.
,
te a ms of four
ox en e a ch on the a vera ge of one a nim a l to 2 7 h a Reckoning
,
-
.
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 26 1

the cost of upkeep for a team together w ith in terest on c a pit a l

, ,

at 8 5 1
1 lei yea rly the tot a l ye a rly cost would h a ve b een
,

lei On the other h a nd the cost of the v a rious

. ,

l a bours for the cultiva tion of the a b ove a rea including the ,

ca rt ing of the crops to the ra ilw a y st a tion a mounted a t the ,

ra tes curren t when M Ga r ofli d s book w a s written to 41 lei per

.
’

ha .
,
so th a t the tot a l outl a y of l a rge cultiv a tion for l a bour
re a ched lei The difference b etween the two gross
.

sum s would h a ve been nea rly equ a l to a ll the ren t a l v a lue of the
a re a covered by l a rge sc a le c ul tiv a tion No doubt if the l a rge
-
.
,

f a rmers h a d kept their own te a ms they would h a ve reduced the

tot a l num ber M Ga r ofli d poi ted out th a t the c a rtin g of the
.

n .

crop which r equi 1 ed the m a xim um of l a bo ur i n the mini mum

,
‘

of time determines the number of te a ms a n d the a re a they work

’
,
.

An d he de monstra ted by c a reful c a lcula tions tha t if the l a rge

fa rmers h a d kept te a ms of their ow n merely for the or d in a ry
l a bours c a rting being done with a d di tion a l hired te a ms the cost
, ,

of the c a rting a lone woul d h a ve been a bout 24 lei per h a ; .

where a s un der existing con di tions the la t ifun d ia r y form of

c ul tiva tion could only a fford a bout 6 lei for th a t purpose The .

difference would h a ve s uffi ce d to sw a ll ow up its whole pr ofit s .

Indeed c a rting with their own te a ms would a lone sufii ce to

,
‘

destroy the excessively l a rge undert a kings a s the rem a ining ,

r ofi t of 9 34 lei per h a reckoni n g the other l a bour s a t contra ct

p
-
.
,

ra tes is not suffi ci en t to cover interest on c a pit a l pr ofi t a n d

,
’
,

risks And if th a t were true of whe a t it w a s truer still of b a rley

.
,

a n d o a ts a s the cost of production w a s a bout the s a me where a s

, ,

the gross va lue per h a of the produce w a s much lower I i . .

‘

nevertheless our soil produced milli ons of hectolitres of corn in

such uneconomic conditions of l a bour it is beca use the whole ,
’
loss resultin g from their cultiva tion fell upon the pe a s a nt .

The origin of la t ifun d ia r y cultiva tion resided in the rel a tive

prosperity of the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nts till a lmost the end of the
eighteenth centur y a prosperity which found expression a bove
,

a ll in the a bun d a n ce of live stock Ha d the introduction of corn .

growing not found the pe a s a nts thus e quipp ed w ith te a ms a n d

ploughs la t ifun d iary cultiva tion co uld not h a ve come into being
, .

1
All th es e figure s refe r t o t h e p re -
wa r ra te of c urre cy
n .
26 2 THE EFFECTS OF THE R E F ORM ON THE
L a ter in their fooli shn ess a n d greed the l a rge owners a n d ten a n ts
, ,

overre a ched themselves a n d a lmost destroyed the te a ms whi ch

supported their exploit a tion by con st an tly r a is ing the price of
gra z ing But the me a sur es for the est a blishment of comm un a l
.

gra zings which were me a nt to help the p e a s a nts re a lly s a ved

, ,

the extensive cultiv a tors ; they c a me in the ni ck of time to

’
en a ble the pea s a nts a nim a ls to exist a n d in their tur n to keep , ,

la t ifun di a r y cultiv a tion goin g The system of c ul tiva tion by

.

contra ct ing with pe a s a nts who own ed their own te a ms w a s so

old a n d widespre a d th a t the problem of di st a nce never troubled
the l a rge fa rmers They left a ll the l a bour s in the c a re of the
.

p j
e a sa n t s ust a s they left the soil i n the c a re of n a ture Th a t st a te
, .

of mind w a s ill ustra ted by the c a se of a cul tiva tor who fa rmed
a n est a te 20 k i lometres long He h a d contra cts with Vi ll agers
.

living a t both ends of the est a te a n d in order to gu a rd his crops

,

a g a inst pil ferin g which w a s e a sier ne a rer the home of the

,

l a bourers he g a ve to e a ch of the two Vill a ges l a nd a t the other

,

extremity of the est a te ; so th a t the villa gers h a d to tra vel a bout

40 kilometres to a n d from their l a bour s .

It will b e seen th a t the s e l a rge a gricultur a l un dert a kin gs were

comp a ra ble only in p a rt to big industry N 0 big industry coul d .

ra ise its pr ofi t s by deb a sing its equipment a s a m a tter of con

t i n uous policy But in the la t ifun di a ry f a rms the instrum ent of
.

production w a s not owned by c a pit a l a n d th a t di ssoci a tion ,

en a bled the one to m a ke a good living from the depreci a tion of

the other The la t ifun d ia ry fa rm h a d the form of a c a pit a list
.

undert a king of productio n but not its ends The exp a nsion of
, .

a l a rge industry w a s limited by the possibil ities of the m a rket ;

th a t of a la t ifun d ia ry fa rm w a s limited solely by the degree to

which the i n strument of production could b e depreci a ted .

Hence these u n dert a king s could a dopt the purest system of

exte n sive cultiv a tion a s their pr ofi t s incre a sed a rithmetic a lly
,

with the a rea of the exploit a tion In contra st to the evolution

.

of f a rming everywhere else Rum a ni a n fa rmi n g w a s a ctu a ll y

,

showing a tendency tow a rds concentra tion The numb er of the .

l a rge c a pit a list fa rms decrea sed from 1 904 to 1 906 but the tot a l ,

a re a they exploited incre a sed from to ha .

,

a n d the a ver a ge extent from 35 7 to 470 h a The system cre a ted .

 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 26 3

a cl a ss of c a pit a list entrepreneur s a s one m a y see from the fa ct ,

tha t ten a nt fa rmi n g rose in direct rel a tion to the size of the
undert a king This is shown by the fi gur es for 1 9 05 rel a ting to
.

fa rms a bove 1 00 h a .

The cre a tion of enormous trusts proved th a t the system w a s

pro it a ble It multiplied its pr ofi t s not by ra ising the produc
f 1
.

t ivi t y of the soil or by cre a ting a ccessory a gricultur a l under

t a ki n gs either of which wo uld h a ve required much c a pit a l a n d
,

effort but solely by the stringent restriction of outl a y a n d the

,

co n sta nt depression of the va lue of l a bour In yea rs of crisis no .

a ttempt w a s m a de to meet the situ a tion by improving produc

tion but simply by reducing expenses a ll round e s peci a lly for

, ,

l a bour In 1 8 94 a n d the followin g ye a rs when the f a ll in corn

.
,

prices c a used a serious fa ll in pr ofi t s the conditions of a gr i cul ,

tur a l contra ct s bec a me suddenly a n d m a teri a lly h a rder Sin ce .

1 8 5 0 the rent of l a nd h a d risen tenfold a n d more but the price of ,

l a bour h a d rem a ined st a tiona ry As productio n di d not keep p a ce .

W ith the incre a se in rent th a t incre a se could h a ve t a ken pl a ce ,

only a t the exp ense of l a bour With b etter production rent might .

’
h a ve b een a s high w ithout such a severe depreci a tion of l a bour s
rew a rd But in Rum a ni a n a gricultur e a s M Ga r oflid s a id rent
.
, .
,

did not represent merely a compens a tion for the use of the l a nd .

The soi l like the l a b ourer w a s being swe a ted

, Together wi th ,
’
.
‘

corn we a lso export soil— therein li es the whole secret of our

a gricul tur a l system which en a bles us to compete with the corn
,
’
produced by western a gricultur e with the help of m a nures .

This sketch of a system whose cur ious structure a n d workings

would deserve a more det a iled description is fully supported by ,

the genera l figur e s of Rum a ni a s a gricultura l st a tistics ; a s we ll ’

a s by the more instructive though p a infully few specia l , ,

inqui ries One of the best w a s the inquiry m a de by M Serb a n

. .

Th t f t h br th r F i ch r i M ld vi r t d
1
a o e o h i 1 9 03
e s d
s e , n o a a, en e a . n an
h a i n 1 9 05
. . I t p id tota l renta l of
a a le i ye rly a .
26 4 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE

into the det a iled orga n iz a tion of twenty est a tes imm edi a tely ,

before the Wa r ; incomplete d a t a referrin g to eighty other

est a tes b eing used in checking the conclusions The est a tes were .

chosen by M S erb a n so a s to represent a va riety of geogra phi c a l

.

regions a n d of types of f a rmin g ; they included one big Cro w n

dom a in a n d two model est a tes a n d a ltogether they were of ,

a b etter cl a ss th a n the m a j ority The a re a f a rmed by the owners .

themselves w a s a bove the genera l a vera ge a n d so w a s the ,

qu a ntity a n d qu a lity of the live a n d de a d stock Where a s these .

est a tes e g in cluded merely 2 per cent of the tot a l a re a covered

, . .
, .

by l a rge property they possessed 1 0 per cent of the number of , .

motor ploughs in the country .

One c a n not give more th a n a s umm a ry of the res ul ts a rrived

a t by M er b
S
’
a n s inqui ry here
. It est a bli shed th a t the tot a l .

c a pit a l invested in these undert a kin gs a ver a ged 9 4 01 lei per h a ; -

.

thi s fell much below the mi ni m um of a num ber of Germ a n

inqui ries which fo und a vera ges runn in g from 206 25 lei to
,
-

1 032 5 0 lei per h a

-
The Rum a ni a n figur e w a s divided a s .

follows : 26 1 5 lei for li ve stock 27 41 lei for de a d stock ( t a ken

-

,
-

a t its origin a l cost ) a n d 46 44 lei workin g c a pit a l ( c a sh o nl y )

,
-
,

representing respectively 2 62 p er cen t 2 75 p er cent a n d 4 6 5 -

.
,
-
.
,
-

per cent of the tot a l c a pit a l va lue of the un dert a king These
. .

proportions were inverse to the norms preva ilin g elsewhere the ,

va lue of live stock in the more develop ed countries bein g genera lly
twice a s high a s th a t of the de a d stock a n d the working c a pita l ,

a bout one h a lf of the re a l e s t a te

-
1
Ag a in the b uildin gs on the .
,

a b ove est a tes represented 8 6 p er cent of the tot a l re a l est a te -

.

( l a nd a n d bui ldings ) which comp a red b a dly with the Germ an ,

fi gur e s of 25 — 5 0 per cent The v a lue of i mprovements on the .

Rum a ni a n est a tes only a mounted to 0 3 per cent of the rea l -

.

est a te It must be repe a ted th a t M S erb a n h a d picked out

. .

exceptio n a l est a tes a s his figur e s a r e hi gher th a n those of other

,

i nquiries .

1
Ou t h e M ld vi
t t dir e ct cultiv ti on w as more ge r l n d th e y dis pl y ed
o a a n es a es a ne a a a

i n c ons qu e n c e a b e tt r quip m n t I n M o ld vi t h e v a lu e of t h e dr a u ght a im ls

e e e e . a a n a

w s 21 76 l i p r h a a d i M u n te i o n ly 8 7 2 l i Thi s w as con fi me d by t h e high e r

a
-
e e . n n n a
-
e . r

pr p orti o f w orki ng c a pita l i M u te i a ; it did n t pr v e a more a ctiv e e xplo itati o

o n o n n n o o n,

but 0 1 t h e c tra ry a gre a te r re li a n c e o n hired tea m a n d i mpl e m n ts wh n ce

, 1 on , s e , e

re s ulted a grea te r ee d for c as h n .

 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 26 5

As reg a rds l a bour M Serb a n est a blished a n a vera ge of

, .

1 0 5 perm a n ent l a bourer s for e a ch hun dr ed h a of cultures F 0 1 . .

purposes of comp a rison one must t a ke into a ccoun t the qu a lity

of th a t l a bour ; the execution of the va rious l a bours for the grow
i n g of one h a of whe a t required 6 737 d a ys ( oi ten hour s ) in
.
-

Germ a ny a n d 1 0 2 d a ys in Rum a ni a Ou the modera te a s s ump

-
.

tion therefore th a t the qu a lit a tive rel a tion of Rum a n i a n to

, ,

Germ a n l a bour w a s a s 8 : 1 0 the Rum a n i a n a vera ge fell to 8 4 ,

-

p erm a nent l a bour ers for 1 00 h a a s a g a in st a Germ a n a vera ge .

,

of 1 6 5 7 The Rum a ni a n fi gur es rem a ined even below those

-
.

c a lcul a ted by Th a er for Germ a ny more tha n a hundred ye a rs

a o A n d in f a ct cert a in l a rge est a tes were found by M S erb a n
g .
, ,
.

to b e worked with 4 22 perm a nent l a bourers for 1 00 h a of -

.

cultiva ted s urfa ce In la t ifun d ia r y cultiva tion the fa rmer h a d

.

no interest in employi n g more l a bour if thi s r a ised production

merely by a n a mo unt equ a l to the cost of th a t a ddition a l l a b our ;
nor h a d he a n y interest in repea tin g l a b ours solely for the p ur pose
of distributing hi s fi x e d ye a rly outl a y over severa l of them .

Th a t would h a ve brought h im no speci a l pr ofi t though it ,

cert a i n ly woul d h a ve b een a g ai n to n a tion a l economy .

Fin a lly on none of these est a tes w a s an y use b eing m a de of

,

the fa rmya rd m a nure Ar t ifi cia l m a nures were qui te unknown

. .

These f a cts a n d figur es indubit a bly proved th a t the l a rge

f a rms were poorly equipp ed with de a d stock a n d worse still wi th
live stock ; a n d th a t in gen era l they were being worked on a low
m a rgin of c a pit a l the a vera ge level fa lli ng much below a r a tiona l
,

minimum To m a ke the picture more a ccura te one woul d h a ve

.

to go beyond fi gur es a n d describ e how grossly in a dequ a te the

f a rm buildin gs e g genera lly were As much of the h a rvest w a s
. . .

sold a t once no effort w a s m a de to buil d prop er a n d s uffi cie n t

b a rns ; a n d a nim a ls were a s a rul e poorly housed n ot w it h , , ,

st a nd ing the severity of the Rum a ni a n cli m a te M Ser ba n s . .

’

pra ctic a l inqu i ry produced therefore the s a me conviction a s , ,

M Ga r ofl id s theoretic a l d iscussion : th a t if the la rge f a rmer s

.
’

‘
ca n nevertheless m a int a i n themselves this can b e expl a ined ,

o nl y by the gre a t disproportion in economic strength by the ,

a i d of which they ca n a dv a nce their i nterests a n d exploit in the ,

worst sense of the word the me a ns of production— the workin g ,

266 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
powers of the pe a s a nt cultiva tors The m a ss of those l a rge ’
.

fa rms do not represent org a nized economic v a lues ; a n d for th a t

’
re a son they a r e a n obst a cle to effective progress .

M S erb a n a ttempted a lso the more d iffi cult t a sk of studyi n g

.

in figur e s the org a niz a tion of the sm a llholders C a lcul a tion s were .

h a mpered by the f a ct th a t the p e a s a nts di d not use their stock

solely for themselves th a t the a re a which they c ul tiv a ted v a ried
,

from yea r to yea r a n d th a t often they possessed dra ught

,

a ni m a ls a n d implements without owning a n l a nd a t a ll In

y .

their c a se therefore a n y inquiry into indi vidu a l households

, ,

would h a ve been too v a gue M S erb a n chose inste a d six groups . .

three from Munteni a a n d three from Mold a vi a— which together

included seven l a rge a n d fi ve sm a ller vill a ges ; a s well a s one
ex a mple from the mou n t a ins The d a te of this inqui ry is some .

wh a t e a rlier ; hence the figur es mentioned b elow should b e

,

reg a rded a s mi nimum v a lues where a s the fi gur e s rel a tin g to the ,

l a rge fa rms represented r a ther m a xim um v a lues .

M S erb a n worked out a ver a ges for thes e groups a n d obt a ined
.

the following results :

R ea l t t
es a e— V lu
a e of la d n
pe r h a .

V lu
a e o f buildi n gs

I nv est me n t s — Liv st ck
e o

D ea d s to ck
Worki ng c a pi t a l

He concluded therefore th a t the, ver a ge c a pit a l investments

, a

of the sm a l lholders were much higher th a n those of the l a rge

fa rmers This w a s especi a lly so for live stock the v a lue of which
.
,

w a s a bout ni n e times higher ( including the v a lue of the dr a ught

a nim a ls which of course were a lso used for l a bour on the l a rge
, ,

fa rms ) The v a lue of de a d stock a n d of buildi n gs w a s likewise

.

hi gher if not i n the s a me proportion The a ctu a l c a sh which in

, .

th e c a se of the l a rge f a rmers h a d a mounted to 44 lei per h a w a s .

,

only 8 5 0 lei per h a with the pe a s a nts ; they h a d no outl a y for

-
.
,

w a ges a n d for the hire of te a ms Moreover the v a lue of live a n d .

,

dea d stock w a s a bove the minimum indic a ted in the Germa n

inquiries a n d ne a rer their middle a vera ges ; a n d in the c a se of
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 26 7

the pe a s a nts the rel a tive higher va lue of live stock th a n of de a d

stock w a s in lin e with the norm a l conditions ruli n g genera lly in
the more developed countries .

These severa l studies showed th a t before the reform the

pea s a nts owned the invested c a pit a l of Rum a ni a n a griculture ,

whi le the l a rge ow n ers a n d ten a nts held the liquid c a pit a l .

Hence the two c a tegories complemented e a ch other i n m a ny

respects a n d indeed constituted only j ointly a full a gricultura l
,

un it This proposition is supported by the fi gur e s obt a ined in

.

the two inquiries described a bove The a vera ges resulti n g for
.

e a ch of the two c a tegories of cultiva tors differed co n sidera bly

from the a vera ges for the country a s a whole secured by a quite ,

different method But if one took the two c a tegories together

.

a n d worked out j oint a ver a ges for both of them the a ppr ox im a ,

tion between the fi gur es of the speci a l i n quiries a n d the n a tio n a l

a ver a ges w a s rem a r k a bly close.

Conserva tive a n d Ra dic a l economists w ere therefore , ,

genera ll y a greed th a t it w a s econ omica lly u n sou n d to co n tinue

the system of la t ifun d ia r y cultiva tio n In 1 908 M Ga r o fl id h a d
. .

written th a t the very n a ture of the system excluded a n y improve

me n t in production or the est a blishme n t of a cce ss ory a gricultura l
u n dert a kings ; a n d th a t it w a s comp a tible only with the cultiv a
tion of two or th r ee cere a l crops e a s ily s tored a n d e a sily sold
, .

It prevented speci a liz a tio n a n d it dem a nded the growi n g of the

s a me pl a nt in a ll the regions a n d in a ll the soils And in 1 9 20 .
,

in the Memora ndum a l r e a dy quoted he a ga in a dmitted th a t

,

with the bri n gin g of the a va il a ble l a nd under the plough the ,

fu n ction of extensive cultiva tio n h a d bee n co n summ a ted .

‘
Extensive l a rge sc a le a griculture h a d born e a ll the fruits of
-

which it w a s ca p a ble Begi n n i n g with the twentieth century its

.

p a rt in the evolution of our n a tio n a l econom y h a d come to

a n end a s the shepherds h a d become cultiv a tor s
, A ch a nge .

in the a gricultura l system w a s i n dispe n s a ble but for th a t ,

end the l a tifundi a h a d to be reduced U n der the existin g

.
’

s ystem the pe a s a nts h a d no ch a nce a n d the l a rge cultiva tors

,

no interest i n ra i si n g productio n .

M Ga r ofli d s fi n a l conclusion therefore w a s th a t th e crisis

.
’
, ,

in Ruma ni a n a griculture expressed a problem of production

268 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
ra ther tha n one of the distribution of property ; a n d on the
stre n gth of th a t conclusion he ple a ded a ga inst the extermi n a
tion of the l a rge owner But j ust a s hi s e a rlier conclusions h a d
.

been ignore d by Rum a ni a s old rulers so hi s ple a w a s f a t a lly

’
,

destin ed to meet with li ttle respo n se from the cl a ss which h a d

become poli tic a lly in fluen t ial a fter the Wa r To the a rgument .

th a t l a rge sc a le cultiv a tion w a s st ill necess a ry M Mih a la ch e the

-
.
,

Pe a s a nt le a der retorted th a t they h a d their own exp erience of

,

severa l centur ies to look b a ck up on a n d th a t they coul d not ,

overlook it a n d pa y a ttention r a ther to wha t w a s h a pp enin g

elsewhere They could not ignore wh a t h a d been i n the p a st a n d
.

t a ke in to a ccoun t wh a t might be in the future The p a st hi story .

of l a rge c ultiva tion in Rum ani a is for us one more re a son why
we should a bolish it a ltogether with the excep tion of the strictly
,

essenti a l model fa rms We c a nnot a ccept the li a bili ties of l a rge

property a s a ssets when we a r e a bout to buil d up a new a gra ri a n
’
regi me .

The b etter equipment of the p e a s a ntry h a d been mentioned

by Ion Ionescu a s ea rly a s 1 8 6 9 He found e g dur in g hi s
, .
, . .

inquiry in to the Putna coun ty th a t the p e a s a nts h a d ten times

a s m a ny dra ught a nim a ls a n d ploughs a s the l a ndlords S ince .

th a t d a te cultiva tion in genera l an d l a rge sc a le cultiva tion in

, ,
-

p a rticul a r h a s exp a nded enormously but the supply of the tech

, ,

n i ca l equi pment h a s rem a in ed a s much in ch a rge of the pe a s a nts

a s b efore The estim a te of 1 8 9 0 a ttributed to the pe a s a nts 9 2

.

p er cent of the big a nim a ls 92 6 per cent of the ploug hs a n d

.
,
-
.
,

95 7 per cent of the c a rts in the whole c ountry The census of

-
. .

ag ricultur a l m a ch i nes a n d i mpleme n ts t a ken by the Ministry

of Agriculture in 1 905 est a blished a sim ila r or worse prop ortion :

L a rge
o w n rs
e Pe a s n ts a

Pl ou gh s

H rr o ws
a

C a r ts
Cutti g m chi s
n a ne

S e d cl a n i n g m chi n e s
e -
e a 165 8 7
-

There were in the co untry fi ft y fi ve -

motor ploughs an d fift y
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 26 9

seven m a chines for the spre a din g of a r t ifi cia l m a nur es a ll ,

belongin g to the l a rge own ers M S erb a n est im a ted the tot a l
1
. .

va lue of the dea d stock in 1 91 3 a t a bout lei or , , ,

38 8 8 lei per h a of cultiv a ted l a nd

-
. .

The census t a ken in 1 900 est a blished a simil a r rel a tion with
rega rd to a n im a ls It found them to b e distributed a mong the .

va rious c a tegorie s a s foll ows :

Ca teg rio es H or s es Ox en

L rge o wn ers
a

S m ll wn e rs
a o

P s ts with o ut l d
ea an an

St a tistics of a gricultur a l buil d ings h a ve never b een collected .

The 1 9 1 2 census merely st a ted th a t there were in the rura l

com munes b ui ldin gs of which were i n ,

h a bited Their a vera ge va lue w a s estim a ted by M $ er ban a t

. .

100 lei per h a of a r a ble l a nd not i ncludin g pub lic elev a tors
.
, ,

ste a m mills sug a r distilleries & c Another i nquiry M S erb a n

, , . .

conducted into the equipment of fifty est a tes v a rying in size a n d

kin d an d in cludin g t oget h er 3 per cent of t h e la rge property foun d
, .
,

th a t the tot a l outl a y for buildin gs h a d a mounted to 6 5 70 000 1e i , ,

or 6 3 62 lei per h a We h a ve seen from the inquiries to which we

-
.

referred e a rlier in thi s section th a t the superiority of the sm a ll

owners held good in reg a rd to bui ldin gs a n d to a gricultur a l c a pit a l
a s we ll In every respect therefore the mea n s of productio n in
.
, ,

Rum a ni a n a griculture were a bsolutely a n d rel a tively to a n , ,

overwhelmin g degree in the h a nds of the pe a s a nts an d not of

the l a rge cultiva tors .

All these circum st a nces rendered the question of productivity

in Rum a ni a n a griculture extremely p erplexing In genera l .
,

p ea s a nt f a rming ga ve lower a vera ge returns th a n l a rge sc a le -

cultiva tion S eeing th a t the bulk of the l a rge f a rms were worked
.

1
M E Giur gea p o in ts o ut i n h i s s tudi es on B ess a ra bi a ( B uleti n ul S ta ti s ti c 1 9 1 9
. .
, ,

No . 2) th a t l a rge pr op e rty pre v a il e d i n th e n o rth e r n c o u n ti es H o ti n a n d B al ti wh e re a s , ,

ag ricultur a l m chin es w er mos t u m er u s i n t h e s uth e r c u ti es Ti ghi n a n d

a e n o o n o n ,
a

C ta t Al ba T s m e e xte n t thi s m a y h a v e b n d ue t o t h e m re l v l li e of t h e
e ea . o o ee o e e

gro u n d but ,b o ve all t o t h pre se ce of e xt ns ive F r en ch a d G erma n p eas n t

,
‘
a , e n e n a

c o l oni es i t h e so uth e rn c o u n ti es
’
n .
270 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
by the pe a s a nts with their own te a m s a n d implements how
, ,

w a s it th a t the s a me men using the s a me methods obt a in ed worse

results for themselves th a n when they worked for employers ?
The question is e vidently still more im port a nt for the futur e of
Rum a ni a n a gric ulture th a n it h a s b een for its p a st ; it is therefore
worth our wh ile to consider br i efly the re a so n s which c a used th a t
di fference in the returns of l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiva tion in order ,

to see whether they were of a p erm a n ent ch a ra cter or were

merely the a ccidents of tempora ry a n d remedi a ble co n ditions .

O n ce more it is necess a ry to m a ke some comm ent fir st on

the v a lidity of the figur es which w ill b e given b elow A dist i no .

tion b etween the returns of l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiva tors w a s not

m a de in Rum a ni a n a gricultura l st a tistics b efore 1 904 From th a t .

d a te the fi gure s rel a tin g to fa rms of less th a n 1 00 h a were .

registered sep a ra tely from those concerni ng fa rms of 1 00h a a n d .

more No a ccur a te estim a te of the productivity of sm a llholdi ngs

.

a s su ch i e of holdings up to 1 00 h a
, . . is therefore p ossible Nor .
,
.

a r e the fi ur e s
g even W ith th,a t lim it a tion a ltogether reli a ble ,
.

Those which refer to pe a s a nt c ul tiv a tion were coll ected by village

o ffi ci a ls inevit a bly in a somewh a t rough a n d re a dy f a shion
, The .

figur e s for l a rge sc a le f a rm i ng were b a sed on retur ns supplied

-

by the f a rmers themselves a n d it h a s b ee n a lleged th a t they

,

frequently decl a red a higher production for the pur pose of obt a in
ing l a rge credits a n d a sm a ller a re a for the p urpose of p a yin g
,

less l a nd t a x But such a s they a r e these a r e the b est st a tistics

.
,

a v a il a ble .

In the West the production of sm a llh olders h a s b een every

where showi ng higher proportion a l returns th a n th a t of the l a rge '

f a rmers But in R um a ni a dur ing the dec a de which preceded

.
,

the Gre a t Wa r l a rge fa rms g a ve a ye a rly a vera ge per h a which

,
.

w a s higher th a n th a t of sm a llh ol di n gs by 1 3 1 per ce n t in the -

.

c a se of whe a t 1 8 6 5 p er cent of rye 1 5 9 per cent of b a rley

,
-
.
,
-
.
,

1 9 4 per cent of o a ts a n d 1 9 5 per cent in the c a se of m a iz e

-
.
,
-
. .

The opposite t a ble s give in det a il the a vera ge production of

l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiv a tors per li a in hectolitres for the ye a rs ,

1 9 06 to 1 9 1 5 .

Sm a ll cultiva tion produced 25 3 hectolitres more buckwhe a t -

in the second period ; 74 3 metric quint a ls more fla x in the first

-
 ORGAN IZATION OF FARMING 27 1

period ; 8 7 h undred more c a bb a ge he a ds in the second period ;

-

1 6 7 metric qui nt a ls more of other veget a bles in the second period .

One poin t which strikes one a t o n ce on look ing through this

t a ble is the considera ble va ri a tion in returns from ye a r to ye a r ,

which h a ppe n ed to both c a tegories of fa rm ing a like Remember .

Cr op s 1 906 1 909 1 1 9 1 0 1 9 1 1 19 12 1 9 13
11 9 14 1 9 15

1 . Whea t

2 Rye
.

3 . B rl e y
a

4 . O t a s

5 . Mi a ze

Y rly v e ra ges
ea a for t h e M i u diff r c
n s e en e of s m a ll
p riod s e cultiv ti a on ( pe r ce t )
n .

1 9 06 — 1 0 19 1 1— 15 1 9 06 — 1 0 19 1 1—15

1 . Wh ea t

2 Ry e
.

3 . Ba rl e y

4 . O t a s

5 . Mi a ze

ing the methods of c ultiva tion described in the preced in g p a ges ,

when it w a s s a id tha t the crops were left to the c a re of n a ture ,

it is e vident th a t such wide discrep a ncies were due to clim a tic

conditions which took no a ccount of the size of fa rms But given .

thi s primitiveness in the nurtur e of the crops a n d the fa ct th a t ,

the bulk w a s ra ised in the c a se of l a rge cultiva tion a s in the c a se

of sm a ll by the s a me men wi th the s a me a ni m a ls a n d i mplements ,

how once more —is the difference in results to b e expl a ined ?

— ~

1
Mi n i s try of Agr iculture , S ta ti s ti ca A gri cold p e A n i i 1 9 1 1 — 1 5 , Buca re s t , 19 18 .

pp 8 2 3
-
. .
272 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
The only possible expl a n a tion is th a t the p e a s a nts were economi
c a lly a n d soci a lly l a bouring under such oppressive di s a dva nt ages
th a t they could use only a residue of the fa ctors of production in
their own in terests .

Their fir st a n d most serious dis a dv a nt a ge la y in the qu a lity

of the l a nd whi ch they till ed for themselves When describ ing .

the reform of 1 8 6 4 we quoted the e vidence of Ion Ionescu a s

s howin g how on b eco m ing full proprietors the l a ndlords took
, ,

a w a y the good fields which the pe a s a nts h a d b een c u l tiva tin g t ill
then a n d g a ve them inste a d the poorest l a nd on the est a te .

There is not a w riter on a gricultura l economics who does not

produce some fresh ex a mple of th a t form of a buse The truth .

of the compl a in t w a s proved by the ki n d of l a nd whi ch the l a nd

o w ners offered in pursu a nce of the la w of 1 907 for the cre a tion
of V ill a ge commons The tide of publi c sentiment w a s begin ning
.

to turn in the pe a s a nts f a vour yet the l a nd proffered w a s so ba d

’
, ,

th a t much of it h a d to b e refused outright whil e most of it ,

proved too poor to b e pl a nted wi th fodder crops a s the la w ,

dem a nded The l a nd let to the pe a s a n ts w a s a lw a ys the worst

.
,

a n d a s they never got it for more th a n one ye a r there w a s no ,

inducement to improve it It w a s the custom of l a rge o w ners

.

a n d ten a nts to give l a nd in mé ta yage for m a ize a n d other crops

w hich required hoeing a n d ridging a n d on the l a n d thus cle a red

,

of weeds to pl a nt whe a t for their own a ccount the ye a r a fter .

Th e ba d qu a lity of the l a nd w a s m a de worse by the disj oin ted

n a ture of the pe a s a nt holding s Most of them consisted of a num
.

b er of strips sc a ttered in different di rection s ; a n d the pe a s a nts

showed a determin ed bi a s for life in comp a ct Vi ll a ge s especi a lly ,

in the pl a i n whi le their fi eld s usu a lly la y severa l kilometres

,

a w a y from the house a n d f a rm y a rd Fin a lly a m a j ority of the

-
.
,

pe a s a nt holdings were too sm a ll to form soun d econ omic units .

It is true however th a t pe a s a n t cultiva tion w a s a s a r ul e

, ,

eve n more c a reles s th a n th a t of the l a rge fa rmers B ec a use their

.

holdi ngs were genera lly insu fficient the pe a s a nts depended for
,

their existence on getting more l a nd from ten a nts or l a ndowners ,

in return for a contra ct to l a bour for them In Munte n i a 30 1 per

.
-

cent of the pe a s a nts were left with less th a n forty seven da ys for
.
-

their own l a bours a n d in Rum a ni a 8 5 per cent with only

,
-

.
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 273

twenty seven d a ys a n d 25 per cent with forty two d a ys in the

-
.
-

yea r The a vera ge p ea s a nt holding of 3 42 h a pl a nted with the

. .
,

custom a ry p ea s a nt crops requir ed a minim um of 78 8 9 d a ys

,
-
’

l a bour a lone for the cere a l crops without t a king i nto a ccount,

the c a re of a n im a ls 85 0 Now the cerea l s ystem in such a n

,
.

’
uncert a in clim a te a s Rum a n i a s gives to a gricultura l l a bour s
a concen tr a ted ch a ra cter dem a n din g i e the gre a test possible
,
. .

a mo unt of l a bour in the shortest possible sp a ce of t i me L a rge .

owners a n d ten a nts were a ble to mobi lize the whole vill a ge when
the moment w a s propitious for the perform a nce of this or th a t
l a bour for which the Vill a gers h a d contra cted By the time the .

l a nd of the l a rge fa rmers w a s tilled the we a ther h a d a s likely a s

,

not ch a n ged for the worse And eve n if hea ven w a s ki n d the
.
,

pe a s a nts c a me to their own field s with tired h a nds a n d tired

b ea sts so th a t their work w a s do n e in a hurry with such droop
, ,

ing strength a s w a s left in them Moreove r in such a hot clim a te

.
,

a few d a ys gener a ll y su ffice to ripe n the co r n a n d a few more to ,

over ripen it ; l a te cutti n g therefore a lw a y s mea n t a con sidera ble

-

, ,

w a st a ge of seed estim a ted by a recent inquiry to re a ch a lmost

,

30 per cent of the tot a l cr 0p One must remember a lso the

. .

perpetu a l st a te of underfeedin g a n d of chro n ic ill he a lth i n which -

mo s t of the pe a s an ts lived in order to weigh rightly wh a t e ffect

,
’
the pl a cing of the ir own work a t the t a il end of e a ch sea s on s -

l a bours h a d upon their fa rming The n umber of in dividu a ls .

c a p a ble of work between fift een a n d sixty yea rs w a s a s follows , ,

per rur a l i n h a bit a nts

R um a n i a 5 34
G rm y
e an 5 69
E gl d
n an 5 74
A u tri a
s 5 79
Fr a ce n 6 13

According to a b ility a n d power of work M serb a n h a d put the , .

effective work ing d a ys of a Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt a t 1 1 5 per ye a r ,

which multip lied with the a bove proportion g a ve a tot a l of

effective workin g d a ys in the ye a r This comp a red with .

’
the Germ a n pea s a nt s working co n tribution of 200 da ys ye a rly ,

or a tota l of d a ys which for Fra nce even re a ched

d a ys .

All these circum st a nces wa rra nt the conclusion th a t the

T
274 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
inferior production of the pe a s a nts w a s a ttribut a ble m a inly to
re a sons which h a d little to do with the typ e of the a gricultura l
u n it One fi n d s the fir st proof of this in the more c a ref ul perform
.

a nce of a gricultur a l l a bours before the reform of 1 8 6 4 which ,

w a s supposed to h a ve a dva nced Rum a ni a n a gricul ture but which ,

h a s cert a inly completed the ruin of the p e a s a n ts In hi s three .

c a reful a n d det a il ed inqu i ries I on Ionescu repe a tedly mentioned

with regret the deteriora tion of a gricul tur a l methods Up to th a t .

time of course there w a s little else beyond pe a s a n t cultiva tion ;

, ,

yet Ion Ionescu a ffi rm e d th a t genera lly the corn w a s very , ,

cle a n beca u s e of the h a bit of a ltern a tin g whe a t o a ts a n d other

, , ,

corn crops with m a iz e whi ch clea n ed the groun d of weeds a s

, ,

m a ize required c a reful hoeing a n d ridgin g He referred to the .

pe a s a nts tra dition a l conviction th a t only whea t whi ch h a d we ll

’

ripened should b e used for seed It w a s speci a lly selected a n d .

left to st a nd longer before being cut And the whe a t thus selected .

w a s tre a ted with speci a l c a re when it w a s cut a n d tied a n d

thr eshed a n d c a rted But extensive c ul tiva tion for imm edi a te
.
’

pro fit by ten a n ts holdi n g the l a nd on short le a ses corrupted

, ,

those time honour ed h a bits Whe a t w a s sown over enormous

-
.

extents a n d ye a r a fter ye a r on t h e s a me surfa ce without a n y

, ,

m a nur i n g a t a ll It is import a n t to note therefore th a t the

.
, ,

differen ce b etween the output of l a rge a n d sm a ll c ul tiv a tion a t

present is much n a rrower th a n the difference between the
erstwhile productivity of the R um a ni a n soil when it w a s a h n ost ,

wholly in the h a nds of the pe a s a nts a n d the res ul ts obt a ined ,

a fter a p eriod of extensive cultiv a tion on a l a rge sc a le Dr M a ior . .

wrote in his M a n ua l d e Agri cultw d Nati on a le? ( 1 8 9 5 ) th a t the '

productio n of whe a t h a d fa llen from a n a vera ge of 20 hectolitres

per h a to 1 5 a n d l a ter to 1 2 1 3 h e ctolitres There w a s moreover
.
,
-
.
, ,

a s imil a r decl ine i n the rel a tion between the qu a ntity of seed

used a n d the tot a l crop Once upon a time the crop h a d given
.

24 times the qu a ntity of seed but the return h a d f a llen to 1 5 ,

times a n d fi n a lly to 4 04 time s when Dr M a ior w a s writ ing

-
. .

Furthe r the lo s s in qu a n tity w a s a ccomp a nied by a loss in the

,

qu a lity of the produce With few exception s the la t ifun d ia r y

.
,
’
l a rge sc a le cultiva tion w a s the purest Ra ubwirtsch a ft
-
To ‘
.

complete the picture of its i n fl uen ce 0 11 rura l life one should a lso
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 275

mention the decline or dec a y of m a ny by products of a gricul -

ture Not o n ly h a d nothing been done by w a y of impro ving life

.

on the l a nd sin ce 1 8 6 4 but once W idespre a d a n d flourishi n g

,

domestic industries like the keeping of bees a n d the growing of

—

silk worms — h a ve tot ally dis a ppe a red The qu a lity of a nim a ls
-
.

declined to such a poin t th a t four six or even more oxen were , ,

n eeded to pull a li ght plough .

Another set of fa cts which tend to est a b lish the incide n t a l

ch a ra cter of the d efici en ci es observed in pea s a nt fa rmi n g con
sists of sign ifi ca n t exceptions in Rum a ni a itself I n the .

neighbouring Rum a ni a n provinces now u ni ted W ith the mother ,

country where the pea s a nts were economic a lly more in d e pen
,

dent their f a rming w a s correspondin gly better Especi a lly in

, .

Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a the pe a s a nts were genera lly better

0 6 even on sm a ll er holdings th a n the a ver a ge in the Old King

d om The fl our ish in g colonies of S a xon a n d S ua bia n pea s a n ts

.

in Tra nsylva n i a a n d the Germ a n French Bulg a ri a n a n d other

, , , ,

colo n ies in southern B e s s a ra bi a a n d Dobroge a offer convincing ,

illustra tions of wh a t pe a s a nt f a rmin g might a chieve eve n i n the

e a stern regio n s their productio n being fully equ a l to th a t of the
,

l a rge cultiva tors Nor were such exceptions l a cki n g in the Old
.

Ki n gdom itself The fi gures from which the a bove t a ble w a s

.

compiled show th a t in cert a in districts of the Munteni a n high

l a n ds the differe n ce in the a vera ge production of whea t w a s
negligible fa lling to 0 7 hectolitres in the Pra hova county a n d
,
-

to 0 1 in Muscel In 1 9 07 pea s a n t fa rmi n g g a ve a higher a vera ge

-
.

production ; but 1 907 w a s a n a b n orm a l ye a r in which a con ,

s i d er a ble p a rt of the l a rge est a tes rem a ined untilled The s a me .

phenomenon repe a ted itself in 1 9 1 3—1 5 a n d in 1 9 1 9 a ll of them ,

ye a rs of a bnorm a l condition s on the l a nd bec a use of w a rs a n d ,

of the reform These periodic a l exceptions therefore a r e n ot

.
, ,

va lid evidence for estim a ting the productivity of the two forms
of cultiva tion But they a r e a ll the more striking a s a n illustra
.

tion of the helpless st a te in which l a rge sc a le cultiva tion fou n d -

itself when circumst a nces deprived it of the pea s a nts a ssist a nce ’
.

Less hypothetica l were the ex a mples describ ed by Dr N . .

Lupu dur i n g the discu s sion of the reform a t J a ssy They showed
, .

th a t the pe a s a nts co ul d e a sily outstrip the a chievements of the

T2
276 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
l a rge cultiva tors when they j oined h a nds for co opera tive -

fa rming The co opera tive which took over the Bordeiu V erde
.
-

est a te w a s a c a se in point The former l a rge ten a nt h a d p a id .

a rent a l of lei ; the pe a s a n ts offered lei ye a rly .

In spite of th a t high rent they did extremely well B uil di ngs .

,

m a chin es im plements a nim a ls were more num erous a n d of

, ,

better qu a lity th a n before The co opera tive w a s a ble to invest .

-

i n Wa r Lo a n a n d h a d reserves a mounting to lei .

‘
T h a t ca n n o t be e xp l a i n e d e x c e p t by a n e n o r mou s i n c r e a s e i n pr o
d uc t ion t o t h e h ec t a r e I n d e e d a cco r d in g t o fi gur e s wh i c h h a v e b e en
.
,

c h ec k e d,
t h e h igh e s t a v e r a ge o b t a i n e d by t h e l a r ge r cu lt i v a t o r i n t h e
b es t y e a r s w a s 24 11 1 p e r h a w h e r e a s i n t h e b es t y e a r s t h e co op e r a t i v e
. .
,
-

r a i s e d on t h e s a m e e s t a t e 40 11 1 p e r h a Th e co o p e r a t i v e s i n c r e a s e d t h e
. .
-

n u m b e r a n d i m p r o v e d t h e b r e e d o f a n im a l s N e igh bo ur i n g l a n d ow n e r s .

we r e b r in gin g t h e i r m a r e s a n d h e ife r s t o be s e r v e d i n t h e s t a b l e o f t h e
p ea s a n t co o p e r a t i v e s 1
-
.

In brief it will be seen th a t the pe a s a n ts h a d h a d none of

,

the qua lifi ca t ion s requir ed for good f a rmi ng They h a d neither .

ge n era l educ a tio n nor speci a l tra i n ing ; they were u n derfed a n d
overworked ; they we re bur dened exces s ively with t a xes a n d
impositions but a ided sc a ntily or not a t a ll with credits & c ;
, , .

a bove a ll they were left with the worst l a nd a n d with the worst
, ,

time for tilli n g it An d when a ll th a t is s a id it sti ll rem a ins to b e

.
,

poi n ted out th a t a comp a ri s on of l a rge sc a le production is boun d -

to b e mi sle a ding if it i s limited to cerea l crops The s e form .

a s p eci a lity of the l a r ge f a rmers especi a lly in a s ystem of exten ,

sive cultiv a tion But on a n equ a l a re a the qu a n tity of a ni m a l

.

a n d d a i r y product s which the sm a ll cultiv a tors put on the m a rket

more th a n m a kes up for a n y deficiency in their corn crops In .

Rum a n i a indeed the growth of l a rge sc a le cultiva tion h a s not

, ,
-

me a nt the developmen t of a gric ulture a s a whole but merely the ,

one sided exp a nsion of whea t a t the expense of rura l a ctivities

-

tra dition a l a n d ben efi c en t The ch a n ge depressed the economi c.

po s ition of the pea s a nt a n d soci a l a n d politic a l oppres s ion

,
’
tot a lly r uined him But it w a s a n inferiority of the pe a s a n t s cl a ss
.

ra ther tha n of his type of holding There is no re a so n w h y the .

l a test s oci a l a n d politic a l reforms when they get fa irly u n der ,

M i t ul Ofi i l J uly 27 1 9 1 7 p 37 4
1
on or c a , , , . .
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 277

w a y, should not h a ve the contra ry effect The pe a s a nt does not .

k n ow wh a t it me a ns to stop working He is a ll the while seeking.

to cultiv a te the gre a test possible extent of l a n d bec a use he only

k n ows extensive cultiva tion It is merely the l a ck of k n owledge
.

th a t prevents hi m from putt ing the s a me a mou n t of l a bour i n to

a sm a ller extent of l a nd so a s to obt a in from it l a rger return s ;
,

for th a t is the problem which concerns him a bove a ll th a t he —

should b e a ble to extra ct from his l a nd the food which he needs

for h imself his fa mily a n d his a nim a ls Even the exponen ts of
, , .

n a tion a list economics a gree th a t in this c a se the p a st should not

b e a llowed to prej udge the future The Libera ls opposed the .

p a rtition of the l a nd precisely on the ground th a t sm a ll cultiva

tion w a s less produ c tive ; but in the S en a te in 1 923 M Vi n til a , ,
.

Brati a nu expressed his con viction th a t a fter a few yea rs when ,

p rop erly settled a n d equipped the sma ll holders w ould produce

,

more th a n h a d the l a rge cultiva tors in the p a st .

It is indeed doubtful a p a rt a ltogether from the effects of

the l a nd reform whether la t ifun d ia ry cultiv a tion could h a ve
,

l a sted a n y lo n ger We h a ve expl a ined the circumst a nces which

.

h a d e n a bled it to comm a nd the pe a s a nts l a bour a n d why this

’
,

w a s esse n ti a l for its existence a s ne a rly a ll the instruments of

,
’
production were in the pe a s a nts h a nds This situ a tion which .
,

h a d never been di fferent thr oughout the history of Rum a n i a n

a griculture , w a s a ccentu a ted by the Wa r whose effects m a de ,
’
the l a rge cultiva tors still more dependent on the pe a s a nts me a ns
of production The loss in l a bour a n d implements a n d a n im a ls
.
,

c a used by the War w a s boun d t o a ffect in the fi r st pl a ce those

,
‘

cultiva tors who h a d no equipment of their own un less they were ,

in a position to conscript for their own use such mea ns of produc

tion a s were still a va il a ble And we h a ve seen tha t in f a ct the
.
, ,

fi r st thing which the Ma r gh ilom a n Government did a fter the

Pe a ce of Buca rest w a s to obli ge the p e a s a n ts to work for
the l a rge fa rmers Such a n imposition w a s no lo n ger possible
.

a t the en d of the Wa r .

I n a ddition to the loss of m en there w a s a ge n era l ,

lo s s in worki n g power The rem a inin g l a bourers were no lo n ger

.

c a p a ble of the s a me effort a s before As everywhere else the .

,
’
n a tion s m a nh ood w a s phy s ic a lly a n d nervously tired a n d the ,
278 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
m a sses were in a mood whi ch suffered no fur ther ob liga tions
w ithout a dequ a te rew a rd Th e loss in work i ng a nim a ls w a s even
.

more severe ; they were gre a tly reduced in n umbers especi a lly ,

in the regions whi ch h a d b een un der enemy occup a tion an d they ,

were b a dly we a kened thr ough poor feeding dur ing the Wa r .

The num ber of horses w a s reduced by h a lf th a t of the l a rge ,

horned a nim a ls a n d of pigs to two t hi rds a n d the num ber of

-

sheep to one h a lf The new pro vin ces h a d suffered less a s they
-
.
,

h a d rem a ined outside the ba t t lefi eld s The Wa r h a d pl a yed .

a s i mil a r h a voc w ith m a ch i nes a n d im plements which h a d been ,

used with little ca re a n d without bein g renewed dur ing the

period of hostilities All over the coun try old im plements long
.
,

di s c a rded were summ a rily rep a ired a n d pressed in to ser vice

a g a in ; a s h a d b ee n the c a se w ith the prim itive a ll wooden -

plough from Bucovin a whi ch w a s on Vi ew d uri ng the p a st w inter , ,

in the modest but excellent exhi bition a rra nged by the Socio
logica l Semin a r of Buc a rest Uni versity For whil e a fter the Wa r
.

the need for n ew m a ch inery w a s gre a t even the most esse n ti a l,

implements were not e a sy to repl a ce Their price h a d in cre a sed

.

considera bly a n d on the other h a nd the f a ll in the exch a nge

, , ,

a n d the gener a l short a ge of money a mong l a rge a n d sm a ll

cultiva tors a like not to sp ea k of a short sighted t a riff policy

,
-

h a mp ered the purch a se of these foreign products The l a rge .

o w ners especi a lly who h a d lost much l a n d but got little money
, ,

in return found the problem of equi pment d iffi cult to solve

, .

This w a s even more true of a gric ul tur a l m a chines To the .

d i ffi cul t i e s a lre a dy mentioned there w a s a dded th a t of personnel ,

mostly foreigners who h a d been employed to drive a n d rep a ir

,

such m a chin es but who h a d b een sc a ttered by the Wa r Even .

when credits could be obt a ined the fa rmers fe a red to inc ur

,

foreign debts bec a use of the continuous depreci a tion of the

currency To some extent the d efi ci en cy w a s m a de good by
.

production from the fa ctories which were a h ea d y in Tr a n sy l '

va ni a But the t a bles b elow— the fi r s t of which gives comp a ra tive

.

fi gures of a gricultura l m a chines imported b efore a n d a fter the

Wa r a n d the second the size of th a t production— show th a t the
repl a cement of the de a d stock a dva nced slowly ; especi a lly if one
t a kes into a ccount th a t the post w a r figi u e s refer to a t erritory
-
‘
 ORGANIZATION OF P ARMIN G 279

and to a popula tion t wice a s l a rg e — which included Tra nsylva ni a

a n d Bucovin a where the use of m a chin es a n d implements w a s

more developed— an d to a n a gricultura l situ a tion in which the

in troduction of intensive fa rming h a d become impera tive a fter
the a gra ri a n reform :
IMP OR T OF A G R I CU L TU R AL I M PL EME N T S A ND M A CH I N E S
Y r ea Qu n tity i
a n K gs . V lu
a e i n go ld Le i 1

I N T E R N A L PR O D U CTI O N OF A G R I C U L TU R A L M A CH I N E S A ND

I M PL EME N T S
Nu m b e r of

Nu mb e r of V lu a e of V lu a e of w ork rs a d
e n

Fa ctori s e HP . . t he F ctori es 2 Producti on

a e mpl o y ees

G old Le i

Genera lly spe a king therefore beca use of the loss in l a bour
, , ,

in a ni m a ls ,a n d in implements la t ifun di a r y cultiv a tio n could no

,

lo n ger h a ve disposed of the che a p pe a s a n t la bo ur a fter the Wa r .

1
p t v lu
Th e os w a r a es a re a
-
c lcu t d v r r t
la e a t t h e a e a ge a e of 8 00 le i t o t h e o p u dn .

2
ct ri
Th e fa o e s e a w d lt ith thi t bl pr duc th r
in s a e o e od b id
e goo s es es a g ricultur al
ma chi nes a n d m
i pl
e me n s t r l r r th u d rt k
Th e gen e a fi gure s efe t o
. ese n e a i n gs a s a whol e ,

e xc pt th
e v
ose gi i n g t h e av lu
e of pr ducti which r r
o on , ricultu l
e fe t o a g r a ma nes chi a d n

i mpl eme nts a l on e .

 28 0 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE
On the other h a nd it wo ul d h a ve fo und it extremely d i fficult to
,

a cqui re a n inventory of its own with the prev a ili n g hi gh prices

,

a n d short a ge of money Even without the a gra ri a n reform th a t

.

typ e of cultiv a tion would h a rdly h a ve been pr a ctic a ble a g a i n .

At the end of the Wa r l a rge sc a le cultiv a tio n foun d itself a lm ost

-

who lly divested of live a n d dea d stock a n d w a s in d a nger of being

un a ble to plough the l a nd it possessed More th a n one R um ani a n .

economist considers th a t the imm edi a te tra nsfer of l a nd to the

p e a s a nts h a s s a ved R um a ni a n a griculture from dis a ster In the .

fa ce of a host of n a tur a l a n d a r t ifi cia l obst a cles which will be ,

discussed l a ter ou the sm a ll cultiva tors h a ve b een a ble to revive

,

a gricultur a l p r oduction in a rel a tively short sp a ce of tim e .

Moreover they h a ve succeeded in these few ye a rs in restoring

,
’
the country s live stock a lmost to its pre w a r s i z e a n a chieve - ~

ment which would h a ve been a ltogether b eyond the powers of

the l a rge sc a le cultiv a tors Hence one is led to the conclusion
-
.
,

th a t the incre a se in sm a llh old ings w a s a s j ust ified for economic ,

a s it w a s nece s s a ry for soci a l re a s o n s .

Unfortun a tely no inform a tion wh a tever h a s so fa r b een

,

collected from which one might dr a w a sci en t ifi c conclu sion con

cern in g the effects of the a gra ri a n reform on the tech ni que of
the v a rious kinds of fa rmin g One must b e s a t i sfi e d with such
.

indic a tions a s per s on a l observa tion a n d convers a tions h a ve b een

a ble to give . The reform found the l a rge cultiva tors a ltogether
u n prep a red for the t a s k with which it presented them But j ust .

a s the p e a s a nt em a ncip a tio n i n the West provoked a n a ll round -

improvement in a gricultura l methods so in this c a se such l a rge ,

property a s rem a i n s a n d w hich i s f a rmed to a l a rger extent

,

th a n before by the o w ners themselves di s pl a ys a m a rked ,

tende n cy to i n ten s ify its production The higher cost of l a b our

.
,
’
& c a s well a s the l a ndowne r s n a tura l a nx iety to recover a t le a st
.
,

some of the revenue they used to derive from the lost a rea by
higher returns from such l a nd a s is left them h a s provoked in ,

most c a ses a more c a reful tilli ng of the soil The depreci a tion in .

the v a lue of a gricultura l products a s comp a red with th a t of

,

m a nufa cture s likewi s e m a de it n ece ss a ry to produce rel a tively

,

more of the former The r e i s a lso the fe a r lest the new spirit
.

which is a bro a d a n d the n e w currents w hich domina te public

 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 28 1

life should no longer tolera te the retention of l a nd property in

inc a p a ble or indifferent h a nds A suggestive a rticle publi shed
.

in the F r a n kfur ter Zei ti mg on Novemb er 9 1 927 describ ed , ,

how a simil a r fe a r h a s brought b a ck the noble l a ndo w n ers in

B a den not o n ly to residence on the l a nd but to fa rming with ,

their own h a nds All these circum st a nces combi n ed to confront

.

the l a ndowners w ith a tot a lly new problem a problem which ,

seem s to a d mit of no other solution beyond either improving

cultiva tion or sellin g out .

While the pe a s a nts were pro vided even if somewh a t i n a d e ,

q u a t el
, y with me a ns to cultiv a te the l a nd which w a s give n them ,

they h a d n ot the mea ns a n d even less the tra ini n g for the kind
’
of intensive fa rming which the i r new st a te a n d the country s
needs dem a n ded How the policy of the governing cl a ss took
.

a w a y from them a ll incentive to fresh effort will b e discussed ,

l a ter on For the moment one m a y note the st a tement of

.
,

M Io n escu Sise s ti now di rector of the new Institute of Agro

.
-

nomic Resea rch th a t the pe a s a nts work a s we ll a s they did before

,

the reform or r a ther th a t they do not work worse Th a t would

, .

seem to b e genera lly true of Munte n i a a n d Olt e ni a a s well a s of ,

the new provinces but le s s true of Molda vi a There the cultura l

, .

level h a s been lower a n d a lcoholism higher on the l a nd a n d w ith ,

the dis a ppe a ra nce of the dri ving power of the l a rge ten a nts the ,

pea s a nts a r e a pt to fa ll into sl a ck w a ys Everywhere M Ionescu .

, .

Sise s ti a ffir m s one ca n est a blish a p a ra llel b etween the gra de of

,

culture of a group of Vill a gers a n d the qu a li ty of thei r fa rming ;

a circumst a nce which suggests th a t the p a rti a l decline in the

qu a lity of pe a s a nt cultiva tion m a y b e due not to the reform but

’
ra ther to the fa ilure of Rum a ni a s former rulers to educ a te their
m a sters Another inform a nt put it th a t m a n y pe a s a nts fa rm
.

better n ow th a n b efore while some of them fa rm worse ; this

,

being esp eci a lly true of wh a t one m a y c a ll the m a rgi n a l ben e fi

ci a r i e s of the reform a rti s a ns a n d others m a ny of whom h a ve
, ,

l a nd of their own now but no oxen .

The fa cts discussed in this a n d the previous section help us

to put the economic sense of the reform in its proper perspective .

To sum up 8 3 3 per cent of the rura l householders were cultiva

,
-
.

ting on their own a ccount ; a n d sm a ll cultiva tion produced a bout

28 2 THE EFFECTS OF THE REFO R M ON THE
three tim es a s much a s l a rge sc a le cultiva tion On both coun ts -
.
,

therefore the p e a s a nts formed the pre —domina nt fa ctor in

Rum a ni a s a gric ul tura l system They domin a ted the orga niz a .

tion of production still more The custom of c ul tiva tin g with .

a ni m a ls a n d implements a n d seed b elonging to the pe a s a nts ,

which h a d been univers a l during serfdom h a d rem a in ed a lmost ,

int a ct a fter their em a ncip a tion a s well the tithe h a vin g merely ,

ch a nged into m ét a y a ge i e a sh a ri n g of the crop s The p e a s a nts

, . . .

1 e ce ive d a piece of l a nd a n d m retur n cul tiv a ted a nother p i ece

of l a nd for the ten a nt or owner or they g a ve him p a rt of the ,

produce a s they h a d done when they were his serfs L a ndowners

, .

a n d l a rge ten a nts supplied neither a n im a ls nor implemen ts nor

a dequ a te c a pit a l the ten a n t t a kes to fa rming o nl y with

’
a w a lking stick the pe a s a nts used to sa y a n d only a di s cipli
,
—

n a ri a n sort of gui d a n ce In no economi c sense therefore were

.
, ,

the l a ndowners es s enti a l fa ctors in the a gr a ri a n system a n d th a t ,

expl a ins how it w a s possible to expropri a te them so dra stic a lly

without wrecking the wheels of production .

This w a s merely repe a ting the experien ce of the French

Revolution Ma x Weber rem a rks in his Wi rtschaftsges chi chte
.

th a t the Revolution foun d it possible to expropri a te the l a nd

‘
lords bec a use the French l a ndlord w a s not a fa rmer but ,

a courtier seekin g a c a reer i n mi lit a ry a n d civil fu

, n ctions upon ,

which he h a d in a w a y a monopolistic cl a im Therefore no

, , .

org a niz a tion of production w a s destroyed by th a t a ct but merely ,

‘ ’
a rent rel a tionship If one le a ves out courtier every word of
’
.
,

th a t 1 em a r k a pplies with equ a l fm c e to the Rum a ni a n l a nd

reform B ec a use the est a tes of Rum a ni a n l a ndown ers unlike
.
,

those of most Czech a n d Polish o w ners were not org a ni zed a s ,

units of production— bec a use in other words the c a pit a list , ,

division b etween l a bour a n d the instrum en t of production h a d

h a rdly begun in Rum a ni a n a gricultur e — the di sturbing e ffects
which the reform might otherwise h a ve h a d rem a ined rel a tively
insigni fic a nt When the pe a s a nt w a s m a de a n in dependent
.

f a rmer he w a s not quite helpless a lthough the St a te m a de no ,

a ttempt wh a tever to see him st a rted on h i s new venture w ith

a proper equipment The a gra ri a n reform in brief h a s me a nt

.
, ,

a n enormous leg a l ch a nge but only a very moder a te economic

,
 ORGANIZATION OF FARMING 28 3

ch a n ge Production is on the whole c a rried on by the s a me men

.
, ,

with the s a me me a n s a s before Bro a dly s pe a ki n g it h a s been

.
,

not so much a ch a n ge from l a rge sc a le to sm a ll sc a le f a rmin g a s

- -

a ch a nge from f a rming by sm a ll ten a nts to f a rming by sm a ll

ow n ers . The siz e of the holdings now corresponds a lmost ex a ctly

to the methods of fa rmi n g wrote a contributor to the Russi a n
’
,

volume edited by Prof Max S ering While in 1 9 1 6 l a rge l a n d

. .
‘

ownership went together with sm a ll sc a le fa rmin g now system -

’
,

of tenure a n d system of cultiva tion a r e in h a rmony with e a ch

other .

There is in such a n evolution s m a ll m a tter for the gloomy

forebodings which m a ny western critics of the reform en tert a ined ;
a n d equ a lly sc a n t re a son for expecting th a t a mere ch a n ge in

the form of tenure wo uld produce a sudden flowering of fi n e

a gricultur a l methods a n d h a rvest s The reform w a s bou n d to
.

h a ve a good a n d immedi a te psychologic a l effect c a lcul a ted to ,

overcome the nervous exh a u stion left by the Wa r a n d we sh a ll ,

see how this h a s indeed contributed to the recovery of produc

tion ; a n d secur ity of tenure h a s a lwa ys been fou n d to i n duce
a more c a reful tilling of the soil I n the me a sure in which a n y
.

fresh tendencies a r e discernible a t a ll they serve to con fir m th a t

exp erience There is evidence th a t the l a rge fa rmers a r e a dopti n g
.

more intensive methods of cultiv a tion in the endea vour to ,

b a l a nce higher costs with higher return s ; a n d th a t more i mten

sive methods a r e employed by the pea s a nt fa rmers a s well The .

a dv a nce is slow a n d somewh a t err a tic which is in the n a ture of ,

the c a se b eing the result not of a system a tic policy but r a ther of
,

the energy a bi lity a n d mea n s of in di vidu a l pe a s a n ts a n d of loc a l

, , ,

va ri a tion s in le a dership a n d opportu n ity It is therefore .

, ,

prob a bly true to say th a t formerly there were more differe n ces
b etween va rious regions where a s n o w the difference s a r e r a ther
,

between Vill a ges a n d i n dividu a l pe a s a nts the gre a ter freedom ,

of movement encoura ging a n a tura l process of selectio n ; a n d ,

a s a gener a l observ a tion th a t more intensive method s a r e

,

S pre a di n g a ll round a mo n g the pe a s a nts

-

a utom a tic a lly so to , ,

’
spe a k bec a use of the sm a llholders well known i n clin a tio n
,
-

towa rds r a isi n g crops which require more effort but yield
stronger h a rvests .
 CH APTE R IX
THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
S E C TI O N 1

TH E CHANGE IN T H E D I S T R I B UTI O N OF CR O S
P

AN Y a tt empt to estim a te the effect of the l a n d reform on

production is further compli c a ted a s we h a ve p ointed out , ,

by the ch a nge which h a s t a ken pl a ce in the distribution of crops .

The pe a s a nt em a ncip a tion h a s everywhere h a d the effect of

incre a si n g the cultiv a tion of industri a l crop s a n d gra sses a n d ,

of other crops which a r e pr ofit a bly grown on a sm a ll sc a le an d

a r e b etter a d a pted to a rur a l economy b a sed l a rgely on the

keeping of a nim a ls .

In Rum a ni a a fter the a bortive em a ncip a tion of 1 8 6 4 whi ch

, ,

freed the l a nd but left the pe a s a nts tied to it a gricult ure showed ,

two ch a ra cteristic a n d concord a nt tendencies Whe a t c ul tiva .

tion exp a nded ra pidly a n d th a t w a s a ccomp a ni ed by a fur ther

,

decline in c a ttle breeding The tot a l a re a cultiv a ted in cludi n g

.
,

gra ssl a nd rose from

,
h a i n 1 8 62 to .h a in .

1 9 00 a n d whe a t cultiv a tion from

, h a in 1 8 62 to .

h a in 1 9 00; i e a n i n cre a s e on 1 28 per cent in whe a t c ul tiv a tion

. . . .

a s a g a in st a n incre a s e on 8 3 per cent i n the tot a l a r a ble a re a . .

At the s a me time the n umber of oxen fell from 70 2 to e a ch -

hundred inh a bit a nts in 1 8 60 to 37 7 in 1 9 1 1 a n d the number of

,
-

pigs from 27 8 to 1 2 8
- -
.

It w a s to b e expected th a t when the em a ncip a tion of the

pe a s a nts w a s completed a fter the Grea t Wa r a n d 90 per cent
, ,
.

of the a ra ble l a nd p a s s ed into their h a nds those two tendencies ,

would be rever s ed : th a t a reduction in the a re a under whe a t

would b e a ccomp a nied by a n i n cre a sed in terest in c a ttle breedin g
a n d of the crop s which the pe a s a nts prefer r ed m a ize b a rley -

, ,

i n d ustri a l crops & c a s b ei n g more suit a ble for cultiva tion on

, .
—

a s m a ll sc a le a n d bec a use they yield l a rger gro s s retur n s .

Le a ving a side for the moment the question a s to how fa r

such a ch a nge served the interests of Rum a n i a n a griculture a s
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 28 5

a whole it is cle a r tha t it w a s indispens a ble for the pe a s a nts

,

themselve s As the pe a s a n ts keep proportio n a tely a much l a rger

.

numb er of a ni m a ls they co ul d not like the l a rge fa rmers put

, , ,

one h a lf or even two thir ds of the l a nd under whea t ; quite

- -

a p a rt from the obst a cles which the n a rrow a n d sc a ttered fi e ld s ,

frequently m a king up the pe a s a nt holdings pre s ent to such a ,

co urse The pea s a nts require for their kind of fa rmi n g a l a rge
.

proportion of fodder crops or of crops like m a ize & c which , , .

,

le a ve a residue for the feeding of a n im a ls The person a l n eeds .

of their households li kewise require a grea ter v a riety of crops ,

a s the Rum a n i a n pe a s a nt is l a rgely a veget a ri a n To this a lso .

ten ds the evolution of the loca l m a rket If the growin g of m a iz e .

a n d whe a t w a s so wi despre a d hitherto th a t w a s due to the ,

cou n try s soci a l structur e a s much a s to the prev a ili n g system of

’

cul tiva tion With fift y four in h a bit a n ts to the squ a re kilometre
.
-

a n d 8 0 per cent of them livi n g on or below the poverty line the

.
,

m a rket for the more r efi n e d products of a gricultur e w a s

’
extremely lim ited But w ith the betterment of the pe a s a nt s
.

st a nda rd of living a fter the Wa r a n d with the rel a tive growth ,

in the urb a n popula tion through the a ddition of the n ew

pro vi nces a gre a ter dem a nd for g a rden a n d d a iry produce h a s
,

been crea ted To such considera tions of consumption m a y b e

.

a dded others equ a lly weighty rel a t i ng to the tech n ique of

production The pe a s a nts fi n d a more ra tion a l employme n t for

.

their live a n d de a d stock a n d especi a lly for the surplu s l a bour

,

of their fa milies in the r a is ing of more profit a ble i ndu s tri a l

,

cr0ps such a s suga r beet tob a cco & c It is indeed a domin a nt

,
-

, , .

imp ul se w ith sm a llh olders to fi n d out w a ys a n d me a n s for

employin g to the f ull the workin g powers of their household .

They fi n d therein one of their m a in a dv a nt a ges in competition

with c a pit a li st f a rmin g Th a t peculi a r a dv a nt a ge of the sm a ll
.

holders becomes a ccentu a ted in the me a sur e in which the cost

of l a bour rises a n d the incre a se in the size of fa rms m a kes super
vision more d iffi cult Sm a ll cultiva tion therefore st a nds to
.
, ,

g a in over l a rge with a ll cr 0ps requiri n g more intensive l a bour ;

a n d a coroll a ry of this proposition is the cert a in exp a nsion of

such crops wherever l a rge property is broken up a n d p a sses into

the h a nds of sm a llholders C a reful c a lcula tions m a de by Th a er
.
,
28 6 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
Kra fft a n d others show th a t the ch a n ge from a n extensive three
,

fi eld system to a more intensive crop rot a tion necessit a tes a n -

incre a se of a bout 70 per cent in m a nu a l l a bour Simil a rly the

. .
,

tra nsition to industri a l crops a n d to m a rket g a rdeni ng wo ul d -

cl a im a fur ther in cre a se in m a nu a l effort M $er ba n c a lcul a ted . .

tha t in Rum a ni a the c ul tiva tion of one hect a re of m a iz e n e c es

s it a t e d a bout three t i mes a s much l a b our a s one hect a re of

whe a t Likewise the interesting study of Dettweiler on m a n u a l

.

l a bour in a griculture est a blished th a t a n ordin a ry mixed f a rm

under gra ss a n d cerea ls needed 6 49 p erm a nent l a bour ers per -

1 00 h a but th a t a middle sized f a rm w ith one fi ft h of its a re a

.
,
- -

under beet would require 1 6 8 3 l a bourers for the s a me a cre a ge

-
.

From a different a n gle the s a me point h a s been proved by cert a in

Germ a n region a l c a lcula tions ; they fou n d th a t the numb er of
p erm a nent a gricultura l l a bourers per 1 00 h a v a ried b etween .

1 2 5 4 in E a stern Prussi a 20 5 9 in B a v a ri a a n d 32 38 in the

-

,
-

,
-

Rhinel a nd— three region s which di spl a y a typic a l tra nsition

from l a rge fa rms to s m a ll hol di n gs a n d from corn gro w ing to ,
-

d a iry fa rming a n d m a rket g a rden in g Dr Felix B orn em a nn . .

h a ving inquired into the det a iled orga n iz a tion of twenty two -

Germ a n pe a s a nt fa rms together covering a n a re a of 1 40 h a

,
.
,

found th a t ninety three p erson s were employed on them ( mem

-

ber s of the household a n d wa ge e a rners ) i e 6 6 4 workers per-

, . .
-

1 00 h a This fi gure of course w a s exception a lly high a n d sug

.
, ,

gested a considera ble w a st a ge of l a bour But the i n qui ries .

rel a ting to l a rge fa rms prob a bly listed i ndividu a ls who per
formed solely a gricultura l l a b ours where a s some of the persons ,

included in the a bove figur e no doubt g a ve a t le a st p a rt of their

time to dome s tic work On e should perh a ps m a ke some a llow
.

a n ce too for the time a n d energy which the pe a s a nts themselves

, ,

s pe n d in rep a iring building s fe n ces c a rt s a n d most other thing s

, , ,

a bout hou s e a n d f a rm w he n the l a rge f a rmer s w ould h a ve

,

recour s e to m a so n s a n d other a rtis a n s .

For a ll the s e re a sons sm a llholders everywhere di s pl a y

a ch a r a cteristic preference for crops w hich dem a nd intensive

l a bour but yield l a rger return s To some extent th a t w a s a lre a dy

.

’
notice a ble in Rum a n i a before the reform The p e a s a n t s choice .

w a s then cr a mp ed by excessive dem a nds m a de on their l a bour

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 28 7

under the old contra ct system But the following t a ble shows .

th a t in 1 9 1 1 there w a s a sign ifi ca n t difference between l a rge a n d

sm a ll cultiva tors in the division of the a re a s under va rious crops :
F rm b v
a s a o e F rm b l
a s e ow

1 00 h e cta r es 1 00 h cta res

e

W he a t
B a r le v
O t a s

M i a ze

C er ea ls tota l
t xtil e pl a ts
01 1 a n d e n

P t to s n d puls e
o a e a

I n du stri l a nd oth e r pl a nts

a

Of th s to b a cc o
e e,

M rk et g rd n i n g
a a e

Fo dd e r crops n d h a y a

O rch a rds & c , .

One tra ce the phenomenon in the Agr i cultura l S ta ti s ti cs for

ca n

1 91 1 — 1 5 which cont a in on p iii a t a ble sh ow mg the a re a .

covered by va rious crops in the periods 1 906— 1 0 a n d 1 91 1 — 1 5 .

The comp a rison is useful bec a use the lin e dividing the two periods
roughly coincided with the modera te incre a se i n sm a llholdi n gs
a fter the rising of 1 9 07 the ye a rly a ver a ges sho w ing the following
,

ch a nges :
1 906 — 1 0 1 9 1 1— 15

C e r e ls a

011 b ri g a n d te xtil e pl n ts
-
ea n a

Pu ls e

I dus tri l a d the r pla nts

n a n o

A rti fici l gr a z i g
a n s

Nat u l ra

Vi e y rd s
n a

Plu m orch a rd s

T ot l a 1 00 0 -
1 00 0
-

Besides a n a vera ge i n cre a se of h a in the c ul tiv a ted a re a .

,

there wa s a decline in the a re a under cere a ls a n d n a tura l gra zin gs ,

while the more profit a ble crops — industri a l a n d leguminous a s

1
M $ e r ban
.
, op . ci t
.
, p 28
. .
28 8 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
well a s a r t ifi cia l gra zings— showed a proportion a l incre a se The .

following figur es referring to cert a in sp ec ifi c cr 0 ps cle a rly bring

, ,

out the di fferen ti a tion between l a rge a n d sm a ll fa rms

1 9 1 1— 15 S ma ll
T b a cc o
o , m u s ta rd , chic ory , &c . ha .

L gu mi ou s d tub rs
e n an e

M rke t ga rden ing

a

19 19
L gu m i u a n d tub e rs
e no s

I du stri a l crops
n

None of the crop s requiring intensive cultiva tion a n d sp eci a l

c a re a ppe a r to h a ve b een in fa vour with the l a rge fa rmers .

But quite a p a rt from tech n ic a l co n sidera tions a ch a nge in ,

the rep a rtition of crops w a s needed for a progressive r e orga n iz a -

tion of Rum a ni a n a gricult ure In her c a se thi s w a s not merely .

the a utom a tic consequence of t h e tr a nsfer of l a nd from l a rge to

s m a ll owner s Nor w a s it cl a imed solely by th e i n tere st s of the
.

new p e a s a nt proprietors ; n or brought a bout a ccide n t a lly by the

’
St a te s interference Price restrictio n s export duties a n d other
.
, ,

extra neous fa ctors pl a yed their p a rt i n c a using the a re a under

wh e a t to be reduced a s will be shown l a ter on when discussing
,
’
the cou n try s eco n omic policy But the import a nt poi n t is th a t .

the n eed s of more p r ogressive f a rming urgently dem a n ded the

a doptio n of a system of crop rot a tio n The follo w ing comp a r a -

tive fi gur e s for 1 91 1 i n dic a te how u n s a ti s fa ctory h a d b een the

a lloc a tion of the cultiv a ted a re a in R um a ni a n a gric u l ture

Pul e d s an I du tri l
n s a F dd r
o e

C rea l s
e v g t bl e
e e a s pl t an s crops
u
R ma n ia
G rm y
e an

From the time when the Crimea n Wa r opened a w ide ro a d

for the export of Rum a ni a n corn a n d thereby stimul a ted ,

a ch a nge from a qu a si p a s tor a l to a cere a l ph a se whe a t growing

-
-

1
M Se rb a n
.
, op . ci t , p 23. .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 28 9

sprea d ra pidly a n d somewh a t one sidedly -

, as m ay b e j udged
from the fi gur es b elow :

1 8 40 a b o ut
Fr om 18 62 to 18 66
18 67 1871
1 8 72 1 8 76
18 8 6 1 8 90
1891 1 8 95
1 8 96 1 900
1 909 19 13
In 1 9 14

There were fa rms of h a on w h ich nothing but

.

whe a t w a s sown ; a n d frequently the l a rge cultiva tors grew whe a t

on the s a me l a nd durin g severa l ye a rs in succession For these .

rea sons most Rum a ni a n a gricultur a l economi sts consider th a t

whea t h a s re a ched the m a xim um extensio n— a bout one third of -

the a ra ble a rea — comp a tible w ith a r a tion a l exploit a tion of the
soil ; a n d th a t he nceforth a n y incre a se in the tot a l crop must
come not from a w ider a cre a ge but from more in tensive fa rming
,

a n d stronger retur ns .

Qui te a p a rt from the l a nd reform therefore the scie n t ifi c

, ,

problem of m a in t a ini ng the fertili ty of the soil a s well a s the ,

economic requir ements of the home m a rket necessit a ted a fresh ,

tra nsition from the cere a l ph a se to a system of crop rot a tion .

The l an d reform h a s merely quickened this second a n d b el a ted

’
development in the country s a gricultur a l orga niz a tion B efore .

noting this p a rticul a r a spect of its effects one must t a ke i n to ,

a ccount the slight re a rr a ngeme n t in the di sposition of the l a nd

which the a ddition of new provi nces with differing geogra phic a l
,

ch a ra cteristics c a used to the Old Ki ngdom An indic a tion of

, .

th a t ch a nge c a n b e seen in the t a ble on p 29 0 . .

It wi ll be seen th a t within her new frontiers Rum a ni a h a d a

lesser percent a ge of c ul tiva ted l a nd a n d proportion a tely more
forest p a stur es & c ; a s is n a tur a l bec a use of the more moun
, , .

t a in ous ch a r a cter of Tr a nsylv a ni a a n d Buco vin a The gre a ter .

percent a ge of fa llow wa s prob a bly a tempora ry phenomenon

1
N Xé n op ol, La R i ch es s e d e la Rouma n i a .

U
290 EFFECTS OF THE REF ORM ON PRODUCTION
O ld Ki gd
‘

n o m Gre a te r R u m i a an

1 9 15 1 9 22

Ar e a i n of Ar ea i n
Are a ccupi e d by
o h e cta res tota l a rea h e cta res
Cr op s
Fa ll ow
Vin e ya rd s a n d P1um o rch a rds
Mea dows
Pa s tur es
F or ests
R iv e r s
Buildi ngs r oa d s a n d oth e r b a rre
, , n

l d an

1 00 0 -
1 00 0 1-

dur ing the a pplic a tion of the l a nd reform The t a ble on p 29 1 . .

shows in det a il the provinci a l va ri a tions in the use of the l a nd .

’
A genera l picture of the two periods of tr a nsition in Rum a ni a s
a gricultur a l org a ni z a tion ; to whi ch we h a ve referred is presented ,

in the follow ing t a ble

Use of l an d
H e cta re s H e cta r es H e cta res
1 . C ultiv a te d a rea 2
19 9 1 41 6 8
-
41 8 -

2 . Vi ney a rd s a nd
plu m orch a rd s 1 23
-

3 . Gra i n gs
z 4 20
-

4 . P e rman en t gr a z
i ngs 3 24 29 13 78 -
9 7 -

5 . F o r e s ts 17 8 2
-
1 8 44 -
24 1 -

6 . Wa te rw a y s r oa d
,

w a ys a n d bu i ld 28 7 9
i ng l a n d
-

10 27 -

7 . S urf a c e u n utili e d z

Withi n the new frontiers a ra ble l a nd h a s lost some of its im p or

t a nce a t the expense of p a stures a n d forests a n d for this re a son
, ,

the p ercent a ge under cere a l crops rem a ins the s a me ( the 1 9 1 2

figur e does not include f a llow while th a t for 1 9 23 does ) B ut ,
.

the effect of the pe a s a nts a dvent is clea rly discerni ble in the ’

1
G .I on e s cu S i s esti S tr uctu e A gra i re 1 9 22 p 7
-

,
r , , . .

2
1 8 6 0 an d 1 9 1 2 with uto f ll w
o a
3
1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 1 2 i n clud e fa ll o w
. .

F i gure s for 1 8 60 a n d 1 9 1 2 after M $ rh an p 5 7 Those for 1 9 23 from B uleti n ul

. e , . .

S ta ti s ti c. 19 24, No 2 . .
EFFECTS OF THE REFOR M ON PRODUCTION 29 1

m
.

h
a
a
m a
a o ?
m p p
m e o
gu a
o B fi
a h
n
o .

>
H
292 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
rel atively ra pid e x p a nsion of a rt ifi ci al gra zings notwithst a ndin g ,

a sim ul t a neous a n d consider a ble a d di tion to n a tur a l gr a zings

a n d p a stures ( the fi ur e for 1 9 1 2 it sho u l d b e noted in cludin g

g , ,

fa llow ) Ar t ifi ci al gra zin gs an d fodder crops a r e stea dily in cr e a s

.

ing a s shown by the figur es b elow

,

H e cta res
1 9 23
1 924
19 25
1 9 26
1 9 27

In 1 9 27
they covered 5 27 per cent of a ll the a ra ble l a nd . .

The s a me effect in the second pl a ce is Visible in the r ed i st r ibu

, ,

tion of crops The tim e w hi ch h a s el a psed from the b eginning of

.

the reform is too short to h a ve a ll owed a n y fund a ment a l ch a nge

’
to h a ve t a ken pl a ce in the n a tur e of the crops ; the pe a s a nts l a ck
of knowledge a n d tra in in g forb a de a n y sudden tra nsform a tion But .

its b eginnin gs a ppe a r sufii ci ent ly d efin e d in the opposite t a ble 1 ‘

.

For the tim e being cere a l crops would seem to ret a in a s l a rge
,

a sh a re of the a r a ble l a nd a s they occupied b efore but not ,

without a const a nt proportion a l diminution :

1 9 06
1 9 1 1— 15
1 9 21
1 9 22
1 9 23
1 9 24
1 9 25
19 26
1 927

1 F rom t h e S ta ti s ti ca A g i cola a R omd n i ei p e A i i 1 9 1 1 1 5 1 9 1 8 a n d t h e S ta ti s ti ca

r
"

n —
, ,

A gr i colci p e A n a l 1 9 26 1 9 27 Th e t a bl e h a s b een w ork e d o ut a s a n i ll u s tra ti on of

, .

t h e n w tr n d i n t h
e e utili za ti on of t h e so il but it ca lay o cl i m t o c mpl te
e , n n a o e

a ccur cy a B s id s t h e d fi cie cies t o which a tten ti on h a s b e en dr wn R u m an i an

. e e e n a ,

a gricultur a l s ta ti s tic s s u ff r fr o m a t oo fr e qu n t r egr o upi n g

e f t h e v a ri o u s ite ms
e o .

H ea d i n gs d o pte d for on e p e rio d n o l ong r m an quite t h e s a me i n t h e n e xt a n d

a e e ,

c ompa ri ons a re th e re by ren d e re d d iifi cult a n d ten tativ e In t h e a b o v e ta bl e t h e

s .

fi gur e which r ef rs t o t h e tota l a r ea cultiva te d i n 1 9 1 1 —1 9 1 5 i n clud es n tur a l

e a

g
r a z i n gs o n a r a bl e l n d wh e r ea s t h e c o rres p o n di n g fi gur e for 1 9 26 d oe s not i n clud e
,
a ,

n a tur a l gra z i n gs but i n clud es h a fa ll o w . .

EFFECTS PRODUCTION 293

r r r r
e e e e
A P P B P P
294 EFF ECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
The decline of the a rea under cere a l crops 1 8 t o o regul a r not to
suggest a settled tenden cy It tells however o nl y p a rt of the
.
, ,

story a n d a more signifi cant ch a nge is reve a led by the di spl a ce

,

ment in the r a nks of the princip a l crops a s shown by the t a ble

,

below °

VVh ea t I da i ze

3 8 4%
-
4 1 49,

30 4%
-
37 5 % -

29 4 %
-
4 0 3% -

Wh ile the a re a under whe a t h a s b een subj ect to m a rked oscill a

tions a n d a fter a tempora ry recovery is a ga i n in declin e the
, ,

a re a under m a iz e h a s exp a nded ste a di ly from ye a r to ye a r :

II e ct a r es

One can discern i n these severa l t a bles unmi st a k a ble signs

of th a t incipient reorg a n iz a tion of a gricult ure which a s we h a ve ,

suggested w a s to b e exp ected from a n in cre a se i n pe a s a nt

,

fa rming Industri a l crops m a rket g a rdeni n g & c a r e rel a tively

.
, , .
,

g a ining ground ; the progress in c a ttle breedi ng a n d d a ir y -

f a rming is indic a ted by the exp a nsion in gra zings a n d fodder

‘

crops a n d not less by the ch a nge in the d istribution of the

,

princip a l cere a ls M a ize h a s been for a long tim e the st a ple food
.

of the p e a s a nt p opul a tion but onl y in the Old Ki n gdom an d its

’

, ,

m a int a ini n g now its i mport a nce cou l d not b e expl a ined on tha t
score a lone j ust when the consum p tion of W he a ten bre a d is
,

r a pidly sprea ding to the Villages But m a iz e is equ a lly im port a nt

.

a s a fodder c ro p a n d the f a ct th a t its cultiv a tion cont i nues so

,

extensively is fur t h er i e vi d en c e for the likely development of

c a ttle breeding The ar gument is j ust ifi e d by the serious f a ll in
-
.

whea t growing ; so th a t the rel a tive const a ncy in the position of

-
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 295

mai z e, in comp a rison w ith the declin e of whea t must in a cert a in

’

me a sure b e counted a s a nother step a w a y from the cerea l ph a s e '

in which Rum a ni a s a griculture h a s lingered hi therto

’
.

In the li ght of thi s incipient tra nsform a tion one is tempted ,

to r e fl ect on the cl ai ms M Ga r ofli d put forwa rd on b eh a lf of .

the l a rge fa rmers th a t a t lea st they deserve credit for h a vi ng

,

forced the pe a s a nts to ce a se being shepherds a n d become

cultiva tors Th a t perh a p s they di d yet in a period when
. ,

Eur op ea n corn growin g w a s a lre a dy losing to overse a s com

-

petition— a competition which in the end is forcing the

Europ ea n f a rmers to become shepherds a ga in In Rum a ni a th a t .

interme di a te st age extolled by M Ga r ofii d ruined a whole cl a ss .

,

exh a usted the soil a n d destroyed a flour i sh ing bra nch of f a rming
, ,

whi ch un der the wi ng of the new reform the p ea s a nts a r e now

strugglin g to revive Whe a t growing is not likely to prove more
.
-

p op ul a r w ith them th a n with the pe a s a nts of western Eur op e .

S E C TI O N 2

TH E P RESEN T P O S ITI O N A ND T H E F UTU R E OF W H E A T A ND M A I ZE

(a ) Wh ea t From the genera l problem of Rum a ni a n agri cul
.

tura l production the declin e of whea t gro w ing h a s b een sin gled -

out for speci a l a ttention no doubt b ec a use whea t formed the ,

b a ckbone of Rum a ni a s export a n d w a s therefore the element

’

’
by which Rum a ni a s a gric ul t ur a l prosperity w a s comm only
me a sured a bro a d Hence the dis a pp ea ra nce of Rum a ni a n whe a t
.

from the western m a rkets h a s c a used much a pprehension con

cern ing the effects of the reform on Rum a ni a n a gricultur e a s
a whole Whe a t gro wing a n d the export of whe a t will prob a bly
.
-

not pl a y the s a me predomin a nt role in Rum a ni a n economi c life

a g a in a n d it is therefore of gener a l i nterest b r i efl to survey the
, y
cir cum st a nces on whi ch th a t a ssum ption is b a sed .

Whe a t h a s been subj ect to a ll the conditions w hi ch h a ve

’
c a used an a ll roun d declin e in Rum ani a s h a rvests In a d di tion
-

.
,

however whea t growing h a s b een a ffected by a numb er of

,
-

s ecifi c circ umst a nces fi r s t of a ll by a consider a ble reduction in

p ,

the a rea under this cr 0p In the Old Kingdom b efore the Wa r .

, ,

whea t h a d sprea d itself out ov er ne a rly two fi ft h s of the culti -

29 6 EFFECT S OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
va t e d a re a but in Gre a ter Rum a ni a a t present its c ul tiva tion
, , ,

covers less th a n 30p er cent of the a re a brought ye a rly un der the

.

plough We h a ve pointed out in the precedi ng p a ges th a t in

.

genera l the pe a s a nts give preference to cr 0p s whi ch dem a nd

gre a ter l a bour on a lesser a re a ; m a ize & c is rel a tively ga i ni ng , .
,

groun d at the expense of whe a t Whe a t moreover is diffi cult to .

, ,

grow on the exiguous strips which compose most of the p e a s a nt

holdings To the decline b oth in whe a t sowi n gs a n d h a rvests the
.
-

e xh a ustion of the whea t l a nds by the w a nton exploit a tion of the

-

former l a rge cultiva tors h a s further contributed Cert a in .

region a l va ri a tions in whe a t gro w ing a r e expl ain ed by loc a l

-

circum st a nces In Molda vi a where the win ter l a sts longer

.
, ,

spring whe a t must b e so wn during a short p eriod tow a rds the

end of M a rch or the beginn i ng of April whi ch in volves gre a ter ,

risks th a n in other regio ns a n d with other crop s Wh ea t used to .

b e grown there m a inly by l a rge f a rmers on their own a ccount , ,

a n d the f a ll in its cultiv a tion is consider a ble On the other h a nd .

,

in Munte n i a a n d Olt en ia whe a t ca n b e sown tow a rds the end of

,

Febru a ry : in these regions whe a t w a s cultiva ted l a rgely in

meta yage a n d figur es c a lcul a ted a n d priva tely comm uni c a ted
’

, ,

by M Emil M a ri a n show th a t the a re a under whe a t h a s rem a ined

.

pra ctic a lly unch a nged in the va rious coun ties since 1 8 76 There .

h a ve b een va ri a tions from ye a r to ye a r but not over longer ,

periods .

An a ddition a l set of fa cts which a ffected th e gro w in g of

whe a t spra ng from the p e a s a nts stra in ed cir cumst a nce s a fter
’

the Wa r Out of their p overty they h a d then to rebuild the i r

.

economy a n d a lso to pa y for the l a nd they h a d received a t the

,

resettlement Now seed for a hect a re of whe a t costs a bout

.

lei whi ch mounts up with clea ni ng to

,
lei a n d w ith ,

interests of 30—40 per cent on thi s money to . lei per

11 a a sum which is frequently beyond th e me a ns of the p e a s a nts
.

or in a n y c a se a sum which they a r e disincli ned to la y out They .

prefer to sow m a ize which gives them food for themselves an d

,

for the ir a nim a ls a n d the seed for which o n ly costs a bout 1 5 0

,

1 6 016 1 p er h a At the s a me time the pe a s a nts h a ve been tempted

.

by the disorg a niz a tion of ra ilwa y tra nsp ort to employ their
te a ms for c a rting the h a rvest & c inste a d of sowin g a utumn
, .
,
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 29 7

whe a t which forms the m a in wh eat cro p

,
h a a ut umn
-
.

whe a t a s a g a in st sprin g whe a t in 1 927 the l a tter m a in ly

-

in B ess a ra bi a ; they could obt a in from c a rti ng high pr ofi t s a n d

re a dy c a sh e n a bli ng them to meet the higher cost of keeping
a ni m a ls The Rum a ni a n ra i lw a y system w a s designed to li nk
.

up the town s an d not in the fir st pl a ce to t ap the richest

, ,

a gricultur a l regions an d the effect h a s b een to tempt the pe a s a nts

,

i n emergencies w ith opport u ities for s a fe a n d e a sy g a in which

n ,

di sturbs their fa rm ing a n d m the s a me me a sur e the temper of

,

the economists concerned w ith the furthera nce of a griculture .

These conditions a r e prob a bly of a l a sting n a tur e They m a ke .

it unlikely th a t the a re a un der whe a t wi ll ever re a ch its former

proportion qui te a p a rt from the in fl uen ce of more tra nsient
,

fa ctors to which we sh all presently refer conn ected with the

, ,

st a te of the m a rket a n d w ith o ffici a l policy Oi the twelve a n d .

a h a lf mi lli on h a a r a ble l a nd the pe a s a nts now hold some eleven

.

million h a But a mong the pe a s a nts only those ca n grow whe a t

.

who own more th a n 3 5 h a In the present orga niz a tion of the i r

-
.

household a n d fa rm ing the pe a s a nts require 1 8 hectoli tres m a iz e

for their own foo d 8 — 1 0 hectolitres for birds a n d f a rm y a rd
,
-

a nim a ls a n d 700 chi le for 2 oxen— a tot a l qu a ntity for which

,

the 3 5 h a j ust suffi ce If one divides the expropri a ted a rea by

. .

the number of pe a s a nts who h a ve received l a nd the a vera ge ,

holding distributed works out a t a bout 3 5 h a e a ch a n d if to .

,

th a t a re a one a dds the l a nd distributed in former re settlements -

the conclusion is th a t a n a rea of roughly h a is di vided .

into very sm a ll holdings on which it is not pra ctic a ble to grow

whe a t The rem a ini ng
. h a a r a ble l a nd a b out equ a l the .

a re a which h a s in f a ct been put un der whe a t .

Hence the a rea whi ch can b e devoted to whe a t grow ing is -

likely to rem a in sta tion a ry while intern a l requi rements a r e

,

gre a tly incre a sed In some of the new provinces especi a lly in
.
,

Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a the pop ula tion e at bre a d a n d ,

pot a toes but m a ize not a t a ll Together with the growth of

, .

urb a n centres th a t circumsta nce dem a nds a h igher contribution

,

in whe a t from the Old Kin gdom a s Tra nsylva ni a a n d Buco vi n a ,

could not s a tisfy their own needs even before the Wa r a n d h a d

to dra w supplies from other p a rts of the Austro Hung a ri a n -
298 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
mon a rchy More im port a nt still is the effect of ch a nges whi ch
.

ar e t a kin
g pl a ce in the h a bits of pe a s a nts in the Old Ki ngdom .

The long p eriod sp ent in the a rmy h a s a ccustomed m a ny of them

to e at bre a d an d being on the whole b etter off a fter the reform
, ,

their im proved st a nda rd of li vin g fin d s expression in a ch a nge

from a m a iz e to a whea t di et The fi gur e s b elow p ur port to
.

in dic a te the intern a l consumption of the prin ci p a l cerea ls but ,

they a r e a pprox im a te to a degree b eing obt a in ed sim ply by the

,

deduction of exports from the tot a l pr od uct i on (in clusive imports )

19 1 0— 1 5 1 9 20—4 1 925 1 926

T ot l i
a n P er T ot a l i
n P er T ot a l i n P er T ot l i n
a P er
Cer lsea qui t l s
n a hea d qui n tals h ea d quin ta ls h ea d qui ta ls
n head
Wh e a t 16 3 1 27 1 71-
1 63
-

Ry e 0 05
-
0 11 0 12 0 16
-

M i
a ze 2 46
-
1 82
-
2 14-
3 23
-

B rl e y
a 03 6 0 48
-
05 0-
065
-

O ts
a 0 41
-
0 49
-
0 43-
065
-

4 91
-
4 17
-
4 6 32
-

In the followin g t a ble a n a ttempt h a s b een m a de to work out

more a ccura tely the figur es for whe a t by deducti ng from the ,

tot a l intern a l consumption the qu a ntity estim a ted to h a ve b een

used a s seed ( a t 1 8 0 kilogra m per in quin t a ls :
I n t e rn a l U se d U se d
Y r ea c ons u m pti on for see d for foo d

The figure s h a ve only rel a tive v a lue for in yea rs of rich h a rvests
,

the unexported sur plus a pp e a rs fi ct it i ously a s p a rt of the fi gur e

representing the intern a l consum ption Thi s expl a ins the hi gh .

figur e s for 1 9 26 On the other h a nd 1 9 24 g a ve a very poor whe a t

.
,

crop ; whe a t h a d to be imported prob a bly in the follow in g spring ,

a n d th a t im port went to swell the a lre a dy l a rge tot a l for 1 9 25 .

Whe a t imports were a s follows

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 299

The consum ption of whea t is sm a ll in comp a rison with th a t

of other countries a s the p ea s a nts in the Old Kingdom m a inly
,

ea t m a ize In the c a se of m a iz e it is im possible to sep a ra te the

.

qu a ntity used a s food from th a t used a s fodder The genera l .

consumption of cerea ls 1 s considera ble being p a ra lleled only by ,

th a t of Hun ga ry ; therefore the new h a bit of e a ting brea d i s

likely to a bsorb a n y futur e in crea se in the whe a t h a rvests 1 -
.

Th a t phenomenon is being experienced in other countries a s

we ll even in the Fa r E a st in Chin a a n d especi a lly in Ja p a n
, , .

Whe a t exports to the F a r E a st h a ve in cre a sed on a n a vera ge

te n fold since the b eginnin g of the cent ury Dur ing the eleven .

ye a rs before the War Indi a exported a n a vera ge of 45 million

bushels ye a rly but a fter the Wa r it fell to 1 3 millions a s a result
, ,

of gre a ter home dem a nds ; an d consum ption it is considered is , ,

likely to keep p a ce w ith the rise in production 2

.

The ch a nge in Rum a ni a is illustra ted more tellin gly even th a n

in figur e s by the a ppe a ra nce in a hn ost every V ill a ge of a t le a st
one b a ker where a s formerly bre a d coul d o nl y b e got from tow n
, .

‘ ’
A lo a f of brea d w a s gener a lly the tre a t which the pe a s a nt
brought his fa mi ly when he went to m a rket The popula tion of .

the new provin ces on the other h a nd will not t a ke to m a ize

, , ,

1
ve rage cons u m pti on per h ea d of c ere l s i cludin g qu a n titi s u se d for s eed
A a , n e and

a s fodd e r 1 920—9 i n qu i n t a ls
, , .

Y ug o Cz ec h o
Hu n
ga ry l vi a
s a Bulg ri a a Pol an d S o l va ki a u
R m an ia

( Aft e r I on es cu S i sesti ; from d ta

-
in t he ea
a oo Y rb k
of t h e I n e n a o n a
-
ns e of t r ti l I titut
ric ltu Ag u r e ) .

t bl di cl
Th e a e c rt i
s os es e ti l pr r c
a n n a on a u i J
e fe e n es : R ma n a a n d ugos la vi a con
u
s m e a good d l wh t
ea of i Bul ri l
ea a n d m a ze ; i r wh
ga a ess m a z e a n d m o e ea ; i n o an t P l d
i i p t c c t r it wh t C ch l
ma ze i s of n o m or an e , r y e om i n g fi r s t a n d a f e ea ; i n ze os o a a ea v ki wh t
y c u d b ut qu ly C ch l v ki
a n d r e ar e ons m e a o e al ze P l d
os o a . r
a an d o an a r e g ea ons m e s tc u r
of p t t d
o a oes , as fo o dd r h c th y c u l c r l
a n d a s fo e , en e e ons me ess e ea s .

9
I nd i a as a P r od ucer a nd E xp mter of Wh ea t, W ea S
h t tudi '
F e s of t h e oo R esea d rch
I titut t
ns rd U iv r ity C li r i J uly
e , S a mf o n e s ( a fo n a ) , 1 927 .
300 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
even i n t imes of stress After the di s a strous f ai l ure of the 1 928
.

h a rvest in m a ny p a rts of B ess a ra bi a the Rum a ni a n Red Cross ,

set up c a nteens in the distressed a re a a n d di stributed to the

V ill a gers free of ch a rge the tr a di tion a l mamali a
g (p olen ta ) but
’

l a ter brea d h a d to be substituted a lthough the cost w a s t w ice ,

a s high bec a use the pop u

, l a tion though f a mi shed coul d not b e , ,

induced to eat m a ize In genera l the intern a l consum ption of .

,

whe a t before the Wa r w a s estim a ted a t to w a gons ,

8 0 p er cent of which were consumed i n the to wn s Now the

. .
,

intern a l requir ements h a ve b een estim a ted in a Memora ndum of

the Cerea l d e S tudi i E con omi ce a t w a gons i e a p ro , . .

portion of 1 3 where a s the pop ul a tion h a s i ncre a sed merely a s

,

1 2 If the popula tion of the Old Kin gdom shoul d come to con
.

sum e whea t a t the s a me ra te a s the i nh a bit a nts of the new

provin ces intern a l requirements wo ul d rise to
, w a gons
ye a rly plus , w a gons for seed ; w hi ch me a ns th a t
the pre w a r export co ul d not b e equ a lled un til the h a rvest
-

re a ched w a gons ye a rly The problem of in tern a l .

supplies is a ggra v a ted by the fa stidi ousness of the town speople

who insist on the whitest of W he a ten bre a d Even imm edi a tely .

a fter the Wa r W hen whe a t a n d fl our h a d to b e im ported on

,

credit a n d when Fr a nce Germ a ny an d other co untries restricted

, , ,

the consum ption of white flour restrictions were imposed in ,

Rum a nia only upon the producers but not a t a ll upon the ,

consum ers .

To meet the growin g intern a l dem a nd in the fa ce of a tendency

to diminish supplies the Governm ent resorted from the begin ,

nin g to me a sur es c a lc ul a ted to bring them pop ul a rity by keep i ng

the price of whe a t low J ust when Rum a ni a needed to i ncre a se .

her exports for purposes of reconstruction a n d when Rum a ni a n ,

whe a t could h a ve found a re a dy outlet in the depleted m a rkets of

Centra l Eur op e the Rum a ni a n Governments prohibited the
,

export of whe a t a n d of whe a t fl our The neighbour in g countries -

-
Yugosl a vi a Hung a ry Bulg a ri a— h a d a lesser production yet
, , ,

none of them resorted to sim il a r prohibitions In the second .

pl a ce the Governments fi x e d m a ximum prices for whe a t a n d

, ,

a s this h a d the effect of deterri ng the f a rmers from sowin g whe a t ,

the a uthorities fi n a lly resorted to a system of requisitions Any .

 EFFE CTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 301
a rticle li a ble to b e requisitioned tends to dis a pp ea r from the
m a rket a n d a s a ll these restrictive me a sur es were a pplied to
,

whe a t a lone they crea ted a psychologic a l preference for other

,

crops which did not expose the fa rmers to the co n st a nt i n t er fe r

ence of the a uthorities Afterw a rds when the export of whe a t
.
,

w a s left free the Governm ent ende a voured to ensure a plentiful

,

intern a l supply by imposing high e xp ort t a xes This effectively .

ruined a ll the ch a nces of the whe a t export the more so a s prices ,

were fa lling r a pidly from yea r to ye a r a n d Rum a n i a s restrictive ,

’

me a sures coin cided with the speci a l efforts m a de by Fra n ce ,

Germ a ny It a ly a n d other countries towa rds the r a isi n g of their

,

own whe a t production Nor h a d the Rum a ni a n me a sures a n y

.

other effect beyond dimin ishin g the supplies which re a ched the
m a rket As a consequence in t ern a l w h ea t prices rose ever hi gher
.
, ,

even if the rise w a s usu a lly one ye a r l a te keeping step in ea ch ,

c a se with the ch a nge in o ffici a l restrictions As might h a ve been .

expected restrictions on whe a t c a used its price to rem a in

,

a bsolutely or rel a tively below th a t of other cere a ls in 1 9 1 6 whe a t

prices were 33 35 per cent higher th a n m a ize but in 1 924 only

-
.
, o

1 7 35 per cent O a ts a n d b a rley fetched during the fi r st fi ve

-
.

ye a rs a fter the Wa r higher prices th a n whe a t This le d to a con .

s i d era ble w a st a ge of the more v a lu a ble corn ; l a rge a n d sm a ll

cultiva tors preferred to use whe a t on their own fa rms for the
feeding of a nim a ls In the town s too bre a d being chea per th a n
.
, ,

m a ize or other foodstuffs chi ckens a n d eve n pigs a n d horses

, , ,

were fed on bre a d During the p a st few yea rs on a ccount of low

.
,

prices a n d indi fferent qu a li ty whole c a rgoes of whe a t h a ve gone

,

t o Denm a rk a s fodder .

These disturbin g c ircum st a nces were a ggra va ted by the

severe money crisis a n d the consequent high r a tes of in terest .

Whe a t growers were un a ble to obt a in from the offi cia l prices even
-

the equiva lent of the money invested in seed a n d l a bour In a n .

interview publi s hed in the Buc a rest P la tus on November 1 1 , ,

1 923 the dir ector of a big Tr a nsylv a ni a n flour mill a dmitted th a t

,

things h a d come to such a p a ss tha t they were a ble to buy whe a t

a t a lmost a n
y price if they p a id re
, a dy c a sh Sm a ll tr a ders an d .

specul a tors used to a ssemble a t country st a tions a n d buy whea t

from the pea s a nts by the s a ck a t prices which g a ve them no ,
302 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
more th a n lei per w a gon Wh en its restrictive .

mea sures h a d completely unb a l a nced the cultiva tion of whea t ,

the Governm ent tried to countera ct them by other offi cial

decrees In 1 9 21 it w a s decided th a t whea t wi th a weight of
.
,

more th a n 76 kilogra ms per hectolitre a n d only 1 per cent .

imp ur ities should b e exempted from req uisition a n d from exp ort
restrictions But such a qu a lity w a s extremely r a re a n d a bove
.

the li mit fix e d before the Wa r a s entitling to exemption from

requisition S ome of the l a rge cultiva tors m a y p ossibly h a ve
.

rea ched i t but it w a s most improb a ble th a t the pe a s a nts who

, ,

coul d not a fford selected seed would come a nywhere ne a r it ,

.

The decree w a s in d a nger of b eing interpreted by them a s one

more fa vour for the boia r s a n d of m a kin g them still more
‘ ’
,

reluct a nt to grow whea t 1

.

L a ter on the Governm ent offered a prem i um of 200 lei for

e a ch hect a re sown w ith whe a t but th a t represented merely ,

a sm a ll p a rt of the loss which whe a t growers were sufferin g -

through price restrictions a n d export t a xes a n d the me a sur e w a s ,

therefore fa ted to rem a in ineffective The A rgus c a lcul a ted th a t .

,

with a normal h a rvest whe a t in 1 924 ga ve a ret urn of a bout

,

lei per h a which w a s the s a me a s other crops ; wherea s i n

.
,

the a bsence of restrictions whe a t co ul d give a return of 4 0001e i ,

to the lei of other cere a ls .

It will be seen th a t the declin e in whe a t growi ng c a nnot b e -

a ltogether a ttributed to the tr a nsfer of l a nd from l a rge to sm a ll

cultiv a tors a fa ct whi ch a l a ter ch a pter dea ling wi th the ,

a gr a ri a n policy of the St a te will bring out more cle a rly , The re .

is much j usti fic a tion for the poin t of View of the Rum a ni an
‘
writer who a ccu s ed the St a te of h a vin g trea ted whe a t a s
a phil a nthropic crop The upshot o i a ll thes e circum st a nces is
’
. .

th a t a n indi fferent h a rvest ca n h a rdly s a tisfy the coun try s own ’

needs This w a s the c a se in 1 928 when immedi a tely a fter the

.
, ,

h a rvest the flour mills of Tra nsylva ni a bought

,
-
w a gons of
whe a t from Hung a ry .

The obst a cles the Sta te pl a ced in the w a y of whe at gro w in g -

1
A cc o rdi n g t o t h e F r a n kfur ter Z ei tun g for Ma y 9 , 1 9 25 , t h e a v e ra ge w e i ght pe r
. O
h e cto litre of wh ea t w a s 7 4 6 k g i n t h e ld Ki n gd om, 7 3 7 i n B es sa ra bi a , 7 6 2 in - -

Tr a nsylv an i a a nd 7 5 2 i n Buco vin a , givi ng a n a v erage of 74 9 for t h e whol e c oun try

- -
.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 303

were the more unfortun a te a s whea t co uld m a int a in itself in

Rum a ni a o nl y by mea ns of more i ntensive methods a n d returns .

M H a rold Wright mentioned in hi s book on Popul a tion th a t

.

dur ing the fi r st ye a r of the Wa r the a re a under whea t in cre a sed

by a b out a cre s Wh e a t growin g h a s m a de such ra pid
.
-

strides in Americ a a n d Ca n a da th a t some of the i nf erior qu a lities

a r e now used by the C a n a di a n f a rmers for the f a tteni n g of c a ttle ,

in preference to the more export a ble cerea ls li ke o a ts a n d b a rley .

M Ionescu Sise s ti h a s c a lcul a ted th a t with the present cost of

.
-

production a n d a ver a ge retur ns the Rum a ni a n f a rmers suffer ,

a loss whenever the production rem a in s b elow kg .

per h a Th a t however me a ns a continuous loss the a vera ge

.
, , ,

norm a l production bein g a t present b elow k g per h a . .

,

a n d a b out 900 k
g p er h a in the c a se of pe a s a nt cultiv a
. .

tors The remedy in his Vi ew w a s to tur n from whe a t

.
, ,

growin g to the production of high qu a lity a n im a l d a iry a n d , ,

ga rden produce M Ga r ofli d too w a rned the country some yea rs

. .
, ,

a o th a t they must f a mili a rize themselves with the ide a th a t soon

g
Rum ani a m a y no lon ger coun t a mong whe a t exporting countries -
.

And if America n whea t supplies contin ued to in cre a se the ,

repl a cement of whea t by m a ize w a s in his op i nion not necess a rily , ,

a gre a t loss The b est use to b e m a de of the excess of fodder

.

produced by the pe a s a nt holdin gs w a s to devote it to the bree di ng

a n d f a tteni ng of c a ttle Though representing the l a rge fa rmers
.
,

M Ga r ofii d a dm itted th a t pe rh a ps the o nl y me a ns of r a is ing

.

Rum an i a n a gricult ure might b e to repl a ce the export of whe a t

a n d o a ts a n d b a rley by the export of me a t a n d f a ts

( b) Ma i ze Both from the point of vi ew of extension a n d of

.

production m a ize growing rem a i ns the chief cr0p of Rum a ni a n

,
-

a gricultur e Its prominent position is not merely a ccident a l but

.
,

the res ul t of a soil a n d clim a te fa vour a ble to its growt h M a iz e .

requi res a rich soil a n d a w a rm clim a te from sowin g to h a rvest

,

ing with r a in d uring the period of veget a tion an d a dry a utumn

,

to f a cili ta te ripening a n d h a rvesting Such conditions a r e .

seldom encoun tered elsewher e in centra l a n d western Europe ,

an d m a ize is h a rdly to be found except in the Neck a r v a ll ey ,

a mong Vi nes Ma ize for fodder which is ha rvested green is

.
, ,

A gu O ct b r 1 2 19 23
1
r s, o e , .
304 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
ex tensively grown in Germ a ny of cour se much of the seed for , ,

it b eing imported from the B a n a t .

M a ize w a s introduced in Rum a ni a in the eighteenth cent ury ,

through It a li a n an d Turkish tra ders It soon bec a me a fa vourite .

with the p e a s a nts displ a cing a h n ost completely within a short

, ,

sp a ce of time the growi ng of mi ll et which h a d from olden da ys

, ,
’
b een the m a in ingre di en t in the pe a s a nts nour ishment Since it s .

introduction m a iz e fl our h a s formed the bulk of the pea s a nts

,
’

foo d .

The a dv a nt a ges which the pe a s a nts fin d in m a iz e a r e m a ny

a n d v a ried
’
It is well a d a pted to Rum a ni a s soil a n d clim a tic
.

conditions In norm a l ye a rs a n d when c a refully grown m a iz e

.
, ,

gives a richer h a rvest th a n a n y other cere a l It is a much s a fer .

cr0p th a n whea t a s it requir es o nl y a bout h a lf the qu a ntity of

w a ter needed by whe a t so th a t it resists drought better an d
,

longer th a n other cere a ls ; only once dur ing the p a st fi ft y yea rs

di d the m a ize cr 0p fa il a ltogether a n d m a ize h a ve to b e i mported
from Americ a The l a bour it requi res especi a lly sowi ng does not
.
, ,

interfere a s reg a rds tim e wi th other a gric ul tur a l l a b ours M a iz e .

needs only a sm a ll qu a ntity of seed in proportion to the a cre a ge ,

the cost be ing a bout 1 5 0 1 6 0 lei per h a ; a n d there is a further

-
.

s a ving in th a t it is sown six months a fter whea t .

N 0 other pl a nt produces within such a short period of

veget a tion so much c a rbohydra tes sug a r a n d f a ts in a s re a dily , ,

digestible a form The m a ize porridge a n d the m a iz e c a ke supply

.
- -

the pe a s a nt with a complete foo d comprisin g st a rch sug a r , , ,

a lbum inoids a n d f a ts, Its compo s ition in t hi s resp ect is more

.

s a tisfa ctory th a n th a t of whe a t which cont a in s o nl y 1 9 per cent

,
-
.

fa ts while m a ize cont a ins 4 4 per cent The prep a r a tion of the
-
.

mamaliga is a t r iflin g l a bour comp a red with the b a k ing of

"

bre a d ; it ca n b e cooked e a sily a n d freshly over a n y kind of fi re ,

which is of gre a t im port a nce to the pe a s a nts who often h a ve to ,

work fa r from home living with w ives a n d chil d ren for da ys a n d

,

sometim es weeks in a n d a bout their c a rts .

M a ize st a lks a n d le a ves supply a much better fodder th a n

stra w ; it serves to feed a ll the a n im a ls from oxen to chickens ; ,

it f a ttens pigs b etter th a n a n yt hing else And wh a t rem a ins .

over a fter foddering the a nim a ls with the st a lks m a kes a fuel
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 305

which is especi a lly va lu a ble in the timberles s Rum a ni a n

pl a in
.

Fin a lly m a ize growi n g h a s a useful pl a ce in crop rot a tion

,
- -
.

Though a cere a l it is trea ted like a root a n d the hoei n g it

, ,

requi res prep a res the groun d for whe a t a n d other cere a l crops .

The rot a tion m a ize whe a t w a s the fi r st s tep in the improvement

-

of Rum a ni a n a griculture .

The m a in dis a dva nt a ge of m a iz e growi ng is th a t it dem a nds -

a gre a t de a l of l a bour in hoein g a n d ridging Th a t is why the .

l a rge fa rmers seldom grew it except in méta yage ; a n d in e a stern

,

Ga li ci a e g before the Wa r m a ize w a s the o nly crop cultiva ted

, . .
, ,

in méta yage ( na sp uken ) This dra wb a ck does not however

.
, ,

deter the pe a s a n ts a s so fa r they do not count their own l a bour

,

a mong the f a ctors which determine how fa r a crop is r ofi t a ble

p
or not Another dis a dva nt a ge of a soci a l n a ture h a s been the
.
, ,

endemic preva lence of pella gra a mong the Rum a ni a n pe a s a ntry ,

a ttributed to the consum ption of m a iz e In so fa r a s th a t w a s .

true it w a s no doubt due to the fa ct th a t the qu a lity of the m a iz e

h a d been a llowed to degener a te B e s ides this the p e a s a nts sold .

the best a n d con s um ed the wor s t of wh a t they re a ped As long .

as often of poor qu a lity w a s a h n ost the only food ,

of a popula tion on a low level of physic a l fi t n es s it w a s likely ,

enough to produce ba d consequences To d ay the pea s a nts still .

-

li ve m a i n ly on mamaliga but from a ll a ccounts pella gra h a s

' '

pra ctic a lly di sa ppea red o wing to a gener a l improvement in their

,

sta n d a rd of living .

B ec a use m a ize pl a ys only a negligible p a rt in the food of the

urb a n pop ul a tio n the Gover mn en t s di d not inconvenience its
,

cultiva tion a n d export with a ll the he a vy restrictions which they

imposed upon whea t This helped to m a int a in the pop ul a rity
.

of m a ize with the pea s a nts a s proved by the figures for the fi r s t
,

few ye a rs a fter the W a r :

Duri n g the wor s t period of reconstruction therefore the a re a , ,

1:
306 EFFECTS OF THE R EFORM ON PRODUCTION
under m a ize rem a ined a h n ost st a ble where a s the a re a under ,

other cere a ls w a s fi r st restricted a n d then gra du ally extended

from ye a r to ye a r The pe a s a nts th a t is fi r st di rected the i r
.
, ,

efforts to the reviva l of m a ize growing a n d o nl y a fterw a rds

-

took steps to i n cre a se the other crops From the figur e s given .

in the preceding section one ma y s a fely deduce the fa ct th a t

m a iz e is if a nyt h i ng g a ini ng ground a n d th a t it is li kely to
, , ,

rem a in by fa r the most impo rt a nt crop in Rum a ni a n a griculture .

As a food it m a y gra du a lly b e repl a ced by whea t in some ,

me a sure but th a t will prob a bly b e more th a n compens a ted by

,

a gro w ing dem a nd for it a s fodder through the development of ,

c a ttle breeding
-
.

S E C TI O N 3

TH E E FFE C T OF T H E RE F O R M ON PR O D U C TI O N
’
Rum a ni a s a gricultura l production registered a serious decline
a ft er the Wa r from every point of View
, The c ultiva ted a rea .

diminished ; tot a l production a s well a s the yield per h a fell ;

, .
,

and the qu a lity of the produce w a s a lso worse As th a t .

decline occurred duri n g the period which s a w the a pplic a tion of

the l a nd reform it w a s simple enough to a ssum e th a t the fi r st
,

w a s the result of the second ; especi a lly a s most critics took it for
gra nted th a t the ch a nge h a d me a nt a tra nsfer of l a nd from well
equi pped l a rge fa rmers to a m a ss of un prep a red p ea s a nt cultiva
tors How little found a tion there w a s for such a n a ssum ption
.

h a s been s hown in the precedin g ch a pter It w a s seen th a t the .

l a rge f a rmers h a d depended a lmost completely on the te a ms a n d

im plements a n d l a bour of the pe a s a nts ; a n d th a t w a s b ound to
b e st ill more so a t the end of the Wa r .

Cert a in writers therefore hold th a t fa r from depressin g pro

, ,
‘
duction the reform h a s a ctu a lly s a ved it The a gra ri a n reform
,
.

h a s s a ved our a gricultur a l production s a ys M Ionescu Sise s ti

’
-
.
, ,

a n d h a s protected us a g a i nst the i rremedi a ble colla pse of our

‘

n a tion a l e conomy Only by offering the pe a s a nt the l a nd for

.

which he w a s cra ving h a s he been in duced to m a ke a n effort

b eyond m a n s n orm a l powers The writer fi n d s support for his
’
.

view in the s ign ifi ca n t fa ct th a t the a re a which h a s rem a ined

‘
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 307
untilled from expropria ted l a nd is much sm a ll er th a n th a t from
’
l a nd not li a ble to expropri a tion 1
Ta king a ll the a r a ble l a nd .
,

the p a rt un cultiva ted a mounted to 24 21 per cent where a s from -

.
,

the expropri a ted l a nd 1 6 93 per cent rem a ined un t illed in 1 919 .

a n d 1 2 8 6 p er cent in 1 9 20
-
The w riter a ppe a rs to overlook the
. .

ob vious retort tha t it w a s j ust the expropri a tion which m a de it

di ffi cult for the l a rge cultiva tors to secure the nece s s a ry l a bour
for their fa rms but this merely qua lifi e s w ithout inva lid a ti n g
,

the truth of the observa tio n It w a s not a n isol a ted experience . .

‘
The Polish l a ndowners ruined by the deva st a tion of the Wa r
, ,

a re most of them u n a ble to f a rm their est a tes Ap a rt from .

mea sures of l a nd reform therefore it w a s found necess a ry to

, ,

p a ss speci a l legisl a tion for pl a ci n g th a t surplus a re a in the form

’
of compulsory lea ses a t the dispos a l of the pea s a nts 2
.

When tryi ng to discover the re a l re a sons for the fa ll in

production on e is fi r st of a ll f a ced a s w a s pointed out before
, , ,

with the insoluble d iffi cult y of how to disent a ngle the effects of
the reform from the effects of the Wa r The l a tter m a de them .

selves felt in most of the civi li zed countries s a ys the report of a n ,

inquiry m a de by the Intern a tion a l Institute of Agriculture .

‘
Essenti a lly the present crisis is a m a rketin g crisis In m a ny .

countries the prices of a gricultura l products do not cover the cost

of production nor compens a te for the considera ble in cre a se in
,
’
the prices of m a nufa ctured goods Cert a in genera l proposi .

tions m a y s a fely b e l a id down however S eeing th a t the a gricul , .

tura l d efi cien cy b ec a me mitiga ted a s the Wa r ye a rs receded it ,

is re a sona ble to a ssum e tha t to some degree it represe n ted , ,

a consequence of the Wa r And a s th a t improvement bec a me

.

a cce n tu a ted a s the a pp lic a tion of the reform a dv a nced it is ,

e vident tha t not a ll the trouble could h a ve been c a used by the

reform itself N evert h eles s there is no doubt th a t d uring the
.
,

fi rst ye a rs production w a s dist urbed by the a pp lic a tion of

the reform But here a ga in we a r e fa ced with a com plica t
.
, ,

in g circum st a nce which m a kes it im possible to re a ch a n y nice

conclu s ion Duri n g the period of tra nsition a gric ulture w a s
.

a bnorm a lly h a rra ssed by t h e economic po licy of the Govern

1
Refor ma A gra f a si P r od uc ti un ea , 1 9 25 , p 23
'

, . .

2
G Da s z i ns k a Go li ns k a , La Réfor m e A gra i re eu P ologn e,
.
-
Wa rs a w , 1 921 , p 8 7
. .

x 2
 308 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
ments who ruled Rum a nia during the ten ye a rs a ft er the Wa r .

Th a t policy to be det a iled l a ter must for ever lea ve open the
, ,

question a s to whether th a t a gricultura l dec li n e would h a ve come

to p a ss a t a ll or with such Virulence h a d the St a te n ot shown
, ,

itself conspicuously indifferent to the recovery of the coun try s ’

p a ra mount industry .

S ome of the most severe effects of the Wa r h a ve been men

t i on e d in discussing the ch a nge in the techni c a l me a ns of produc
tion Two thirds of the more fertile l a nd of Old Rum a ni a
.
-

rem a ined for two ye a rs under the occup a tion of a n enemy

despera tely in need of food stuffs From December 1 1 9 1 6 till -

.
, ,

April 4 1 91 8 the Centra l Powers took a w a y

, , tons of
cere a ls fodder a n d oil be a ring seeds ; including in th a t tot a l
, ,
-

tons of whe a t a n d tons of m a iz e They were .

a lso a ble to c a rry a w a y a h n os t the whole of the 1 9 1 8 h a rvest .

Munteni a w a s completely denuded of supplies a t the end of the

Wa r ; o a ts a n d b a rley h a d to be brought in from Mold a vi a a n d ,

whe a t for consum ption a n d seed from a bro a d 1 The loss in men
, , .

a n d a ni m a ls in m a chines a n d implements woul d h a ve been

,

s uffi ci en t severely to disturb a gricultur a l production esp eci a lly ,

a s economic condition s a t the end of the Wa r m a de the repl a ce

ment of the destroyed m a teri a ls d iffi cult a n d often impossible .

Everywhere one ca n still see old a gricultura l im plements which ,

h a d been long disc a rded summ a rily mended a n d brought into

,

us e a g a in H a ph a z a rd cultiv a tion dur i ng the Wa r even more

.
,

c a reless th a n before it h a s left b ehi nd rich crops of weeds At the

, .

end of the Wa r moreover there w a s a serious short a ge of seed

, , ,

a s the needs of the country a n d the enemy requisitions h a d used

up a ll the supplies of corn ; whea t a n d flour h a d to b e imported

in 1 91 9 even for intern a l consum ption To a ll the s e circum .

st a nces one must a d d the coll a pse of the tra nsport sy s tem ; ro a ds
a n d r a ilw a ys a r e not eve n yet in a fit st a te to cope with a norm a l

h a rvest .

( )
a T h e Cu lti va ted A r ea The m a nner in which the reform w a s
.

a pplied m a de the a gricultur a l confusion still worse The Govern .

1
F or a e s d cripti
on o f t h e e n e m o a y ccup ti o s e n e .
’
G A n t i pa , L Occup a ti on 11 i li 1a i r e .
' '

d e la R ouma n i e ; a n d on t h e s a e of a g t t riculture duri n

g t h e Wa r , G on es I
S s es , cu i ti
-
.

L A gr i cultur e Rouma m e p en da n t la Guer r e—

’
b oth i n thi s eri es s .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 309

ment decreed the immedia te expropri a tion of l a rge prop erty ,

a n d the whole oper a tion w a s c a rried out duri n g the winter 1 9 1 8

1 9 This h a sty a pplic a tion of the fi r st p a rt of the reform m a de it

.

impossible to tra nsfer the l a n d to the pe a s a nt s with the s a me

speed Oi the . h a expropri a ted durin g the fi r s t ye a r
.

over h a rem a ined in the h a nds of the St a te ;

. ha .

were rented by the former o wners while h a rem a ined

, .

uncultiva ted the St a te h a ving to pa y for them a ye a rly re n ta l

,

of lei The l a ndo w ners were not u n willi ng a s they

.
,

got a s a fe i n come w ithout a n y trouble a n d effort ; in Dobroge a ,

e.
g they
.
,received the full region a l rent though the l a nd rem a ined

untilled where a s the unexpropri a ted l a nd could not be let even

,

a t h a lf the region a l rent In Const a n t a county .h a were ,

.

t a ken over by the St a te but only h a could b e distributed

, .

to the pe a s a nts a n d th a t W ith grea t d iffi cult y In his Memora n

, .

dum to the King M Ga rofli d estim a ted a t six to seven hundred

, .

million lei the lo s s resulting from th a t unutilized a re a I n .

genera l the mech a n ic b a sis of the expropri a tion h a mpered

,

production in the fi r s t two ye a rs i e j ust when the former , . .

owners h a d to reorg a niz e their exploit a tions bec a use no one ,

knew precisely how much l a nd would be left him ; a n d this w a s

m a de worse by the continuous t a lk of a second expropria tion
which a s we know w a s in fa ct decreed The j oint effect of the
, , .

Wa r a n d of the a pplic a tion of the reform is seen in the following

fi gur e s rel a ting to the a re a under whe a t

1 9 14
19 18
1 9 19

or a ccordi n g to the kind of fa rms

1 9 1 9 — 20

La rge fa r ms
V i ll ge a sso ci ti on s
a a

S m ll fa r m rs
a e

Comp a red with the a vera ge of t h e preceding fi ve ye a rs the a re a ,

cultiv a ted in 1 9 1 9 dropped by a bout h a in the Old .

Kingdom Hence the loss coul d h a ve been due only in a minor

.
,
31 0 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
p a rt to the reform a s merely a bout one fourth of it concerned
,
-

the expropri a ted l a nd :

H e cta res
Cultiv a te d a rea b fore t h e War
e

Ar ea l eft f llo w duri ng 1 9 1 9

a . 24 2 1
A r ea e xpro pri te d m 1 9 1 9
a

P rt of it which re ma i n ed u n til l ed m 1 9 19
a

Pa r t which re ma i ne d u till ed m 1 9 20
n

The decline in the cultiva ted a re a w a s in a ny c a se short lived -

.

The t a ble below suggests th a t the f a rmers themselves did a ll th a t

dep ended on them tow a rds the recovery of a griculture :

Y r
ea O ld K i gd
n o m Bes s a ra bi a Buc ovi na Tr a ns ylv a n i a R um a n ia

It is interesting to n ote how the cultiva ted a re a w a s distributed

b etween l a rge a n d sm a ll property in the severa l provinces :
,

Bessa ra b
ia

T ot a l

B ucovin a

T ot a l
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 31 1

Tra n sylva n i a

S ma ll
P r p e rty
o Tot la

T ta l
o

Ruma n i a

l
S ma l l Peasan t
Prop erty Co o p e r tiv es
-
a T ot a l Fa ll ow

One should p erha ps expl a in th a t most of the l a nd listed a s bein g

exploited by pe a s a nt co opera tives w a s re a lly in the h a nds of the
-

tempor a ry vill a ge a ssoci a tions formed to t a ke up expropri a ted

,

l a nd un t il its fi n a l me asurement into indi vidu a l lots ; therefore

the const a nt fa ll of the fi gur e s in tha t column indica tes the pro
gress th a t w a s being m a de with the mea surement of the holdings ,

a n d not a decline of a gricultur a l co oper a tion -

.

In 1 9 22 the cultiv a ted a re a still rem a ined a bout 1 0 per cent .

below the pre w a r a vera ge By 1 925 the pre w a r a re a w a s

-
.
-

equ a lled a n d the exp a nsion slowed down but h a s not come to
, ,

a n end so tha t in extent a t a n y ra te the reform would seem to

, ,

be furthering the exploit a tion of the soil The dem a nd i s still .

considera ble a mong the pea s a nts but there is rel a tively little ,

l a nd left th a t mi ght be brought under the plough .

The chief a va il a ble l a nd reserve consists of some ha .

1
Th t bl
e a c mpil d fr m t h y rly t ti tic f t h Mi i try f Agricultu
e s a re o e o e ea s a s s o e n s o re .

Th e fi gur es for 1 9 24 an d 1 9 25 d o n ot i n clud e fa llo w ; t w a rd s

af e r fa ll o w l a d
n was
i cl d d
n u e i n t h e gen e a o a r lt t l .
31 2 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
a lluvi a l soil in the low lying regions a long the D a nub e Dn y est r
-

a n d Pruth This l a nd is lia ble to flooding a n d in 1 9 1 2 a la w

.
,

provided for the recl a imin g of the l a nd by me a ns of a system of

d a ms ; work begun on the strength of those preli mi n a ry studies
w a s interrupted by the Wa r Th e a gra ri a n l a ws ga ve the owners .

a respite of ten ye a rs dur ing which they might c a rry out the

work on their own a ccount ; otherwise the l a nd is to b e t a ken

over by the St a te A commission of experts a ppoin ted by
.

M Mih a la ch e wh en he took over the Ministry of Agriculture in

.
,

1 928 reported th a t onl y a little h a d b een do n e so fa r a n d th a t

, ,

the work l a cked a b a sis s uffi ci en t ly s ci en t ifi c to ensure its

reli a bility a n d perm a nence New pl a n s a r e being dra wn up for
.

the e a rly recl a iming of wh a t i s boun d to prove a n extremely

’
fertile a ddition to the country s a r a ble l a nd .

( 6 ) P r od ucti on The decli ne of productio n h a s unfortun a tely

.
, ,

proved more persiste n t The cultiv a ted a re a n ow exceeds the

.

pre w a r extent but a s the yield per hect a re is gener a lly les s the
-

, ,

tot a l h a rvest rem a ins d efi cien t in th a t proportion .

Cert a in peculi a r circumst a nces h a ve contributed to th a t

u n fortun a te result In cert a in p a rts of the country to begin
.
,

with the ra infa ll wo uld seem to h a ve ch a nged in the post w a r

,
-

ye a rs The a vera ge r a infa ll for the hun dred ye a rs b efore the

.

Wa r h a d re a ched 6 05 millimetres Durin g the fi r st fi ve ye a rs .

a fter the Wa r the gener a l a vera ge r a in f a ll a moun ted to o nl y

,

5 6 5 millim etres I n 1 9 24 the a vera ge w a s only 5 40 millimetres

.
, .

In th a t ye a r the Bl a ck S ea b a sin recorded a ra infa ll of merely

38 8 millimetres t h e b a s in of the Dn y e st r 378 millim etres a n d the
, ,

b a sin of the Pruth 341 millimetres These qu a ntities h a rdly .

s uffi ce d for a mediocre h a rvest Autum n h a s become a dr y .

se a son r a in being recorded m a i n ly a t the end of sprin g a n d in

,

summer In 1 928 there w a s h a rdly a n y r a in from the e n d of

.

Ma y till the snow se a son The u s u a l direct ste a mer t r a ffi c from

.

V ienn a to Giurgiu could be m a int a i n ed o n ly by repe a ted tr a ns

fers into bo a ts with a lesser dra ught a n d for a time it w a s fe a red ,

th a t the t r a ffi c would h a ve to be stopped a ltogether One re a son .

for the ch a nge is prob a bly the merciless cutting down of forests ,

especi a lly during the W a r There i s a gre a t difference in the ra in

.

f a ll received by the v a rious regions which ra nges from m illi ,

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 31 3
metres in the highl a nds to 8 00millimetres in t h e h ills a n d less th a n
400m illi metres in the lowl a nds but so fa r no s ystem of irr ig a tion ,

h a s been devised to dra w a dva nt a ge from the s e v a ri a tions .

Moreover while the qu a n tity of r a infa ll might b e suffi ci en t it

, ,

genera lly is concentra ted on a sm a ll number of d a ys 6 5 8 in the ,

—

ye a r This rel a tive dryness is e nh a n ced by the a ction of the

.

s trong north e a sterly wi n ds which sweep a cro s s the fl a t corridor

-

b etween the Dn y est r a n d the C a rp a thi a n s L a tely the wi n ters .

h a ve been m a rked by severe cold setting i n b efore the f a ll of the

snow As a conseque n ce a bout one mi llion hect a res h a d e g to
.
, , . .
,

b e ploughed a n d so w n a fresh in the spring of The s e

cl im a tic co n dition s expl a in some of the a pp a rently c a reless h a bit s
of the pea s a nt s It is a n old tra di tion a mo n g them to le a ve in the
.

a utum n the fi e ld s i n s uffi c i e n t l cle a ned a n d h a rrowed bec a use

y ,

in the a bse n ce of pl a n t a tions there is thus a better cha nce of

holdin g the snow on their fi eld s It often h a ppe n s tha t whe a t .

sown between m a ize a n d kept b a ck by the m a ize h a rvest is in

, ,

the sprin g more forwa rd th a n whea t sow n i n time a n d properly

c a red for .

Another circum st a n ce of a genera l ch a ra cter which h a s , ,

a ffected a gricultur a l production a fter the Wa r is the short a ge of ,

l a bour on the l a nd Oi the resettled p e a s a nts m a ny a re reluct a nt

.

to e n g a ge a s l a bourers provided th a t they ca n get s uffi cie n t

,

susten a n ce out of their own holdi ngs with the help of c a rting & c , , .

The younger me n on the other h a nd who h a ve rem a ined with

, ,

out l a nd migra te to the town s to seek domestic or in dustria l

,

work The census a ttempted two ye a rs ago h a d to b e scra pped

.

a s its res ults were obviously f a lse but even without a me a s ure ,

ment in figur es one can est a blish everywhere a r a pid growth in

the urb a n popul a tion ; a n d the short age of l a bour during the
period of a gricultur a l a ctivities le a ves n o doubt th a t there is
a s light movement of popul a tion a w a y from the l a nd To some .

extent this m a y be induced by the ch a nge in the succe s sion l a ws ,

which prohibit the sp litt ing up of pe a s a n t holdi n gs below a mini -

mum of 2 h a ; younger sons h a ve therefore a lesser ch a nce of

.

inheriti n g a n y l a nd a t a ll .

1
F or di cu ss ion of t h e re la tion b etw een clima te a n d v egeta ti on i n R u m n i a se
a s a e

t h e p p e r r a d by M J ean C m a sesc u b e fo re t h e I n te rn a ti ona l Agricult ura l Co

a e . a ar n

gres s h e ld a t Buc res t in J un e 1 9 29

a .
31 4 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
S ome of the circum st a nces w hi ch h a ve i nfl uen ce d production
a dversely m a
y b e a ttributed dir ectly to the reform S ome milli on .

hect a res h a vin g p a ssed in to the h a nd s of sm a ll own ers it might ,

h a ve been ex pected in the Old Kin gdom a t le a st th a t they

, , ,

would stra in their powers in order to get more out of th a t a re a

th a n h a d its former l a rge owners These hopes h a ve not b een .
,

a n d could not b e re a lized so fa r

, For if extensive cultiv a tion
.

g a ve such poor results when a pplied on a l a rge sc a le its a chi eve ,

ments were boun d to be still fra il er when the system w a s a pplied

over a m a ss of sc a ttered fi eld s Of course such results a s used
.
,

to b e obt a ined by ten a nts a n d b a ili ffs through putt i ng the screw ,

on the p e a s a nts will henceforw a rd not b e obt a in ed But in the

, .

Old Kingdom a t an y r a te one co ul d h a rdly sp e a k of a decli ne

, ,

in knowledge brought into the servi ce of a gricultur e ; though the

l a ck of a cert a in g uid a nce which used to b e exercised by the l a rge
cultiva tors no doubt m a kes itself felt All these however a re .
, ,

tempora ry effects due not so much to a n y deficiency in the new

,

methods a s to the surviva l of the old ones .

A less tra nsitory dra wb a ck to the reform springs from the

distribution of l a nd not to those best a ble to cultiv a te it but to
, ,

the p ea s a nts who most suffered in the Wa r The principles of .

the reform a n d prob a bly still more the a buses committed dur i ng
,

their a pp lic a tion h a ve moreover pl a ced fa irly considera ble

, , ,

extents of l a nd in the h a nds of a rti sa ns gypsies petty offi cia ls , , ,

& c thereby a ggra v a ting th a t defect More serious still the

.
, .
,

reform h a s inevit a bly increa sed the ch a otic sca ttering of the
p e a s a nt fi eld s ; in the a bsence of a ll me a sure of conso lid a tion ,

a ddition a l fi eld s were given where l a nd w a s a v a il a ble a n d not

where the recipient a lrea dy perh a ps h a d some l a nd of his own

, ,
.

Th a t me a ns not merely a w a st a ge of tim e a n d a n uneconomic

repetition of the va rious l a bours but a lso a considera ble w a st a ge
,

of l a nd The lines of dem a rc a tion between these innumera ble

.

sm a ll fi eld s a re a lleged in cert a in pl a ces to occupy a s much a s

'

30 per cent of their tot a l extent ; a n d they a r e a lso hotb eds of

.

weeds a s the people concerned a r e not a nxious to remove the

,

only things which m a ke the bound a ries conspicuous .

Wh a tever the p a rt gre a t or sm a ll pl a yed by e a ch of these

, ,

fa ctors — most of which a r e tra nsitory— production still l a gs

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 31 5

behind the pre w a r level In comp a rin g the two p eriods one must
-
.

b e c a reful to keep in mi nd the ch an ge whi ch h a s t a ken pl a ce in

the di stribution of the va rious crops ; for a s the t a ble 1 below ,

shows the extent of e a ch of the fi ve princip a l cerea l cro p s is at

,

present va stly different though the a re a they j ointly cover is ,

simi l a r to the correspondi ng pre w a r a re a : -

A v e r a ge a r ea 1 909 — 1 3, i n h e cta res

O ld Ki gd
n o m 2 B ess ra bi a
a
r
h a n s y lva n i a Buc o vi na T ot la

A v e r a ge a r e a 1 9 23— 27 , i n h ec t r es
a

O ld K i gd
n o m
!
Bess r bi a
a a Tr ansy lv a i a i Buc vi
n o na I
. To t la

The post w a r a vera ges show a decrea se of over

-
h a in the .

a re a under whe a t h a for rye a bout

, h a for .
, .

m a ize ; a n d a n increa se of over h a for o a ts a n d of ne a rly .

h a for b a rley The in cre a se of the tot a l a re a under the

. .

fi ve crops in the Old Kingdom a h n ost ex a ctly equ a ls the a re a

they occupied in the two countie s of southern Dobroge a ,

D ur ost or a n d Ca li a cr a a cqui red in 1 9 1 3 It is more di ffi cult to

, , .

expl a in the considera ble drop in Tra nsylva ni a unless the fi gur es ,

of M J a sn y refer to a somewh a t l a rger territory tha n th a t

.

occupied by the present Rum a ni a n province perh a ps b ec a use ,

p a rt of the B a n a t went to J ugosla vi a .

With the a id of the s a me sources one ma y a ttempt a genera l

1
Th fi t p rt f t h t bl
e rs ft r t ha rticl f N J y i Wi t ch ft d i t Ki l
o e a e a e e a e o a sn n r s a s ens , e .

N v mb 30 1 9 28 ; t h
o e er c d p rt fr m t h t ti tic f t h M i i t y f Agricultur
, e s e on a o e s a s s o e n s r o e.
2
With out t h e Qu a dril a te ra l .
31 6 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
comp a rison of the tot a l production of these fi ve crops in the
,

s a me p eriods :
A ve r a
ge p r oducti on 1 9 09 — 1 3 . In tons .

O ld Ki gd
n o m1 Bess a r a bi a Tra ylva n i
ns a Buc o vin a T ot l a

T ot l
a

A v e rage producti on 1 9 23— 7 . In t on s .

O ld K i gd
n o m Be r bi a
ssa a Tr a ns ylv a i a Buc o vin a
n Tot a l

T o ta l

For purposes of genera l comp a rison a third t a ble is given

b elow showing the a vera ge yield p er h a of the princip a l crop s
, .

during the fi ve ye a rs before Rum a ni a entered the Wa r a n d

during the fi ve more or less norm a l a gricultura l ye a rs a fter the
W a r In the a bsence of figur es for the pre w a r y ield in the new
.
-

provinces the comp a r ison i s limited to the Old Kin gdom :

,

If the s e figur es could be t a ken to represent a n orm a l a n d st a ble

rel a tion the fa ll in the a vera ge yield would j ustify some concern
,

a s to the effect of the reform on a gricultur a l productio n B ut .

production figure s a re in our c a se not reli a ble e n ough unles s ,

c a lcul ated over very long period s The crops were a n d a re left .
, ,

a ltogether a t the mercy of a n err a tic clim a te with the re s ult ,

th a t their yield oscill a tes viole n tly from ye a r to ye a r a n d h as ,

1
With o ut t he Qu a dril a te ra l .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 31 7
neve r yet risen a b ove a very low level Am on g the following .

Europ e a n countries Rum a ni a took the lowest pl a ce b efore the

,

Wa r when her a gricultur e w a s thought to be fl ouri sh in g :

,

A v r
e a ge yie ld in qui nt l a s. 1 9 1 1— 1 4

Wh e a t

The Rum a ni a n fi gur e s refer to the period 1 9 1 1 — 1 5 Ha d we .

t a ke n the figur e s for 1 9 1 1 1 4 a s in the c a se of the other countries

—
, ,

the Rum a ni a n a vera ges would h a ve dropped to 1 1 3 1 0 1 a n d -

,
-

9 3 ; while if we h a d considered the p eriod 1 9 10—1 3 they would

-

h a ve risen to 1 3 2 1 0 7 a n d 9 8 The ye a r 1 9 1 0 n a mely g a ve

-

,
- -
.
, ,

a bum per crop wi th a whe a t a ver a ge of 1 5 5 quin t a ls per h a

,
-
.
,

w hi le the 1 9 1 4 yield w a s merely 6 0 quint a ls per h a a level to -

.
—

w hi ch production h a s not descended even in the worst ye a r a fter

the Wa r .

As a further illustra tion of how d iffi cult it is to dra w genera l

conclu s ions from short period a vera ges we give below cert a in
-

a ver a ges for the periods 1 9 20 —7 a n d 1 9 23—7

A ve rage yi ld e per h a i n . quin t l s a

R eg ion Wh e a t B rl e y
a M i
a ze

1 . O ld K i gd n o m 1 9 20— 7 9 0 -
7 5
-

1 9 23— 7 8 7 7 4
1
- -

2 R ma n
. u ia 1 920— 7 f 8 5 -
7 9
-

1 9 23— 7 i 8 4 -
8 0
-

The a vera ges for the whole period a r e in genera l higher th a n the , ,

a ver a ge s for the more norm a l period 1 9 23— 7 The conclusion .

would seem to be th a t production is gettin g worse in the mea sure

in which Wa r d a m ages a r e m a de good a n d the disturb a nce c a used
by the a ppli ca tion of the reform becomes a ttenu a ted— which
obviously is a n impossible p a ra dox The correct expl a n a tion .
31 8 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
would seem to be ra ther th a t in the second set of a verages the
ye a r 1 924 in which the h a rvest fa iled b a d ly pl a ys rela tively a
, ,

l a rger p a rt ; whe a t a vera ges fell to 6 8 a n d 6 1 rye to 4 1 a n d 5 6

- -

,
- -

b a rley to 3 6 a n d 3 6 o a ts to 5 4 a n d 4 9 m a ize a lone keep ing a

- -

,
- -

norm a l level with 1 0 9 a n d 1 0 9 q uint a ls per hect a re

- -

M a ize w hi ch h a ppens to b e the spe cifica lly p e a s a nt cr 0p is

, ,

the only crop in the a bove t a ble which m a int a ined its a vera ge
a fter the Wa r ; which a ppe a rs to inva li d a te the ide a th a t pe a s a nt

cultiva tion is responsible for the genera lly lower yields There .

is however one other possible in terpret a tion of the f a ct th a t the

, ,

a ver a ges for 1 9 20—7 i n clud i ng the worst period of reconstruction

, ,

a r e better th a n the a ver a ges for 1 9 23—7 Dur i ng this stretch of .

time the tot a l cultiva ted a re a h a s stea d ily incre a sed a n d the ,

incre a se w a s limited exclusively to pe a s a nt fa rmi ng ; hence it

might be a rgued tha t a vera ge yields fe ll lower in the me a s ure in
which pe a s a nt fa rmin g exp a nded As the a rgument is a s li kely
.

a s not to be r a ised it is a s well to refer to it here but we doubt

there is a n y subst a nce in it For if it were correct then we
.
,

shoul d h a ve to fi n d lower a vera ge yields recorded j ust for those

crops the cultiva tion of which is extendi ng where a s in rea li ty ,

the very opposite h a ppens to be true In the c a se of none of the .

other cere a l crops h a s the cultiva ted a re a i ncre a sed a s const a ntly
a n d consider a bly a s i n the c a se of maize ; yet m a ize we h a ve seen , ,

is precisely the crop wh ich a t the s a me time h a s best m a in t a in ed

its yield .

M Crum Mih é ile s cu of the Min istry of Agric ul ture h a s

. , ,

worked out a t a ble w hi ch shows th a t in the two ye a rs 1 9 26 a n d ,

1 9 29 which g a ve good h a rvests a fter the Wa r the peculi a r

, ,

Com p a re d with C om pa re d with a ve r a

ge
pr e w r-
a vae r a ge = 1 00
) of 1 9 23— 7 = 1 00)

1 9 26 1 9 29 1 9 26 1 9 29

pe a s a nt corn crops h a ve equ a lled or even surp a ssed the pre w a r -

yield ; a n d in a genera l w a y the t a ble p roves th a t the lower yi eld

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 31 9
is not a settled phenomenon The t a ble comp a res the yield of the
.

1 926 a n d 1 929 h a rvests fi r st with the pre w a r a vera ge a n d

, ,
-

secondly with the a vera ge of the period 1 9 23—7

, .

It will h a rdly b e possible to a ppra ise the pe a s a nt s a chieve ’

ments or fa ilures under the new system until they h a ve h a d

a ch a nce to a cquire equipment a n d to dispose of their produce , ,

without impedi ments from the St a te but ra ther w ith such a ssis ,

t a nce in the w a y of credits tra nsport fa cilities tr a ining a n d

, ,
’
rese a rch & c a s their role in the country s economic life entitles
, .
,

them to receive For a prel i mina ry e stim a te one must a w a it the

.

coll ection of figur e s sho w ing the contribution of the va rious

c a tegories of fa rmers to a gricultura l production An a ttempt to .

di fferenti a te the production of l a rge a n d sm a ll fa rmers w a s m a de

by the M inistry of Agriculture in 1 928 but the results turned out ,

to be pl a inly erroneou s The va rious fi gur es given here m a y of

.
,

course be t a ken to be genera lly a pplic a ble to p e a s a nt fa rming

, ,

which now represents a bo ut 90 p er cent of the tot a l cultiva tion . .

Det a i led t a bles gi ving the extension of the va rious crops ,

their tot a l a n d a vera ge production their distribution a mong the ,

severa l pro vinces & c w ill be found on pp 332— 7 They a r e

, .
, . .

not such a s to need further elucida tion a n d we w i ll not bur den ,

the text by repe a ting them here Their most ch a ra cteristic .

fe a tur e is the stea dy incre a se of the a rea under a r t ificia l

gra sses a n d other fodder crops
Y r ea Cultiv t d r ( h ct r ) a e a ea e a es

1 9 23
19 24
1 9 25
1 9 26
1 9 27

There is a s imila r exp a nsion a mo n g semi fodder crops — o a ts -

b a rley & c a n d a bove a ll m a iz e Likewise a n incre a se in

, .
, , , .
,

commerci a l cr0ps m a rket ga rdenin g & c This gr ea ter va riety

,
-

, .
,

besides the technic a l a dva nt a ges which h a ve a lre a dy been di s

cussed h a s the merit of reducing the risks connected with the
,

former one sided growin g of cere a ls a n d it should thereby help

-

to m a int a in more ste a dy genera l ret urns .

As reg a rds in dividu a l crops whea t gro w in g w a s a ffected by

,
-

the ch a n ge to sm a ll cultiva tion by the fi sca l a n d customs policy,

320 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
of the St a te a s well a s by unpropitious we a ther ; the three
,

a utumns of 1 921 3 were exception a lly d r y which interfered

—
,

with the sowi n g of a utumn whe a t a s the p ea s a nts show a bi a s

-

a g a inst sowi n g i n the dry

‘
between S t M a ry s d a ys
’ ‘
.
’ ’
.

Rye w a s a lre a dy losing grou n d b efore the Wa r In the Old .

Kin gdom it covered h a in 1 8 96— 1 900 merely . ha , .

during the period 1 9 094 3 a n d fell to , h a by 1 9 1 5 It . .

s hows no sign of improving B a rley lost its fa vour a ble position

.

in the m a rket b etween 1 924— 6 but recovered l a ter ; comp a red ,

with a n a vera ge a rea of less th a n h a in the ye a rs before .

the Wa r its cultiv a tion re a ched a n a vera ge of

, h a in the .

Old Kingdom in the period 1 923—7 O a ts exp a n ded ra pi dl y a fter .

the reform till 1 9 24 then beg a n to decline w ith a sli ght recovery
, , ,

i n 1 928 M a iz e h a s c a ptured the interest of the pe a s a nts a n d

.
,

a t present occupies one h a lf a s much l a nd a g a in a s whe a t

-
.

M a ize i s a lso the crop whi ch h a s b est m a i nt a ined its yi eld ,

especi a lly if one t a kes into a ccoun t the pe a s a nt custom of so wing

be a n s between m a ize a custom exercised m 1 927 on a bout one
,

fifth of the tot a l a re a under m a ize ; pumpkin s a n d melons a r e

likewise extensively grown a s s ubsidi a ry crops w ith m a ize Thi s .

does not me a n th a t the yield is a nyt hi ng like s a tisfa ctory yet .

Rum a n i a is now the l a rgest m a iz e grower in Europe but the -

methods of cultiva tion a r e still those in use a hundred yea rs a go .

The m a ize va rieties h a ve been a llowed to degenera te a n d whil e ,

tech n ic a lly selection is e a sy it is d iffi cult in pra ctice without

,

pr e per guid a n ce a s m a iz e bei n g a self fertilizer the selection

,
-

must be c a rried out by a ll the fa rmers of a region I n ste a d of .

fi n d in g two cob s on e a ch stem a s is norm a l elsewhere the , ,

Rum a ni a n crop gives a n a vera ge of one cob to e a ch two stems .

The a vera ge yield moves a t pre s ent round k g per h a . .

,

where a s the Americ a n m a ize growers obt a in from -

kg .

upw a rds .

Before the Wa r Rum a ni a found it so e a sy to di s pose of crops

,

produced with the swe a ted l a bour of the pe a sa nts th a t her only
concern w a s how to incre a se her h a rvests World conditions h a ve .

grea tly ch a nged since the n M a rkets a r e ove r fl ow in g a n d it is

. ,

only now th a t those in who s e h a nds lies t h e guid a nce of Rum a ni a n

a griculture b egin to re a lize th a t qu a lity mu s t come fi r s t a n d
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 321

qu a ntity where it m a y Everythi ng rem a in s to b e done in th a t

.

direction Whe a t still cont a ined in 1 927 im pur ities a vera ging
.

8 27 per cent for the whole country though it is true th a t gr a in

-
.
,

from Dobroge a with 34 1 0 per cent im pur ities w a s l a rgely -

.

responsible for th a t ba d a vera ge The b est corn c a me from .

Tra nsylva ni a with 2 44 per cent impurities in the Old King

,
-
.

dom the b est res ul ts were obt a in ed in the lowl a nds of the
B a ra ga n an d Buge a c with only 2 62 p er cent im purities a n d
,
-

.
,

the worst in the Mold a vi a n Bess a ra bi a n pl a in w ith 6 1 0 per -

,
-

cent Rye provided the l a rgest proportion of foreign m a tter with

.

3 9 p er cent a ctu a l im pur ities which re a lly c a use the qu a li ty

-
,

of fl our to deteriora te only a mounted to a bout 1 1 p er cent

,
-
.

However a cert a in im provement is t a king pl a ce The a vera ge .

weight of whe a t in 1 9 27 w a s 77 3 k g p er hectolitre From -

. .

295 s a mples obt a ined by the Centr a l Agronomic a l St a tion the

whea t crop w a s cla ssifi e d a ccordi ng to qu a lity a s follows
E xc ll t c r w ighi g v r 8 0 k g p hl 1 2 0%
e en o n e n o e . er .
-

V ry g d c r e 78 8 0
oo o n 35 6 - -

G ood c orn 7 6—78 33 4 -

Mediu m qu a lity 7 4—7 6 9 7 -

P or qu lity
o a b e l ow 74 9 3 - 1

In other words a bout one h a lf of the h a rvest w a s of very good

,
-

qu a lity ; a n d a b out one third of good qu a lity the p ercent a ge

-

of poor qu ali ty corn w a s sim ila r to the p ercent a ge of corn of

very good qu a li ty in the precedi ng ye a rs The proven a nce of the .

corn a ccordin g to qu a lity w a s a s follows

, ,

V ry e

R eg i on E xc ell en t G ood G ood M di cr

e o e Poor

Trans ylvani n pl a in
a

Trans ylvan i n hi ghl an d s

a

Da n ub e l owl a n d s
M un teni an highl an ds
Mold avi an hi ghl an ds
Moldo Bessa ra bi an pl a i n
-

B a ragan a n d Bu gea c
D obrogea

Thi s a n d t h e foll owi n g ta bl es from a s tudy on Th e Qu ality of Com i n t h e Agri

1 ‘

cultur a l Yea r 1 9 26 7 by t h e Dire ctor a n d S t a fi of t h e C en tra l A gron omi c S ta ti on

— c
,

B uleti n ul A gr i cultur i i S e pt —O ct 1 928

, . . .

Y
322 EFF ECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
The b est qu a lity c a me fr om the m a in corn growi ng di stricts -

the p oorest from the Moldo B essa r a bi an lowl a nds whi ch in fa ct

-

, , ,

suffered fr om the worst drought The followin g two t a bles m a y .

b e of i nterest a s sho win g fir st the v a ri a tions in weight of the

, , ,

1 927 s a mples from the severa l d istricts a n d second a com , , ,

p a rison of the a verage weight per hectoli tre dur ing the ye a rs
1 9 22—7
We ight p er hl i n k g i n 1 9 27
. .

D istrict M xi m um
a Mi ni m um

Tr a ns ylv an i an pl in a

Tr ans ylv n i an highl an d s

a

D a n ub e l owl a ds n

M u n ten i highl an ds an

M old vi a highla n ds
a n

Moldo B essa ra bi a n pl in
-
a

B a ragan a n d Bu ge a c pl a in
D o brog a e

A v erage w e ight i n k g per hl

. . dur i n g 1 9 22— 7

Di tricts 1 9 27 1 926 1 925 1 9 24 1 9 23 1 9 22

Tra ns ylv an i a n pl a i n
Tr an sylv an i an hi ghla n ds
D a n ub e l owl d s an

M u n ten i an hi ghla n d s
Mo ld vi n highla n ds
a a

M old o B es sa ra bi a n pla in
-

B r ga n n d Bu gea c pl a in
a a a

D o broge a

The 1 927 h a rvest showed a n a ll round im provement in the -

qu a lity of the prin cip a l cere a l crops which in some me a sur e m a de ,

good the d efi cien cy in qu a ntity :

We i ght p e r hl i n k g
. .

Wh ea t
1 9 27 1 9 26 1 927 1 9 26 1 927 1 926 1 927 1 9 26

1
"

S ta ti s ti ca A gr i cola p e A n a l 1 927, Pa rt I , 1 9 28 .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 323
There is every rea son to hop e th a t with better opport uni ties, ,

the pe a s a nts will henceforwa rd perform the va rious a gricultur a l

l a b ours more c a refully a n d a t the proper time But t hi s wo uld .

not suffi ce to stop the downwa rd trend of the a vera ge yield .

There is a s grea t a need for the use of selected seed with a choice ,

of the va rieties best suited to the Rum a ni a n soil a n d clim a te ;

a n d a still gre a ter need for a more merciful exploit a tion of the

soil At present some twelve tons of selected whe a t seed a r e put

.
,

on the m a rket ye a rly by priva te fa rms a n d some 5 5 0tons of whe a t

,
’
a n d 6 00 tons of other cere a ls from the St a te s model f a rms The .

seed select ing st a tions of the N a tion a l Agricultura l S ociety a n d

-

of the higher Agricultur a l S chools a r e ende a vourin g to produce

’
new v a rieties best fi t t e d for the coun try s condi tions Excelle n t
,
.

work is bein g done by the S é m anta a priva te comp a ny formed ’

,

a fter the Wa r whose seed s e lecting st a tions a re bringin g i n

,
-

cre a sin g supplies e a ch ye a r i nto the m a rket a s well a s producing

new v a rieties ; e g a s the new m a ize v a riety Regele Ferdin a nd
. .

which would seem to give a much richer y ield in d ry yea rs th a n

the Americ a n a n d other v a rieties S o fa r of cour se the supply
.
, ,

of selected s ee d is still t riflin g a n d the seed used by the pe a s a nts

,

genera lly consists of a bewi lderin g m ixtur e a s one m a y see in ,

loo k ing over a whe a t fi eld before it is cut

-
.

The use of m a nure is h a r dl y known ex tra ordin a ry a s this ,

st a tement m a y soun d The l a rge f a rmers never kept enough

.

a nim a ls b efore the Wa r to produce f a rm y a rd m a nur e in us a ble -

qu a ntities ; a n d the inqui ry of M S erb a n cited in a n e a rlier

.
,

ch a pter est a bli shed in f a ct th a t none of the est a tes which he

,

investiga ted a n d whi ch were of the best m a de a n y use of fa rm

, ,

y a rd m a nure The pe a s a nts though h a ving it h a ve never lea rnt

.
, ,

its use their a nim a ls a r e in f a ct n ot kept under shelter u nl ess ,

in very ba d we a ther a n d such fa rm ya rd muck a s then g a thers is

,
-

genera lly burnt or left to rot a t the edge of the village or a t b est ,

used a fter s un a n d r a in h a ve worn out its goodness— s o in di ffer

ent h a s extensive cultiva tion m a de every one to the needs of
the soil .

E qu a lly ra re is the use of a r t ifi cia l m a nur es The monogra ph .

prep a red by the Interna tion a l Institute of Agriculture on the use

of a rt ifi cia l m a nur es g a ve the yea rly consum ption before the Wa r
Y 2
324 EFFE CTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
as tons of phosph a tes an d 1 77 tons of p ot a sh The b ook g a ve .

no figur e s referring to the p ost w a r ye a rs Intern a l production

-
.

a n d consumption from the M ar as e s ti fa ctory w a s a s follows

‘ ’

S up e rph os ph a t es

I tern a l output
n Tota l c o ns u mpti on

The s a me comp a n y im ported 1 20 tons of pot a sh s a lts in 1 926 .

Customs returns indi c a te th a t 6 1 5 tons of phosph a tes were im

p orted in 1 9 25 which should b e a dded to in tern a l consum ption ;
,

while in the s a me yea r tons of phosph a tes produced in

Rum a ni a were exported The im port of Chili s a ltpetre a mounted
.

I n 1 9 21 t o 58 tons
1 922 1 09
1 923 16 1
1 9 24 745
1 9 25 35 3

A mmonium sulph a tes a r e used on a rel a tively l a rger sca le a s ,

well a s cya n a mide of c a lcium The l a tter is produced in a

.

Tra nsylva ni a n fa ctory with a c a p a city of tons ye a rly ; the

present output is a b out tons most of which is exp orted
, .

The output of a mmoni um sulph a tes coul d re a ch tons but ,

only 905 tons were produced in 1 926 Hence even this in cipient .
,

production is still much higher th a n the dem a nd One mi ght .

mention th a t in the opin ion of M Ionescu Sise s ti expressed .

-

before the Agricultur a l Congress Rome 1 927 the soil of the

, , ,

steppe region is still so rich th a t its fertility would not b e ra ised

by tre a tment with che mic a l m a nur es Thi s woul d refer to a bout
.

one third of the a ra ble a re a the chief problem of th a t region is

-

w a ter supply The rem a ining two thirds of the a ra ble a re a a r e

.
-

in need of m a nuring .

In the li ght of a ll these circumst a nces one m ay sum up the

re a sons for the decline of production a s being fi r st d a m a ge a n d , ,

di sorg a niz a tion c a used by the Wa r whi ch h a ve not b een m a de

,
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 325
good dur ing the fi r st dec a de of pe a ce ; in a me a sure th a t dis
org a niz a tion h a s b een rendered more a cute by the a pp li ca tion of
the reform a n d in a much gre a ter me a sur e the work of recon
’
struction h a s been prevented by the St a te s policy Hence the .
,

drop in tot a l a n d a verage production w a s in no w a y a n un na tur a l

phenomenon The dra wb a cks which in this resp ect might b e
.

a ttributed dir ectly to the reform a re a less economic cultiv a tion

of the cere a l crops t hr ough the sp littin g up of the l a nd a n d from

,
-

, ,

the s a me c a use gre a ter w a st age in h a rvest ing the crops This
,
.

d efi ci en cy will h a ve to be m a de good by b etter org a n iz a tion ; but

it fa des into signifi ca n ce comp a red with the genera l evils which
rem a in to b e reme di ed a s spri nging from a ntiqu a ted methods
a n d from a n utter l a ck of c a re for the soil s fertil ity
’
Wh a t the .

so il can give is shown by the perform a nce of Va rj a s a commune ,

in B a n a t where by experimentin g with the most suit a ble

,

v a rieties the best dist a nce for pl a ntin g the seed & c the loc a l
, , .
,

pe a s a nt fa rmers h a ve c a used m a ize to yi eld up to kg .

p er hect a re But th a t is a remote ide a l The reform of l a nd

. .

tenure h a s been c a rried to a very fa r poin t but the reform of ,

a griculture is not even begun .

( c) Th e New P r ovi n ces In considering the effect of the reform

.

on production a somewh a t sh a rp li ne must b e dra wn between

,

the Old Ki ngdom a n d the new Provin ces especia lly B ucovin a ,

a n d Tr a nsylv a ni a In the Old Kin gdom the reform coul d not

.

h a ve a dee p infl uen ce on a gra ri a n economy a s the dispossessed ,

l a rge owners a n d cultiv a tors were doin g nothing to improve the

soil a n d its output or the live a n d de a d stock The s itu a tion
, .

w a s different in Bucovin a a n d Tr a nsylv a ni a a n d in the l a tter ,

province more especi a lly in B a n a t M Gar ofli d a s Minister of

, . .
,

of Agricul tur e re a dily a dmitted this Aft er sp e a king in his

, .
,

ex os e d e motifs to the Tr a nsylv a n i a n la w on the norms of

p ,

expropri a tion he a dded ,

‘
W e s h a ll m a k e ce r t a in e x c e p t ion s i n t h e a pp l i ca t ion of t h o s e e x pr o
pr ia t i o n m e a su r e s T h e r e a r e i n T ra n s y l v a n ia in t en si v e a gr icu ltu r al
.

un d e rt a k i n gs— tr u e a gr icu ltu r a l fa ct o r i es It wou l d be a gr e a t l o ss t o

.

o ur n a t i on a l o r a n i za t ion i f w e s h ou l d d es tr o y t h e m ; a n d t h e s tr i c t
g
a pp l i ca t ion o f t h e n o r m s m en t io n e d a b o v e wou l d d e s tr o y t h e m W it h .

a v i e w t h e r e fo r e t o p r o t e c t i n
, , g t h e m I h a v e p r o v id e d t h a t t hos e l a n d
,

o wn e r s m a
y be a llowe d t o r e t a i n up t o 5 00 j uga r s .
326 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
Th e ow ners or ten a nts of these l a rge fa rms usu a lly l ived on the
sp ot Most of them p ossessed a dequ a te a gric ul tur a l knowledge
.

a n d c a pit a l The fa rms were prop erly equipped with b ui ld

.

ings a n d m a chi nes ; the live stock w a s num erous a n d of good

qu a li ty a n d cultiva tion w a s b a sed on a sound v a ri a tion a n d
,

rot a tion of crops .

In p r a ctice the a ppli c a tion of the reform went f a rther th a n

M Gar ofii d fi r st intended a n d there is no doubt th a t m a ny of
.
,

those l a rge fa rms h a ve b een thereby irrep a r a bly d a m a ged .

V a lu a ble m a teri a l h a s b een destroyed a ltogether F a rm b uil di ng s .

a r e f a lling to pieces where they h a ve not been pulled down by

,

their o w ners a n d the m a teri a l sold M a chin es tra ctors & c .

, , .
,

esp eci a lly the hea vy ploughs a r e useless for the sm a ll holdings
, ,

a n d m a ny of them were simply a b a ndoned a tot a l loss A com , .

p a ny w a s formed a fter the reform for the export of unus a ble

l a rge m a chines Grea t d a m a ge h a s a lso b een done to c a ttle
.

breeding whi ch in Tra n sylva ni a h a d been fur thered in a syste

, ,

m a tic m a nner The province wa s di vided i nto breedi n g districts

.
,

e a ch of them speci a lizing in a breed b est a da pted to loca l

clim a tic an d other conditions ; the co opera tives or i ndivi du a ls -

wh o kept bull s h a d to conform to the a rr a n gement no other ,

breed being a llowed in the di strict A consider a ble p a rt of th a t .

breeding m a teri a l w a s supp lied by the l a rge owners Now th a t .

whole orga ni z a tion h a s sim ply v a ni shed F i ne a nim a ls h a d to b e .

sold to the butcher The production of me a t a n d d a iry products

.

h a s li kewise depreci a ted in qu a lity or in qu a ntity with the

, ,

dis a ppe a ra nce of these l a rge fa rms ; some of them li ke the est a te ,

of Count Csk oni cs a t Jim bolia were org ani zed to supply a whole
, ,

ch a in of towns wi th p a steur ized an d b ottled milk Even now the .

o n ly decent supply of milk butter & c to re a ch Buc a rest comes

, , .
,

from Sibiu The Tra nsylva ni a n critics a dmit therefore th a t in

.
, ,

the Old Ki ngdom the reform m ay a ctu a lly h a ve h a d a good

i n fl uen ce on the l a rge f a rmers ; it h a s in duced them to f a rm
b etter for fe a r of a new expropri a tion a n d it h a s a lso en a bled
, ,

them to do s o by le a ving them often 5 00 h a a ra ble l a nd But

,
. .

they a ssert th a t i n Tra nsylva ni a the m a x imum left h a s seldom

exceeded 1 25 h a which mea ns th a t the destruction h a s b een
.
,

gre a ter j ust where the economic org ani z a tion w a s better They .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 327

consider th a t a different system should a t le a st h a ve b een a ppli ed

round the m a in towns so a s to ens ure a plentiful supply of good
,

an d che a p food stuffs for the urb a n pop u

-
l a tion .

The a uthors a n d supporters of the reform do not deny either

th a t well orga n ized l a rge fa rms h a d existed in Tra nsylvani a or
-

th a t the a cti vity of these fa rms h a s been crippled by the reform .

Yet they h a ve a two fold reply to m a ke to the critici s ms

-

summ a riz ed a bove In the fir st pl a ce they poin t out th a t o n ce

.

l a nd w a s gra nted to the p ea s a nts in the Kin gdom a n d in

B ess a ra bi a it w a s imp ossible to tre a t those of Tra nsylva ni a less
,

we ll The a rgument is of cour se un a nswera ble There is no

.
, , .

doubt th a t a n y a ttempt to m a in t a in the l a rge Tra n s ylva ni a n

e st a tes in a pro vince e a ten up with n a tion a li st a n imosities ,

would h a ve me a nt the risk of a still more destructive expropri a

tion by popula r Violence There is one reserve however to be
.
, ,

m a de on t hi s p oint If the expropri a tion of the l a rge est a tes w a s

.

un a voida ble the expropri a tion of sm a llh olders is inexcus a ble

, .

Herr F ritz Conn ert in hi s a rticle gives ex a mples of Tra nsylva ni a n

, ,

pe a s a nts who h a ve been deprived of some of the ir l a nd though ,

thei r sm a ll or medi um holdings were b elow the 1 00 h a gen era lly .

fi x e d a s the utmost limi t in every p a rt of the coun try An d these .

were intelli gent prosperous fa rmers who could serve a s model

, ,

to the new holders ; themselves a n d their holdi ngs representin g

j ust th a t typ e of rur a l middl e cl a ss the a bsence of which is
-

deplored by a ll a gricultur a l a uthorities in the Old Ki ngdom The .

second a rgum ent in reply to the Tr a nsylva ni a n criticism ques

tions the a bili ty of the l a rge est a tes to keep goin g in the ch a nged
economic a n d soci a l con di tions a fter the Wa r Formerly the .

l a n d lords controlled the politic a l m a chine ; a ll legisl a tion a s well ,

a s its a pplic a tion w a s subservient to their interests

, An a rticle .

in the A rgus ( Novemb er 1 8 1 922) contended th a t l a nd t a x

,
-

w a s p a id in Hun g a ry on the b a sis of a sur vey m a de a hundred

ye a rs e a rlier The consequence wa s th a t a hen l a id enough eggs
.

’
to pa y the t a xes of a big est a te Count B es a n o w ned .

j uga r s a n d p a id a bout four shillings ; B a ron Kor a n yi a former ,

Minister of Fin a nce p a id somet hi ng inca lcul a ble but much less
, ,

th a n a bout a f a rthi n g per j uga r a n d so on Aga in the la w on

, .
,

a gricultur a l l a bo ur w a s a pplied by the

p r etor ( the sub prefect )
-

,
328 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
who de p ended a ltogether on the good will of the loc a l l a ndlord
a l a bo urer stood no ch a nce of gett i ng other work in the neighb our

hood if he left a ga in st the w ish of his employer At present the .

,

whole leg a l a n d soci a l situ a tion is a ltered ; m a ny l a bour ers ,

moreover h a ve got some l a nd of their own Even a less r a di c a l

, .

reform woul d h a ve m a de the former l a b o ur rel a tions impossible ,

a n d it is u nli kely th a t the l a rge est a tes would h a ve contin ued

to pa y with a higher w a ge b ill a n d a di minished hold on the l a b our

su p ply.

The a rgument merely describes a l a bour evolution whi ch is

b eing exp erienced throughout a gricultur a l Eur ope If it m ay .

fa irly b e a pplied to Tr a nsylva ni a it must be infi ni tely more

,

fi tt in g for B ess a ra bi a The Bess a ra bi a n l a ndo w ners h a d nothi n g

.

li ke the equi pment of the Tra nsylv a ni a n a n d the B ess a ra bi a n ,

pe a s a nts were much less tra ct a ble a fter the Wa r tha n the others .

To st a te therefore a s does M P V S yn a di n o in hi s a rticle th a t

, , . . .
,

the a vera ge cultiva ted a re a h a s fa llen by 4 4 per cent fr om -

.
-

h a in 1 9 02—1 1 to
. h a in 1 9 20—4— a n d a vera ge
.

production ( whea t rye b a rley o a ts an d m a ize ) by 1 6 5 per cent

, , , ,
-

— from tons in 1 902—1 1 to tons in 1 920—4

is to show th a t the post wa r output is not a s good a s the pre
-

w a r output ; but it by no me a ns proves th a t things wo ul d h a ve

been b etter if the l a nd h a d been left in the h a nds of the l a rge
owners Quite a num ber of circumst a nces which h a ve nothi ng
.

to do with the sc a le a n d techn ique of f a rmin g h a ve contributed

to th a t decl ine ; a n d it is worth while noting th a t B ess a ra bi a ,

which b eyond doubt h a s suffered most from the fa ults of

’
omission a n d commis s ion in the St a te s p olicy is a lso the ,

province in which tot a l a n d a vera ge production h a s most f a llen

off from its pre w a r st a nding
-
.

The t a bles of a vera ges revea l indeed the in teresting fa ct th a t

in a lmost every c a se the a vera ges rel a ting to the Old Kin gdom
a r e higher th a n the a ver a ge s for the whole country w hi ch me a ns ,

th a t the a ddition of the new provinces h a s i n fl uen ce d the a ver a ge

y i eld unf a vour a bly B ess.a ra bi a especi a lly rem a in s in every c a se
, ,

b ehind the n a tiona l a vera ge Tra nsylva ni a h a s in most c a ses

.

hi gher a vera ges th a n t h e whole of the country while Buco vin a ,

h a s the highest of a ll often exceeding the n a tion a l a vera ges by

,
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 329
fully one thi rd The a vera ge production per h a of the fi ve
-
. .

pri ncip a l cere a l crops dur ing the p eriod 1 9 20—7 wa s a s follows ,

in qui nt a ls
8 8 -

7 6 -

10 7 -

9 1 -

8 6 -

B ess a r a bi a h a s h a d ba d luck b oth with the we a ther a n d with

,

the a dmini stra tion It w a s the province whose a griculture most

.

needed c a re during the period of reconstruction a s fa rming h a d ,

b een disorga ni zed worse th a n elsewhere by the forcible t a kin g

over of the l a nd a n d a ll its tra nsport a n d tra de li nk s cut off with
,

the severa nce from the Russia n Emp i re Yet from the time of .

its union with Rum a ni a up t ill the end of 1 928 the provi nce h a d
been left to its own devices The fa ilure of the 1 928 crop pro
.

d uce d fa mi ne con di tions in l a rge a re a s of the province .

But it is more d iffi cult to expl a i n the gre a t di fference in the

returns from Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a The two provi nces .

h a ve simil a r geogra phi c a l fe a tures a n d they h a ve b oth b een

,

un der Austro Hunga ri a n a dm inistra tion But the a gra ri a n

-
.

situ a tion i n the pro vinces differed in two respects ; in Bucovin a

l a ndownership w a s nicely gra du a ted with a good proportion of ,

medium a n d sm a ll property a n d the reform h a d only to b e

,

a pplied on a limited sc a le ; Tra nsylv a ni a however h a d a hi gh , ,

percent age of l a rge property a n d in consequence the reform wa s

,

a pplied on a more thorou hgoin g sc a le Are the b etter retur ns

g .

in Bucovin a due to a he a lthier distribution of property of old

st a nding or a re the in ferior returns of Tra nsylva ni a due to the
,

grea ter encroa chment of the reform ? The a nswer wo ul d b e

instructive from more th a n one point of View if it could b e given ,

reli a bly but for this we shoul d need more det a il ed m a teri a l th a n
,

we possess Ne vert h eles s the post wa r difference is p erh a ps

.
,
-

s uffi ci en t l
y expl a in ed by the pre w ar a ver a ges Accordin g t o the
-
.

t a ble used in his a rticle by M Ja sn y Tra nsylva ni a produced be

.
,

fore the Wa r tons of whe a t rye b a rley o a ts a n d m a iz e

, , , , ,

on h a which ga ve a n a ver a ge of 1 1 9 quin t a ls per h a ;

.
,
-
.

Bucovin a produc e d tons on h a which mea nt a n .

,

a ver age of 1 2 1 quin t a ls per h a

-
Aga in in the t a ble given on a n
.
,
330 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
e a rlier p a ge an d showing the a ver a ge y ield of whea t b a rley an d , ,

o a ts in ten Eur ope a n countries durin g the period 1 9 1 1— 1 4 ,

Austri a ( whi ch i ncluded Bucovin a ) h a d for the t hr ee cere a ls

together a n a vera ge of 1 4 2 qui nt a ls per h a a n d Hun g a ry ( which
-
.
,

in cluded Tra nsylva ni a ) of 1 3 1 quint a ls the figur es for the p eriod

-

1 9 06 —1 0 b ein g 1 3 8 an d 1 1 5 qui nt a ls per h a ; or if we t a ke the

- -
.

two p eriods together the Austri a n a ver a ge w a s 1 4 0 a n d the

,
-

Hung a ri a n 1 2 3 q uin t a ls The di fference b etween the a ver ages

-
.

of the two countries in the p eriod 1 906—1 4 w a s therefore 1 7

, , ,
-

quint a ls ; the difference between the a ver a ges of Tr a nsylva ni a

a n d Bucovi n a in the period 1 9 20—7 h a s b een 1 6 qui nt a ls The -
.

fi r st fi gur e s refer to whole countries a n d to three cere a l crops the ,

secon d figur e s merely to isol a ted provi nces a n d to fi ve crops but ,

the a pproxim a tion is too ne a r not to h a ve some me ani ng in it .

In wh a tever w a y the reform m a y h a ve a ffected the a gricul ture

of the two provi n ces it h a s not a ltered the rel a tion of their
,

a ver a ge production ; an d a s the reform we n t a gre a t de a l f a rther

in one provi nce th a n in the other its effects a r e not gre a tly
,

elucid a ted by a difference in a vera ge yield which rem a ins much

a s it w a s b efore M J a sn y 5 t a ble it is true woul d give merely
. .
, ,

a negligible di fference of 02 q uint a ls per h a in f a vour of .

Buco vin a a pp a rently for 1 909

, it woul d a llow a n
a ver a ge of 1 2 3 for the Old Kin gdom— i e 0 2 more th a n . .

Buco vi n a a n d 0 4 more th a n Tra nsylva ni a— which contra di cts

the more specifi c fi gur es of the in terna tion a l t a ble a s well a s ,

genera l experience This simply proves tha t a lmost a n y con

.

elusion might fi n d support in fi gur e s rel a ting merely to a few

crops an d a few ye a rs At a n y r a te the effect of the reform on
.
,

Tra nsylva ni a n production coul d not h a ve b een so di s a strous a s

the destruction of a few model f a rms m a y suggest a s the a vera ge ,

Hun g a ri a n yield w a s little a bove the Rum a ni a n b efore the reform ,

a n d a s i t too h a s declined a fter the w a r

, , .

Production in the new provinces h a s cert a i nl y gone down ,

but how gre a t a sh a re c ircumst a nces un connected with the

reform m ay h a ve h a d in brin gin g this a b out will a ppe a r in dis
cussing offi cial policy The slow execution of the reform woul d
.

cert a inly seem to b e resp onsible for a tra nsitory decli n e of the
cultiva ted a re a in Tra nsylv a ni a a n d of its output a s ne a rly one ,
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 331

million h a expropri a ted l a nd were still let out to improvi sed

.

ten a nts in 1 9 24 Other d a m a gin g effects h a ve b een of a loc a l a n d

.

peculi a r n a tur e A Tr a nsylva ni a n deputy compl a ined in the

.

Ch a mber ( April 1 2 1 9 27 ) th a t the inh a bit a nts of cert a in com

,

mun es in the S a tu M a re district were un a ble to ra ise a n y crops

-

bec a use of the incre a se in wi ld a ni m a ls The communes in ques .

tion a r e sur roun ded by forests which used to b elong to the,

K a rolyi f a mi ly ; they were then hun ted regula rly a n d the ,

l a n d lord w a s obliged to in dem ni fy the p ea s a nts for a n y depred a

tion of their crops But the expropri a tion h a s tra nsferred the
.

forests to the St a te ; wil d life h a s increa sed a n d the p ea s a nts a r e

,

receivin g no comp ens a tion a t a ll for the d a m a ge c a used to their

crops Still more peculi a r w a s the c a se brought to the notice of
.

the Ch a mb er by Dr N Lupu (Ma y 24 . He a sserted th a t

,

the p e a s a nts in the M a ra mur e s county were in despera te str a its ,

a n d h a d co n st a ntly to a pp e a l for gifts of foo d The region h a d .

a lw a ys been poor but the present trouble w a s due to the pe a ce

,

s ettlement Wh en the new frontiers were dra wn a hundr ed

.
‘
,

moun t a in s 10p es with p a stures used a n d owned by the neighb our

in g communes were left to Cz echoslov a ki a N ow these p eople .

h a ve no me a ns of m a kin g a living ; the num b er of a nim a ls h a s

fa llen to one fo urth a s the Villa gers sold them to buy m a iz e
-

, .

The only conclusion emerg ing with a n y cl a rity from a ll these

fa cts a n d a rguments i s the unhelpful one th a t the problem of the
’
reform s effect on the a griculture of the new provin ces a s of ,

the Old Kingdom bristles wi th complexities The industry is

, .

p a ssin g through a period of tra nsition in whi ch the a ction of the

,

reform h a ppens to b e intermin gled with the a cti vity of other

forces Only in the long r un a n d other th ings b eing equ a l— a s
.
,

the set economic phr a se goes — would it b e possible ne a tly to

disent a ngle the fir st from the rem a inder .
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THE AR E A UNDE R CE R E AL CR OP S 1 9 20—7
( i n m illi on h ect a r e s )

A ra ble a f e a
Are?c ult u th
v w u
. c e rea ls
M a lz e
W h ea t
Ba r le y
Oa t s
O th e r c e r ea ls
- J
TOTAL P R ODU C TI O N OF THE CHI E F CE R E AL CR OP S I N 1 9 20—7

( in milli on q ui n t a ls )
 A V E R A GE PR O DUCT I ON OF THE CHI E F CE R E A L CR OP S I N
1 9 20— 7

( i n m i lli on q ui n t a ls )

1 5 69 69
-
338 EFFE CTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
S E C TI O N 4

THE E F F E CT OF T H E RE F O R M ON P R I C ES A ND EXPORT
( )
a E xp or t The lower y ields in Rum a ni a n a gricult ure m a y
.

p o ss ib l y b e a ttributed to the l a nd reform but the reduction of the ,

a re a under cere a ls is p a rt of a tendency common to the W hole of

Europ e Thegeogra phic a l re di stribution of a gricultura l production

.

w a s brought out by the d a t a cont a ined in the volum e on Agr i cul

tura l Questions from a n I n tern a tion a l Poin t of V iew published by ,

the Intern a tion a l Institute of Agricultur e on the occ a sion of the

economic conference held a t Geneva in Ma y 1 927 P r ofit ing .

from the disturbed st a te of Europe dur i ng the Wa r a n d from the ,

high prices then r ulin g the overse a countries h a ve extended ,

their a griculture a t the s a me tim e impro ving its equipment a n d

,

techni que An i n d ex figur e b a sed on the pre w a r a ver ages di sclosed

.
- -

the follo w in g ch a nge s in the production a n d export of the m ai n

cere a l Cl ops during the period 1 921 — 5 :
‘

W HE A T
E xp rt o

Producti on ( i n cl fl our )
.

E ur p ( with ut Ru ss i a )
o e o 88 35
Ru ss i a 51 4
N orth A me ric a 1 32 24 1
S uth A me ric a
o 1 37
A u s tra li a 1 37

E ur p ( with ut Ru ssia )
o e o

R uss i a
North A me ric a
N orth A me ric a
All the Am eric a n export we n t to Europ e , and qui nt a ls
even to Soviet R fissia .

B AR L E Y
Producti on
E ur p ( with ut Ru ssi a )
o e o 88
Ru ia ss 46
No rth A m e ric a 1 17
S o uth A me ric a 24 8
Au s tra li a, 1 01
1 B fore t h e Wa
e r, qui nta l s ; i n 1 9 21 5
—
, qui nta l s .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 339

E u p ( with ut R u i
ro e o ss a )
R uss i a
No rth Am e ric a
S o uth A me ric a
F a r E as t

Austra li a n production showed a fa lling off but th a t of the

, Fa r
E a stern countries incre a sed .

M A I ZE

E u p ( with ut R u i
ro e o ss a )
R u si a
s

No rth Am eric a
Ce tra l America
n

S o uth A m eric a
F ar E a s t
Afr ic a ,

In Austra li a m a ize grow in g is in sign ifi ca n t

-
.

Rum a ni a s co n tribution weighs but lightly in the s c a le of

’

world production Yet she genera lly h a s a n impo r t a n t export a ble

.

sur plus bec a use of the sm a ll density a n d fruga l h a bits of her

,

popul a tio n Her pl a ce in the list of export ing cou n trie s is

.

therefore higher th a n in tha t of pr o d uci ng co untries C or n .

growing for export did not a ssume a n y import a nce t ill the middle
of the ni n eteenth century Unti l the begin nin g of th a t century
.

the popula tion w a s sp a rse a n d foreign tra de w a s a m onopoly of

the Porte In th a t ph a se Rum a ni a n a gricul ture h a d a pre
.

domin a ntly p a stora l ch a ra cter Freedom of tra de w a s obt a i n ed

.

through the Tre a ty of Adri a n ople a n d the Crime a n Wa r

brought Rum a n i a n a gricultur e into prominence From th a t time .

o n w a rds her cor n exports never ce a sed to grow until the Wa r .

E n emy requisitio n s a n d w a r d a m a ge pl a ced the country in the

position of h a ving to im port cor n a n d flour in 1 9 1 9 In th a t ye a r .

a gricultura l export w a s nil It resumed its course i n 1 920 but

.
,

w ith co n sidera ble differences in qu a ntity a n d in ki n d from the

pre w a r export .

The export of cor n h a s gra du a lly been r i si ng but with st 1 o n g ,

va ri a tion s from y ea 1 to ye a r in keepi n g with the va ri a tions in

,

production a ba d h a rve s t re a cting u n fa voura bly on the export

,

z2
 340 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
of the following yea r Price condi tio n s a n d esp eci a lly the fi s ca l
.
, ,

p olicy of the Rum a ni a n governme n ts h a ve however h a d a strong , ,

i n fl uen ce on the export of a gricultura l products a fter the Wa r ;

a n d the ch a nge in the distribution of crops h a s b een responsible

for p a ra llel ch a nges in the n a ture of exports Rum a ni a s corn .

’

export a moun ted in the twenty fi ve yea rs b efore the Wa r to -

5 4 per cent of the tot a l h a rvest During the p eriod 1 920—4 it

. .

re a ched a ye a rly a verage of w a go n s ( whea t a n d fl our ,

b a rley o a ts a n d m a ize ) i e a bout 1 6 5 per ce n t of the produc

, , , . . .

tion of these four cere a ls The ba d h a rve s t of 1 9 24 brought the.

export down to w a gons in 1 9 25 it improved in 1 926 to

w a gon s ( including w a gons mill et a n d w a gons
be a n s ) ; a n d the bumper m a iz e crop i n 1 9 26 en a bled the 1 927
export to re a ch the exceptio n a l fi gur e of w a gons the —

highe s t level si n ce the Wa r a n d equ a l to Rum a ni a s pre w a r ’

-

export .

The decline of the Rum a ni a n corn export is d ue therefore , ,

in the fi rst pl a ce to a fa ll in her own productio n a n d in the

, , ,
’
second pl a ce to a redistributio n of the world s productio n a n d
,

tra de In point of productio n Rum a ni a ret a i n s a prominent

.
,

po s ition with reg a rd to ma ize b eing third in the list a fter the ,

United St a tes a n d the Argentine ; she t a kes fift h pl a ce a mo n g

the producer s of b a rley a n d o a ts ; but o nl y seventh pl a ce a mo n g
the producer s of whe a t if we consider merely the countries ,

which h a ve a n export a ble surplus a n d f a lls to the ten th pl a ce ,

if we include Sp a in a n d It a ly who co n sume the whole of their ,

own production Gene r a lly spe a king therefore one might s a y

.
, ,

t h a t Rum a ni a h a s m a int a ined her po s ition a mong produci n g

countries i n respect of m a ize o a ts a n d b a rley but h a s lost it in , , ,

the c a se of whe a t .

Her export a ble corn surplus is gre a tly reduced in comp a rison
with th a t before the Wa r Th a t is due p a rtly to the a ddition of .

the new provinces B efore the Wa r a pp a rently Tra n sylva ni a

.
1
, ,

h a d a sm a ll s urplus of whe a t tons ) a n d o a ts tons ) ,

but w a s s hort of b a rley tons ) a n d m a ize tons ) ,

which me a n s th a t sh e j ust a b out covered her needs in corn ; a n d

1
L . M ich l ae , Agr i cultura l S ur vey f
o E urop e ( Th e D n ubi a n B a s i n ) Pa rt
a , I,
Wa s hi ngto n , 19 24 .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 341

this w a s a l s o the c a se with Bucovi n a As the production of both .

provi n ces h a s fa llen off a fter the Wa r the d efi ci en cy h a s h a d to ,

b e m a de good from the surplus of the Old Ki n gdom During the .

period 1 902—1 1 the a vera ge ye a rly corn production of B e s s a r a bi a

wa s tons from which a ccording to M S y n a d in o
, , .
,

tons were a va il a ble for export Duri n g 1 9 20—4 the a ver .

a e production a mounted to tons Putting the intern al

g .

needs of the province a t to n s — in View of the i n cre a sed

p opul a tion since 1 9 02—1 1 a n d of the l a rger number of a nim a ls
,

the new pe a s a nt holders kept— M S yn a di n o concluded th a t .

,

during the period 1 920—4 B e s s a r a bi a offered for export only

,

w a go n s of corn a s comp a red W ith in the period

1 9 02— 1 1 During the period 1 9 1 1 1 5 the Old Kin gdom produced
.
—

a n a ver a ge of tons ( whe a t o a ts b a r ley a n d m a iz e ) , , ,

ye a rly ; a n d duri ng 1 9 23— 7 a n a vera ge of

, , tons i e , . .

tons less yea rly The a vera ge ye a rly export of the four
.

cere a l s during the period 1 9 1 1— 1 5 re a ched to n s this ,

me a ns th a t the surplu s in the second period w a s of no more th a n

a bout ton s or ra ther one mil lio n to n s m a king a llow a n ce
, ,

for the gre a ter inter n a l dem a nd During this period therefore .
, ,

the Old K ingdom a n d B es s a ra bi a — the two provinces which h a ve

a corn s ui
p
'
lus could not sp a re more th a n
m
w a gons of

corn in round fi gur e s for export a n d this roughly coincides with

, ,

the a ctu a l a mounts th a t were sent out of the country a s m a y be ,

seen from the t a ble b elow

In qui n t ls
a

19 1 1— 15 1 9 20—4

T ot a l

The Violen t oscill a tion of the cor n export i s illustra ted in the
di a gra m on p 342 . .

Among Europe a n countries exporting corn before the Wa r

Rum a ni a took seco n d pl a ce a fter Russi a Through the Virtu a l
, .
342 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION

THE E X PO R T OF COR N

( i n m illi on t on s )

( Afl er G I ones cu S i sestz
.
-
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 343

dis a ppe a ra nce of Russi a for the time b eing from the m a rket
, , ,

Rum a n i a h a s a dva nced to the fir st pl a ce in Europ e without , ,

however being a ble to keep proportion a tely in step with the

,

a dv a nce in the export of the overse a countries The followin g .

t a bles show the interesting ch a nges of po s ition which h a ve t a ken

pl a ce since t h e Wa r in the export of the m a i n cere a l crops :
1 Wh ea t
P eri od 19 09 1 3
—
Pe ri od 1 9 21 5
— —
a

v R u ss i
- a C n da
d

i a a

w Arg ti n en e M U ite d S tat es n

w Ca n d a a
O
O Ar ge n ti e n
x
w U n ite d S t tes a Q A u s tr a li a
o R um ia an U
I
I n di a
a
c I di a
n C
D
H u nga ry
q A u str li a x R u ss i
I

w
‘

a . a
o
o Bulga ri a Y u g la vi a os
o S e rbi
c a
—
a

p
B ul ga ri a
R u ma n i a

Pe ri d 1 9 21 5 o —

1 C a ad a . n

w Ar gen ti n e
n U ite d S ta tes
s n

R uma n ia
a
w

A l ge ri
n
c a

R u ss i
:
c a

Pe ri o d 1 9 21 — 5
H U ited S ta te s
n

R uss ia

t
b

l
O
C an ad a
H u n ga ry
Pol a n d
Ar gen ti n e
b
G

7 . R um n ia a

4 B a r ley
.

Peri od 1 909 1 3 — Peri o d 1 921 —5

r R u sia s U ited S ta te s
n
o R u m an i a
g R um ia an

w In di a Ca d a na

h Un ited S ta tes R uss ia

n
o Al ge ri a, I di a
n
b
c C n d a a a F re ch M orocc o
n

q F r n ch M or occ o
e C e ch os l o v a ki a
z
o
o Tu n i s i a Ar gen tin e
A rge n ti ne
— Pol an d
o
c

— Al geri a
l

b H u n ga ry
344 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
5 . Ma i ze
P eri od 1 909 1 3 —

w A rge ti n e n

w U n ite d S t te s a

w R u m ia an

a R u ss i a
g Bul ga ri a
m S e rbi a

g S uth Afric a
o

These t a bles show th a t Rum a ni a h a s m a in t a in ed second pla ce

in the export of b a rley with a n incre a sed tot a l ; she h a s kept the
,

fourth pl a ce in the export of o a ts but with a reduced qu a ntity ; ,

she h a s ret a ined the third pl a ce in m a iz e export w ith a reduced ,

qu a n tity ; but s h e h a s dropped severely in the whe a t t a ble from

fi fth to tenth pla ce a n d from to , w a gons yea rly .

More s ign ifi ca n t still she h a s b een outdist a nced in whe a t

,

export by her neighbour s — Hung a ry Yugosl a vi a a n d Bulg a ri a , , .

Bulga ri a a n d Yugosl a vi a suffered a s much a s R um a ni a or more , ,

through the Wa r ; a n d Yugosl a vi a too c a rried out a n extensive , ,

l a n d reform gre a tly mis a pplied ; thei r b eing a ble to better

,
’
Rum a ni a s whea t export could therefore only be expl a ined , ,

through the restrictive policy a dopted by the Rum a ni a n

Governments for the purpo s e of a cc umul a ting che a p i n tern a l
supplies .

‘
Th e xp o rt e d qu a n t i t ies w r o t e M I on e s cu S ise st i cou l d h a v e
e
’
, .
-

,
‘

b e en l a rge r i n s p it e o f t h e p r es e n t l owe r e d p r o duc t ion i f t h e o ut fl ow o f

, ,

t h e a v a i l a b l e s u r p l u s t ow a r d s e xp o r t we r e s t i m u l a t e d by m ea n s o f
a pp r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e s P ro of t h a t w e a re n ot d oing t h is m a y be foun d
.

i n t h e fa c t t h a t o ur i n t e r n a l co n su m p t io n r e c k on e d p e r h e a d a pp e a r s
, ,

t o be h igh a lt h ough o ur p o pu l a t i on i s fr uga l a n d t h e s e e d r a t i on gi v e n

,

t o o ur a n im a l s i s v e r y r e d uce d i n r e l a t io n t o t h e m a n n e r i n wh i c h a n i m a l s
a r e fe d e l s ew h e r e W e d o n o t c o n s u m e w e wa s t e
.
, .
1

The ye a rly consumption of cere a ls per hea d wa s 41 7 kg .

du r i n g the period 1 920—4 which includes food for men a n d ,

a nim a l s a s well a s seed ; in the s a me ye a rs it w a s 308 k g in .

Pol a n d 31 9 in Czecho s lova ki a 339 in Bulg a ri a 348 in Yugo

, , ,

sl a vi a a n d 47 1 in Hung a ry Hung a ry w a s the o n ly country to.

exceed the Rum a ni a n a vera ge but she exports a l a rger numb er ,

of fa ttened a nim a l s Intern a l consumption h a s been quicker in

.

1
P a rti c ip a rea Romd n ie i la P r od uc gi unea si Comer gul M on d i a l d e Cerea le, 19 28 , p 28
. .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 345

re a ching the pre w a r level th a n either productio n or export

-
.

The a vera ge consumptio n during 1 9 10— 1 5 w a s 49 0k g per i nh a bi .

t a nt ; this w a s equ a lled by the fi gur e for 1 925 .

Rum a ni a s corn export h a s fa llen therefore from a ye a rly

’
, ,

a ver a ge of 40 8 per cent of the tot a l h a rvest ( whe a t b a rley o a ts

-
.
, , ,

a n d m a ize ) in 1 9 1 1 — 1 5 to 1 8 7 per cent in 1 923—7 a n d the .

proportion of whe a t in those fi gur e s from 1 6 7 per cent to 2 2 -

.
-

per cent The genera l fa ll i n corn export is a ccomp a nied by a

.

ch a n ge in the kind of cere a ls exported This is s een in the follow .

i n g t a ble referring to the export of the four m a in cere a l cr 0 ps

,

Pe rc t ge of th ir
en a e P rc en tage of tota l
e

producti on e xp ort

19 1 1 — 15 1 923— 7 1 9 1 1— 15 1 923— 7

Whe a t h a s been repl a ced by sprin g cere a ls— b a rley m a iz e o a ts , ,

a n d even millet which we re a llowed to b e exported a n d brought

—

higher returns with less effort a n d expen s e The m a ize export .

repre s ented 9 per cent of the world trade in 1 9 25 8 6 per cen t

.
,
-

in 1 9 26 a n d 1 5 4 per ce n t in 1 9 27 when Rum a ni a c a me n ext

-

.
,

a fter the Ar gent i ne .

These ch a nges in the n a ture of the a gri cultura l export a re

concomit a nt with the va ria tion i n the distributio n of crop s
described e a rlier in this ch a pter Indeed one ca n tra ce the effect
.
,

of the tra n sition to sm a ll sc a le fa rmin g more cle a rly in the ch a n ge

-

of export s th a n in the ch a n ge of crops The two t a bles on pp . .

35 5 6 which give the qu a ntity a n d the v a lue of a ll Rum a ni a n

—
,

exports during the ye a rs 1 9 1 9 to 1 9 26 supply a ll the det a ils to ,

illustra te th a t tra nsform a tion Here we wi ll merely give a.

t a ble showing the proportion of the v a rious products in the

v a lue of exports duri n g 1 921 to 1 926 in comp a rison with the ,

corresponding figur e s for 1 9 1 3 ( see p .

The export of live stock w a s va lued a t in 1 9 1 3 ; it

re a ched $ 6 5 mi llions in 1 923 over 1 4 millions in 1 9 24 a n d n e a r ly
,

20 mil lions in 1 925 Comp a red w ith a percent a ge of

. of the
346 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
tot a l v a lue of exports which a nim a l products of a ll kinds r epr e
s ented i n 1 91 3 this c a tegory rose during 1 9 21 — 6 to a n a ver a ge
,

va lue of 1 4 31 per cent — a signifi ca n t incre a se The percent a ge

-

. .

o scflla t e d b etween 8 7 in 1 9 23 a n d 20 8 4 in 1 9 25
; a n d it is worth
-

Products 1 9 24 I 1 925

Liv e s to ck 04
-
9 06
-
1 3 33 -
7 0 -
10 19
-
14 5 0
-
8 10
A i m a l fo od s t ufi s ‘
1 7 2 93 06 3 09 2 62 4 52 4 20
n
- - - - - -
-

H d es a n d s ki n s
i 05
-
0 27 0 23 0 32
-
05 8
-
0 420

Woo l 04
-
1 10 0 16 -
02 -
0 26
0

05 5 0 39
A n m l w as t
i a e 02
-
03 0 0 49 -
06 -
082-
0 69 041 0

C rea ls
e 67 0
-
5 0 48
-

38 3 1 -
49 6 4 3 90
-
25 22
-
36 9 5
-

V ge ta bl es s eed s a d
e , , n

fodd r e

Vegeta bl e o ils
Ti m b r d d eriv a tiv e
e an 1

35 5 73 18 5 2 16 5 1 9 25 21 5 0 1 5 03
pr
01 1
.
o
ducts - - - - - - -

19 6
-
22 4 1
-
18 5 3 13 1 -
12 13 19 85
-
25 00
O th e r products 1 6
-
3 02
-
4 92 -
4 7 -
5 11
0
7 25
-
5 00

1 00 00 1 00 00 0
1 00 00 1 00 00 1 00 00
- -
1 00 00 1 00 00

noti n g th a t it fa lls a n d rises with s ome regul a rity i nversely to the

rise a n d fa ll of the p ercent a ge for cerea ls The export of a nim a l .

product s th a t i s now pl a ys a compen sa tory p a rt to the export

, ,

of corn which ill ustra tes in a concret e m a nner the suggestion

,

we m a de before th a t the risks of a griculture wo ul d b e les s ened

,

by the gre a ter va ri a tion in the n a ture of fa rmi n g .

The lesser decre a se in the v a lue of a gricultur a l exports a s ,

seen in the t a bles on pp 35 5 6 comp a red with the sh a rper .

—
,

drop in tot a l qu a n tities suggests moreover th a t the ch a nge , , ,

in the v a rieties exported h a s not been u n profi t a ble in itself .

But in genera l there is no doubt th a t Rum a n i a h a s lost

, ,

the pl a ce which she occupied in i n tern ation a l tra de before the

Wa r The fi r s t volume of the 111 emom ndum on th e Ba la nce of
.

E xtern a l Tr a d e 1 9 1 3— 25 published by the Le a gue of N a tions

, , ,

st a te s th a t the tot a l v a lue of intern a tio n a l tra de h a s i n cre a sed

’
during th a t period by 5 per cent At the s a me time Rum a ni a s .
‘

’
sh a re i n it h a s decre a s ed by on e h a lf a lthough the country s -

a re a a n d popul a tion h a ve doubled In 1 9 1 3 exports a mounted .

to $ 1 30 millions equ a l to 0 71 per cent of the world tra de ; in

,
.

1 9 25 this sh a re h a d f a lle n to 0 47 per cent Imports represented -

.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 347

05 8 per cent in 1 91 3 a n d 0 46 per cent in 1 9 25 of the world s ’

-
. .

tra de The s a me conclusion is dra wn from the fi gur es in dic a ti n g

.

’
the va lue of: Rum a ni a s export per he a d of popul a tion From .

$ 1 6 9 8 per he a d in 1 91 3 it h a s f a llen to $ 8 23 in 1 9 25 Rum a n i a ,

p a ssing from the eleventh to the twe n ty fi r st pl a ce a mo n g -

Europ ea n exportin g countries ; a n d if for a precise comp a ri s on

with 1 9 1 3 the fi gur e $ 8 2 3 is divided by the index 1 5 75 r epr e -

s enting the depreci a tion in the purch a sing power of the doll a r ,

the v a lue of exports would be merely $ 5 2 0 per he a d of popula

tio n World tra de in short h a s in cre a sed by 5 per cent where a s
.
, , .
,

R um a ni a s sh a re of it is 3 5 times sm a ller An d th a t is not a

’
-

genera l phenomen o n a mong the cou n trie s of s outh ea stern -

Europe Hu n g a ry e xported $ 1 8 per hea d in 1 9 1 3 a n d $ 1 7 in

.

1 925 ; Bulg a ri a 33 7 a n d $ 8 a n d Yugosl a vi a — though exception

,

a lly h a rd hit by the Wa r — h a s incre a s ed i t s export s from $ 3 5

in 1 9 1 3 to $ 1 2 per he a d in 1 925 O n ce a ga in one must dra w .

a ttention to the f a ct th a t Yugosl a vi a h a s c a r ried out a l a n d

reform a s extensive a s Rum an i a s which h a s n ot preven ted a n ’

,

increa se in her exports One might a lso note the obviou s ly

.

gre a ter powers of recovery of a country of pe a s a nt holders such ,

a s B ulg a ri a in comp a rison with for in s t a nce Hu n g a r y a coun

, , , ,

try in which l a rge est a tes predomi n a te .

Up to a poin t the f a ll in Rum a ni a s corn export m a y b e l a id

’
,

directly a t the door of the l a nd reform The corn tr a de especi a lly .

,

for export w a s bound to suffer more th a n production from the

,

brea k up of the l a rge est a tes with their centr a lized a dmini stra
-

tion with est a blished conn exions with tra ders b a nks a n d
, , ,

shippi n g fi r m s The division of the h a rvest a mong a l a rge

.

n um ber of s m a ll f a rmers h a s m a de its collection storing a n d , ,

tra n sport more d iffi cult a n d more costly th a n it w a s b efore ;

likewise more d iffi cult to estim a te the a va il a ble qu a ntities
quickly a n d in consequence the sur plus th a t might b e offered
,

for export The s a me ci rc umst a n ce h a s reduced the uniformity

.

of the product the p e a s a nts usi n g the more expensive selected

,

seed even less th a n the l a rge fa rmers The l a rge c ultiva tors .
,

too usu a lly s upply a mixture of va rietie s a n d primitive me a n s

, ,

of h a rvesti n g a n d h a ndling a r e c a using a considera ble percen t a ge

’
of impurities to a ppe a r in the pe a s a n t corn Though Rum a n i a s .
348 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
soil a n d c lim a te can produce the b est whe a t in Europe with ,

which a lo n e the Russi a n could compete the denomin a tion oi ,

‘

’
D a n ubi a n origin h a s a cquired a derog a tory mea n ing in the
intern a tion a l corn tra de .

( 6 ) Th e Va lue an d P r i ces of Agr i cultur a l P r oducts The d r op .

in the va lue of Rum a nia n exports is in p a rt due to the fa ct th a t

the price of a gricultura l products h a s i n cre a sed less th a n th a t of
industri a l good s The genera l n a tur e of Rum a ni a s exports a n d
.
’

imports h a s rem a i n ed the s a me a s before the Wa r but n ot w it h ,

s t a nding— or ra ther bec a use oi the drop in the va lue of

, ,
—

exports more h a s prop ortion a tely to be sent a bro a d th a n before

, .

Where a s 3 7 tons of exp orts corresponded to on e ton of imports

b efore the Wa r a fter it the rel a tio n ch a nged a s
, 1 e fi ve tons . .

were exported for e a ch ton imported Durin g the pre w a r ye a rs .

-

the a ver a ge v a lue of exports w a s estim a ted a t $ 28 per ton 1 a n d ,

of imports a t $ 1 05 which ch a ra cterizes the difference b etween ,

the n a ture of the goods bought a n d those sold Th a t rel a tion of .

va lues w a s upset a fter the Wa r to Rum a ni a s dis a dv a nt age ,

’
.

During the period 1 9 1 9— 23 the a ver a ge v a lue of export s rem a ined

unimproved a t $ 28 p er ton but the va lue of imports h a s more ,

th a n doubled rising to $ 25 0 per t on Durin g the following

, .

ye a rs 1 924— 6 the a vera ge va lue of exports rem a i ned a bout

, ,

the s a me a t $ 29 per t on while the modera tion in the price ,

of industri a l goods brought the v a lue of im p orts down to $ 1 60

per ton .

The gro s s va lue of the a gricultura l production h a s been 2

1
Th e a e a ge e o v ra xp rt v lu
e of o n w a s e s m a e c r ti
a t $ 28 pe r t o n i n 1 9 1 4 ; os e t d it r
t o $ 9 5 i n 1 9 15 , a n n e a s e h as i cr
o g which br u ht
t h e gen e a a e a ge for t h e pre w a r r l v r -

y r S ee L o e s on , Com er C l w
l E xter i or a l Romai n i ei I na i n te si d up ci R d zboi ul
‘

e a s t o $ 32 . .

M ond i a l, 1 9 28 , p 5 64 . .

2
A n e s ma e of t h e o ati t
a e o f R ma n a n o t t l v lu
on i n 1 9 23 h a s u
ee n g eni pr ducti b iv
by M I I Ge orgi a n u i n t h e A n a lele S ta ti s tice s, i E cono mi s , vol
. . .
, N o s 1 — 2 1 9 25
, c . viii . .

( in mi lli on le i )
1 Ag . ricultur l productio n a

2 m e . Ti b r pr ducts o

3 e s o
. Liv t ck a d a i m l p o d uct s n n a i

4 ne a M i r l pr ducts o

I dus tri l producti on le i 29

.

5 . n a which t h e a ctu a l,

fi n i s h ing c on tributi on ma d e by i n du try w a s s

Le i
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 349

estim a ted on the b a sis of intern a l wholes a le prices as follow s ( in

million lei )

Ce r a ls
e

Al i m e n t a ry cro p s
I du tri a l crops
n s

N a tura l a d a t i fici a l gr asses

n r

O rch rd a d vi n eya rd
a s n s

Tota l

N 0 offi cia l figur es a r e a va il a ble to show the ye a rly i n cre a s e in the

v a lue of live stock & c Exports a mou n ted to,
. millio n s
( without a n im a l products ) i n 1 923 i e a bout 1 0 per cent of the , . . .

gro s s v a lue of the h a rvest ; the improvement in 1 927 w a s

exceptio n a l due to the l a rge m a iz e crop of 1 9 26 In the yea rs
,
.

a fter the Wa r the m a rket v a lue of a gricultur a l products though

, ,

higher th a n b efore the Wa r h a s not r isen i n the s a me degree a s

,

the va lue of industri a l a n d m a n ufa ctured good s Agricultura l .

indu s try h a s thereby everywhere been pl a ced a t a dis a dv a n t a ge

which is one of the m a in c a uses of the severe a gricultura l cri s is
now experienced by most Europe a n a n d over s e a countries .

How much worse therefore must the situ a tion be for the
, ,

Rum a ni a n fa rmers who h a ve been prevented from obt a i n i n g

,

eve n the rel a tively low prices ruling in the world m a rket s ? They
h a ve n ot h a d like f a rmers elsewhere a n opportu n ity of l a yi n g
, ,

a side h a nd s ome
pr ofi t s duri n g the Wa r ye a r s ; a n d price a n d
export r estrictions export t a xes a n d other governm ent me a sures
,

s poilt their ch a n ce s of m a king the mo s t of the boom which

followed immedi a tely upon the Wa r Hence they h a d n o r eserve .

of pr ofi t s to e n a ble them to hold out in the ba d ye a r s th a t were

to come The t on v a lue of a gricultura l exports we h a ve seen
.
-

, ,

rem a ined the s a me a s before the Wa r b ec a use the difference w a s ,

a bsorbed by export t a xes ; a n d a s the pre w a r v a lues were -

n a tura lly those ruling in the world m a rkets it h a s me a nt th a t ,

po st w a r prices h a d to be lower th a n world p r ices by a t le a s t the

~

a mount of the export t ax if Rum a ni a n corn & c , w a s to re a ch , .

,

those m a rkets a t a ll The a ccomp a nyi n g di a gra ms show indeed

.

th a t the intern a l p r ice s of whe a t a n d m a ize a s in fa ct of a ll other ,

35 0 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION

WH E AT P R I CE S
Th e p r i ce of w h ea t pe r q ui n t a l i n go l d fr a n cs
, ,
in th e p r i n ci p a l m a r ke t s
EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 35 1

MAI ZE P R I CE S
per q ui n ta l , i n go l d fr a n c s , i n th e p r i n ci p a l m a r ke t s

( After G I anes cu S zlsesti

.
-
35 2 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
crops h a ve bee n lower th an in a n y other of the world s m a rkets ;
,
’

a n d not merely in the importin g Europe a n m a rkets which woul d ,

h a ve been n a tura l but a lso i n the overse a s exporting m a rkets

, .

The price fix ing a n d t a x a tion policy of the govern ment w a s

-

bound to discoura ge production Ta ken in conj unction with the .

violent fl uct uat ion s in the exch a n ge it w a s even more likely to ,

confuse a n d h a mper exports F reque n tly indeed expor ts moved

.
, ,

inversely to production which o nl y a genera l confusion of prices

,

could expl a i n a s ex em plifi ed in the w a steful home use of whe a t

,

a n d W he a ten bre a d When e g a t the end of August 1 9 21 the

.
, . .
, ,

export t a x of lei p er w a go n of whea t w a s repl a ced by

the s o c a lled con t in gen t a t i on system i e the ra tio ni ng of the
-
’
—
. .

qu a ntities a llowed to be exported prices fell sh a rply a n d the —

,

effect might h a ve been di sa strous but for the simult a neous fa ll

in the ra te of exch a n ge by a bout 1 00 per cent B a rley sold e a rly .

in August a t lei per w a gon a t lei when the export ,

restrictio n s were fi rst imposed a n d a g a in a t 25 0001e i in S eptem

, ,

b er In the followi n g a utumn j ust the opposite took pl a ce

. .

Deluded by the high price of corn due to the low exch a n ge , ,

Government impo s ed a n export t a x of lei p er w a gon .

S oon a fterw a rds the exch a n ge rose a n d prices of corn fell to

such a level th a t tow a rds the middle of August 1 922 the exp ort
’
t a x a bsorbed a bout h a lf the v a lue of the corn in the producer s
h a nds Ha d the exch a nge co n ti n ued to rise it might soon h a ve
.
,

a b s orbed the whole v a lue of the cor n The incident di s clo s ed .

wh a t f a nt a stic effect s could result from a high fi x e d t a x when ,

a t a x sliding with the v a lue of cor n might h a ve a chieved some

s t a bility The opposite t a ble giving the prices of the four m a in

.
,

c r op s in the princip a l Rum a ni a n port s s hows how strongly they ,

oscill a ted from qu a rter to qua rter .

Before the Wa r Rum a n i a n whe a t n a tura lly s old a t w orld

,

prices In 1 9 24 the w a go n of whe a t a t Cra iov a on e of the chief

. ,

collecti n g ce n tre s w a s ,
lei while in Pa ris it w a s worth ,

lei Altogether the de a rne s s of a gricultura l products in

.

Rum a ni a w a s merely a pp a re n t b ec a use of the continuous fa ll

,

in t h e exch a nge Where a s before the Wa r the w a gon of whe a t

.

h a d a v a lue of Swi s s fra ncs M Ga r oflid c a lcul a ted th a t , .

tow a rd s the middle of 1 9 22 it v a lued only 700 Swiss fr a ncs ;

 EF FECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION 35 3

while the cost of production h a d rem a ined a s high a s before i n

gold va lues Another con sequence of th a t offi ci a l interference
.

w ith the m a rket w a s th a t dur i ng the fi rst ye a rs of the exception a l

r egime whe a t prices were a lmost level with those of m a ize a n d
b a rley B y some writers this w a s fa lla ciously a ttributed to excess
.

( In go ld fr n c s )
a

Whe a t Mi a ze

of world production ; but Rum a ni a w a s a closed m a rket yet

-

interna l whe a t prices were lower by h a lf th a n those ruli n g in the

world m a rkets In October 1 923 indeed Rum a ni a n whe a t sold
.
, ,

a t 45 0001e i while Americ a n whe a t offered a t a bout 9 0 000 1e i a t

, , ,

Const a nta Nor did these circumst a n ces st a bili z e the in tern a l
.

m a rket Bec a use of the short a ge of money a n d of export pr oh i bi

.

tions for white fl our Rum a ni a n mills only purch a sed wh a t they
,

strictly needed a t the tim e The s a me re a sons forced cultiv a tors

.

to offer a s much a s they possibly could ; with the result th a t a t

a cert a in moment in 1 9 23 whe a t a ctu a lly fell by a bout
, ,

lei below the in a dequ a te m a ximum prices fi x e d by the Govern

ment .

There is no s a ying of course whether the economic a n d fi sca l

, ,
’
policy of Rum a ni a s governments would h a ve b een different
without the reform But fa ced with such a policy the l a rge culti
.
, ,

1 5 69 69
-

A a
35 4 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION
va t or s coul d h a rdly h a ve survived i t unless p ermitted to go to
,

the uttermost li mit in squeez ing the soil a n d swea ting the
p e a s a nts All improvement in a gricultur a l methods a n d equi p
.

ment would h a ve been out of the question In f a ct those b etter

.
,

equi pp ed f a rms in the K ingdom a n d in Tra nsylva n i a w hi ch ,

spent rel a tively more on l a bour a n d on the upkeep of live a n d

de a d stock would h a ve b een the fi r st to succum b For a time
, .

corn production m a y h a ve kept up the flour ishin g a ppea ra nces

of the p a st L a rge owners a n d ten a nts coul d not h a ve show n
.

the i r resentment in the form of p a ssive resist a nce which the ,

wellnigh self —suffi cin g pe a s a nts can a fford to pra ctice Through .

their efforts the export of corn mi ght h a ve risen to b etter

.

fi gur es without necess a rily implyi n g a b etter yield Exports

, .

from ba d cultiva tion a n d in spite of ba d policy co ul d only h a ve

b een r a va gin g in the extreme In the st a te in which the Wa r
.

left the country such exports would h a ve been sucked out of

,

the very m a rrow of the soil a n d of those who till ed it to the ,

l a sting impoverishment of both There is a t lea st h 0p e in the

.
, ,

new a gra ri a n org a ni z a tion Though it h a s not b een pr olifi c in

.

the a dverse conditions which h a ve s ur rounded its inf a ncy it ,

m a y b e a r the seed from which a re a l a gric ul tur e will spri n g In .

an c a se it c a nnot f a il to de a l more kindly W ith the so i l a n d its

y ,

l a bourers .
 C H A PTE R X
THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY
S E C TI O N 1
TH E E FFE C T S OF T H E R E F O R M O N L IV E S T O C K
T HE re a ring a n d breed ing of a nim a ls a cqui red a much gre a ter
im p ort a nce in R um a ni a n a griculture a fter the reform th a n it
ever h a d before It is the bra nch of rura l economy which more
.

th a n a n y other fa vour s sm a llh olders ; a n d to them a n im a ls a r e

va lu a ble b oth a s a help in cultiva tion a n d a s obj ects in the ,

production a n d s a le of which the pe a s a nts ca n e a sily hold their

own a ga in st competition from l a rge producers The fodder crops .

grown by sm a llh olders in connexion w ith the live stock industry -

introduce a gre a ter va riety in f a rmin g a n d the n a ture of their

,

cultiva tion helps to cle a r the soil of weeds a n d to prep a re it for

’
cere a l crops Rum a ni a s a gricultura l production moreover ca n
.
, ,

no longer b e m a int a ined on a com pe t it ive ba si s without the regul a r

use ofma n ur es gw h ich give s a d d it i on a lva lue t o n um er ous live stock .

B efore the dispossession of the pe a s a nts the re a ring a n d

breedi ng of a ni m a ls formed the m a in source of we a lth for the
Rum a ni a n Princip a lities The ir a nim a ls were fa mous for num ber
.

a n d fi n e qu a lity Among the Greeks of the E a stern Empir e

.

‘ ’ ‘ ’
Va la ch i an wa s synonymous with owner of rich herds .

‘ ’
Rum a ni a n horses were sung in the Niebelungen S a g a ( Pa rt
XXII verse
, a n d Germ a ny for a long t i me bought them a s

remoun ts for her c a lva ry ; he n ce the old n a me of W a ll a ch given

,

to geldings fi r st a ppea ring towa rds the middle of the sixtee n th

,

century Mold a vi a n m a res were introduced into Denm a rk for the

.

improvement of the n a tive breed The Turks gre a tly a ppreci a ted
.

Rum a ni a n horses a n d Mold a vi a s ye a rly tribute included forty

’ ‘

’
good Mold a vi an horses They even h a d a proverb th a t there
.
‘

is noth ing to be a t a Persi a n p e a s a nt a n d a Mold a vi a n horse ’

Almost a s reno wned were Mold a vi a n horned c a ttle which used ,

to b e exported to a ll the neighbouring coun tries But w ith the .

growing encro a ch ment of the l a ndlords upon pe a s a nt l a nds the ,

a re a under gra ss const a ntly lessened while the economi c

import a nce a cqui red by corn growing a n d the politic a l infl uen ce
-

a cquired by corn growers c a used the neglect of th a t br a nch of

-

,
35 8 THE EFFECTS OF THE
rur a l economy whi ch h a d m a de the prosp erity of the pe a s a nts .

For the p e a s a nts it b eca me incre a singly d iffi cult to keep good
a n im a ls a n d the new extensive f a rmers h a d no interest in
,

keeping them The St a te took so little interest in the m a in te

.

n a nce of the former we a lth in live stock th a t a dva nt a ges were ,

secur ed for the export of corn in the tra de convention concluded

with Austro H un ga ry while the export of a nim a ls formerly so
-

, ,

ex tensive an d pr ofit a ble w a s a t the s a me tim e restricted

, .

The consequent st a gn a tion or r a ther rel a tive decline in the , ,

qu a ntity of li ve stock is m a de evident by the t a ble b elow though

, ,

it c a nnot a lso show the much gre a ter rel a tive decli ne in the
qu a lity of the stock :
Ox d Bu ff l
en an a oes H r o s es

P e r 1 00
P e r 1 00 h e cta r es P er 1 00 T ot a l
i nh a b . a r a bl e i nh a b . n um b er

4 1 06

33 34
-

( Af te r M Se rb a n .
, op . ci t , p 1 20)
.

Notwithst a nding this decline in c a ttle re a rin g Rum ani a still ,

took a high pl a ce a mong Europe a n countries wi th reg a rd to the

numb er of a nim a ls But the qu a lity of her live stock w a s poor a s
.
,

m a y b e inferred from the followin g t a ble in which the proportion ,

of a n im a ls is given side by side w ith the proportion of gra ss an d

p a stur e
F or i n h a bita n ts

Gr as s
C o u n try Y r H r
ea o s es Ox en S h ee p Y r
ea Ar a bl e Pa stur e

( Afte r Dr . N D Cor n é tea n u)

. . .
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 35 9

The co untry therefore h a d a l a rge qu a ntity of a nim a ls but

, , ,

devoted a sm all a rea to their feed ing ; the Villa ge commons were
of poor qu a lity a n d most of the ye a r the a n im a ls h a d to sub si s t
,

on stra w a n d m a ize st a lks Moreover most of the l a rge a nim a ls .

,

were dra ught a ni m a ls a n excessive number in fa ct beca use the

, , ,

preva ili ng customs forced the pe a s a nts to supply working te a ms

a n d bec a use the c i rc umst a nces in which the work w a s performed ,

a n d the poor qu a lity of the stock m a de it necess a ry to employ ,

a proportion a tely l a rge number of a nim a ls .

The distribution of live stock b efore the reform w a s rem a rk

a ble for the enormous di sproportion in the number of a nim a ls

owned by ea ch of the two c a tegories of cultiva tors Immedi a tely .

before the Wa r the pea s a nts owned 8 5 per cent of the tot a l
, .

number of horses 8 7 per cent of a ll the horned a nim a ls 76 per

, .
,

cent of the sheep a n d 8 3 per cent of a ll the pigs In Munteni a

. . .

the number of tra ction a n im a ls the p ea s a nts o w ned re a ched

92 per cent of the tot a l The tot a l num ber of own ers w a s
. .

in 1 9 1 6 w hi ch me a nt th a t 6 9 per cent of a ll the

, .

households owned a nim a ls a s comp a red w ith 6 7 p er ce n t in .

1 900; on the l a nd this percent a ge of co urse w a s higher a bout , , ,

8 3 per cent of a ll the households the num b er of rura l owners

.
,

bein g in 1 9 1 6 The other side of the picture w a s.

represented by the considera ble extent of gra zin g a n d p a sture

in the h a nds of the l a rge owners : a ccording to the 1 9 1 1 st a tistics
they held h a W hile h a were owned by the
.
, .

pe a s a nts A gre a t de a l of these pe a s a nt gra zin gs were of the

.

poorest qu a lity The reform h a ving given the pe a s a nts l a nd for

.

cultiva tion it a lso incre a sed the num ber a n d size of commun a l
,

gra zing s thereby em a ncip a tin g the pe a s a nts from their depen
,

dence on the l a rge ow ners a n d tena nts But in this c a se a lso the .

reform h a s not moved b eyond the fi r st step of gra nt ing l a nd As .

’
the pe a s a nts knowledge a n d experience is gre a test in connexion
with the keeping of a ni m a ls the best w a y to intensify production ,

would h a ve been to encour a ge a n d give scop e to th a t speci a l

a bili ty The pea s a nts a s cultiv a tors pr efer m a iz e a n d b a rley to
.

whea t a n d from th a t st a ndpoint too element a ry economic

, , ,

co n sidera tions should h a ve s uggested th a t it w a s prefera ble not

to let those r a w m a teri a ls b e e xported a s such but r a ther tra ns ,
36 0 THE EFFECTS OF THE
formed into me a t a n d f a ts Ofii cia l policy however h a s rem a in ed
.
, ,

a s indifferent a s before to the f a te of this potenti a l s our c e of we a lth .

N ot h in g h a s been done so far for the gro w ing of fodder crops

on the l a nd set a side for the keep ing of c a ttle Most of these .

fi e ld s a r e buried in weeds There i s h a rdly a n y clover to b e seen

.
,

a n d beet a n d tur nips a r e equ a lly r a re Alm ost nothin g is kno w n .

a bout the prep a r a tion of fodder a bout the i mport a nce of a regu
,

la r feeding tim e or a bout the gr a d a tion of food a ccordin g to the

-

a nim a ls Gra ss a n d p a sture rem a in the b a ckbone of c a ttle

.

re a ring in Rum a ni a a n d the l a nd reform h a s rightly pro vided

,

considera ble l a nd for this purpose But very little of it h a s .

been sown with gra ss a n d most of these fi eld s which h a d b een

,

formerly under m a ize h a ve not b een levelled yet No a rra nge .

ments a r e in force to regul a te the se a son a l use of such gra z ings .

Th a t indi fference is proving e s peci a lly costly to Tra nsylva ni a

a n d Buco vin a both of them well a d a pted a n d a ccustomed to
,

c a ttle breeding In some p a rts of these provin ces cultiva tion

-

.
,

is in f a ct subordin a te ; b etween them they h a ve gra ss a n d p a stur e

covering a bout 2 5 million h a They still h a d a useful a mo unt of
-

breeding m a teri a l a t the e n d of the Wa r but the destructive ,

price a n d t a riff policy the Rum a n i a n governm ents a dopted h a s

thre a tened rui n to the live stock industry of the new provinces -

a s th a t of the 01d Kingdom w a s ruined b efore .

I f nevertheless the country h a s b een a ble to m a ke good

, ,

within a few ye a rs the decre a se in live stock c a used by losses a n d

over consumption during the Wa r th a t is a ltogether due to the
-

efforts of the pea s a nts This is a dmitted by every one The l a rge
. .

owners a n d ten a nts h a d neither the experience n or the me a ns in ,

’
c a pit a l buildings gra zi n g & c of rebuilding the country s depleted
, , , .
,

stock The Old Kingdom a lone is supposed to h a ve lost over six

.

hundred thous a nd hors es a n d more th a n a million horned a ni m a ls

during the Wa r The followi n g t a ble indic a tes these losses a s well
.
,

a s the r a pidity with which they were repl a ced in the Old Kingdom :

1 900 19 16 1 9 19 1 921 1 927

 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 36 1

The ye a rly incre a se in the two periods 1 900—1 6 an d 1 9 21 —4 is

shown below :
Y rly i cr ea n ease

1 900— 1 6
H or s s e

H orn e d an i m ls
a

Pigs ( d e cre a s e )
It should b e mentioned th a t the post w a r fi gur e s repre s ent o nl y -

e s tim a tes— a n d those for the fi r s t pe a ce ye a r prob a bly a rough

e s t im a t e as a census of a nim a ls h a s not been t a ken sin ce the
g

Wa r Nor h a s their di stribution a mong the v a rious c a tego r ies

.

of l a ndowners been t a ken a ccou n t oi though it is cle a r th a t the ,

proportion owned by the pe a s a nts must be even gre a ter th a n

before .

The tot a l num ber of a nim a ls a ccording to the offi cia l ,

St a tistics of Domestic Anim a ls h a s ch a nged a fter the reform a s ,

follows
H r
o s es

According published in the B uleti n ul Agri cultur a l

t o fi gur es
( No.2 the
, tot a l number of domestic a nim a ls in the
provinces composin g Gre a ter Rum a ni a ch a nged a s follows :
B r t h e War
e fo e

Aft r t h e War
e

M in u s d iffe re n c e
All Europ e a n countries h a ve seen their live stock reduced through
the Wa r For purposes of comp a rison we give b elow the fi gur e s
.

for the s a me p eriods rel a ting to three of Rum a ni a s neighbour s ’

B f r th Aft r t h M i u di ff r c
e o e e e e n s e en e

Wa r Wa r

1
R C S
. . t e re , B uleti n ul A gr i c ultur ei , A pril —J un e . 1 9 27 .
36 2 THE EFFECTS OF THE
It would seem th a t Rum a ni a st a nds a lone a mong the countries
which h a ve been involved in the Wa r in h a vin g been a ble to
incr ea se her live stock b etween 1 9 1 9 a n d 1 925 by 42 per cent ; , , .

thereby coming ne a rest to m a king good the Wa r d a m a ge .

Among sixty ni ne countries compili ng a nim a l st a tistics Rum a ni a

-

took twelfth pl a ce in 1 925 with 79 2 a nim a ls to the squ a re kilo

metre Denm a rk b ein g fir st with 1 48 Urugu a y second with 1 43
, , ,

a n d Engl a nd third with 1 39 .

Th e number of domestic a ni m a ls in proportion to the siz e of

the country a n d of its p opul a tion h a s undergone the following
ch a nges :

H o rs e s
P er P er P er P er P er P er P er P er P er P er
sq . sq . sq . I sq . sq .

inh a b . km . i nba h . km . i nh a b . km . inh a b . km . i nh a b . km .

43 1 200 9 42 43 0 -
28 5 13 0 -
7 03
37 1 21 0 -
98 9 2 57 0 1
1 75 10 0 -
648
26 1 15 4 -
74 1 4 39 1 76 10 4 -
47 8

A11
species of a nim a ls except horses were continu a lly , ,

decrea sin g in number b efore the Wa r In the fi r st p e a ce ye a rs .

the pe a s a nts m a de a strong effort to m a ke good the Wa r losses ,

with considera ble success but the movement lost impetus a fter ,

a few ye a rs a n d a fresh decline set in in ste a d

,
From 1 926 to .

1 9 27 horses o nl y incre a sed in num b er with or 3 31 per -

ce nt The number of oxen h a s never ce a sed to di mi nish since

.

1 922 ; from 1 9 26 to 1 9 27 it w a s reduced by or 5 4 pe r -

cent Sheep decre a sed by

. or 4 7 1 per cent Pigs o nl y .

lost or 2 9 per cent The numb er of a ni m a l un its fell from

-
.

29 to 28 per squ a re kilometre a n d from 5 01 to 478 per thous a nd ,

inh a bit a nts .

The st a gn a tion in the keepi n g a n d breeding of live stock is

1
An ma i n ts lu i a re c lcul te d by ta ki
a a n
g ea ch l a rge an im la as : 1, a n d ea ch s ma ll
an i l
m a a s = l /1 0 .

( Th e fi gur e s for 1 900 a n d rom t h e 1 9 1 6 c e s us of d omes tic a n i ma ls ; th os e

19 1 6 f n

fo 1 9 23 fr m t h o ffi ci a l s ta ti s tic s for t h e y ea r )

r o e .

Th e fi gure fo 1 900 w a c om pil d i n N v e m b e r b efo r e t h e l a m bin g s ea son th a t

r s e o ,
—

for 1 9 1 6 c o m pil d a fte r l a m bi g i clud e d

,
e l m b s ; a s t h b solute i n crea s e
n ,
n a e a

w a s m e re ly th e re w as i n r ea li t y a re l ativ e d creas e e .
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 36 3

doubtedly d ue a b ove a ll to the price a n d t a riff poli cy pur sued

, ,

by the St a te since the Wa r Whil e the Mi n istry of Agricult ur e

.

w a s stri vi ng to im prove the stock a n d obt a i n ed a credi t of ,

le i for bu y ing bull s from Switzerl a n d other dep a rt ,

ments a dopted a policy whi ch rendered the breedi ng a n d fa tten

ing of c a ttle a ltogether un pr ofit a ble Their line of poli cy w a s to
keep the cost of livin g low ; to th a t end the export of a nim a ls
w a s a llowed only with speci a l permi ts which merely led to a n ,

a busive t ra ffi c in such permits a n d to excessive sl a ughteri n g of

young stock From J une 1 9 23 the export of live stock w a s left

.
,

fr ee but a t ax of
,
lei w a s imposed on e a ch l a rge horned
a nim a l irrespective of its weight which t a x w a s l a ter reduced
, ,

to lei Under the system of p ermi ts the export t a x h a d

.

a moun ted to a bout lei per a nim a l The export of pigs a n d .

fowl w a s still prohibited Ani m a ls destined for export h a d to

.

pa y 5 0 per cent a b ove the ordin a ry freight on the r a ilw a ys The

. .

fi r st effect of these me a sures w a s to check the export of li ve stock

j ust dur ing the ye a rs when the price of me a t w a s much higher
in a ll the neighbouring countries The Tra nsylva ni a n breeders .

were especia lly h a rd hit ; b e fore the Wa r they u s ed to send a b out

1 0 per cent of thei r stock ye a rly to V ie nn a a n d Pr a gue The
. .

position in the Old Kin gdom w a s a lmost piqu a nt Rum a ni a h a d .

never ce a sed to compl a in a g a inst the t a riff b a rrier with which

Austri a Hung a ry shut off the im port of a nim a ls a n d me a t ; yet
-

a s soon a s she w a s freed of th a t obstructio n Rum a ni a proceeded ,

to set up a simila r b a rrier herself a g a inst her own li ve stock -

industry Still more stra nge w a s the policy which permitted the
.

export of bra n a n d 0 11 c a kes in return for a t a x of no more tha n

-

lei per w a gon ; a ni m a ls th a t is were forcibly kept in the

, ,

co untry but their food w a s a llowed to go a broa d A Tr a n s yl

, .

va ni a n breeder a sserted in a n interview with the Ad evér ul

( S eptemb er 25 th a t foreign c a ttlemen were buyi n g
,

a n i m a ls in Yugosl a vi a where the duties were ten tim es lower

, ,

a n d then f a ttenin g them on Rum ani a n fodder .

The effects of these restrictions were r efle ct ed in the export

fi gur es shown in the t a ble on the next p a ge he a d of .

l a rge c a ttle were exported dur in g the fir st qu a rter of 1 9 23 ,

W hen export permits were requir ed ; during the fir st qu a rter

364 THE EFFECTS OF THE
of 1 924 when export w a s fr e e subj ect to the t ax of
,
‘ ’
,

lei p er a nim a l the num ber of horned a nim a ls exported

,

fell to In 1 9 1 1 Hung a ry exported oxen a n d

p ig s v a lued at 1 6 mill i a rd lei In 1 9 23 Grea ter Rum a ni a
, .

exported a nim a ls to the v a lue of 5 — 6 milli a rds a n d in 1 924 of

only 1 milli a rd 1 .

If one reckons tha t with 5 kilogra m corn one ca n produce

1 kilogra m me a t whose export v a lue is double it is e a sy to esti ,

m a te the potentia l income w hi ch w a s sa cr ifi c ed by th a t restrictive

policy Its second effect w a s inevit a bly to depress i ntern a l prices
.

to such a n extent a s to m a ke the fa tteni ng of c a ttle un pr ofit a ble .

In fa ct f a ttening w a s a b a ndoned by most growers a s is

, ,

proved by the extra v a ga nt sl a ughtering of c a lves l a mbs a n d , ,

sucki n g pigs ; during the w i nter 1 9 27— 8 I pur ch a sed suckin g pigs
- -

in Rum a ni a a n d Yugosl a vi a a t h a lf a crown a piece Thi s f a ct - -

.

a n d its serious consequences were emph a sized a t the meeting of

the Agricult ur a l Syndic a tes in J une 1 9 25 when it w a s poin ted , ,

out th a t the export t ax a mo unted to 25 lei p er k g of b eef a n d .

31 1e i per k g of por k which w a s j ust a b out the v a lue of the

.
,

me a t itself Intern a l consum ption not u n n a tur a lly i ncre a sed

.

under such conditions ; it rose from 1 1 per cent to a bout 1 8 p er .

cent of the stock ye a rly In 1 9 23 on e million l a rge horned

. .
,

a nim a ls were killed out of a tot a l stock of The tot a l

number of a n im a l s killed in publi c sl a ughter houses dur ing 1 9 25 -

wa s oxen or 1 9 34 per cent of the s tock ; -

sheep or 1 4 1 3 per cent ; a n d

,
-
p ig s or 1 5 5 per cent of
.
, .

the stock These figur e s do not include a ni m a ls k ill ed by

.

p ea s a n ts for their own consumption The me a t consum ption .

w a s estim a ted in 1 9 25 a t 5 1 35 k g per ur b a n inh a bit a nt a n d -

.

3 5 0 k g per rur a l inh a bit a nt In itse lf th a t incre a se in home

. .

consumption is desira ble b oth for the a dva nt a ge of the in ,

d ust r y a n d for the b etter feeding of the rur a l popul a tion But .

A rgu N v m b r 1 9 1 924 1
s, o e e , .
 REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY 365
at present it represents a consider a ble w a st a ge a s a l a rge ,

number of a nim a ls a r e kill ed very y oung which is bound to ,

compromise future ch a nces of export under a w iser policy , .

The possibility of exporti n g a n im a ls a n d me a t especi a lly to ,

the B a lk a n countries is still considera ble Even Pol a nd is

, .

exporting c a ttle to Greece tra nsporting them a cross Rum a ni a

, ,

where they a r e shipped a t Const a n t a Through Tra n sylva ni a a n d .

Bucov in a a g a in Rum a ni a is fa voura bly linked with the m a rkets

, ,

of Centra l Europ e which once preferred to b e supplied from

,

those two provinces I f we were to put a griculture on the o n ly

.
‘

ro a d which could a t present le a d to its in t en sifi ca t ion — th a t of

breedin g a n d fa ttenin g c a ttle — w e could very soon s a tisfy the
requi rements in a nim a l products of a ll the Centra l Europea n
’
countries 1 Rum a ni a enj oys a privileged position a s long a s
.

Russia c a nn ot supply these countries with fodder a s she did

b efore the Wa r The l a nd reform a n d the consequent reduction
.
,

in corn growin g h a s helped Rum ani a to a void the crisis through

-

which the corn exporting countries a r e genera lly p a ssin g The

-
.

l a rger losses i n popul a tion a n d the reduction in purch a sing power

whi ch the belligerent countries h a ve suffered coupled with the ,

ex tension of the a re a un der cere a ls in the overse a countries ,

h a ve resulted in the overproduction of c orn which is responsible ,

for the present crisis The num ber of a nim a ls on the other h a nd
.
, ,

h a s m a teri a lly diminished everywhere whil e the cons um ption ,

of me a t is in crea sin g A re a sona ble economic policy— which

.

would h a ve t a ken a ccount of the genera l declin e in live stock a n d

of the power of a b sorption of the neighbouring m a rkets might —

’
h a ve turned to gre a t a dva nt a ge this pl a cing of Rum a ni a s
a gricul ture upon the shoulders of the pe a s a nts .

S E C TI O N 2

THE E FFE C T OF T H E RE F O R M ON R U RA L I N D U S TR I ES
( a ) Domes ti c I n dus tri es The Rum a ni a n St a te from the ye a r
.
,

of its esta blishm ent in 1 8 6 6 up till the t ime of the l a nd reform

, , ,

h a d shown itself indifferent if not a ctu a lly hostile to the f a te of

, ,

the industries the pea s a nts pra ctised in their homes The chief .

1
Art icl e by C . r
Garofli d , A gus , Ma y 1 2, 1 927 .
36 6 THE EFFECTS OF THE
a mbition of the n ation a l le a ders h a ving b een to cre a te a na tion a l
fa ctory industry they showered privileges upon a ll those who
,

m a de a ttempts in th a t direction a t the expense of the older but ,

sim pler a cti vities Domestic in dustries were excluded from the
.

ben efi t s of the la w for the encour a gement of n a tio n a l industry ,

which gra nted m a n y tra nsport customs a n d other f a cilities , , .

R a w m a teri a ls destin ed for l a rge sc a le industry were exempted -

from customs dutie s but those im ported for the use of domestic
,

industries did not enj oy the s a me f a vo ur S imil a rly the com .

,

m e r ci a l tre a ties concluded by Rum a n i a o nly protected the l a rge

‘
sc a le industries Why not gra n t domestic industry the s a me
.

’
protection ? protested Dr An t ipa ii it fi n d s it possible to .
,
‘

m a int a in itself when pl a ced on a n equ a l footing w ith l a rge sc a le -

industry ? The sm a ll industries h a ve a pl a ce of their own to

l
’
fi l in our soci a l a n d economic life 1
As l a te a s 1 921 when a con .
,

gress of l a rge sc a le m a nufa ctur ers prep a red a pr oj ect of expropri a

-

tion for the ben efit of in dustry a n a rticle h a d to be a dd e d , ,

a pp a rently in response to offi ci a l w ishes which specifi cally ,

excluded domestic industry from a ll sh a re in the prop osed

a rr a ngement N ot till J uly 1 9 23 w a s the fi r st a ct of gra ce shown
.

to domestic industry when Articles 34 a n d 35 of the fi s ca l law

,

p a ssed i n th a t ye a r a llowed cert a in reductions a n d exemptions

from t a x a tion .

Th a t disreg a rd for domestic industry is the more diffi cult to

underst a nd a s in Rum a ni a such a ctivities were needed on the
l a nd for more th a n one rea son A p e a s a nt holdin g 5 h a spends . .

a bout sixty d a ys in f a rm i ng them with the prev a ilin g system ,

of cultiv a tion a s Dr Cor n atea n u h a s c a lc ul a ted in det a il

, . .

M Alim an est ea n u h a s a llowed 1 20 d a ys for a ll the work which

.

a p e a s a nt h a s to do so th a t even t a king into a ccount the un

,

consciona ble numb er of religious a n d other holid a ys the p e a s a nt ,

h a s a surplus of 1 5 9 worki n g d a ys for which he must fi n d a n

occup a tion There is room for much improvement in the methods
.

of fa rming a n d every s tep forwa rd wi ll t a ke up more of the

,

pea s a nt s time But there a re on a n a vera ge four months in the

’
.

ye a r when snow a n d cold stop a ll work in the fi eld a n d which ,

the pe a s a nt a n d his fa mily must spend in demora lizi n g idleness

1 Dr . Gr An t ipa , P r ob
. lemele evolu tiei p op or ului R omci n p
, .
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 367
unless they ply some h a ndicra ft F ur t h er a l a rge num ber of .
,

pe a s a nts own merely 2— 3 h a which a re not s uffi ci en t for their

.
,

upkeep . They depend therefore on some a dditio n a l income

, , ,

which they could only get from domestic industry if it h a ppen s

tha t there is no f a ctory m i ne or qu a rry in the neighbourhood
, .

It li es within the power of domestic industry therefore to solve , ,

the problem of existence for a num b er of pe a s a nts a n d to give ,

to most of them the me a n s for a b etter st a nd a rd of livi n g .

N a t ion a l eco n omy too would sta nd to ben efit enormously from
, ,

an
y development which during the lo n g winter months could
’
h a rnes s the pe a s a nts l a bour power to some productive work .

The soci a l a n d mora l a spects of the problem a r e n ot less impor

’
t a nt for the n a tion s progress .

The a ssoci a tion of f a rming with some h a ndicr a ft one a lter ,

n a tin g with the other is to b e found in m a ny p a rts of Europ e

,

in Switzerl a nd B elgium S ax ony & c In the Rum a n i a n regions

, , , .

it is of old st a n di ng especi a lly in the highl a nds where sometimes

, ,

whole Vill a ges a r e in w in ter a n d dur ing spells of ba d we a ther

e n ga ged in the m a nufa cture of a ll kin ds of wooden a n d e a rthe n
a rticles which they sell to tra ders or t a ke into the neighbouring
,

fa irs In genera l Vi ll a ge in dustries h a ve developed in Rum a ni a

.
,

o ut of home in dustries a n d h a ve o nl y r a rely been tr a n spl a nted

,

from the town s The m a nufa ctured obj ects va ry from mere
.

S pokes to el a bor a te music a l instruments The Tra nsylva ni a n .

Villa ge industries especi a lly those plied by m en a r e more v a ried

, , ,

but those of the Old Kingdom pl a y a more i mporta nt p a rt in

n a tiona l production A lmost 7 5 per cent e g of the butts
. .
, . .
,

which the m a kers of wine an d spirits a n d even the town

merch a nt s requir e a r e supplied in the Old Kingdom by the
,

villa ge c a sk m a kers of Munteni a a n d southern Mold a vi a The

-
.

northern Molda vi a n districts put on the m a rket l a rge qu a ntities

of the long co a rse spun overco a ts ( s uman ) worn by the pea s a nts
-

both the cloth a n d the t a iloring being done in the Vill a ges .

Inform a tion concerni ng Tra nsylv a ni a n Villa ge tra des w a s

co n t a ined in the st a tistics on house a n d vill a ge i n dustries ( Ha us
un d Volks i n d us tr i e ) published by the Hung a ri a n a uthorities
a few months b efore the outbre a k of the Wa r These st a tistics .

disti n guished b etween tra des pli ed profession a lly i e solely with , . .
368 THE EFFECTS OF THE
the intent of selli ng the a rticles a n d the more p eculi a rly ,

domestic industries when the a rticles were m a nufa ctured for

,

household use a n d were o nl y occ a sio n a lly sold The following .

figur e s for 1 9 1 0 refer to the districts now included within

, ,

Tra nsylva ni a
Nu m b r of p erson s
e e n ga ge d i n d omes tic i n d ustri es
Nu m b r of p e rsons
e As pri n cip l o ccup ti on
a a As a ccess ory o ccup ti ona
e ga g d i n a gricul tur e
n e

a d ga rd e n i n g
n Wo men 1 Wome n

The l a rge number of women recorded a s eng a ged in some

a ccessory occup a tion w a s due to the wide m a rgin a llowed by

these st a tistics ; M An a st a siu considers th a t m a ny of the occup a

.

’
tions noted in them did not fi ll even thi rty d a ys of the ye a r s
work a n d th a t in consequence they could h a r dly b e counted
,

a mong regul a r a ccessory occup a tions The t a ble it should b e .

,

noted did not include tin kers w in dow menders a n d other

, ,
-

itinera nt tra ders who were counted sep a ra tely

, .

The l a rgest proportion of Vil l a ge tra ders w a s in the coun ty

of Turd a Arie s where out of a tot a l work ing p opul a tion of
-

men were enga ged in some tra de a s a m a in occup a

tion a n d a s a n a ccessory occup a tion— the tot a l of
’

representing 7 1 per cent of the working m a le popul a tion The

-
. .

county in cludes the f a mous moyi workers of wooden obj ects , ,

with whom a griculture is the a ccessory occup a tion a s they ,

c a nnot m a ke a living out of the poor soi l of the high district in

which they live After working a certa in qu a n tity of obj ects they
.

lo a d them into c a rts or on the b a cks of horses a n d Vi sit f a irs a n d ,

Villa ges until they h a ve disposed of their goods Genera lly they .

a r e sever a l weeks a w a y from home returni ng with a lo a d of ,

whe a t m a ize or rye Another intere s ting group of itinera nt

,
.

tra ders a r e the Rum a ni a n tinkers from the cou n ty of S oln oc

Dob ac a whom one meets on every ro a d up a n d down the
,

country These men m a nufa cture only a sm a ll p a rt of their

.

goods a t home a n d the bulk on the w a y a ccordi n g to loca l

, ,

dem a nd The l a nd is worked by the memb ers of the f a mily who

.

1
Afte r 0 A A n as t a s i u, pp 5 6 —7
. . . .
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 36 9

rem a in a t home wi th the help of those tra ding when one of the
, ,

more im port a nt fi eld l a b ours is to be done On e might mention .

a lso the women eng a ged in we a ving a n d embroideri n g i n the

county of Sibiu which h a s the l a rgest num b er of them ; some of

,

them used to t a ke their goods a s fa r a s B ohemi a or a ctu a lly ,

settled there for a while renting a room a n d a loom

,
.

Bucovin a h a s the usu a l run of vill a ge tra des The m a king of .

sheep skin j erkins (coj oc) is widely pra ctised The B ess a ra bi a n .

women spend most of their winter time in we a vi n g c a rpets -

.

Men s co a ts now come mostly from fa ctories There a r e in

’
.

B ess a ra bi a a num ber of Vi ll a ge presses for extra ct ing oil from

fl ax a n d s un fl ow er seeds .

In the st a tistics for the Old Kingdom a ccessory rura l occup a

tions belongin g to industry commerce a n d tra nsport a r e
, ,

grouped together Accordi ng to M An a st a siu the rel a tion

. .
,

b etween industri a l a n d commerci a l occup a tions w a s 1 e the . .

persons enga ged in rura l industries were fi ve times a s numerous

a s those e n g a ged in commerce The tot a l numb er w a s in 1 9 1 3
.

a s foll ows :

Tota l n u m b er of w orkin g Nu m b e r of Vill agers en gag d e

p ersons i n t h e vill ages i n som e a cc e ss ory o ccup a ti on

Wome n Women
2

These figur es do not in clude the vill a gers who were enga ged in
mining a s a n a ccessory occup a tion nor those with whom a gri ,

culture w a s the a ccessory occup a tion .

V illa ge industries a r e more developed in some of the counties ,

especi a lly in Muscel Pra hova a n d B a cau a ll of them b elonging

, , ,

to the mount a inous a n d hill regions Their ch a ra cter is sometimes .

determin ed by the n a ture of loc a l productions c a sk m a king ,

-

bein g n a tura lly in dem a nd in the Vine growing districts ; in other -

c a ses the industry is tr a di tion a l a s the highly fi n i sh e d m a n ufa c

,

ture of embroidered cloths a n d g a rments in Muscel The use of .

‘
n a tiona l costumes h a s b een brought into fa shi on a g a in a n d
’
,

1
Th se a re t h e s u ms of t h e d eta il d fi gu e s giv en by M A n s t as iu o
e e r . a n p 58
. . He
th en giv es on p 6 6 t h e t ot l s
. a fo t h w orki g p o pul a ti on a d
r e n ,
n me n
a nd w omen a s engage d i n a cc essory o ccup ati ons .

B b
 370 THE EFFECTS OF THE
there a re severa l societies now a ctin g a s distributors for this
domestic industry An a ttempt is a lso bein g m a de to develop
.

‘
the m a nuf a cture of n a tion a l modern fur ni tur e a n d of pottery ’

but m a ny of the obj ects thus put on the m a rket a r e rough

a bomin a tions which h a ve nothin g of the usu a l pe a s a nt t a ste a n d

workm a nshi p a bout them Am ong the more c ur ious in dustries .

one m a y mention the m a n uf a ctur e a t Sl avut a ( Dolj county ) of

the t a ll a n d n a rrow rect a ngul a r w a ttle c a ges in w hi eh the pe a s a nts -

store their m a ize to dry they a r e m a de in wi nter a n d t a ken in c a rts

a bout the neighbour i ng districts Th a nks to th a t i ndustry the .

Villa ge is one of the we a lthiest a n d b o a sts three e o Op era tive ,

-

b a nks The co unty of N ea mt h a s a l a rge Vill a ge industry for the

.

m a nufa cture of pe a s a nt overco a ts whi ch successf ully compete ,

w ith f a ctory products At Clej a ( B a c au county ) some of the

.

villa gers m a nufa ctur e an d sell stra w h a ts In the s a me coun ty -

.
,

the vill a gers of N a di s h a ve sp eci a lized in the m a nufa ctur e of the

cob a music a l instrument simil a r to the Russi a n b
‘

zci , a la la i ka .

Some a r e m a de e a ch ye a r ; b efore the Wa r they used to b e

sent a s fa r a s Russi a The res ul t is th a t the Villa ge h a s well

.
‘

b ui lt houses a ll of them nicely fenced i n 1

,
’
.

The highl a nd Villa ges a r e a ll of them older th a n those in the

lowl a nds a n d this expl a ins why vill a ge industries h a ve a more
,

tra dition a l ch a ra cter in the highl a nds The lowl a nd Vi lla ges .
,

b esides b eing of more recent origin often h a d to be a b a ndoned ,

or moved to other p a rts durin g the stormy p eriods of Rum a ni a s

,
’

history Moreover d urin g the m a n y w a rs a n d milit a ry demonstra

.
,

tions which took pl a ce on Rum a ni a n soil un t i l the l a st qu a rter ,

of the ni neteenth century the lowl a nd vill a gers were frequently ,

obliged to pro vide tra nsport for the v a rious a rmies ; c a rt i ng h a s

rem a ined the m a in a ccessory occup a tion of the lowl a nd p e a s a nts
in winter tim e a n d h a s c a used them to neglect the more st a ble
Villa ge industries .

The existence of num erous Vi ll a ge i ndustries h a s en a bled

a dens er popul a tion to li ve in the highl a nds th a n could h a ve

existed on the produce of the soil This h a s its import a nce for .

corn growing in the pl a in a s pe a s a nts from the h ills a n d from

-

the mount a inous districts a fter fi ni sh in g their own limited ,

1
O A An as t as i u, p 6 9
. . . .
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 37 1
a gric ul tur a l l a bo urs come dow n in the sum mer in groups to help
,

a s l a b our ers in h a ym a kin g a n d h a rvesting .

No inform a tion is a v a il a ble from which one might estim a te

the in fl uen ce of the l a nd reform on domestic indu s try a s a whole .

As the p e a s a nts t a ken a ltogether h a ve more l a nd th a n they h a d

, ,

b efore a n d a s they a r e developin g more intensive crop s they

, ,

must give proportion a lly more tim e to a gricultura l work a n d

h a ve less t ime to sp a re for a ccessory occup a tions ; but their time
is ye t fa r from bei ng full y cl a imed by fa rmi ng The effect upon .

in divi du a l domestic industries v a ries from pl a ce to pl a ce In .

some c a ses the reform h a s f a cili t a ted the supply of r a w m a teri a ls ,

such a s timber a n d hides a n d the Villa ge industries using them

,

h a ve pr ofi t ed by it In other c a ses esp eci a lly in the c a se of

.
,

m a te ri a ls coming from a bro a d the supply h a s b ecome more ,

diffi cult o wi ng to the fa ll in t h e exch a nge hi gh customs duties a n d , ,

cha nged rel a tions between the v a lue of a gricultura l a n d in dustri a l

products The high price of cotton e g h a s c a used home we a ving
.
, . .
-

to b e neglected in m a ny p a rts It is onl y now tha t a uthorities a n d

.

economic experts ar e b eginn in g to discuss a con st r uct ive poli cy for

the encour a gement a n d developme n t of domestic industries .

Agri cultur a l I n d us tr i es The domin a nt role a gric ul ture

.

pl a ys in Rum a ni a s economic life is only shown the more cle a rly

’

by a considera tion of the coun try s industry B efore the Wa r ’

.
,

of cour se industry w a s a ltogether in signi fi can t the tot a l

,

mech ani c a l p ower utili zed i ndustri a lly a moun ted to merely
1 37 h p per squ a re kil ometre The a d d ition of Tr a nsylv a ni a h a s
-
. . .

r a ised th a t a ver age to 1 6 1 h p ( it is merely 0 27 h p in B ess a

-
. . . .

ra bi a ) by 1 923 But the distribution of power a mong them shows

.

th a t most of the in dustries depend on a gricult ure for their r a w

E ngin e e rin g
Ti m be r a d pa p e r n

Ch emi c ls a

Food s t ufi s
-

Te xtil e
Ta nni n g
Potte ry
F l ur Mi l ls
o

Prin tin g & 0 .

372 THE EFFECTS OF THE
m a teri a ls According to a t a ble published in the A rgus on
.

Octob er 21 1 9 23 the l a rge sca le i ndustries used at th a t time

, ,
-

h p distributed a s in the foregoing t a ble

. .
, .

It woul d be interesting to work out in deta il the extent to

which Rum a ni a n in dustry depends on a gricultur e but the ,

m a teri a l for such a study is not yet a v a il a ble The tri a ls thr ough .

whi ch Rum a ni a n industry h a s p a ssed sin ce the Wa r suggest th a t

the undert a ki n gs whi ch a r e using a gricultur a l ra w m a teri a ls h a ve
the b est ch a nce of surviving a n d prosperin g The two t a bles .

below give some indic a tion of the development since the reform , ,

of the fa ctories which a re eng a ged in the tra nsform a tion of

a gric ul tur a l r a w m a teri a ls .

I . TH E F O OD A R TI CL E S I N D U S TRY IN 1 91 5
C a pita l
in land ,

buildi ngs ,

a n d i ns ta ll a

N a ture of In du stry tions

Min e ra l w a te rs
Bre w eri es
S pirits a n d ch a m
pag e n

Di still eri es ( a lc oh ol )
Cho col a te a n d s w eet s
C offee ( chicory )
M a t a n d v egeta bl e
e

preser v es
Gluc os e
Vi n ega r
S te m b a k e ri e s
a

F l o ur produc t s

C orn cl ea i n g n

F l o ur milli n g
D a iri es
Vegeta bl e oils
T ota l
I n du stri es n ot c om n g i

u d r t h la w of
n e e

16 . S u ga r fa ctori es

T ot a l 1
1
Th e fi gure s fo r 1 9 1 5 r r on ly t o f ctori es e nj oyi ng t h e a dv an t ages
e fe a of t h e la w
of F bru ry
e a 1 9 1 2 for t h e e n c o ur a ge me n t o f n a ti o a l i n du s try
n .
 REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY 373

II . THE I N D U S TR Y IN 1 9 26

Na tur e of I n du stry
u r ctori es
S ga fa
F l our m i lls
Al c o h o l fa ctori es
Bre w e ri es
Cho c ol te an d s wee ts
a

Di st i ll e ri es
M t pres erves
ea

Fruit pres e rv es
V geta bl e ils
e o

F l our products
D a i ri es
Bi s cuit fa ctori es
V i n ega r
Cofi ee s ub s titutes
C orn cl eani n g
S tea m b k e ri es
a

T o ta1 1 926

The progress m a de by these industries is s a tisfa ctory but it is ,

over sh a d ow e d by t h e gr owt h of co oper a t ive pea san t un d er t a k in gs

-
.

S E C TI O N 3

THE E FFE C T OF T H E LA N D R E F O R M ON T H E CO O P E R A TIV E

-

M O V EME N T
( a ) Hi story of the M ovemen t Through the tra nsform ation of
.

l a nd tenure in Rum a ni a into a system of sm a llholdin gs the whole

me a ning of the problem of co opera tion h a s ch a nged It h a s
-
.

now to b e rega rded not merely a s a me a ns of gi vin g a i d to

i ndividu a l f a rmers but a s a n essenti a l complement to the reform
, .

Experience h a s proved th a t everywhere the pe a s a nt fa rmer is

a ble to hold hi s ow n in the process of production It is o nl y when .

he emerges from it a n d enters the m a rket th a t he fin d s himself

a t a di s a dv a nt a ge in competition wi th the l a rge producers a n d
, ,

a t the mercy of tra ders a n d other in terme di a ries The ini ti a tive .

of the Americ a n a n d Ca n a di a n fa rmers h a s shown ho wever th a t , ,

374 THE EFFECTS OF THE
co opera tion ca n free the sm a ll f a rmer from th a t subj ection to
-

the m a rket In the more progressive pe a s a nt coun tries co opera

. -

tion h a s brought wi thin re a ch of the sm a llh olders those a d va n

t a ges whi ch l a rger f a rmers m a y h a ve h a d in m a tters of p ur ch a se
a n d s a le a s well a s in m a tters of production
, Those who .

fought for the Rum a ni a n l a nd reform h a d cle a rly in their mi n ds

the problem which they would h a ve to f a ce a fter its a chi evement .

The p a rcella tion of the a ra ble l a nd s a id M Mih a la ch e in

‘ ’
.
,

introducing his Reform Bill in 1 920 does not do a wa y with the

,

ide a of j oint cultiva tion when the technique of f a rmin g dem a nds
i t But it b egins by cre a tin g those individu a l rights whi ch a r e
.

the cement of a ll l a sting a ssoci a tion .

If in Rum a ni a rura l co opera tion l a cked V it ality hi therto

-

th a t no doubt w a s due i n the m a i n to the oppressive economi c

a n d soci a l conditions un der whi ch the pe a s a nts lived For the .

p a st shows th a t a mong the Rum a ni a n people the spirit of

co O p er a tion h a s a t a ll t imes been strong a n d w idespre a d
-

Even .

now a ncient forms of economic a ssoci a tion a r e still to b e foun d

a mong the rur a l inh a bit a nts of the Rum a ni a n l a nds In va rious .

p a rts of the C a rp a thi a ns the pe a s a nts who enga ge in the re a ring

of sheep still do so l a rgely on a j oin t b a sis Th ey keep their .

a nim a ls together eng a ge shepherds for a ll of them j ointly rent

, ,

j ointly p a stur es in the moun t a ins a n d in the D a nubi a n lowl a nds ,

whither they send the sheep for the winter All expenses a r e .

b orne in co mm on a n d the produce is sold a s a whole pr ofi t s

, ,
’
b eing sh a red between them a ccording to e a ch p a rtner s contri
but i on in a nim a ls or in speci a l ser vices Any tra vell er in the .

Ca rp a thi a ns must h a ve come a cross one or more of the tdr le ,

the log huts in which the shepherds spend the whole summ er ,

gra zin g the sheep a n d m a kin g cheese Likew ise one fin d s n umer
.

ous a n d old comp a ni es — th a t is a ssoci a tions of fi sh erm en

‘ ’
,

in the regions of the D a nub e a n d of the Bl a ck S e a where the ,

c a tching of l a rge fi sh necessit a tes the working of a numb er of

experienced a n d well equipped men together Ta sks a n d pr ofit s
-
.

’
a r e divided a mong them a ccor ding to e a ch m a n s experience a n d

a bility It is interesting to note th a t a lm ost a lw a ys these

.

a s soci a tions do not rest on a written a greement but simply on ,

‘ ’
mutu a l trust a n d the s a credness of the given word .
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 375

From the description of the old Vill a ge orga ni z a tion in the ,

fi r st p a rt of t hi s study one could see how much of it rested on

,

j o int ownership a n d j oint use Tra di tion a s much a s economic .

,

a dv a nt a ge pl a ys a gre a t p a rt in the const a nt dem a nds of the

,

pe a s a nts for villa ge gra zin gs ra ther th a n for individu a l gra ss

fi eld s . Alm ost everywhere the soci a l duty of helping one s ’

neighb our still fi n d s expression in the 0161 05 when the vi ll a gers ,

work together for e a ch other in t urn ; a n d in the sezcitor i held

‘

of a wi nter ni ght when under the st imulus of the s i nging a n d

,

j okin g of the young m en the women a n d gir ls of the Villa ge

,

di ligently c a rry out together some piece of h a ndi work .

The evolution of rur a l life a fter the em a ncip a tion of the serfs
di d not offer a congeni a l soil in w hi ch those old tr a ditions could
strengthen a n d develop Economic a lly the pe a s a nts were
.

’
contin uously depressed a n d their soci a l role in the country s life
,

w a s a ltogether n ulli fi e d The l a ck of educ a tion me a nt a l a ck of

.

a ll cont a ct with the doin gs of the West ; a n d the towns which ,

elsewhere h a d formed the ch a nnel thr ough which the idea of

co oper a tion re a ched the country side
-
were not rip e for such -

a function in Rum a ni a The excessive che a pness of living right

.

up to the Wa r left no inducement for the est a blishment of

co opera tives of consumption ; a n d in the a bsence of l a rge sc a le
- -

industry the a rtis a ns were never driven by competition into

,

a ssoci a tin g with e a ch other Th a t no doubt is the re a son why

.
, ,

the prop a g a nda b egun by M P S Aur eli a n a bout 1 8 70 under . . .

,

the stim ul us of western experiments for the est a b lishment of ,

c o oper a tives i n the to w ns fell on de a f e a rs

-

, A few co oper a tives .

-

of a rtis a ns were set up in some of the town s between 1 8 8 2 a n d ,

1 8 92 but none of them could t a ke root In Buc a rest a n d else

, .

where it w a s for some ye a rs a fa shion for cert a i n luxurious

grocery stores to p a ra de the l a bel of co opera tives though they -

h a d nothing of the co oper a tive system in thei r org a ni z a tion a n d

-

working Quite different of course w a s the position in the

.
, ,

Villa ges Owing to the i ncrea s ing misery of the pe a s a nts the
.

co oper a tive ide a seemed to offer a w a

y of s a ving them from utter
-

ruin — an opportuni ty which unfortun a tely the uneduc a ted a n d

, ,

im poverished pe a s a nts were h a rdly c a p a ble of using un a ided .

The co opera tive ide a penetra ted into the Rum a ni a n

-
376 THE EFFECTS OF THE
provinces by w a y of the S a xon coloni sts in Tra nsylva ni a .

B eing in close cultur a l cont a ct With Germ a ny they were ,

from the b eg inn ing informed of the c o opera tive a ttempts con -

n e ct e d with the n a mes of S chulze a n d of R a iffeisen a n d followed ,

them up with simil a r experiments in Tr a nsylvan i a from 1 8 5 2 ,

onw a rds It w a s the ex a mple of one of these S a xon co Opera tives

.
-

of cre d it which induced a disti ngui shed Tr a nsylva ni a n lea der ,

Vi sa r i on Ro m a n to cre a te a t R as in a ri in 1 8 6 8 the fi r st society

, , ,

for deposits a n d lo a ns ’
Without b eing itself a strictly co
.

opera tive undert a king thi s w a s the precursor of the m a ny

,

s o c a lled popula r b a nks which l a ter spre a d over T r an s lva ni a a n d

y
-

Rum a ni a In 1 8 72 the R as in a ri society a n d other simi l a r

.

i nstitutions were a tt a ched to the b a nk Al bin a

‘ ’
the fir st ,

Rum a ni a n b a nk to b e founded in Tr a nsylva ni a The b a n k .

,

un der the directorship of Rom a n a cted a t fi r st a s a gui de a n d

,

supporter of the sm a ll credi t societies so th a t ni neteen of them ,

h a d come into b eing by the end of 1 8 72 The b a nk however .

, ,

b eing a comm erci a l undert a ki n g di slik ed the tendency a mong

,

the credi t co opera tives to em a ncip a te themselves ; i t therefore

-

, ,

withdrew its support thereby c a usin g the coll a pse of the

,

subordin a te institutions The l a st of them the S ociety of Sibiu

.
, ,

closed down in M a rch 1 8 75 An other such popul a r b a n k how

.
,
‘ ’
ever the Aurora of Na s aud est a blished in 1 8 73 i ndependently
, ,

of the centra l b a n k w a s a ble to survive a n d to prosper ; on the

,

eve of the Wa r it h a d members a bout p a id up ,

‘ ’
c a pit a l a n d a s much a g a in reserves The Aurora possesses
, .

historic import a nce for the Rum a ni a n co opera tive movement -

bec a use it served a s a model for the est a b lishment of the rura l
co oper a tive b a nks in the Old Ki n gdom from whi ch the whole
-

co oper a tive s ystem a s it now exists h a s sprun g

-

, , .

The desp a ir to which their ever growin g m isery w a s dr ivin g-

the pe a s a nts vented itself in the risings of 1 8 8 8 a n d 1 8 9 1 In thei r .

need the pe a s a nts h a d sold themselves h a nd a n d foot to the l a rge

o wners a n d ten a nts pledging their l a bour for yea rs in a dva nce
, .

Such money a s they sti ll coul d obt a in in t i mes of stress they h a d

to get from public a ns a n d usurers a t ra tes of interest which not
,

infrequently rose to 5 00 per cent The fi r st to re a lize the need.

of doing something to im prove the p e a s a nts m a teri a l situ a tion ’

 REFORM ON RUR A L ECONOMY 377
were the Villa ge te a chers E duc a tion w a s like good seed sc a ttered
.

on b a rren rocks a s long a s the pea s a nts li ved in such utter misery .

After the rising of 1 8 8 8 the rur a l te a chers beg a n in their pro

,

fes si on a l g a theri ng s openly to spe a k of the need of setti n g going

a movement for self help a mongst the pe a s a nts
-
They were a s .

good a s thei r word a n d some of them soon l a id the founda tion

,

of the co opera tive movement not without con sidera ble risk a n d
-

d a nger to themselves from the mistrustful a uthorities Some of .

the pioneers h a d to pa y for their in iti a tive with p ersecution a n d

im pri s onment .

With inform a tion obt a ined from Tra nsylva ni a a n d gui ded ,

by the st a tutes of the Auror a the fi r st popula r b a nk in ‘

,
’

Rum a ni a the Dum itra w a s founded in the vi ll a ge of D a r a in

,
‘ ’

October 1 8 91 It beg a n w ith a memb ership of thir ty four a n d

.
-

a c a pit a l of 1 27 lei sterling ) A seco n d popul a r b a nk w a s

.

formed in M a rch 1 8 92 with thirty nin e memb ers a n d a c a pit a l

,
-

of lei sterling ) ; it w a s fo llowed in the s a me ye a r by

fi ve others There a re a few points of interest to b e noted in
.

conn exion wi th these fi r st co opera tive a ttempts The fi r st -

.

org a niz a tions were those designed to supply credit in the form ,

of popul a r b a nks Th a t wa s the form which h a d b est succeeded

.

in Tra nsylva ni a a n d its w a s most i n keeping with the needs of

,

the Rum a ni a n p e a s a nts a t the time Truly c o oper a tive a ction .

-

w a s h a rdly me a nt ; it w a s merely a me a sure of self defence -

a g a inst usury . Th a t wa s in deed a bout the onl y kind of a ction

which the pe a s a nts an d their friends the Vill a ge te a chers co ul d , ,

then undert a ke with their own me a ns The second poi nt of .

interest is th a t a ll of the e a rly popula r b a nk s were est a b lished in

mount a in districts ; tha t is where the pe a s a nts were rel a tively
,

better off an d enj oyed a less dependent soci a l st a ndi ng th a n their

fellows lower down in the cornl a nds Thirdl y one m a y note tha t .
,

the fi r st co opera tives beg a n w ith an extremely lim ited memb er

-

shi p a n d c a pit a l ; this indic a tes the diffi cult ie s w ith which they
h a d to contend due either to the poverty or to the di strust of
,

the p a rticip a nts Yet thi s point m a y serve a s a n ex a mple of the

.

decisive p a rt whi ch self help pl a ys in co opera tion It is ch a r

- -
.

a ct e r i st i c th a t oiz those fi rs t seven co oper a tives only one w a s -

una ble to sur vive— an d tha t w a s the one which beg a n with the
~
378 THE EFFE CTS OF THE
l a rgest memb ership a n d the l a rgest c a pit a l The others h a ve .

p ersisted to the present d ay an d a r e a mong the most prosperous

p op ul a r b a nks .

After a short period of st a gna tion the movement recovered

its im petus a n d fr om 1 8 9 6 developed a p a ce Its growth w a s
, .

especi a lly ra pid b etween 1 900 a n d 1 902 th a nks to the enli ghtened
,

encour a gement of two Mini sters of E duc a tion Dr C I st r at i , . .

a n d M Spiru H a ret
. Re a liz ing the economi c a n d soci a l blessin gs
.

which the movement mi ght brin g to the p ea s a nts I st ra t i a n d ,

H a ret used their a uthority for protectin g the vill a ge te a chers

a g a inst p ersecution on a ccoun t of their co op er a tive a ctivities -
.

They took steps in f a ct t o a ssist them therein They entrusted .

one of the te a chers with m a ki ng the principles a n d methods of

c o oper a tion kno w n a mong vill a ge te a chers a n d sever a l young
-

te a chers were sent to study the co opera tive movement in v a rious

-

foreign countries Th a t fi rst period saw the est a blishm ent of

.

7 1 ] popul a r b a nks inside ten ye a rs on the ini ti a tive a n d with

,

the me a ns of the vill agers D uring this period were l a id the

.

founda tions of the co oper a tive ess a ys which were promising to

-

tra nsform Villa ge li fe even in the uncongeni a l con di tions whi ch

preva iled b efore the reform .

( b) Th e L ega l S ta tus of Co op em ti ve S oci eti es The fi r st lega l

-
.

provisions referring to co O pera tive societies were cont a ined in

-

the Commercia l Code of 1 8 8 7 They were neither suffi ci en t ly

.

d efi ni t e nor su fficiently simple so th a t m a ny of the e a rly

,

c o oper a tive credit a ssoci a tions kept to the form of simple mutu a l
-

a ssoci a tions a n d did not register a s co op er a tive comp ani es in

,
-

the sense of the Commerci a l Code The ra pid growt h in the n um

.

ber a n d memb ership of the p opul a r b a nks m a de it necess a ry to

give them the possibi lity of org a nizi n g themselves lega lly on ,

a b a sis which shoul d b e system a tic a n d a t the s a me tim e sim ple

enough to b e a d a pt a ble to the circumst a nces of v a ryi ng in st it u

tions Th a t leg a l b a sis w a s supplied by the La w of M a rch 28
. ,

1 9 03 , Co n cerning Rur a l Popul a r B a nks a n d their Centr a l

‘

Ofii ce which w a s the work of M C Stere

’
, The m a in purpos e
. . .

of the la w w a s to co ordin a te the movement a n d link up the

-

popul a r b a nks a mong themselves I n re ality its m a in effect w a s

.

to pl a ce the whole movement under St a te control The newly .

 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 379

est a blished Centra l O th ee w a s not so much a j oin t institution of

the popula r b a nks a s a St a te orga n iz a tion dest i ned to control to ,

guide a n d to pro vi de wi th funds the popula r b a n ks in the Vill a ges

, .

For this pur pose the St a te pl a ce lei a t the dispos a l of

the Centra l Offi ce .

The new la w a ll owed thr ee typ es of pop ul a r b a nk s

1 A type of i ndependent b a n ks ( Article
. which were
not b ound to a ssum e a n y of the est a blished co opera tive -

prin ciples .

2 A type of a pproved b a nks ( Ar ticle

. w hi ch were a llowed
to work with the Centra l Offi ce on fulfilli n g cert a in conditions ,

such a s the obli g a tion under whi ch its memb ers were to reside
in the commune in which the b a nk w a s est a b lished or a t most in
neighb ourin g communes .

3 A t yp e of b a nks whose c a pit a l did not consist of sh a res

.
,

the members b eing j o intly a n d fully responsible for a ll the

a ctivities of the b a nk ( Ar ticle The Centra l O th ee w a s entitled
to a dva nce to this typ e of b a n k the necess a ry working c a pit a l ,

a fter s a tisfyi ng itself th a t the members possessed s uffi ci en t me a ns

to cover a n y eventu a l risks I n thei r c a se the Centra l O th ee

.

coul d im pose cert a in norms for the a dm inistra tion of the b a nk .

The la w it m a y seem w a nted to f a vour the l a st type of

, ,

b a nks a s Article 9 provided th a t they sho ul d b e exempted from

,

the p a yment of the busin ess t a x provided they fulfilled the

followin g con di t ion s z— (a ) the memb ers should b e j ointly a n d
fully responsible ; ( b) a t le a st 5 0 per cent of the net a nnu a l
.

pr ofi t s shoul d go to cre a te a reserve f u nd a n d th a t fund shoul d

,

n ot in c a se of liquid a tion b e di stributed a mong the members

, , ,

but used for purposes of commun a l utili ty ; (c) the a d ministra tion
of the b a n k with the exception of b ook keeping should b e
,
-

volunt a ry As the la w however exempted from the business t a x

.
, ,

a ll b a nks whose c a pit a l w a s less th a n lei ( those with

a l a rger c a pit a l p a ying o nl y h a lf the business t ax
) a n d a s a ll
,

b an ks were exempted from st a mp duty for a ll tra ns a ctions not

exceedi ng 300 lei it does not a ppe a r th a t the la w w a s speci a lly
,

bent on encoura ging the crea tion of b a nks of the R a iffeisen or of

a simil a r ty e
p The only a dva nt a ge reserved for popul a r b a n ks
.

of th a t typ e w a s a gra nt of 5 0 per cent from the pr ofi t s of the

.
38 0 THE EFFECTS OF THE
Centra l Offi ce in proportion to the tra ns a ctions whi ch h a d t a ken
,

pl a ce between it a n d the p a rticul a r b a nk ; but tha t w a s a n

in different concession in comp a rison with the other a dva nt a ges
in which a ll the b a nks sh a red I n fa ct the a mendment in troduced
.
,

i n 1 9 08 equ a lized the situ a tion of the v a rious typ es of b a nks ; it

pro vided th a t a ll popula r b a nks of wh a tever kin d whi ch did not
ch a rge a higher ra te of interest th a n 1 0 per cent for members .

a n d 1 3 per cent for non memb ers were to b e exempted from

.
-

the p a yment of the bus iness t ax The a uthor of the la w a dmi tted .

in introducin g his Bill th a t these provisions a r e p erh a ps not‘

such a s would encoura ge the cre ation of nothin g but mutu a l

societies in the strict sense of the word
,
’
.

The la w concernin g pop ul a r b a nks di d not la y do w n a n y

norms reg a rding the composition of the bus iness c a pit a l except ,

in the c a se of those b a nks whose c a pit a l w a s not formed of sh a res .

For the rest the la w left in force the provisions of the Comm erci a l
,

Code ( Articles 225 a n d which l a id do w n th a t no memb er of

a co oper a tive society m a p a rticip a te with more th a n lei
y
-

or hold sh a res of a nomin a l v a lue a b ove th a t sum ; they a lso

decided th a t the nom i n a l v a lue of e a ch sh a re coul d not b e gre a ter
th a n 1 00 1ei or sm a ller th a n 25 lei The a bsence of sp ecifi c di r ec .

tions h a d this res ult : th at in most c a ses the prin ciple of j oint
, ,

a n d unl imited soli d a rity of the members w a s not a ppli ed It .

seems th a t in consequence the popul a r b a nks di d not ende a vour

’
to s a tisfy a s fully a n d a s che a ply a s possible their memb ers
, ,

need for credit but r a ther pur sued the a ccumula tion of pr ofit s
,
.

Sub sequent m o d ifi ca t i on s an d a mplifi ca t i on s of the law

extended its provisions to co opera tives of production an d of -

consumption a s well a s to pe a s a nt co opera tives for the holding

,
-

a n d purch a se of l a nd Until the end of 1 91 8 the whole movement

.
,

w a s under the guid a nce of the centra l org a n iz a tion kno w n a s the
’
Centra l Offi ce of the Popul a r B a nks a n d V ill a ge Co opera tives -
.

The decree la w of Ja nu a ry 3 1 9 1 9 enl a rged a n d tra nsformed

-

this institution in to The Centra l Offi ce of Pe a s a nt Co opera tion -

a n d Resettlement The new institution consisted of fi ve sec

’
.

tions Th r ee of them were to guide a n d control the co opera tive

.
-

moveme n t : the Centra l O th ee of Popul a r B a nks ; the Centra l

Offi ce of V ill a ge Co oper a tives of Production a n d Consumption ;
~
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 38 1
an dthe Centra l Offi ce of V ill a ge Associ a tions a n d of Agricultura l
Exploit a tions The other two section s were ch a rged with the
.

execution of the a gra ri a n reform : the D irector a te for L a nd

Questions a n d Mortga ge Cre di t a n d the Directora te of the
,

Survey E a ch of the fi r st three sections w a s a utonomous with its

.
,

own c a pit a l a n d a n a dministra tive council h a lf of whose mem ,

b ers were a ppointed by the St a te a n d the other h a lf elected

for thr ee ye a rs by a congress of the co opera tive societies I n -

their tur n e a ch of the th ree section councils a ppointed two

,

represent atives to a genera l council which co or di n a ted the work -

of the whole institution .

The Co opera tive Code of J uly 1 2 1 928 a bo lished the Cen

-

, ,

tra l offi ce of Vi ll a ge Associ a tions a n d Agricultura l Exploit a tions ,

le a ving only two Centr a ls : the Centr a l of the Popul a r B a nks a n d

the Centra l of the Co opera tives the l a tter includi ng the fun c
-

tions of the a bolished section .

The j oinin g of the co op era tive movement a n d of the techni ca l

-

a n d fi n a n ci a l execution of the l a nd reform into one St a te org a niz a

’
tion h a s b een rega rded a s a fresh proof of the St a te s i n tention of
keep ing the whole c o O pera tive movemen t under its control
-
.

The ca pit a l of the severa l centra l offi ces is of mixed origin yet ,

these offi ces l a ck re a l fin a n cia l a n d a dm ini stra tive a utonomy a s ,

they a r e dependent on the support of the Na tion a l B a n k a n d ,

b eca use the a ppoi ntment of their personnel is in the h a nds of the
St a te These circumst a nces perh a ps expl a i n why a genu ine
.

co oper a tive movement h a s not yet developed in the Old Kin g

-

dom numeric all y the growth of c o opera tive societies h a s b een

-

r a pid enough The protection of the St a te h a s not encoura ged

.

th a t spirit of enterprise a n d in iti a tive which would a spire of its

own strength to the solving of those problems which a re f a cin g

the movement .

( )
0 T h e C red i t Co op em ti ves The obj ect of the la w of 1 903
-
.

w a s to encour a ge the found a tion a n d development of the b a nks

by two methods : ( 1) by mea sures exempti n g them from the
ordi n a ry lega l obli g a tions ; ( ii ) by the setting up of a credit
orga ni z a tion which wa s to b e a t the s a me time a supervisory body .

Among the fi rst there should b e mentioned

1 S im plifi ca t i on of the form a lities for the est a blishment of
.
 38 2 THE EFFECTS OF THE
such b a nks : the founders merely h a d to deposit the terms of con
st it ut i on with the j ustice of the pe a ce w ithout p a yment of a n,
y
t a x or initi a l ch a rges ( Ar ts 4 a n d .

2 Recog n ition of e a ch popula r b a nk a s a tr a di ng comp a ny

.

with limited or un li mi ted li a bili ty j oin t a n d severa l or otherwise

, ,

on a sh a re b a sis & c ( Ar t
, . .

3 Recognition of the b a nks a s corpor a te b o dies ( Ar t 3 )

. .

consequent powers of purch a se of re a l an d p erson a l property .

4 Exemption from st a mp duties ( Art

. reduction of the .

cost of leg a l proceedi ngs ( Art cert a in fa cili ties with res pect
.

to the c a rrying on of cre di t opera tions (Ar t .

5 Exemption from the t a k i ng of sp eci a l li cences

. .

The sup ervisory institution contempl a ted by the law took

the n a me of Centra l O th ee of the Pop ul a r B a nk s It w a s a St a te .

institution intended to a ssist the popula r b a nk s a n d to a ct a s

a check upon them The Ofii ce w a s pl a ced under the m a n a ge
.

ment of publi c offi cia ls but a n a d ministra tive council w a s shortly

,

a fterw a rds set up in a ddition whi ch by the f a ct of rem a in i ng i n

, ,

office for seven ye a rs offered a gu a ra ntee of cont inuity a n d wa s

,

secured in some me a sur e a g a in st poli tica l infl uen ce a lthough ,

most members of the Council were nominees of the Government .

The Min ister of Fin a nce h a d a right of veto The Centra l Offi ce .
,

a s a credi t institution h a d a t its di spos a l a fun d of 20 000 000 1ei

, , , ,

provided by the St a te a n d a current a ccoun t w ith the Na tion a l

,

B a nk These resour ces coul d b e used to a ssist Villa ge b a nks but

.
,

not indiscrimi n a tely The law itself m a de no distinctions con

.

cerning the grounds of exemption from the ordin a ry lega l

obli ga tions referred to a bove But it wa s intended th a t o nl y
.

those b a nks shoul d enj oy the cre di t of the Centra l Offi ce which
offered exception a l gu a ra ntees or conformed more closely to the
co oper a tive ide a l
-
. The la w enumera ted a ll the conditions whi ch
a pop u l a r b a nk must s a tisfy before rel a tions with the Centr a l
Offi c e ca n be est a bli shed For ex a mple membership a n d the
.
,

gra nti n g of lo a ns must b e restricted to p ersons residing in the

s a me commun e ( or with the a uthoriz a tion of the Central O th ee
, ,

in a neighbo urin g commun e ) a n d p ersons who were a lre a dy

,

memb ers of a nother b a nk could not b e a dmitted to memb ershi p ;

the interest ch a rged wa s not to exceed a cert ain r a te fi x e d by the
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 38 3
Centra l Offi ce ; the memb ers of the a dm i nistra tive boa rd were to
b e j ointly a n d severa lly li a ble ; no m odifi ca t ion of the rules coul d
b e m a de W ithout the s a nction of the Centra l Offi c e & c The , .

existence of a n initi a l c a pit a l w a s not m a de a n essenti a l condi

tion The Centra l B a nk h a d power to a dva nce c a pit a l provided
.
,

th a t there were a mong the members of the b a nk twenty fa rmers

residi ng in one a n d the s a me commune an d h a vi ng a ssumed full
j o int an d severa l li a bili ty The obj ect of this provision w a s to
.

encour a ge b a nks which a pproxim a ted to the R a iffeisen typ e .

Such b a nks h a d only b een est a blished in Villa ges in which there
were a number of p e a s a nt proprietors a n d in 1 9 1 8 there were
,

only forty six of them

-
.

In its supervisory c a p a city the Centr a l Otfi c e w a s c a lled upon

to exercise a contin uous control over a ll the popul a r b a nks ,

without m a ki ng a n y di stin ction between thos e with which it

a lr e a dy h a d busin ess rel a tions a n d others The b a nks were
.

exp ected to communic a te their st a tutes a n d their b a l a nce sheets .

These powers of inspection were very wi de the Centra l Offi ce ,

being even entitled to ch a nge the m a n a gin g bo a rd .

Nu m b r e M mb r
e e

Y r
ea s of b a n k s s hip R es e rv es

Co opera tive a gricultura l credi t wa s thus org a niz ed by la w

-

in two gra des : the pop ul a r b a n ks a n d the Centra l Otfi ce Two .

ye a rs l a ter a n a mending mea sure of M a rch 1 5 1 9 05 a uthorized, ,

38 4 THE EFFECTS OF THE
the popul a r b a nks of a p a rticul a r di strict to combine i nto federa
tio n s or uni ons I n thi s w a y three gra des of a gricultur a l credit
.

were cre a ted : pop ul a r b a nks federa tions an d the Centra l O ffice
, , .

The Centra l Offi ce w a s to de a l exclusively w ith the uni ons or

federa tions of popul a r b a nks Genera lly sp e a kin g a grouping.
,

by di stricts w a s fo llowed .

I n Virtue of the decree la w of J an ua ry 3 1 9 1 9 the Centra l

-

Offi ce b ec a me the fi r st section of the new Centr a l Offi ce of

Pe a s a nt Co opera tion a n d Resettlement
-
.

The development of the p opula r b a nk s s 1 nee the p a ss ing of

the L a w of 1 903 is shown in the t a ble on p 38 3 . .

At the end of 1 9 27 popul a r b a nks were workin g with the

Centra l Offi ce The tot a l memb ership of
. included
1913 1 9 27

Fa r me rs
Ar tis a s
n

Offi c i a ls
Bu i n es s men
s

L an d o wn e rs
S ch ool m a s te r s a n d pri e s ts

ccording to the num ber of their memb ers the

Cla s si fi e d a ,

b a nks which h a d sent in their b a l a nce sheet for 1 927 were -

divided a s follows
98 7 with l ess th an 1 00 m e m e s b r .

1 00—200 mem b e rs .

98 8 200— 300
300—5 00
1 72 5 00
with m ore th an
21 me m b e rs .

Th e b a nk s with a li mit d m e m b rs hip pre d omin a te d a n d th a t

e e , w as
rega rd t o th e ir p a id up c a pita l
-
:

B a nk s Pa id -
up c a pita l
Lei
Up to
From

Ab ove

From View of their in dividu a l sh a res

 REFORM ON RURA L ECONOMY 38 5

members of the popul a r b a nks were distributed a s follows

a t the end of 1 923

M mb r C pit l S h r
e e s T t l C pit l a a a es o a a a

1 00 0 -
1 00 00

It will b e seen th a t the members who contributed up to 5 00 lei

formed 73 2 per cent of the tot a l memb ership but held merely
-
.
,

1 8 1 8 per cent of the tot a l c a pit a l where a s 26 8 per cent of the

-
.
, .

members w ith sh a res a bove 5 00 lei held 8 1 8 2 per cent of

, ,
-
.

the tot a l c a pit a l Th a t unequ a l distribution w a s i nterpreted by

.

P e a s a n t i st critics of the R um a ni a n c o oper a tive movement a s -

showin g th a t a lthough nomin a lly on e h a lf of the rura l popula

‘
-

tion belo n gs to the popul a r b a nks the imm ense m a j ority of the
,

members onl y p a rticip a tes with infi ni t esim a l sh a res — with the
fi r st p a yments they m a ke on becomin g members for the purpose ,

of obt a inin g a lo a n Hence one c a n not say seriously th a t co

.

opera tion h a s t a ken root a mong our rur a l pop ul a tion a s ,

one might be led to do from a s uper fi cial gl a nce a t st a tistic a l

I n reply it h a s been po i nted out th a t the unequ a l
’
da t a .
1
,

distribution of c a pit a l sh a res w a s a n a tur a l con s equence of

the poverty in which the b ulk of the pe a s a ntry lived hitherto .

Further it w a s considered n a tura l tha t in the b a ckw a rd st a te of

,

rur a l life c onfi d en ce in b a n ks should grow but slowly an d th a t ,

most of the members should therefore contribute little e ven if ,

they coul d h a ve contributed more N evert h eless it is a d mitted .

,

a s striking tha t for a n equ a l a moun t of c a pit a l contributed by

the two extreme ca tegories there should b e one hun dr ed mem

,

bers in the lower to one member in the higher c a tegory .

The co opera tive movement woul d seem to h a ve incre a sed

-

in fa vour since the War whether due to the gre a ter con fi d en c e of
,

the pe a s a nts in it or to their grea ter a ffl uen ce a fter the a gra ri a n r e

1
Ma d gear u a nd Ml a d ena t z Refor m Coop era pi ei p
, , . 9 .

0 c
38 6 THE EFFECTS OF THE
form The numb er of members holding less th a n 5 00 lei c a pit a l
.

decre a sed while th a t of members holdi n g more in cre a sed ; the ten
d en cy therefore b eing for a m a j ority of the members to control a
, ,

m a j ority of the c a pit a l The fo llowing t a ble shows th a t ch a nge to

.

h a ve begun before the Wa r a n d to h a ve become a ccentu a ted a fter it

1 9 09 19 10 19 1 1 19 13 1919 1 9 20 1 923

P e rc en t ge of m em b ers with l ess

a

th n 5 00 le i c a pita l
a 94 9-
94 6 -
93 4
-
9 19 83 0 -
81 1-
732
P e rc en tage of c a pita l h e ld by
t hem 48 04
-
4 6 44
-
43 5 4
-
40 9 -
26 1 6
-
22 24
-
18 8
Pe rc en t ge of m m b rs with 5 01
a e e

2 000 le i c pit l
, a a 8 1 -

17 0 18 9 26 8
Pe rcen tage of c pita l h e ld by
a

th e m 5 19 6 3 5 6 46
-
59 1 1
73 8 4 77 7 6
-
8 1 82
-

The p ercent a ge of memb ers contributing b etween 5 00 a n d

lei incre a s ed 5 25 times within a period of fourteen ye a rs
-

during the s a me period the p a rt of the tot a l c a pit a l held by

them only i n cre a sed 1 5 times whi ch me a ns 3 5 tim es less th a n ,

the incre a se in their number The tendency therefore is cle a rly .

, ,

tow a rds a concen tra tion of memb ership in a mid dl e c a tegory ,

a s there w a s a simult a neous decre a se in the percent a ge of mem

bers contributi n g between an d lei Deposits showed .

simil a r differences in the s ize of the co n tributions a n d a simila r ,

im provement since the Wa r They a mou n ted to lei

.

o n 3 l st D ec em b er 1 923 when the Centra l Offi ce published the l a st

—

report b a sed on the norms in use since 1 904— a sum equ a l to the
tot a l c a pit a l of the popul a r b a nks a lthough interest on deposits ,

w a s merely 8 per cent when the interest w h ich could b e obt a ined
.

for priva te lo a ns w a s a nyt hing from 20 to 30 per cent D ep osits .

were distributed a ccording to indi vidu a l a mo unts a s follows :

D e p os it rs
o S i ze o f d p s it
e o Tota l a m u n t of d e pos i ts
o

Le i
1 to 50
5 1 100
1 01 5 00
5 01

and upw rd s a

100 00
 REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY 38 7
These figur e s indic a te a p erceptible decre a se i n the percent a ge
of sm a ll depositors a n d a considera ble i n cre a se in the bigger
depo sits On December 31 1 920 the num ber of those who
.
, ,

deposited more th a n 1ei did not re a ch even 9 per cent of .

the tot a l numb er of depositors the sum s deposited by them bein g ,

5 6 1 3 per cent of the tot a l ; a t the end of 1 9 23 the n umb er of

-

such depositors w a s over 22 per cent a n d the sum of their .

deposits 7 1 6 9 per cent of the tot a l . .

From a tot a l of lei outsta nding lo a ns on

December 31 1 923 ,
lei h a d been lent to v a rious
,

co op er a tives a n d
-
lei to i n dividu a l pe a s a nts The .

sum of lei lent to the pe a s a nt co opera tives is rel a -

’
t i ve ly modest but it is equ a l to the St a te s co n tribution to the
,

Ce n tra l of the popul a r b a nks On the other h a nd the sum of .

lei lent to the p e a s a nts is considera ble especi a lly ,

a s it represe n ts re a lly a b a l a nce the tot a l sum of the tr a n s ,

a ctions c a rried out by the b a n ks dur ing 1 9 23 a mounting to

lei Lo a ns were cla ssifi e d a s below a ccording

.
,

to the security on which they were gra nted

Le i
Lo a ns on p ers o a l s e curity
n

Lo a ns on bills o f e xch a ge n

Lo ans on pl d g s
e e

Lo a ns o n m o rtg g s a e

a ccord ing to the p ersons ben efi t in g

L oa ns t o me m b e rs
L oa ns to n on -
m e m b e rs

The m a j ority of the lo a ns were gra n ted a ga inst bills of exch a nge ,

a n d would seem therefore to h a ve b een t a ken up by cultiv a tors

, ,

l a cking working c a pit a l Th a t view i s con fi r m e d by the use to

.

w hi ch the money w a s put

F o r foo d a d forage
n

F o p urch a se of liv e s t ck a n d i m ple m e ts

r o n

F or r en t
F or l n d p urch s
a a e

F or oth e r purp os s e

1 00 00
-

The rem a inder of 438 lei simil a rly dist ributed h a d been , ,

gra n ted in previous ye a rs The bulk of the lo a ns therefo r e were .

0 c 2
38 8 THE EFFECTS OF THE
t a ken up for productive purposes a n d on ly rel a tively a sm a ll ,

a mount for consumption .

The tot a l num b er of borrowers w a s in 1 923 They .

were cla s sifi e d a ccordi ng to the siz e of their lo a ns a s follows

B or ro wers S i ze of lo an T ota l a mo un t of l oan
Le i
U p t o 100
1 01 5 00
5 01
3 000

and upwa rds

7 1 00 0 1 00 00 -

Most of the b orrowers 70 7 per cent took out lo a ns of less th a n

,
-
.
,

1 000 1ei a n d only 5 9 per cent l a rger lo a ns of 6 000 1ei a n d more

,
-

.
, .

Thi s suggests th a t the sm a ll pea s a nt un dert a kings a r e run W ith

a minimum of c a pit a l ; but it is prob a ble th a t the p opul a r b a nk s

were una ble to s a tisfy a ll the dem a nds of their p e a s a nt customers .

Lo a ns a r e not e a sily gra nted a n d the b a nks a lmost a lw a ys give

,

less th a n the b orrowers dem a nd b ec a use of in suffi ci en t c a pit a l

, .

Subsequent ye a rs h a ve sho w n a n im provement in th a t respect .

The tot a l a mount lent re a ched lei on Decemb er

31 , 1 9 25
,
lei being lent to co opera tives a n d -

lei to indi vidu a l pe a s a nts On the s a me d a te the .

tra n sa ctions of the b a nks re a ched a tot a l of lei .

The tot a l c a pit a l of the b a nks incre a sed m a teri a lly from
47 lei a t the end of Decemb er 1 923 to lei on
D ecemb er 31 1 925 Likew ise deposits rose from
, .
, ,

lei to lei dur ing th a t p eriod The f a ct th a t c a pit a l .

a n d deposits for fr uct ifi ca t i on together represent 63 p er cent of .

a ll li a bilities proves th a t the popul a r b a nks were e x istin g on the i r

own resources .

Lo a ns ra ised by the popul a r b a nk s from v a rious institutions

were distributed a s foll ows on Decemb er 31 1 923 : ,

Le i
From t h e C en tra l
From the Fe d e r a ls
F rom v a ri ou s b a n k s a nd i stituti ons
n
 REFORM ON RUR AL E C O NOMY 389

Loa ns from the federa ls of popul a r b a nks represented 8 5 per

cent of the tot a l which shows th a t the connexion between the
.
,

b a nks a n d their federa ls is b ecomin g closer ; this must tend to

i ncre a se the a utonomy of the movement The development is .

encoura ged by the Centra l ; it gra nts lo a n s di rect to the popul a r

b a nks in exception a l c a ses onl y its usu a l policy b eing to pl a ce
,

a t the di spos a l of the feder a ls the fun ds which they m a y need .

I n 1 9 23 the pr ofit s of the popul a r b a n ks a mounted to

lei ; the a vera ge di vidend p a id by them w a s 6 per
cent which w a s more th a n modest considering the st a te of the
.
,

money m a rket a t the time .

Th e F ed er a ls of the P op ula r B an ks Most of the popul a r b a nks

.

of a district a n d some of the other co opera tives a re grouped in

,
-

federa ls whi ch a ct a s a lin k between the co opera tive societies -

a n d the Centr a ls . The federa l b a n ks control an d g ui de the

i n dividu a l societies supply them w ith credits a n d look a fter
, ,

co opera tive prop a ga nd a They a r e a d mini stered by a bo a rd

~
.

elected a t the gener a l meetin g of the a ffili a t e d societies The .

development of the federa ls is shown in the followin g t a ble

D e pos its i n Ba l n ce
a

R es er ves t h e b a nk s s h ee t to t a l

At the end of 1 923 there were in the whole country 44 county

a n d 9 region a l federa ls To the federa ls were a ffili a t e d
.
39 0 THE EFFECTS OF THE
p opul r b nks th a t is a lmost 9 0 per cent of the b a nks work ing
a a —
.

wi th the Centra l a s well a s 5 8 c o opera tives for the holdi ng or -

purch a se of l a nd a n d 726 v a rious co oper a tives On Decemb er

,
-

3 1 1 925 there were 5 0 county a n d 9 region a l feder a ls with

, , ,

popul a r b a n ks 49 l a nd co opera tives a n d 6 5 3 v a rious

,
-

c o oper a tives a ffi li a t e d to them

-

Whil e therefore the number

.
, ,

of a ffili a ted co opera tives h a s decrea sed the numb er of a ffili a ted
-

popul a r b a nks h a s in cre a sed with more th a n 5 00 .

The tra ns a ctions of these federa l s a mounted in 1 925 to

lei ; their a ssets a n d li a bili ties a t the end of 1 9 25
to 8 9 0lei a consider a ble i ncre a se from the
,
—

lei a t which they stood a t the end of 1 923 .

As the bulk of the a ssets consisted of lo a ns gra nted t o

co oper a tives a n d of a dv a nces a g a inst crops th e feder a ls wo u
-

ld ,

seem to h a ve b een fulfillin g the f unction for which they were

cre a ted On the other h a nd by fa r the l a rgest item on the li a bili ty
.
,

side represented lo a ns obt a ined from the Centra l whi ch im pli es ,

th a t the federa ls were not yet self —supporting but served r a ther ,

a s outposts of the Centr a l to f a cilit a te its fi n a n ci a l rel a tions w ith

the l a rge numb er of p opul a r b a nks Thi s View is supported by .

the in a dequ a te c a pit a l of the federa ls a s well a s by the sm a ll ,

siz e of the deposits they received The two items a mounted a t .

the end of 1 923 to lei which w a s merely a bout one

,

seventh of the lo a n s contra cted by the federa ls from the Centra l .

The a ctivities of the federa ls im proved so much th a t the sum of

the lo a ns they gra nted re a ched lei a t the end of
1 9 25 Th a t improvement w a s due a bove a ll to the in cre a se in
.

lo a ns contr a cted from the Centr a l which re a ched 8 44 674 9 1 3 1ei ;

, , ,

there w a s a slight incre a s e in the p a id up c a pit a l to 48 5 49 346 1ei -

, , ,

but a decre a se in deposits which fell to , lei .

P r ofi t s a t the end of 1 925 were however 2 5 gre a ter a s com , ,

p a red with 1 923 a mounting to , lei .

Th e Cen tr a l of th e P op ula r B a n ks The la w of 1 9 03 cre a ted .

a Centr a l Offi c e of the Popul a r B a nks a n d V ill a ge Co op er a tives

-

a s a p a rent b ody to the movement I n 1 9 1 9 the offi ce w a s merged

.

into a new a n d bro a der institution c a lled the Centr a l Offi ce for
Co op er a tion a n d Resettlement which consisted of fi ve sections
-

,
.

The fi r st of them is the Centra l of the Popul a r B a nks whi ch ,

 REFORM ON RUR AL E C O NOMY 39 1

guides controls a n d fin a n ce s the cre di t co oper a tives ; a lmo s t a ll

, ,
-

the rur a l a n d urb a n popula r b a nks a n d their federa ls b eing

connected with it The Centra l is a n a utonomous incorpora ted
.
,

in stitution It w a s origin a lly a tt a ched to the M inistry of Agr icul

.

ture but wi th the cre a tion in 1 923 of a Min istry of L a b our

, , ,
‘

,
’
S oci a l Insura n ce a n d Co opera tio n the Centra l of the Popul a r
-

B a n ks a s well a s the Centr a l of the Co opera tives of Production -

a n d Consumptio n bec a me sep a r a te sections in the new dep a rt

ment Urb a n a n d rura l co Opera tion were lin ked up a t the s a me

.
-

time .

The Centra l is the orga n thr ough which the St a te p a rticip a tes
in the co opera tive credit movement It is a dm inistered by a b o a rd
-
.

of fourteen members seven of whom a r e elected for three ye a rs

,

by the congress of popul a r b a nks a n d their federa ls the others ,

b eing nomin a ted by the Na tion a l B a nk a n d v a rious Mini stries .

Properly spe a king the Centra l is a Centra l Credit B an k for the

,

p opul a r b a nks a s well a s for the other groups of co opera tives

,
-

which it fi n an ces through the intermedi a ry of their own Centra ls .

It works through the district or county federa ls a n d its a ctivities ,

a r e strictly limited to credi t oper a tions O nl y in the c a se of c o .

opera tives speci a lly est a blished for the purch a se of l a nd does the
Centra l supply credit direct in the form of mortg a ges , .

The b a l a n ce sheet of the Centra l closed on Decemb er 31

-

1 9 23 w ith a tot a l of 5 8 9 700 773 1ei a n d two ye a rs l a ter with a

, , ,

tot a l of lei Its c a pit a l consi s ted of . lei

contributed by the St ate of contributions from the popul a r ,

b a n ks a n d their federa l s a mounti n g to lei i n 1 923 a n d

lei in 1 925 ; reserves a mou n ted to lei in
1 9 25 so th a t the tot a l c a pit a l of the Centr a l w a s
, lei
a t the e n d of 1 9 25 A l a rge p a rt of it w a s imm obilized a s of
.
—

the a ssets lei were in public stock lei in ,

bui lding s a n d ,
lei in furn iture a ltogether 39 344 6 1 3 1ei —
, , .

The Centra l c a rried out in the m a in curre n t a ccou n t tr a ns , ,

a ctions with the feder a ls These a mounted to . lei

in 1 925 b a sed prob a bly on the credit gra nted to the Centra l
,

by the N a tio n a l B a nk The Centr a l w a s in pra ctice little more

.

th a n a n i n termedi a ry between the N a tion a l B a nk a n d the c o

op era tives One effect of th a t excess of bure a ucr a tic links w a s
.
392 THE EFFECTS OF THE

th a t lo a ns gra nted by t h e N a t ion a l B a nk a t 3— 4 per c en t r ea ch e d .

the popul a r b a nks a t 1 2—1 3 per cent Effective lo a ns gra nted to .

popul a r b a nks onl y re a ched lei in 1 925 a lm ost all of ,

them a g a inst mortg ages Th a t proves th a t the Centra l suffers

.

from a short a ge of c a pit a l a n d c a nnot a dequ a tely feed the c o

oper a tive movement .

The a bove figur e s show th a t the co op era tive cre di t move -

ment is growing a p a ce though the figur es rel a tin g to c a pit a l a n d

,

to b a l a nce sheets must be corrected w ith the index representin g

-

the depreci a tion of the Rum a ni a n exch a nge Wh il e the currency .

lost 9 75 per cent of its v a lue from 1 9 1 8 to 1 926 i e w a s reduced

.
, . .

to a v a lue forty t imes sm aller the c a pit a l of the pop ul a r b a nks

,

onl y doubled dur ing th a t period w hi ch me a ns th a t it in cre a sed

,

by 1 00 p er cent where a s it should h a ve incre a sed by

. per
cent The incre a se in c a pit a l followed a norm a l a scent The
. .

numb er of b a nks h a vin g risen by 30 per cent a n d the memb er .

ship by 5 0 p er cent it w a s but n a tur a l th a t their c a pit a l shoul d

.

i ncre a se by 1 00 p er cent Th a t w a s in gener a l the rel a tion in

.

which the three f a ctors progressed since 1 904 The considera ble .

incre a se in the tot a l of the b a l a nce sheets is expl a ined in the -

fi r st pl a ce by the gro w ing need for productive credi t a mong

,

the new pe a s a nt proprietors a n d i n the se cond pl ace by the , ,

fa ll in the exch a nge whi ch in fl uen ce d the size of the i ndi vidu a l
,

lo a ns .

The we a kne s s of the credi t c o opera tive s is cle a rly di sclosed

-

by a comp a rison of their work ing c a pit a l in 1 9 1 3 an d 1 927

( In thous an d lei )
1 9 27
P a id up c a pita l
-

R se rv e
e s

S urplu s

T ota l c a pita l
D e pos its
O th e r lia b ili ties
T ota l b orrow e d fu n ds
’
The rel a tion b etween the b a nks c a pit a l a n d borrowed fun ds w a s ,

therefore 3 9 : 1 in 1 9 1 3 a n d 1 : 1 4 in 1 927 Or t a ke the follow in g

,
.

figur e s
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 393
1 9 13
Le i
A v e ra ge v a lu ei n di vidu a l s ha re
of 183
Ca pita l per m e mb e r 1 98
B orrow e d fun ds p er me m b e r 51
Tota l w ork i ng c a pita l p r mem b e r e 249

This comp a rison proves th a t fin a n ci a lly the cre d it co oper a tives -

a r e much we a ker th a n b efore the Wa r especi a lly if on e t a kes ,

into a ccount not o nl y the dim inished purch a sin g power of the
lei but the wider functions which the co opera tives h a ve to
,
-

fulfi l a fter the l a nd reform .

An ot h er fe a t ure w hi ch di scloses t h e w ea k n e ss oft h e co oper a tive -

movement is the in a dequ a te connexion b etween the popul a r

b a nks a n d the c o opera tives of production a n d consum ption
-
.

The 25 000 0001ei the p opul a r b a nks pl a ced a t the dispos a l of the
, ,

v a rious co opera tives shows the l a tter to b e still in a n embryonic

-

st a ge .

d ) Con s umers Co op em ti ve S octettes an d Co op em ti ve S octettes

’
- -

for P r oducti on A gre a t va riety of co oper a tive societies h a s come

.
-

into existence a n d multip lied in Rum a ni a n country di stricts .

These include consum ers societies , societies for j oint s a les or

’

pur ch a ses , for workin g of forests , mi nes or qu a rries , Vine growing -

societies , co opera tive b a keries , d a i ries a n d societies for fi sh i n g or

-

m a rket ga rdeni ng , & c Lega lly they h a ve the s a me st a n di ng a s

.

the popul a r b a nks , a s the provisions of the La w of 1 903 were

extended to them in 1 9 05 As reg a rds direction , control a n d .

credi t , they depended unt i l 1 9 1 9 on the Centra l Uni on of the

Popul a r B a nks I n th a t ye a r a Centra l of the Co oper a tive
.
-

S ocieties for Production a n d Distribution w a s set up a s an

a utonomous section of the Centr a l Offi ce for Co oper a tion a n d -

Resettlement Its orga niz a tion resembles th a t of the other

.

Centra ls From th a t time these co opera tives multiplied ra pidly

.
-
.

These groups of co opera tives h a ve h a d a chequered c a reer

-

a s some of the societies were st a rted wi thout s uffi ci en t explor a

tion of the fi eld of a cti vity into whi ch they ventured a n d of the
economic problems they woul d h a ve to fa ce As a res ult qui te .

a number of them were un a ble to keep going a n d closed down ,

not o nl y losi n g c a pit a l thereby but a t the s a me time sh a king ,

the con fi d en ce of the pea s a nts in the movement a s a whole .

39 4 THE EFFECTS OF THE
N om in a lly there were 75 5 such co op er a tives in existence a t the
,
-

b eginning of 1 9 1 9 but two thi rds of them were in li qui d a tion or

,
-

we a kened to such a n extent by the Wa r th a t they soon h a d t o

close down With the end of the Wa r however a n d with the
.
, ,

b eginning of the reform the movement entered upon a p eriod ,

of r a pid development I n 1 91 9 there were founded 230 new .

’
consumers societies wi th members a n d 1 6 milli on lei -

p a id up c a pit a l ; 400 more st a rted li fe in 1 920 with

-

mem ,

bers a n d 4 5 million lei p a id up c a pit a l The t a ble b elow gives

-
-
.

the number a n d distribution of these co op er a tives a t the en d -

of 1 921

Nu m b e r
of

Ki dn s o f so ci t y
e so ci eti es M mb r e e s G ood s so ld

Di tributi on a n d j o i n t
s

s le s
a

F or s t w o k m g
e r

D iri s
a e

M ill s
B k ri s
a e e

F i s hi ng
M i i g a d qu rryi g
n n n a n

M i s c ll o u se ane

T ota l s

These figur es refer to the whole country I n the Old Kingdom .

,

there were societies a t the en d of 1 921 with ,

members a n d ,
a t the end of 1 9 24 with members .

The m a in ch a ra cteristic of the post w a r evolution would -

s eem to b e the preference which most vi ll a ges show for a mixed

typ e of co oper a tive society b elonging in principle to the

-

c o oper a tives
-
of production but enga ging a lso in common ,

purch a se s b ec a use of loc a l needs sm a llness of a va il a ble me a ns

, , ,

a n d d iffi c ult y in fi n d i n g suffi ci en t le a ders Comm on purch a ses .

include mo s t of the implements a n d m a teri a ls required for '

production— m a nure seed s m a chines a n d implements fodder , , , ,

&c .which the l a rge f a rmers obt a in through their a gricultura l

—

syndic a te s , but a l s o frequently the kind of household a rticles

, ,
’
which genera lly fa ll within the scope of consumers co operatives -
.
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 39 5

Sim il a rly j oint s a les a r e often combined W ith the p a rti a l

,

prep a ra tion of the produce for the m a rket a s i s the ca se with ,

fruit drying & c These co opera tives therefore e n ga ged in

-

, .
-

, ,

s a tisfying pra ctic a lly a n y a n d every need of the Vill a gers a n d ,

this is no doubt the re a son t the ir type is so pop ul a r with the

p e a s a ntry The Centra l of the co O p era tives of production a n d
.
-

consumption h a s dra wn up a form of St a tutes a dopted by a ll ,

the s e co op era tives which m a kes it obliga tory for them to

-

distribute a bonus to the purch a sing memb ers ; it imposes the

cre a tion of reserve funds for cultura l a n d soci a l purposes a s well ,

a s the est a blishment of a n indivisible a n d untr a nsfer a ble fu n d

which sh a ll ensure the continuity a n d a utonomy of the s ociety .

The Centra l is a lso a ctin g a s a wholes a le distributing society ,

which m ay h a ve co n tributed to the success of these mixed

co op er a tives a s it would seem th a t most of the co oper a tives
-

,
-

were forced to close down before the Wa r j ust b ec a use of the

a bsence of co opera tive di stributi n g centres To fa cilit a te
-
.

di stribution the Ce n tra l usu a lly depo s its considera ble supp lies
,

with the more import a nt co oper a tive societies Fin a lly the -

.
,

Centra l h a s a cted a s a n i n termedi a ry for the s a le a n d especi a lly , ,

for the export of the produce which the a ffili a t e d villa ge co oper a -

t ives a r e getting together .

The development of this mixed typ e of co opera tive society -

h a s the a dva nt a ge of m a king u n n ecess a ry the est a blishment of

a whole numb er of sm a ll c o oper a tives in the s a me pl a ce -
Their .

popula rity is proved by the fa ct th a t there were of them in

existen ce in 1 9 24 b esides 200 i n B ess a ra bi a a n d 6 00 in Tr a n s yl
,

v a ni a From the b a l a n ce sheets which

. of these c o opera
- -

t ive s supplied to their Centra l it a ppe a rs th a t their membership

rose from in 1 921 to in 1 924 Their c a pit a l .

incre a sed d uring the s a me p eriod from lei nomin a l

an d lei p a id up to -
lei a n d, lei .

These sums indic a te a considera ble incre a se in the sub scribed

c a pit a l a n d a t the s a me time in the proportion of p a id up
,
-

c a pit a l from 7 4 per cen t in 1 9 21 to 8 2 p er cent in 1 924 At the

, . . .

s a me time by D ecemb er 31 1 924 these c o O pera tives set a side

, ,
-

reserves a moun ting to lei a n d a fund for cultur a l a n d

soci a l purposes of lei Their tran s a ctions incre a sed .
39 6 THE EFFECTS OF THE
even more r a pidly B etween 1 9 21 a n d 1 924 the v a lue of goods
.

pur ch a sed rose from lei to lei an d the ,

v a lue of goods sold from lei to lei Even .

a ssuming th a t the f a ll of the exch a nge h a s doubled the price of

goods it still a pp e a rs th a t the tota l business tra ns a cted in 1 924

,

w a s twice a s l a rge a s th a t of 1 9 21 .

The b a l a nce sheet of these c o opera tives closed on Decem

- -

ber with a tot a l of lei The m a in a ssets .

were goods pur ch a sed on comm ission representing a v a lue of ,

lei ; the chief li a bilities were debts a mo unting to

lei a sum which suggests th a t the co opera tives still
,
-

suffered from i n suffi ci en t mea ns of their own .

( e ) Th e Co op em ti ves of P roducti on The mi x ed c o opera tives

-

.
-

of p urch a se a n d s a le a r e a ssoci a tions of producers e a ch of the ,

members h a ving a n a gricultura l exploit a tion of his own Those .

bra nches of a cti vity which require a l a rger c a pit a l a grea ter ,

division of l a bour a n d so on h a ve led to the est a bli shment of

, ,

re a l c o opera tives of production S ome of these societies

-

.
,

especi a lly those for the exploit a tion of forests h a ve p rogressed ,

rem a rk a bly well while others h a ve h a d a less s a tisf a ctory hi story

, .

Th e development of the c o oper a tives for the exploit a tion of -

forests a fter the Wa r bids fa ir to equ a l the success of the L a nd

Holdi ng S ocieties b efore the Wa r I n the View of cert a in .

R um a ni a n w riters their im port a nce re a ches b eyond the economi c

,

fi eld .

‘
Th y h
e a l v e d i n our h ighla n d d is tr i ct s t w o p r ob le m s on e
ve so

s oci a l a n d t h e o t h e r n a t ion a l Th e p e a s a n t s u s e d t o be r o bb e d of t h ei r
.

p os ses sion s a n d t he i r l a b ou r e xp l oi t e d by fo r es t r y com p a n ie s wo r kin g

, ,

a ll a l on g t h e C a r p a t h i a n Mou n t a i n s ; t o d a y t h a n k s t o t h e fo r es tr y co
-

o p e r a t i v e s t h e p ea s a n t s a r e r e ga i n i n g t h e i r a nci en t r igh t s o f o wn e r s h i p
,

a n d t h e y fi n d i t p o s s i b l e t o e m e r ge fr o m s e r fd o m a n d t o b e com e m a s t e r s

o f t h ei r p r o p er t y a n d l a b ou r Mo r e o v e r t h ose r a p a ci ou s t im b e r com
.
,

p a n ie s we r e l a r ge l y i n fo r e ign h a n d s Th r ough t h e fo r es tr y co o p e r a t i v es
-
.
,

t h e r e fo r e t h e p ea s a n t s a r e fi n d i n g t h e m e a n s o f r e s t o r in g t o t h e cou n t r y
,

a n a t i on a l p os s ess i o n a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e o f gi vi n g t h a t i m p o rt a n t
,

b ra n c h o f our n a t ion a l e con o m y it s R um a n i a n c h a r a c t e r a ga in 1

.
’

Unfortun a tely some of these c o O pera tives a r e not a ffilia t e d

,
-

with a Centra l so th a t the figur e s which follow do not include

,

1 N G h i ule a A soci a tii le Td r d nesti , p p 1 8 5 6

.
, .
-
.
 REFORM ON RU RAL ECONOMY 39 7

a ll of them . Oi
the 730forestry oper a tives in existence in 1 921 co -

o nl y 347 wi th a membershi p of
, comm uni c a ted their
b a l a nce sheets to the Centra l ; in 1 9 24 the tota l n umb er w a s 8 43
-

of which 476 wi th a memb ership of ,

supplied b a l a nce
sheets These fi gur es show a n incre a se in the numb er of
.

co op er a tives a proportion a l incre a se of those a ffili a t e d to the

-

Centr a l a n d a rel a tive i ncre a se in memb ers hi p from 1 00 for e a ch

,

society in 1 921 to 1 22 in 1 9 24 .

The tot a l b a l a nce sheet of the 476 forestry co opera tives - -

a moun ted to lei on Decemb er 31 1 924 The fully , .

p a id up c a pit a l on th a t d a te w a s
-
lei a n d reserves
lei The work of the co opera tives depended a gre a t
.
-

dea l however on fi n an cia l support from the Centra l a n d other

, ,

credit institutions to which the co oper a tives owed ,

-

lei ; of the l a tter sum lei w a s due to popul a r b a n ks

a n d their feder a ls The a ssets of these co opera tives co n sisted
.
-

of inst a lla tions m a chin es tools & c v a lued a t

, lei , , .
, ,

of re a l est a te v a lued a t lei of current work v a lued a t ,

lei an d especi a lly of timber— st a nding a t the m ills

, , , ,

or in w a re houses v a lued a t lei Assets further

—
.

included lei a dv a nced by the co O per a tives a s deposits -

.

Other v a rieties of co Oper a tives of production included a t the -

end of 1 924 the following

p r tiv
25 fi s h in g c o o e a es -
.

p r tiv
26 mi ni n g c o O e a es -
.

21 c o o e a p r tiv b k ri
-
e a e es .

26 co o e a p r tiv
-
l
e fl our mi ls .

22 co o e a p r tiv d ri
-
e a i es .

24 a g ricultu l p r tiv
r a co o e a es -
.

9 co o e a p r tiv
-
xpl ita ti on
e s for t h e e o m in e r a l w a te rs .

1 co o e a p r tiv p tt ry
-
e o e , a nd

v ri u
8 8 a o s co o e a p r tiv es -
.

Oi these 242 co opera tives 1 32 with a membership of

-

comm un ic a ted b a l a nce sheets whi ch a mou n ted a t the end of 1 924 -

to lei Their c a pit a l w a s . lei a n d reserves

lei They h a d debts a mountin g to
. lei
a t the Ce n tr a l a n d lei outst a nding with merch a nts
a n d b a nks Assets consisted of m a chines tools inst a ll a tio n s
.
, , ,

& c v a lued a t
. lei re a l est a te lei m a nu , ,
398 THE EFFECTS OF THE
fa ct ur e d goods lei other goods
,
lei , an d raw

m a teri a ls lei .

The Centra l of the V illa ge c o opera tives of consum ptio n a n d -

production h a s v a ried a n d extensive a ctivities It a cts a s the .

b a nker a s well a s the wholes a le purch a ser a n d s a lesm a n of the

a ffili a ted societies ; it procures supplies i n emergencies for loc a l

a uthorities a n d for the a rmy ; it builds houses for the coloni sts

who a r e b ein g settled in the front ie r regions ; it exports corn & c , .

,

& c The Centr a l pl a ys thereby a n import a n t p a rt in the country s

’
.

economic life Its b a l a nce sheet re a ched the formid a ble sum of
.
-

1 9 9 lei a t the end of 1 9 24 though c a pit a l a n d reserves

, ,

merely a mounted to 1 75 000 0001ei The Centra l therefore still

, , .
, ,

domin a tes the whole a ctivity of the co oper a tives of production -

a n d consumption .

r i cultur a l Co o em ti on
f A g p Agricultur
-
a l c o oper a tion a s .
-

such h a s been i nfl uen ce d by the a gra ri a n reform more th a n a n y

other bra nch of the c o opera tive movement The m a in groups
-
.

of c o—opera tives f a lling withi n this section were the l a ndh ol d i ng

’
a n d l a nd pur ch a sing societies
-
They expressed the pe a s a nts
.

gre a t need of l a nd whi ch w a s ch a ra cteristic of the pre reform

,
-

conditions a n d they fl our i sh e d especi a lly a fter the rising of 1 907

, ,

when the new legisl a tion imposed upon St a te a n d corpora tions

the duty of letting their est a tes to pe a s a nt co op era tives o nl y -
.

It w a s in the n a tur e of things th a t there shoul d b e much less scop e

for this type of co opera tion a fter the reform L a rge property is
-
.

reduced to a sh a dow a n d is s o to spe a k on its tri a l ; few l a nd

, , ,

owners therefore let their est a tes a n d the l a n d which comes in to ,

the m a rket for s a le is in signi fi ca n t in extent .

The reform is on the other h a nd responsible for a new typ e

, ,

of a gricultura l co O pera tives It w a s to be hop ed th a t h a vin g

-
.

secured l a n d a n d economic a uto n omy the pe a s a n ts wo ul d j oin ,

together for the purpo s e of mutu a l help in production a n d s a le .

It so h a ppens th a t the impetus for this development h a s b een

given by the reform itself though not directly or delibera tely
, .

It will b e remembered how the l a nd expropri a ted in Vir tue of the

decree la w of December 1 9 1 8 w a s h a nded over not to in dividu a l
-

‘ ’
pea s a nts but to the s o c a lled a ssoci a tions of r e settlement
,
- -
.

They were v ill a ge a ssoci a tions modelled on the l a nd h oldin g

 REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY 39 9

co -
opera tives a n d were me a nt to c a rry on for a few ye a rs o nl y
, ,

until the in di vidu a l holdings could be me a sured a n d distributed .

For politic a l re a sons these a ssoci a tions were a lre a dy disb a nded in
1 9 20 a n d the l a nd divided a mong the pe a s a nts But durin g their
,
.

short existe n ce these a ssoci a tions h a d pl a nned a n d in p a rt ,

re a lized v a rious a rra ngements for the furtherin g of their inter

,

ests Some of them h a d purch a sed m a chines or h a d contr a cted

.

for the supply of implements a n d seed s others h a d m a de a rr a nge

,

men ts for co opera tive selling or h a d est a bli shed breedi n g

-

s t a tions a n d so on,
When these a ssoci a tions were broken up
.
,

their members found themselves in a qu a n d a ry It w a s not .

a lw a ys e a sy to divide the m a teri a ls which h a d b een a cquir ed

j ointly a n d for j oint use ; a n d in some c a ses the former a ssoci a tes
re a lized th a t it wo ul d not b e to their a dv a nt a ge to in terrupt the
a ctivities they h a d st a rted in common M a ny requests for a dvice
.

re a ched the Centr a l w ith the res ul t th a t wherever possible the

,

bre a k up of a n a ssoci a tion of resettlement w a s m a de the

-

occ a sion for the est a blishme n t of a n a ssoci a tion w ith a co Opera -

tive ch a ra cter free of a ll conn exion w ith the l a nd reform This

, .

‘ ’
typ e of society received the n a me of fa rmi n g co opera tives -

Co op em ti ve L an d h old i ng S oci eti es The fi r st co oper a tive

- -
.
-

l a ndh olding societies were formed on the b a sis of the ordin a ry

la w ; cert a in sm a ll a ltera tio n s i n troduced in 1 904 into the Code
of Procedure a n d into the la w of docum ent a ry evidence f a cili ,

t a t e d the form a tion a n d the working of these societies In .

M a rch 1 908 a cl a use w a s a dded to the Act of 1 903 on popul a r

,

b a n ks by which a ll the privileges gra nted to popul a r b a n ks were

,

a lso secured to these l a ndh olding societies An import a n t step

.

w a s t a ken in 1 9 08 when a new a ct provided th a t l a nd belonging

,

to the St a te or to corpora te bodies could onl y b e le a sed to

co oper a tive l a ndh ol di ng societies un less it h a d been shown on
-

inquiry th a t it wa s impossible to form s uch a society Since the .

St a te owned a l a rge n umber of est a tes a n d the property held in

mortm a in w a s a lso very co n sider a ble circumst a nces fa voured
,

the development of these societies Fin a lly the new reform l a ws

.
,

( except th a t for B ess a ra bi a ) la y down the r ul e tha t the rem a i ni ng

l a rge est a tes m a y not be let out for more th a n seven ye a rs a n d ,

th a t under equ a l con di tions preference must b e give n to pe a s a n t

400 THE EFFECTS OF THE
co -

op era tives or to agr on om s But though the la w f a c ili t a tes the

.

form a tion of these societies it does not le a ve them to work without

control a s the risks of inexp erience a n d a buse a r e too gre a t
, .

Every co oper a tive l a ndholding society therefore must h a ve its

-

, ,

rules a pproved by the Centra l B a nk a n d is for the whole p eriod

of its existence li a ble to i nsp ection by th a t body ; while the
provisions in respect to societies to which the Centra l B a nk
gra nts lo a ns a r e even more strin gent The Centra l h a s the right .

to a ppoint a n a gricul tura l exp ert a s a dministr a tor of the

undert a king a n d to introduce into the rul es of the societies an y
,

m od ifi ca t i on s th a t m a y b e thought necess a ry .

While the l a nd is held j ointly cultiv a tion is a lw a ys indi vidu a l ;

,

excepti n g occ a sion a l reserves for the gro w ing of fodder or seed .

The m a n a gement of the fa rmin g is entrusted to a n a gric ul tur a l

exp ert a s a dmini stra tor ; the rot a tion of crops is fi x e d by these
experts on the most economi c lines ; the a ssignment of portions
of l a nd is decided by lot the a re a of e a ch b eing in rel a tion to the
,

working c a p a city a n d the numb er of persons in the fa mily of the

member The m a x im um a ccorded to one member h a s b een
.

1 0 h a The j oint purch a se of a ll f a rm requisites such a s seed

.
, ,

live stock m a chines is a lso usu a l These co opera tives whi ch

, .
-

combine individu a l i niti ative of the members with expert

control h a ve proved not only the me a ns of brin ging a b out a n
,

improvement in the econo mic position of the sm a ll cultiva tors ,

but a lso an excellent instrument for tra ini ng them profession all y .

The considera ble exp a nsion of co opera tive l a ndh oldin g -

a ctivities before the Wa r is shown in the t a ble on p 401 . .

The rent p a id by the member s is fix e d a nn u ally a n d is c a lcul a ted

to cover a ll expenses a n d to lea ve a sur plus a s reserve Aft er the .

l a nd reform the a ctivi ty of these societies w a s necess a rily cur

t a il ed I n a ccord a nce wi th the la w of J uly 1 9 28 the m a n a ge
.

ment a n d supervision of the c o opera tive l a ndh olding societies

-

h a ve been removed from the Centra l of Pop ul a r B a nks a n d given

t o a newly formed Centra l of Co opera tives
- -
.

S oci eti es for Co op em ti ve L a nd p ur cha s e L a nd purch a sin g

- -
.

co oper a tives were fi r st m a de the subj ect of legisl a tive provisions

-

in M a rch 1 908 Their constitu tion a n d working a r e governed by

.

the s a me rules a s those for l a ndh olding societies Their p urpose .

 REFORM ON RUR A L ECONOMY 401

Y r
ea s M mb r
e e s Ann u l r e ts
a n

is to purch a se e st a tes or p a rt of est a tes a n d then divide the l a n d

’
a mong the members a ccor d ing to e a ch one s a bility to buy
, .

A recen t me a sur e pro vi des th a t n o di vision of the l a n d sh a ll t a ke

pl a ce except in a ccord a nce with a scheme a pproved by the Cen tra l .

These c o Opera tives h a ve necess a rily a tra nsitory ch a ra cter a s

-

they ce a se to exist when the price h a s been fully p a id a n d the

l a nd divided up a mon g the memb ers The memb ers pa y for their .

sh a res in a nnuities c a lcula ted to extinguish the purch a se price

within a given num b er of ye a rs Until the li quid a tion of the .

society the est a te purch a sed by it is considered a s undivided a n d

ca n b e used to gu a r a ntee lo a ns a n d other oblig a tions .

There is no mea ns of j udging how much l a nd h a d p a s sed i n to

the h a nds of pe a s a nts through the i n strument of such societie s .

Their a ctivity w a s h a mpered by l a ck of credit ; therefore it w a s

usu a l for the pe a s a nts fir st to re n t a n est a te a n d by a ccumul a ting
ro fi t s to try l a ter to buy i t U to the end of 1 9 24 the n umber
p p .

1
I n h is i n t r ti ng a rticl e publi sh ed i n No 2 f A g a P bleme M Ti m v s es
e es . o ra rn ro , . o e

i n t h e r pid xp ns i on of th ese so ci ti s a pro f of t h e c on ti n u ou s d v l p m e t of

‘
a e a e e o e e o n

t h e pr o c e ss of d 1fl t i t i on [ m on g t h p s
e ren a ts ] thi s i s con fir m d by t h e reducti o
a e ea an e n

of t h e a v e r g p a h d i n t h r te d r
e er ea D o n ot t h e f cts s upp rt r a th e r t h e
e en a ea . a o

c on tr ry i nf r c ? Th re ducti o of t h e i dividu a l a v e r g s ugg sts t h e gro wi n g

a e en e e n n a e e

i n tru s i of t h e vill g prol t ri t mon g t h e ma of fa rm i ng p s n ts i e pr o c ss

on a e e a a a ss ea a , . . a e

o f l e v lli n g
e n d n o t of diff r
a ti ti Thi s e fi ect mor o v r h s p r m n t
e en a on .
, e e , a a e a en

ch r cter F or t h m re l an d i s b s rb d by vill a ge prol t ri s th ro u gh t h e me n s

a a . e o a o e e a an , a

o f l a n d h ldi g a n d l
o n d purch as i n g co op r tiv es t h e l ess l n d r m i s t o be s n a ppe d
an -
e a , a e a n

up by t h w lthi r p s a ts th o e kul ks so u pl eas an t t o t h ye s of Comm u i s t

e ea e ea n — s a n e e n

th e oretici a s n .
402 THE EFFECTS OF THE
of l a nd purch a sing societies liquid a ted w a s fift y three wi th -

members a n d they h a d pur ch a sed

, h a a t a price .

of lei .

The reform l a ws g a ve the St a te a right of pre emption on a ll -

l a nd s a les invol ving more th a n 5 0 h a in the Old Ki ngdom a n d .

25 h a i n Tr a nsylv a ni a The intention a pp a rently w a s th a t l a nd

. .

obt a ined in th a t w a y should then b e pl a ced a t the di spos a l of

l a nd pur ch a sing co opera tives but the fin a n cia l c ri sis h a s pre
-

vented the St a te from a pplying th a t poli cy on a l a rge sc a le .

Nevertheless the movement is rem a rk a bly a ctive in vi ew of the

, ,

sm a ll num b er a n d siz e of the est a tes whi ch a r e put up for s a le

Pur ch a se price

Th e A gr i cultum l Co op er a ti ves This typ e of society in a ugu

.
,

ra ted a fter the a gra ri a n reform is me a nt to do for the p e a s a nts

,

wh a t the a gricultur a l syndi c a tes are doin g for the l a rge fa rmers
in Rum a ni a a n d elsewhere Their a ctivity is v a ried developin g
.
,

in one direction more th a n i n a nother a ccording to ci rcum st a nces .

I n f a ct these co op era tives a r e supposed to s a tisfy every need of

,
-

the sm a ll c ultiva tor in the w a y of buying a n d selli ng But in

,
.

a ddition they a r e concerned with the im provement of the l a nd

a n d of the methods of f a rmin g with i nsur a nce a n d bookkeeping

, ,

a n d wi th a n y a n d every oper a tion destined to contribute to the

’
a dv a ncement of a griculture Hence these co opera tives h a ve -

a t the s a me t i me profession a l commerci a l a n d cult ur a l ends in

,

view There w a s nothing lik e them b efore the reform except

. ,

where l a ndh oldi ng co opera tives fulfi lle d some of these func
-

tions I n the st a te of economic depende n ce in which they then

.

lived a n d l a boured the pe a s a nts were not a ble to org a ni z e

themselves Now th a t 9 0 per cent of the l a nd is in the h a nds of
. .

the p e a s a nts these a gricultur a l societies m a y b ecome the chief

,

fa ctor in the solving of the tech n ic a l a n d economic problems

ra ised by such a v a st extension of sm a ll sc a le a griculture
-
.
 REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY 403

Though the ch a ra cter a n d a ctivity of t h is type of society

comes very nea r to th a t of the l a n d hol di ng co opera tives the la w -

provides a ltogether speci a l rules for its govern men t Th e fir st .

a gric ul tur a l co oper a tive w as foun ded e a rly in 1 9 21

-
an d wa s ,

soon followed by others their n umber incre a sing a s shown below

,

So ci ti es
e

71
1 65
222
65 9
8 25

With members the tot a l p a id up c a pit a l on D ecember

,
-

31 1 9 24 w a s
,
lei The b a l a nce sheet tot a l w a s
.
-

lei The a cti vi ty of these societies is on a modera te

.

sc a le so fa r Th a t is not sur prisi ng seein g th a t their Centr a l h a s

.
,

no c a pit a l of its own the fi n a n ce s it requi res bein g obt a ined from
,

the Centra l of the Popula r B a nks The budget of t hi s Centra l is

.

entir ely contributed by the St a te Like the pop ul a r b a nks these

.
,

societies a r e grouped in federa ls a t the end of 1 924 there were

nin e of them Wi th 45 3 a ffilia t e d societies a n d a p a id up c a pit a l
,
-

of lei .

C m i i n th e New P r ovi nces B ss ar a b

i A the
(g) o o
-

p e t on e a t . .

time of B e s sa r a bia s un ion w ith Rum an i a the co opera tive

’
-

societies of th a t provin ce were govern ed by the Russi a n

Co op era tion Code of M a rch 20 1 9 1 7 w hi ch h a d removed the
-

restrictions a n d the St a te control imposed by the l a ws of 1 8 7 1 ,

1 8 9 5 a n d 1 904 After the un ion these societies cont i nued to

.

work independently of the movement in the Old Kingdom .

Some new co opera tives were however est a blished on the b a sis
-

, ,

of the pro visions r uling in the Kingdom a s a result of pr opa ,

g a nd a c a rried on by the centra l offi ce s of Buc a rest which set ,

up region a l bra nch office s a t Ch i s in au .

Accordin g to the study of MM Ma d gea r u a n d Mla d en a t z . .

the number of credit co opera tives on J a nn a ry 1 1 9 20w a s 446

-

, .

D a t a could b e ga thered only from 339 of t h em w ith ,

members giving a n a vera ge of 6 74 8 per society It woul d seem

, .

th a t 78 per cent of the rura l popula tion took p a rt in the co opera

.
-

tive movemen t The volume Coop er ati a i n Romé n i a I n tr egi td

’
f
.

published by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1 920 ga ve the

D d 2
404 THE EFFECTS OF THE
following est im a te of the number of B ess a ra bi a n societies : 28
in 1 904 ; 25 3 ( 245 cre di t ) in 1 9 1 0; 35 7 ( 349 cre di t ) in 1 9 1 4 ; a n d
in 1 9 1 9 429 of whi ch were credit societies 9 cre di t unions
, , ,
’
6 03 consumers co opera tives a n d cons umers u ni ons D uring
’
-

a n d a fter the Wa r therefore tr a ding oper a tions exceeded credi t

, ,

opera tions ; the co opera tives pl a yed a n im port a nt p a rt during

-

the Wa r in supplyin g the a rmy especi a lly with bre a d The , .

tot a l membership w a s given a s a bout The tot a l of the

b a l a nce sheets w a s : credi t societies 5 2 6 00 0001ei ; cre di t union s
-

, , ,

lei ; co n sum ers societies lei ; consum ers ’

,

unions , lei .

There a r e in Bess a ra bi a 25 Germ a n co opera tives of con sum p -

tion with memb ers g a thered into one un ion ; a n d a uni on ,

of J ewi sh c o opera tives including 40 credit societies w ith

-

memb er s 70 3 per cent of whom a r e merch a nts a n d a rtis a ns

,
1
. .

Tra n sylva n i a T r a n sy lva ni a n co O pera tives f unctioned on

.
-

the b a sis of the Hun g a ri a n la w XXIII of 1 8 9 8 All the societies .

could a ffili a t e to the Centra l Credi t Co opera tive S ociety of -

Bud a p est obt a ining in return cert a in exemptions from t a x a

,

tion a n d r a tes The Bud a pest Centr a l supplied credi t a n d con

.

tro lled the a cti vities of the a ffilia t e d societies Publi c a ut h or i .

ties h a d a right of co n trol over them which expl a ins why the ,

R um a ni a n i n h a bit a nts preferred the limited comp a ny form of

a ssoci a tion .

On the strength of th a t la w 6 75 societies a ffili a t e d to the ,

Centra l were founded in Tra nsylva ni a with a memb ership of

, ,

a bout I n 1 9 1 8 their c a pit a l w a s 1 7 mill ion Hung a ri a n

crowns reserves 5 5 mill ions ; deposits 8 8 millions ; a n d credits
, ,

from the Bud a pest Ce n tra l 23 mill ions Rum a ni a n st a tistics , .

g a ve the number of societies on J a n ua r y ] 1 921 a s n a mely , ,

45 9 credit societies 1 9 6 co O pera tives of production 37 7 con

,
-

sumer s societies 25 societies for j oi n t s a les a n d 620 credit a n d

’
, ,

s a vi n g societies After the union with Rum a ni a a number of

.
,

new popul a r b a nks were foun ded grouped round five centra ls , .

I n 1 920 the legisla tion va lid in the Old Kingdom w a s extended

to Tr a n sylva ni a I n th a t ye a r the consumers societies con n ected
.
’
,
’
with the Centra l H a n gya of Bud a p e s t founded a Cen tra l of
‘
,

their own a t Aiud under the n a me of Centra l of the H a ngya

,
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 4 05

Co opera tive Societies The progress of the a ffilia t e d societies is

-

shown in the followi ng t a ble :

1 9 20

Nu m be r of so ci ti es
e

M em b ers hip
C a pita l
R es e rv es
Tur no v e r
I n dditio to the popul r b a nks
a n to the B uc a rest
a a ffi li a t e d

Ce n tra l there were a t the e n d of 1 923 two other group s of credit

,

co O per a tives in Tr a n sy lva n i a A group of 330popula r b a n ks with

-
.

members a ffilia t e d to the Co opera tive Al li a nce of Cluj

,
-

a t the e n d of 1 923 they h a d a p a id up c a pit a l of lei-

a n d deposits lei ; lo a ns h a d been gra n ted to the

a moun t of lei The second group consisted of 1 8 2
.

S a xon R a iffeisen societies with , member s a ffili a ted to the ,

S a xon Union a t Sibiu The tot a l c a pit a l w a s o n ly

. lei but ,

reserves a moun ted to l 8 o5 45 4 lei a n d deposits to

, , lei .

U p to the end of 1 9 23 they h a d gra nted lo a ns a mou n ting to

lei The S ua bi an u n ion a t Tim i s o a ra in cluded t h ir
.

teen societies w ith memb ers .

B ucovi n a Co opera tion w a s governed by the la w of 1 8 73

.
-

whi ch a llowed the movement complete freedom of a ction I n .

Bucovina there were four co opera tive groups The Rum a ni a n -

.

group consisted of 1 5 6 co opera tives a ffili a ted to the Centra l

-

Office a t Buc a rest They h a d . memb ers a c a pit a l of ,

lei a n d deposits lei The tot a l a mount of .

the lo a ns gra nted by them re a ched lei The Germ a n .

group h a d 6 7 co opera tives a ffili a t ed to a Centra l of the Germ a n

-

Cr e d it S ocie t i es a t Cern au t i The i r membership a t the end of 1 9 23

.

was their c a pit a l lei deposits lei a n d

, ,

lo a ns gra nted re a ched lei The Ruthe n i a n Group .

consisted of 41 credit co opera tives a ffi lia t e d to a Centra l of the

-

Rutheni a n S ocie ties ( In 1 928 the Rutheni a n u ni on w a s in

.

liquida tio n ) They h a d

. members a tot a l c a pit a l of ,

lei a n d deposits lei Lo a ns gra nted in 1 9 23 a moun ted

.

to lei The Poli sh Group consisted of 1 2 R a iffeis sen

.

S ocieties a n d on e Schulze Delitzsch a ffili a t ed to a Centra l of

-

,
 406 THE EFFECTS OF THE
Polish S ocieties with memb ers a ltogether Their tot a l .

c a pit a l w a s lei deposits lei an d loa ns were

,

gra nted for lei .

These va rious societies which di d not work with the Centra l ,

Otfi ce of Buc a rest r a ised the tot a l num b er of cre di t co oper a tives
,
-

by 78 9 membership by, b a l a nce sheets tot a l for 1 9 23 by -

1 5 3 25 0 1 5 2 1ei a n d the sum of the lo a ns gr a nted to in di vidu a l

, , ,

p e a s a nts a n d their a ssoci a tions by lei .

( Comp a r a tive t a bles for the sever a l br a nches of the move

ment a r e given on pp 41 2 .

( h ) S ta te a nd Co Op em ti on To sum up the la nd reform h a s

-

.
,

given imm ense scop e to co opera tion in Rum a ni a n a griculture -

a n d the opportu ni ty is b ein seized e a gerly enough by the

g
p e a s a nts a n d by the lea ders of the movement I n contra st .
,

however to thi s re a l em a ncip a tion of the p e a s a nts t hr ough the

, ,

a boli tion of l a n dl ordship a more el a b or a te St a te control h a s ,

been imposed upon their a ssoci a tions th a n they ever suffered

b efore No other question is so a rduously deb a ted within the
.

movement a s th a t of its rel a tions w ith the St a te It is a dmitted .

a ll round th a t c o oper a tion would not h a ve re a ched its present

-

extent h a d it not enj oyed the fosterin g c a re of the St a te to

a degre e unp a r a lleled in an
y other country of the world It is .

cle a r indeed th a t a t present the movement could not d isp ense

, ,

with the help of the St a te without risking the dis a pp e a ra nce of

some of its members Yet thi s prosp ect does not di sm a y the .

lea ders There mu s t b e somethin g seriously wrong w ith the

.

system when even one of its chi ef executive offi cials— M T . .

Man d r u director of the Centr a l of Agricultur a l Co oper a tives

,
-

openly decl a res th a t progress depends on one essenti a l condi tion

‘
The St a te sh all no longer use a r t ifi cia l me a ns for keep ing a live
societies without vit a lity or ini ti a tive for they compro mi se the ,
’
whole movement 1
.

Such a st a tement gives sub st a nce to the wi de s pre a d con vi c

tion th a t offi cia l tutel a ge h a s a cted a s a di sguise for politic a l
interference The fi r st ess a ys of co O pera tion were viewed with
.
-

suspicion an d hostility by Lib era ls a n d Conserva tives a li ke .

1
T . Man d r u, Coop era ti vele A goi eole, 1 9 25 , p '
. 12; a p a m phl e t provid ed with the
s ign ifi ca n t mo tto True
:
‘
co o -
p era ti on d oes n ot beg , it c on qu e rs
.
’
 REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY 407

Afterw a rds some of the Libera l le a ders beca me its w a rm sup

p orters — Dr C I st ra t i M Spir u H a ret a n d l a ter M I Duca
. .
, .
, , , . . .

But the nomin a ted person nel of the v a rious bo a rds is itself
evidence th a t politic a l bi a s h a s not been foreign to the i r a ppo i nt
ment ; a n d with a p a rtis a n a dm inistra tion it is not d iffi cult to ,

b elieve wh a t is w idely a sserted th a t politic a l a llegi a nce frequently ,

determin ed the success of an a pp lic a tion for a lo a n or for such

other fa vours a s the co opera tives coul d dispense The critics of -
.

the present system further point out how a ltogether out of

proportion h a s b een the rel a tion b etween the con trol the St a te
h a s cl a imed a n d the a ssist a nce it h a s gr a nted Every a ctivity .

of the co oper a tive societies is subj ect to cl ose ofli ci a l control a n d

-

is dependent on the fi n a n cial support of the Centra ls which a r e ,

themselves tied to the N a tion a l B a nk Yet in 1 923—4 the tot a l .

credits a llowed by the B a nk to the co op era tive movement a s a -

whole a mounted merely to 600 million lei where a s priv a te b a nk s ,

received some 7 5 00million— though the c o O per a tive movement

,
-

is supposed to s a tisfy the needs of a cl a ss of producers who h a ve in

their h a nds 90p erz cen t of the l a nd a n d of the me a ns of production
. .

These criticisms therefore rest a s much on groun ds of , ,

principle a s on grounds of circum st a nce The intervention of the .

Sta te m ay gra du a lly lose its politic a l bi a s in the mea sur e in ,

which the gre a t publi c institutions ce a se to b e the monopoly of

one poli tica l p a rty But it is cle a r th a t the le a ders of the co
.

opera tive movement obj ect to Sta te tutel a ge on principle a n d ,

not merely bec a use of the politica l colour it wea rs a t the mome n t .

The 1 921 Report of the Uni on of Ra iffeisen Societies of Sibiu

‘
denou n ced the c o oper a tive l a ws of the Old Kin gdom a s mos t
-

’
rea ctiona ry a n d the s a me org ani z ation whi ch stood outside
, ,

poli tic a l squ a bbles lodged a compl a int a ga inst those l a ws with
,

the Intern ation a l Co opera tive Alli a nce I n a gu a rded opini on -

on the whole position Mr Di a rmi d Coffey a t tha t time Libra ri a n .

,

of the Dublin Co O pera tive Libra ry considered it likely th a t the

-

movem
,

ent in Rum ani a h a s not the spont a neity which should

ch a ra cteriz e true co opera tion a n d th a t it must le a n he a vily on
-

,
’
St a te in stitutions 1
The st a ndpoint of the co opera tive le a ders
.
-

w a s formul a ted before the Ch a mber by one of the pioneers of

1
Di a r mid C offe y , Th e C’o op era ti ve -
M ove men t i n J ugos la vi a R uma n i a , p 69
. .
408 THE EFFECTS OF THE
the movement M St a n Mor are scu He pointed out th a t
, . .

origin a lly the la w concerning pop ula r b a nks h a d left un touched

the pri n ciple of the movemen t s a utonomy To th a t ph a se of ’
.

the lega l r égim e corresponded the most fl our i sh in g period which

Rum a ni a n co opera tion h a s known from its foun d a tion to the
-

present d a y .

O ffi c i a l t utel a ge m a y h a v e h a d it s u s e ful n e ss b u t t o d a y i t h a s be
‘
-

com e a n o b s t a c l e i n t h e w a y o f t h e n o r m a l d e v e l o p m en t o f co op e r a t ion -

a n d i t s a b o l is h m e n t i s a n i n d i s p e n sa b l e con d i t io n fo r p r o r es s Th e
g .

Co O p e r a t i v e m o v e m en t d e m an d s t o be gi v e n i t s fr e e d om a n d t o be
-

r e l ie v e d o f e x e cu t i v e con tr o l r e m a i n in g l i k e t h e co m p a n ie s wi t h l imi t e d
,

l ia b i l it y o n l y u n d e r t h e c on tr o l o f t h e j ud ici a r y
, N o t h in g t o d a y .
-

c oul d j u s t i fy t h e m a i n t e n an ce o f t h e c o o p e r a t i v e m o v e m e n t i n t h e -

p o s i t ion o f a m in o r p l a ce d un d e r a gu a r d ia n e s p e ci a ll y a ft e r t h e un ion ,

wi t h t h e n e w p r o v i n ce s w h en s id e by s i d e wi t h t h e con tr o lle d co
,

o p e r a t i o n i n t h e O l d K i n gd o m w e h a v e t h e a u t o n o m ou s c o op e r a t i o n o f -

B e ss a r a b i a T r a n s y l v a n i a a n d B uco v i n a
, , .
1

Rightly or wr ongly the le a ders of the movement seem to fe a r

,

th a t offi cia l interference whi ch hi therto h a s been used for ,

politic a l ends might in futur e be m a de a n instrum ent of fi n an ci a l

,

exploit a tion Th a t suspicion fi n d s some support in the fi n an cia l

.

policy which h a s ruled in Rum a ni a since the Wa r an d which h a s ,

been j ust ifi e d ex a ctly in its rel a tion to co O pera tion by a wr iter

,
-

who h a s ende a voured to endow the pr a ctice of the rul ers with
a theoretic a l a pology Rum a ni a in his View is still in the ph a se
.
, ,
’
of s truggle a ga inst destructive c a pit a l — i e foreign c a pit a l
‘
. .

a n d the b a ttle c an onl y b e won by the cre a tion of a n a tion a l

c a pit a l Could this be a chieved direct thr ough co opera tion a n d

.
-

not through c a pit a li st b a nks ? The writer a cceptin g the M a rx i a n ,

di a lectics resolutely a nswers No The soil is therefore not yet

,
‘ ’
.

ripe for re a l co opera tion It is a delusion to thi n k th a t one coul d

-
.

‘
org a n ize c o opera tion with pe a s a nts who h a ve b a rely emerged
-

from feud a l servitude a n d who n a tur a lly l a ck those spiritu a l

,
’
qu a lities out of which co opera tion blossoms -

These qu a lities .

a r e produced only by a prolonged a n d r a cki n g tri a l a t t h e h a n d s ’

of c a pit a lism on ly in the school of c a pit a list production

—
.

Ca pit a lism mu s t come fi r st co O pera tion a fterw a rds The one ,

-
.

will bring the other 2

.

1
A urora , Buc a re t N o v e mb r 25 1 9 25
s , e , .

2
S t Ze e
. l ti n Coop era ti e Romd nd ? 1 9 25
, , , pp 1 3—14
. .
 REFORM ON RUR A L ECONOMY 409

Th is is not fa r from the con viction of the opposite c a mp th a t

the one inten ds to b a tten on the other Hence they c a nn ot .

b elieve th a t a politic a l m a chine which h a s b een ope n ly under the

i nfl ue n ce of b a n king fi n a n ce durin g the l a s t d e ca d e could be a trust
worthy foster mother for the c o opera tive ide a l There a re s ome
- -
.

who b elieve indeed th a t the fe a r of their bei n g successful pl a yed

, ,

its p a rt in the h a sty a bolition of the vi lla ge a ssoci a tio n s in

Th e r e is n o d oub t e x c l a im e d t h e P ea s a n t l e a d e r M Mih a la c h e
‘ ’
, , .
,
‘
t h a t co op e r a t ion a s w e un d e r s t a n d it w i l l h a v e t o wa ge a h e v y b a ttl e
-
a

wit h t h e fo r ce s o f ca p it a l ism For it is t h e pu r po se o f suc h co ’

.
‘

o p e r a t i o n co m p l e t e l y t o e m a n c i p a t e t h e s m a l l p r o du ce r fr o m t h e d o m i n a

t ion of c a p it a l a n d s o t o se cu r e for h i m t h e wh o l e pr o fi t s o f h is l a b ou r
,

The l a n d reform therefore besides h a ving set new problems , ,

for co op era tio n to solve is a lso ch a n gi n g its whole b a ckgrou n d

-

,
.

Those who spe a k for the new pe a s a n t proprietors seem i n tent

upon tra nsforming i n to a movement wh a t hitherto h a s been
l a rgely an orga niz a tion 3
.

S 1
rticl i t h bl r vi w S i t t d Md i Cluj J u ry 6 1 9 24
ee a e n e a e e e oc e a ea e n e, , an a , .

2
D c b r
A uror a , e em e 5 , 1 9 23 .

3
N v b r
I n o e m e 1 9 28 t h e Na t i on a l P s n t Pa rty for t h e fi s t time c me i n to po we r -
ea a r a ,

t on c e se t t o w o rk t o a d pt t h e c o u n try s e c n m ic l w s d p licy t o th i r
’
a nd a a o o a an o e

vi e ws A n e w Co o pera tiv C d pr p re d u n d e r t h s up rvi i n of t h e Mi n is te r f

.
-
e o e, e a e e s o o

L a b o ur a n d Co o pe ra ti n M I o R aduc a n u— h ims lf n o ld l d r f t h e mo v e m e t
-
o , . n e a ea e o n

w as p asse d i n t h e u m m r of 1 9 29 M R aduc n u j us t ifi d t h e e a rly r f r m of t h e

-
s e . . a e e o

C od e in troduc e d by t h e Lib r l G ov e rn me t in J uly 1 9 28 on t h e gro u n d th t it w a s e a n a

i m bu e d as m uch a s e v e r with t h e id e of S t t e c o tr o l which it e xt e d e d t o t h e a a n , n

a ut on o mo u s co o p e r a tiv e gr o up s i n t h e n w pr o vin c e s
-
Th e s tr n u o u s o pp os iti on o f e . e

t h e R a ifi e is en so ci e ti es of Tra ns ylva ni a onl y ga in e d th e m a r s pite of t n ye a r s within e e

Whi ch the y h ad t o a d a pt themse lv es t o t h e lega l s yste m en a cte d for t h e O ld Kin gd m o .

M R aduc a u a ls o c o te d e d th t t h e a pp a re tly fi n e fi gur es r l ti n g t o t h e co

. n n n a n e a

o p ra tiv e m o v e me t w e r e i n fa ct hi di n g a tr pl e cr is is
e n mo l te ch ni c l n d m t e ri a l i fi
ra , a a a .

P a rtly as a r es ult of t h e Wa r n d p a rtly of t h e c on omi c con diti ns pr v a ilin g a fte r , a e o e

i t t h e m v e m t h d ttr cte d m
, o en y pe pl e w h o c a r d onl y fo t h g i ns th y c o uld
a a a an o e r e a e

m a k e t h ro u gh i t ; man y s ci ti es w r e i n ffi ci e t ly r un ; an d i nfl t i n h d s h a k e n
o e e e n a o a

t h e e c on om ic s tr e n gt h of t h e m o v e m n t j u t i n t h e p e ri o d wh e n it s h uld h v e pl a ye d e s o a

a n i m p orta t p a rt i n t h e pr ogre ss o f t h
n n e w p e a s a n t f r me r s To th t w kn ss of e a . a ea e

t h e co o p e ra tiv es t h e S t a t r e pli d n t with m ore ge ne ro us a id but with s te r

-
e r on e o , ne c

trol Th e n e w C ode w as d e vis d t o create a l ega l fr m e Withi n which t h e mov e m en t

. e a

mi ght e v o lv e free ly .

Th t l ega l fra me s a id t h e exp se d e motifs t o t h e e w C ode ( from whi ch thi s

a , o
’

s u mma ry i s m a d e ) s h o uld be s uffi c i e t ly w id e t o offe r t o t h e co o p e r tiv es t h e fr e e

‘
, n -
a

d om of m o v e me n t whi ch e v e ry e c on omic en te rpri s e n ee d s if it i s t d e v e l op in t h e o

presen t e c on omi c world But a t t h e s a me tim t h e l ega l pro vi s i ons m u s t be s ufii

.
, e,

t ly d fi n i t e t o m a k e s ur e th a t a s oci e ty c a lli n g itse lf o p r a tiv e full y con

”
ci
“
en e e o -
e

for ms t o t h e e o o p e ra tiv e id ea a n d is cl e a rly di ffe re ti a te d fro m othe r kin ds o f

-

, n

c o mp n i a Th l a w s fir s t t w o ch a pte rs th e re fo re i n dic a te th t with i n i t s m ea ni n g

es .
’
e
’
a

o p e r tiv s a r e s o ci e ti es for m e d by an un li mi t e d n u m b e r of p pl e for t h e re a liz a

‘
c o -
a e eo

ti on of c ommon e n ds by mea ns of a c om mo e c o om ic e n te rpris e , n n

 41 0 THE EFFECTS OF THE
-
C d l v it
Th e Co Op em ti ves Th e n e w o e ea es . v y p r tiv
t o e e r co o e a th u h e t o fix -
ro g
its S at tut r ph c l
es t h e ge og a t ri l l t
i a a n d m a e a i mi s of i t s a ctiviti b l th
es I n t h e e i ef at .

u v t u r r
t h e R m a ni a n m o e m en s ff e s f om a n e xc iv d v i ess e rc C d cil
i i s on of fo es , t h e o e fa i
t t i r
a es t h e fus on of t w o or mo e of t h e e x s n i ti ci ti g s o e es .

Th e C d i t i
o e m a n a ns t h e pr vi i o cc rd
s on a o which c pit l h r
i ng t o a ut
a s a es m s be
e qu l but it l
a ; rl y d w
n o on e
g a s xi u
o n a ma r ly pr vid th t
m m , me e o rul
in g ch
a the e s of ea
so eci ty h l pr crib
s a l es y p rt
e h ow m an a b r t k
s a m e m e m a y a e up fift y b hi h t e in g t h e
g es
,

l t
imi ci ti b d td u
Th e s o e es m a y be a s e on t h e li mi e or n li mi e
. t d r p ib l ty th i es ons ii of e r

b r . C d l w t bl
me m e s Th e o e a l o s t h e es a is h me n of co o e a t p r tiv w th h r c pit l es -
i a s a e a a ,

h r c u d r
t h e s a es of o r se n a m e , a s a fo m of a ss o a on i e ci ti l k ly r u t bl
t o be m o e s i a e for
c rt i
e p r tiv
a n co o e a -
pr ducti
es of o with
on du tri l ch r ct r
an i n s
, a d
a a r
e , n ee ing a mo e

t bl c pit l
s a e a a pr v t udd d cr
To . e en a s en e c pit l
ea s e i n a C d l w ci ti
a the o e a l o s so e es t o la y

d w tr
o n a e m , n ot e xc y r duri wh ch
ee d in g t e n ea s , ng i b r ith r w
n o m em e m a y w d a .

rd r h p r
I n o e n ot t o a m e t h e w rk o ci ti C d l w th
of t h e s o e es t h e o e a lo s t t em t o s a e

in th r t tut th t th y
ei S a es a e l w rk ith
m ay a s o o w b r But
n on m e m e s -
pr v t t h e la w . e en s

th r b i d uc dd ti l
i s f om e n g m a e a s o r e of a i on a p rofi t for t h e m e m e s Of t h e g oss b r r .

l t c t ut r v l t
p r ofit s , a t e as 1 0 p er en m s go t o es er es ; a t e as 5 p er e n t o a f n for
. c t u d .

ci l ctiviti
so a a t
es ; a t t h e m os c t d tr tiv b rd
1 0 p er en for t h e a mi n i s a . e t tut
oa , if t h e S a es

pr id
ov e forth i r u r ti
e r e m n e a on ;p rt it a of di id d
as a v en p id c pit l
for t h e a up a a , n ot -

e xc diee n xi u
g t h e m a m m fi x e d for e a ch ki d n p r tiv by
of co o e a N ti l
-
e the a on a Ofii ce ;

whi r d r
l e t h e e m a in e is t o be di tribut d s e b r cc r
a m on g t h e m em e s a p rt
o di n g t o t h e a

wh ch ch
i ea pl y d
has a e r l ti rplu
i n t h e ea i z a on of t h e s u s b r l p yd
If n on m e m e s a s o la e
.
-

a p rt th th ir pr p rti l h r r
a in is , e o o ut
on a s a e f o m t h e n e t pr ofi t s m s c in n o ase be d is
tribut d e b r but u t
t o t h e mem e s, dd d l y r rv
m s be a e fu l t o es e es H th rt cc rd i e o, a o i ng
.

to M Ra . c tributi
i d ucan u, on l b u c u pti
ons i n a o r, ons m w ron , & c , t v re e a lmos ne e .

r r td
e m un e a e , a ll t h e profi t s b i tribut d divid d
e n g di s e as c pit l
en s t o a a .

p r tiv
Th e co o e a -
ulti t ly u d r
es ar e ma e n ec tr l r l ti
t h e on o of t h e gen e a m e e n gs , i n
wh chi b r h v qu l v t
t h e mem e s a e e a wh ch l ct r
o es , a n d i e e th
f om a m on g lv e m se es t h e

c tr l p r
m a n a gi n g an d on o li n g e s onn e l .

Th e F ed era ls Lik v ry th r c
e e e. o ic v
e e on om t p r ti d
mo e m en , co o e a on n e e s t o c on cen -

tr rc T i
a t e i t s fo es rv d by
h s en d is s e e
. Fdrl the e e a s c c ptiIn our on e
. F d r l on , t h e e e a is

pu ly
re p r tiv wh
a n d s i m ply a co o e a e -
b r p r tiv ci ti H c
ose m e m e s a re t h e co o e a e s o e es
-
en e , .

th u h
o g tt ch v rwh
we a a o e i p rt c
e lmi n g m o r l r ti p r
an e t o t h e fed e a o ga ni z a on of co o e a -

ti o n o ur, pr j ct y c t i v ry l it d pr v i
o e onl on a ns e im e c tituti
o i s ons for t h e ons r i ti on , o ga n z a on

and a ctivity d r l Th y c
of t h e fe e a s
’
e .ith
om e w r l pr vi i
i n t h e ge n e a o s ons of t h e la w .

Th e a ctiv ty i d r l ut
o f t h e fe e a s m s c c r d l ly w th ti y
be on e n e s o e i d
s a s f i n g t h e n ee s

ci t d
of t h e a sso a e p r tiv
co o e a es -
.

C d l v d r l lt th r r
Th e o e e a es t h e fe e a s a oge e f ee t o e d cid thr u h th ir t tute o g e S a es t h e

geog a r phic l xt t th r p r ti
a e en of ei which
o e a ons , c v r wh l c u try
ma y o e t h e o e w llo n , as e

as t he ki d n p r tiv which th y wil cc pt

of co o e a es
-
e l a e b r a s m em e s .

‘
I n our vi w e utu i With
, t he f r e l es r i l d r l b k r upi t th r
t h e e g on a fe e a an s , g o n g oge e

a ll t h e v ri u
a o s co o e ap r tiv ith
es ; w
-
ti l wh l l
a n a on a ci ty
o es a e so e upplyi for s ng t h e

co o e a
-
p r tiv p ci lly by
es , es e a p rt with
w a y of i m o s , d d tic
a ll t h e goo s for ith
om es us e ; w
ti l d r l
n a o n a fe e a s for t h e d p l ricultur l pr duc ru t
i s os a of a g a o c l ct d th u h
e, f i & c , ol e e ,
ro g .

l c l r i l
o a or e g on a co o e a p r tiv But es
-
r p t . ut
, r th pr v d
w e e ea , t h e la w m s d o n o mo e an o i e

l l r
t h e e ga f a me n e e ssa c ry u cti
for t h e f n th
oni n g of r ti
es e o ga ni z a ons , a n d n ot t o im ~

p d t il d ch
os e e a e s wh ch w uld r ly cr p
e mes i o me e amch k an d i d r
o e t h e l f e o f t h e fe e als
’
.

r r
Th e Un ion s Th e f a m e s of t h e n e w o e e e e
. C d b li v th t d r l r ti
a fe e a o ga ni z a ut on s m s

k cl r b tw c
ma e a e a out e ee n e on o m a n d so a a ic ci l ctiviti H c id by id ith
es en e , s e
. s e w

d r l which
t h e fe e a s , pu ly c
a re t o b e re ic ci ti
e on o m C d c t pl t
s o e es , t h e o e on e m a es t h e

se tti n p r tiv U
g up o f Co o e a
-
e ni on s .

Th e U pl c
ni o n s a r e , i n t h e fi rs t x rci
a e to e e c pu ry u cti l l
se as a, om ls o f n o n ega con

tr l v r ci ti
o o e t h e a fii li a t e d s o e es .

In a dditi th r t tut
on , ei S a c t pl t uch th r ctiviti
es m a y on e m a e s o e a pr t es as t h e o eo

ti v t i t r t t ch ic l
on o f t h e m o e m e n s n e e s s ,
’
e n l l pr vi i
a a n d ega a i d , o p r iv
s o n for c o o e a t e -
 REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 41 1
prop agan d a n d te a chi n g a n d n y oth e r a ctivity c n c e rnin g t h e cul tur a l s id e of
a , a o

co o p e r a ti on i n t h e r e i on i n qu e ti on
-

g We see in t h e orga ni z ti on of s uch un i ons s .

‘
a ,

a s t h e o r gan s of s e lf
go v e rnm e n t of t h e m o v m en t t h m ea n s of crea tin g a r ea l e e
-

co o p e r a tiv e lif e
’
-
.

Th e l w s e ts n o geogr phic a l limi t t o t h e c ons tituti n of t h e Un i ons N or d oes it

a a o .

ma k e t h e orga n iz a ti on in to Uni ons c om puls ory as n ot ll t h e cc op e r a tiv s m y be , a -

e a

a bl e a t pr esen t t o f c e t h e o utl a y in v o lv e d But if a m a j ority of o o p r tiv es i n

a . c -
e a

a c e rta i n r e gi on d m d i t t h e N ation a l Offi ce m y m a ke a ffili a t ion com puls o ry for

e an ,
a

a ll co o p e r a tiv es in th a t r egi on
-
.

Th e Cen tra l Co op em ti ve B a n k Th e old C n tra ls fi n n c d an d c on troll e d by t h e

-
. e , a e

S ta te w e re i n th ir tur n e x e rci in g t h e d o ubl fu cti on of fin

, e i n g an d c tro lli n g s e n anc on

t h e c o o p e ra tiv e s
-
The ir a ctivities cen tralize d a n d bur a ucra tic w e re o me wh a t
.
, e , s

mi x d a n d dis c on ten t with th e ir c on duct w a s Wides pre a d Th e n e w C od e a tte m pts

e ,
.

t o se gre ga te t h e fun cti ons of t h e c en tra l b di es o .

I n pl a c e of t h e C n tra l of t h e P o pula r B a nk s t h e n e w Co d e se ts upe C tra l a en

Co o p e ra tiv e B a nk I t is t o en j oy wid e a uton o m y but a s it c ann t for t h e time b e i n g

-
.
, o

dis p ens e with S tate s upport i t s S ta tute s re qui re t h e a ppro v a l of t h e G o v er m en t ,

n .

Th e C en tra l B a n k s c a pita l is t o c ons is t of 5 00 milli on le i c on tribut e d by t h e S ta te

’
,

a d o f s o ci a l p a rts of
n le i ea ch e v e ry a ffi li a t e d co o p e ra tiv e h a vi n g t o t a k e up ,
-

a t l eas t o e so ci a l p a rt Th e B n k is t o gra n t cre di ts i n wh a te v e r fo r m t o t h e a ffi li a t e d

n . a

s o ci e ti s a d t o c a rry o ut on th e i r b e h a lf a n y an d e v e ry b a n ki n g o p e r a tion
e n .

Th e b oa rd of m a n a ge m e t Will c ons is t of t h ree d e l ga tes of t h e S t t e on e of t h e n e a ,

Na ti on a l B a n k an d fi ve de lega tes e l e ct d by t h gen ra l mee ti ng of t h a ffi lia t ed e e e e

s o ci e ti e s A t t h e gen e ra l m eetin g t h e v oti n g p o w e r of t h e S ta te is li mi te d t o on e

.

thi rd of a ll t h e votes c a s t a t t h e m eeti n g Dis putes b etw een t h e S tate an d t h e C e n tra l .

B n k ar e t o be settl e d by a n a rbitra l c m mis s i on pr es id e d o v e r by a m e m b e r of t h e

a o

s upre me C o ur t .

Th e D i ecti g Co op em ti ve B od i es Th e t as k of guidi n g an d co ord in tin g t h e

r n -
.
-
a

a ctiviti e s of t h e v a ri o us bran ch es o f t h e m ov m n t is en tru s te d t o a G en e r l C o u n cil e e a

o f t h e Co o p e r a tiv e M o v e men t
-
I t c ons is ts of fif t een m em b ers of wh om s ix a re t o be .
,

e l cte d by t h e gen e r a l c on gr es s of t h e co o p e r a tiv e s o ci ties fi ve a re a pp oi n te d by t h e

e -
e ,

go v e rn m e n t on e is d e l e g t e d by t h e s upre m e C o ur t while t h ree a e t o be c o opte d

, a , r -

fr om a m o g r e c ogni z e d e xp erts on co o p e ra tiv e qu es ti ons

n -
.

Th e fun cti ons of t h e G en e ra l C ou n cil a re c a rri e d out thr ou gh t h e N a ti n a l Ofii ce o

of t h e Co o p e r tiv e M o v e m e n t
-
Th e Office will gui d e an d c on tro l t h e a ctivi ty of t h e
a .

Uni ons l ay in g d ow t h e rules for t h e c o tro l of co op era tive socie ties A t t h e sa m e

, n n -
.

time t h e Offi ce se rv es a s a c o ur t of a pp e l fro m d cis i ons t a ken by t h e Un i ons

, a e .

F in lly t h e Offi ce wil l re pres e t t h e in te re sts of t h e mo v e m en t in i t s re l ti ons with

a , n a

t h e p oli tic l p o w r W r e ga rd t h e N a tion a l Offi ce s a c n tr l of t h e Co o p e ra tiv e

‘
a e . e a e a -

Uni ons When w e h a ve Co op erative Uni ons i n t h whole co un try t h e N at1on a l

. e ,

O th ee w ill dis ppea r t o be re pl ce d by a Ce ntr l of t h e Un i on s

a , a a .
’

Th e e w C o d e h as b een a cc e pt d by t h e co op e r tiv e o rga n i ti ons of t h e n a ti on a l

n e -
a za

mi n orities in t h e e w pro vi n c es whi ch h d hith e rt o prefe rre d t o c n ti n u e w o rki n g on

n , a o

t h e s tre gth of t h e pr e w ar l w s Now t h e H un g ri

n a d G e r ma n c c o p e ra tiv s a r e
-
a . a an n -
e

re pre en te d on t h e G en er l C un cil a d thu s t h e proc ess of u nifyi ng t h e c o op era tiv e

s a o , n

s ys t e m is a ctiv e ly u n d e r w a
y .

Mean wh ile a Co ope rative Cen tra l for I m port a nd E xpe rt h as b een fo u de d With
,
-
n ,

fi n ci l a i d fro m t h e C en tra l B a n k I t is a limi te d c om p an y i t s m e m b e rs c ons is ti n g

an a .
,

o f th ose c o o p e ra tiv e s o ci e ti es whi ch d es i r e t o c rry o ut j o i n t pur ch ases an d t o a rr a n e

g a
-

for t h e j oi n t s a l e of th e i r pro duc e Th e C en tr a l u n d rta k es a n y c omm e rci a l o p e ra ti o . e n

fa lli n g withi n t h e n ee ds of i t s m e m b e rs I t h a s b egu n t o w ork a t on c e for t h e sa l e of .

,

th is yea r s a bu d a t h a rv est an d for s upplyi ng t o t h e p e as n ts agricultura l ma chi n s

’
n n , a e

a n d i mpl e me n ts a s w e ll as se l e cte d se e d & c , , .

 lllllll I I I I I II

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.

O Q
 C H A P TE R X I
THE EFFE CTS OF THE S TATE S ECONOMIC AND F I NAN
GI AL POLICY UPON THE WORKING OF THE REFORM

IN the prelim in a ry rem a rks to Ch a pter IX it w a s pointed out

how d ifficult it w a s to estim a te the effects of the reform on
production bec a u s e of the v a riety of other a gents whi ch side
, ,
’
by side with the reform a cted a n d re a cted upon the coun try s
,

rur a l economy .

There were in the fir st pl a ce the consequen ces of the War .

Th ey were not peculi a r to Rum a ni a but a uni vers a l phenomenon

, ,

which s a ddled every coun try w ith the a rduous problem of

reconstruction Reconstruction me a nt in the m a in the renew a l
.

of the fa ctors of production— hum a n a n d mech a nic a l— destroyed

or d a m a ged i n the servi ce of the Wa r ; a s well a s a p a rti a l
re a d a pt a tion of the economic m a chi n e to a ltered conditions of
supply a n d dem an d In Rum a ni a the l a nd reform ch a nged the
.

whole structur e a n d direction of rur a l lif e a n d re a da pt a tion

,

bec a me a s l a rge a p a rt of the problem of reconstruction a s

renew a l The whole t a sk therefore w a s hea vier a n d more
.
, ,

complex th a n elsewhere comp a ra ble r a ther to the problem of

,

reconstruction in Russi a th a n to th a t in western Eur ope .

Such a s it w a s the recovery of a griculture w a s the pivot on

,

which the whole problem turned ; b ec a use a gricultur e h a d b een

a n d w a s boun d to rem a in the coun try s chief fi eld of production
’
,

a n d b ec a use if one excepts a mi nor contribution from the oil

,

i n d ust 1 y a griculture a lone w a s c a p a ble of givin g a sur plus

,

wherewith to pay for the considera ble imports ur gently requir ed

to renew the me a ns of p1 od uct 1 0n In the proportion in whi ch
th a t t a sk rested upon a pa 1 t icula r bra nch of i n d ust i y th a t,

bra nch p a te n tly deserved a ssist a nce a n d encour a gement from

those who directed the cou n try s policy In thi s p a rticul a r c a se
’
.

such goodwill w a s a l s o c a lcul a ted to h a ve inestim a ble psycho

logic a l v a lue a s a stimulus to the millions of new pe a s a nt owners ,

to set to work with a will a n d get the utmost out of their new
holdings .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 41 5

To fulfil th a t function the l a nd reform would h a ve h a d to b e

,

complemented by a helpful a gra ri a n policy If a gric ul ture w a s .

to c a rry the St a te on its shoulders it would fi r st h a ve to be helped

,

itself on to its feet a ga in Rum a ni a s i n tern a l re s ources were

.
’

exceedingly low a t the end of the Wa r a n d n othing in the w a y ,

of bountif ul fa vours could h a ve been expected by a n y cl a ss of

producers But a s the a i d which the St a te could give the fa rmers
.

w a s sc a n ty a ll the mo r e c a use w a s there to remove out of the i r

,

w a y a nything which might h a mper their o wn effort to m a ke good .

Then o n ly would the l a n d reform h a ve h a d a cle a r ch a n ce to

, ,

prove wh a t forces good or evil it w a s bri n ging in its tra in

, , .

Th a t test w i ll never be a ppli c a ble n ow to the fi rst dec a de of the

new a gra ri a n r egime I n stea d of pursuing these s imple ends
.
,

which in this c a se were truly obvious offi cia l policy h a rnessed ,

itself to the a mbitious ide a l of a chieving na tion a l self suffi ci en cy -

.

Not o nly di d it strive to conj ur e up a n a tion a l industry— which ,

’
it w a s cle a r could not h a ve sa t i sfi e d the country s immedia te
,

needs let a lo n e give a surplus wi th wh ich to pur ch a se in di s

,

pens a ble goods from a bro a d— but it tried to re a ch th a t di ffi cult

‘
go a l without a n y foreign help Ta king through ourselves a s
.
’

its motto it a ttempted to cre a te a n a r t ifi cia l industry wi th such

,

me a ns a s could b e squeezed out of a worn out co untry a n d -

, ,

moreover a t the s a me time to rev a loriz e the exch a nge The

, .

inevit a ble result w a s a h a rrowi ng stringency of money B eing .

the only fi eld of production whi ch coul d sp a re a n y me a ns a t a ll

for the c a rrying out of the se pl a ns a griculture w a s m a de the,

Cinderell a of the industri a l a n d fi n a n cia l fi eld s of a ctivity in ,

which a n extreme economic n a tiona lism w a nted to ra ise its fl a g .

And a s in its new st a te a gricultur e rested more th a n ever on the

, ,

sho ul ders of the pea s a nts it w a s the pe a s a nts who a fter h a vi n g

,

been subj ected to the l a ndlords were presently subj ected to

i n dustry a n d fi n a nce .

In such conditions the f a rmin g cl a ss could not rise to the

grea t occ a sion the l a nd reform offered it I n fa ct it foun d it .
,

h a rd even to re a ch its former prec a rious st a te a n d rep a ir the

d a m a ges which the Wa r h a d done to its m a teri a l eq ui pment The .

p a ra doxica l policy which produced th a t situ a tion must there

fore be described however br iefly if the birth a n d i nfa ncy of
, ,
41 6 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
’
Rum a ni a s new a gra ri a n org a niz a tion is to b e presented in it s
true light .

S E CTI O N 1

THE RE S O U R C E S OF A G R I C U L TU R E
(a ) Worki ng Cap i ta l of Agr i cultur e a s afi ected by th e
Th e ,

Refor m After the Wa r a n d with the b eginning of the l a nd

.
,

reform a gricultur e found itself fa ced with exception a l cir cum

,

st a nces Its t a sk w a s formid a ble indeed H a ving a lw a ys been

. .

underc a pit a lized it w a s b ound to feel the effects of the Wa r even

more th a n it did in other countries But in a ddi tion Rum a ni a n .
, ,

a griculture w a s now prim a rily in the h a nds of sever a l milli on

sm a llholders who h a d to fi n d a t one a n d the s a me time mea ns

,

wherewith to orga ni ze their fa rms a s well a s re a dy money for

he a vier t a xes a n d especi a lly for p a yi n g for the l a nd they h a d
, , ,

received The l a rge own ers in thei r tur n if they w a nted to st a y

.
, ,

on the l a nd h a d to meet the new situ a tion by reorga ni zin g their

,

f a rms for intensive cultiva tio n with equi pmen t of their own , .

This a t a tim e when they h a d suffered thr ough the reform

a co nsider a ble loss in revenue receiving in retur n b onds on a very ,

low sc a le of compe n s a tion a n d which a t o n ce lost h a lf of their

nomin a l v a lue when offered on the Stock Exch a nge .

The compens a tion a llowed by the decree of Decemb er 1 91 8

w a s below the a ctu a l v a lue of the expropri a ted l a nd but w a s ,

still subst a nti a l enough After the second expropri a tion it .

b ec a me merely n omin a l The index h a d in deed b een ra ised from .

twenty to forty times the rent fi x e d in 1 9 1 6 i e the a mount , . .

of the compens a tion w a s doubled but in the me a ntim e the ,

currency h a d depreci a ted to of its nomin a l va lue .

From d a t a collected from tribun a ls in the Old Kingdom it ,

a ppe a r s th a t during the period 1 9 1 1 1 6 whole est a tes were sold

—

a t a n a ver a ge of 9 8 8 lei per h a in the lowl a nd s a n d 68 4 lei per .

h a in the hills— which w a s equ al roughly to £39 1 08 0d a n d

. , , . .

£27 1 03 0d a t pa r .
1
The compens a tion gra n ted to the ex pr o
. .

r i a t e d l a ndowners in the Old Kingdom v a ried from to

p
lei the a vera ge being a bout
,
lei p er hect a re ; a n d
V O P p vici Lup 1 Vi p A g i ld M rch 1 9 21
. . o o -
a, a a r co , a , .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 41 7

only h a lf of thi s a t the fi r st expropri a tion This wa s worth .

a b out £ 20 tow a rds the middle of 1 9 1 9 not more th a n a bout ,

£6 1 08 0d a t the time of the second expropri a tion in the

. .
,

sum mer of 1 9 521 a n d soon a fterw a rds when the b onds were
, ,

h a n ded over less th a n £2 ; the a ctu a l va lue b eing a bout

,

£2 1 03 0d a t the r a te a t which the Rum a ni a n exch a nge h a s

.

now been st a bili zed or roughly one pound per a cre Th a t how , , , .
,

ever w a s the nomina l compen s a tion ; the a ctu a l a mount the

,

l a ndowners received w a s st ill less For the bonds in which th e .

St a te p a id them never rose a bove 6 1 on the Stock Exch a nge a n d ,

fell to a n a vera ge of 5 0 As the price h a s been c a lcul a ted a t .

forty times the rent fix ed in 1 9 1 6 a n d cur rency h a s depreci a ted

to of its gold va lue it me a n s th a t the nomin a l va lue of the ,

bonds represen t a n d their a ctu a l m a rket v a lue merely

of the ye a rly rent for one hect a re fi x e d offi cia lly in 1 91 6 And .
,

further the ye a rly rent represe n ting norm a lly

, of the obj ect s ’

va lue it follows th a t the compens a tion given to the l a ndown ers

,

w a s equ a l to or a bout 3 2 per cent of the -

.

pre w a r v a lue of their la nd The St a te w a s a dmittedly short of

-
1
.

resour ces a n d it is no concern of ours to inqui re whether it could

,

h a ve t a ken a gre a ter bur den upon itself Wh a t we a r e trying to .

’
cl a rify in thi s ch a pter is the St a te s a ttitude tow a rds the a gri cul
tur a l cl a sses a n d the point is therefore not whether the St a te
, , ,

could h a ve offered a fa irer price to the l a ndo w ners but whether ,

it tre a ted other cl a sses a n d groups who h a d some cl a im upon it

with equ a l stringency The o nl y other mea sure comp a ra ble in .

ch a ra cter a n d sc a le to the l a nd reform w a s the expropri a tion so ,

to spe a k of the owners of Russi a n rubles a n d of Austro

,

Hu n g a ri a n crowns ; a n d they one must note were given twice , ,

the m a rket va lue of the obj ect they h a d to sur render The .

tra ns a ction cost the St a te ne a rly 7 5 milli a rd lei 2 the nomin a l ,

1
M S y n ad i no
.
p 9 of t h e a , eon o e . rticl qu t d b r t t th t B r bi
e fo e , s a es a in es sa a a th e
com e n sa p ti
o n w a s fi x e d a t 75 0 le i p er h a B r
efo e t h e War on e h a w a s . o w rth .

i r c v
S w ss f a n s a n d ga e a n e t e en e of 42— 5 f a n s ea r v u r c y rly c p ti
; t h e o m e n s a on g e n iv
by t t r pr
t h e S a e e es e n s a o t 7 S ss f an s , b ut wi r c which will iv
g e a ea y rly i c
n o me of
c ti
7 e n m es .

2
Th e s a m n g a n d w t pi
r a a of A s ithd w l
o u tr H u ri
n ga a n n o e s , a o -
in g t o twhich cc rd
th e Tr ty
ea of S a i n e ma n w a s t o b e tG r i
-
d
on e a t on e , w a s n otc eg n a e in the b u till l t
u r
s m m e of 1 9 1 9 an d n ot a e out i c rri d t ll u t
A gus 1 920 Th e mi e e ni e of t h e
. pri tiv t ch qu
s ta m pi pr c
n
g o ess , a n d t h e re pr e h e nmb d l y
le e a i n g of t h e m eas r e of uni fi ca t i on for u
E e
41 8 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
va lue of the cur rency b eing less th a n 1 4 milli a rd lei According .

to estim a tes d a ting b a ck to 1 9 24 cited by M Ci or i ce a n u the

, , .
,

tot a l price of the expropri a ted a ra ble l a nd w a s sli ghtly a b ove

1 5 mi l li a rd lei a n d together with forests expropri a ted l a ter in
,

Tra nsylv a n i a a bout 1 7 m illi a rd lei The Centra l Resettlement

, .

Offi ce puts the cost of the a r a ble l a nd a t o nl y 1 2 milli a rd lei

( 6 mi llion h a a t a n a vera ge of lei ) ; the a ctua l va lue b ein g
.

a bout 1 45 milli a rd lei

( estim a ted a t the moder a te a ver a ge of "
8 00gold lei per Th e St a te in other words spent 75 milli a rds , ,

in buy ing b a ck 1 4 milli a rds worth of notes a n d it offered

’
,

1 2 milli a rds for l a nd worth 1 45 mil li a rd lei I n the fi r st c a s e .

,

moreover it a ctu a lly spent 75 milli a rds without a n y further

, ,

profi t to itself ; in the second c a se it h a s i ncurred merely a lo ng

term debt of 6 mi lli a rds one h a lf of the price b ein g p a id by the — -

pe a s ants— a n d it h a s got in retur n a ll the mi nera l we a lth of the

subsoil a s well a s , hect a res l a nd reserved for public pur ,

poses a t the expropri a tion price of one pound a n a cre

, .

Agricultur e w a s urgently in need of c a pit a l in the fi r st ye a rs

of p e a ce h a vi ng to m a ke good the d a m a ge c a used by the Wa r
,

a n d to equip itself for the more in tensive ph a se in whi ch it w a s

entering Most of the l a rge ow ners a s we h a ve seen h a d to

.
, ,

nea rly t w ye rs ( Dr Netta p 46 4 ) ga v e ri se t o an e xtens ive c o tra b an d i n th es e

o a
’
.
,
. n

d e pre ci a te d n otes A b out 4 m illi a rd s A u stro H un g ri an crowns w e re pres n te d for

.
-
a e

s t m pi n g i n A u gu s t 1 9 1 9
a but a b o ut 8 5 m ill i a rd s fo e xch an ge i n A ugus t 1 9 20
,
-
r .

More ov r t h e r te of e xch a nge w a s u nr ea son a bly a d u j ust ifi a bly ( Dr Cio ic a u)

e , a n n
’
. r e n

fi x e d a t 40 100 p er c en t a b o v e t h e m rk t v a lu e A u s tr o H u ga ri an crowns = 0 5 0
— a e : -
n
~

l i R o ma no fi rubl es 1 le u L w fi rubl e s = 0 30 l i wh i l e n otes i ss u d by t h e C e n tra l

e ,
:
,
o -
e ,
e

Po we rs duri ng th ir occupa ti on thr o u gh t h e B a c a G e n ra l a w e re v lu e d a t par

e n e a :

Withdr a w n V lu e d a t a

Lei
A— H crown s
Rubl es

Ba n c a Gen . t
n o es

T ot l a

Th e e xpl a a ti c ommo ly o ffer d for thi s e xce ss of ge e ros ity i s th a t t h e S ta te

n on n e n

wi s h d t o d ea l lib er lly with t h e p pul ti on of t h e ew provi n ces Y t n o s uch lib er

e a o a n . e

a lity h s b n e vi c e d i n t h e trea tm e n t of own e rs of l d i n t h e n e w pro vin c es as th t

a ee n an , a

v o uch afe d t o t h e o w e rs of b a n k n otes I t i s pro b a bl i n fa ct th t a t t h e tim e t h e

s n -
. e, , a

ra te f xch a g w s fi xe d t h e bulk of t h c n c lle d tes w r e i n t h e p ossess i on n ot

o e n e a ,
e a e no e

o f i n dividu a l s but f b a nk s a d m a n y mo re i n t h e p s s s i o of b a n k s i n t h e O ld
o , n os e n

Ki gd o m th an i n t h e n e w pro vi c e s ( S e Dr X e n ofon N etta P olitic a Mon e t t a a

n n . e .
‘
a

R man i i
o rticl e i n B ul ti ul I n s tit utului E con m i c Romd n es c S e pt O ct 1 9 28
e
’
, a e n o ,
.
— .
,

pp 4.6 3—6
; a d Dr I C i o icean u La Dette P ub
n li que d la R ouma n i e P ri s 1 9 27
. r ,
e , a , ,

pp 6 9
.
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY 41 9

purch a se a new everything in the w a y of live a n d de a d stock .

But the compens a tion they were to receive from the St a te for
the expropri a ted l a nd w a s m a de over to them very slowly The .

form a lities for securing the bonds were comp lic a ted ; two ye a rs
a fter the fi rst expropri a tion the own ers h a d not received even

a p a yment on a ccount The fi r st bonds were not issued till .

November 1 922 though bea ring a coupon for Ma y The ,

b onds a r e p a ya ble with in fi fty ye a rs No sinking fund h a s been .

provided so fa r a n d no a mortiz a tion dra w h a d t a ken pl a ce un til ,

-

the end of 1 9 28 Accord ing to the D irector of the Centra l .

Resettlement Offi ce Professor A N a st a the tot a l cost of the , .

,

expropri a ted a re a would b e a pproxim a tely a s follows : 2

O ld Ki gd m h t n l i
o a a e

Bessa ra bi a 78 2 l , 1 66 , 6 7 8 , 3 1 2
Buc o vi n a a n d Tr a ns ylv a n i a

le i

An estim a te communic a ted by the Centra l Resettlement Offi ce

puts the tot a l cost a t lei h a at .

lei ) Until the end of J une 1 929 bonds h a ve been issued for
. ,

In a ddition bon ds to the va lue of a bout 6 00 ,

mi lli on lei h a ve been issued to cover mortga ges of the Rur a l Credit
Institute of Buc a rest a n d the Urb a n Credit Institute of J a ssy 3 .

Pa yme t fo t h e fir s t e xpro pri a ti on i n t h e Old Ki ngd om w s uth ri e d by t h e

1
n r a a o z

M in ute No 6 25 of t h e C bin e t Co u c il publis h d i n t h M n i t m l Ofi cia l of April 6

. a n , e e o o ,

1 9 22 p a ym en t f r t h e se c on d e xpro pri ti by t h e M i ute No 5 1 7 publi s he d o

o a on n . n

M rch 27 1 9 27 Th s me Mi n ute uth ri d p yme t fo t h e lan d e xpropri te d i

a . e a a o ze a n r a n

B ucovi na F o B es s bi a p a y m e t w a s a uth ri z d by t h e C a bi e t M in ute N o 1 45 9

. r a ra n o e n , .
,

publi s h d n July 3 1 9 23 ; f r T a ns ylv n i by t h e M i ute No 9 2 publi s h d on

e o , o r a a n .
, e

Jan ua y 3 1 1 9 24 Pa ym t f t h e fores ts xpr pri t d i n Tr ylv a i a a nd B u o

r , . en or e o a e a ns n e

vi a w s a uth ori e d by t h Ca bi n t M in ute No 3322 publi s h d No v m b r 7 1 9 26

n a z e e .
, e on e e , .

B y a rr n ge me t with t h M i ni s try of F in a n c t h C tr l R es ettl e m n t O ffi c w as

a n e e, e en a e e

e tru s t d wi th t h
n e tr sf r n c of t h e b on d s t o t h xpropri a te d o wn e rs s w ll a s
e an e e e e e , a e

with t h e c lle cti thr o u gh t h e u s u a l fisc l ch nn l s of t h e p a ym e ts which t h e

o on , a a e , n

p a an ts h a d t o m k Th e o wn ers re ce iv d 8 0 per c e t of t h e s um a s soo a s t h e

e s a e . e n . n

price w s ettl ed d t h r e m i n d r a ft r t h fi l m ea s ur e me n t of t h xpro pri ate d

a s , an e a e e e na e e

l n d ; i n t res t a t 5 p c en t w s c a lcul a te d h we ve r from t h d ay wh e t h e l a d w a s

a e er . a , o , e n n

t ke o v r H lf of t h e c pita l w as t o be pa id by t h e S ta te t h oth r h a lf by t h e
a n e . a a , e e

pea ts ; i n te res t w as a ltogeth r a ch a rge upon t h e S ta te

san e .

2
R efor mer A gra r d , 1 9 26 , p 7 , . .

3
put
. v lu of b o d s i ss u e d up t t h e en d of 1 926 t 1 1 mi ll i a rd
M Ci or i ce a n u s th e a e n o a

le i Th e s e did n ot i clud p y m ts f
. t h e B e s a ra bi an es t t es xpr opri te d fr m
n e a en or s a e a o

F r e n ch n d Briti h citi ea t h e v lu e of which w a s fi x e d a t b o ut on e m illi rd l i

s z ns , a a a e ,

p ymen t b e in g ma de i n 4 per c n t c ons olid t d b o ds of a tota l v lu of

a e . a e n a e

( op . ci t .
, p .
420 E FFECTS OF THE STATE S
The tot a l v a lue of b onds issued up till the end of J un e 1 9 29
w a s therefore less th a n the money p a id in c a sh to the
, ,

holders of foreign notes in 1 920 Expropri a tion bonds were .

neither exempted from t a x a tion nor qu a lified to b e a ccepted a s

security by the N a tiona l B a nk li ke other St a te p a pers ; a dis ,

a bility which h a s a ffected their m a rket v a lue .

The newly settled pe a s a nts were to pa y one h a lf of the price -

of the l a nd plus sur veyi ng expenses a bout 200 lei per h a ( The
, , .

St a te h a d a dva nced a bout 8 00 million lei for purposes of survey

i ng ) Thes e sums co ul d nomin a lly b e cl a imed a t once but pro
.
,

vid e d the new holders p a id one fi ft h of the s um on receivin g the -

l a nd they co ul d pa y the other four fi ft h s within twenty ye a rs

,
-

Accordi n g to the estim a tes of the Centra l Resettlement Offi ce

quoted a bove the tot a l a mount to b e p a id by the pe a s a nts woul d
,

be on e h a lf of the price of the a r a ble l a nd i e a b out 6 milli a rd lei

-

, . .
,

plus a b out 1 2 milli a rd lei sur veying costs Until the end of 1 928 .
,

they h a d b een debited with lei .

The governm ents h aving a dopted a strongly defl a tioni st

policy they were a nx ious to bring b a ck into circula tion the notes
,

which the p ea s a nts were supposed to b e hoa rding ; a n d lik e a ll ,

Ch a ncellors of the Exchequer the Mini sters of Fin a nce were bent ,

upon incre a sing a s much a s possible the immedi a te revenue

without troubling a bout the e ffect of such a course upon n a tion a l
economy a n d upon subsequent budgets Hence the sub ordin a te .

loc a l a uthorities were in structed to m a ke prop a g an da a mong the

pe a s a nts for the im m e di a te p a yment of the full price of the l a nd
they h a d received Whether the pe a s a nts were re a lly ho a rding
.

money is a n O pen question but offi cial prop a ga nd a cert ain ly met
,

with considera ble success It w a s of cour se to the a dva nt age

.
, ,

of the pe a s a nts to pa y their debt while the currency w a s so

depreci a ted but psychologic a l motives prob a bly infl uen ce d them
,

more th a n fi n a n cia l c a lc ul a tions P a st experience h a s m a de the.

pe a s a nts extremely reluct a nt to incur debts a n d they do not feel ,

’
secure until the pr e per p a pers i e the title deeds a r e in their
‘
, . .
-

h a n ds Hence a l a rge number of them m a de the effort to pa y the

.
,

price in full a s m a y b e seen from the t a ble a t the end of the

,

volume U p to the end of 1 9 25 the pe a s a nts h a d p a id nea rly

.

one a n d a h a lf milli a rd lei It seems prob a ble th a t p a yments

- - -
.
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY 421

kept p a ce w ith the debitin g of the pe a s a n ts a t le a st un til 1 9 25 ;

, ,

the position of the fa rmers w a s then getting ste a dily worse .

The la w obli ged the governm ents to devote a ll moneys thus

collected from the pea s a nts to the a mortiz a tion of expropri a tion
bonds In fa ct no pa yment of this kin d h a d bee n m a de up to the
.

middle of 1 9 29 The position therefore of the a gricultur a l

.
, ,

industry with rega rd to a va ila ble c a pit a l w a s br i efl y t his : b oth

la rge a n d sm a ll fa rmers were in need of a ll possible resour ces a s ,

m a ny of them were a bout to st a rt fa rm ing on their own a ccoun t ,

a n d a ll of them h a d some short a ge of stock a n d equi pme n t to

m a ke good The former l a ndowners however were recei vin g

.
, ,

the sum s due to them from the Sta te but t a rdily a n d in d e pr e ci

a ted b onds ; whi le the pe a s a nts were pressed to p a rt with their

money j ust when they most needed i t Nor w a s this money .

retur ned to the industry a s the legisl a tor h a d i ntended th a t it

,

should be Hence durin g the fir st ten ye a rs the St a te h a s a ctu a lly

.
,

turned the reform into a source of revenue ; it h a s h a nded out

lon g term bonds for wh a t it h a d to pay whil e it h a s c a shed
-

rea dy money for wh a t it h a d to receive — the opera tion h a ving

the effect of a forcible lo a n limited to the a gricultur a l industry .

The in come which the Sta te derives from the sub soil h a s
compen s a ted in p a rt the sm a ller sum which the St a te h a s to
defra y by wa y of interest on the bonds a n d the fir st might h a ve
,

come ne a r to b a l a n cing the second if the St a te s possessions h a d ’

been properly a dmin istered At a n y r a te even ii: the expropri a ted

.
,

own ers h a d sold all their bonds— which they could not h a ve done
without severe loss— it is evident tha t the li quid c a pit a l they
might h a ve c ollected would h a r dl y h a ve exceeded the s ums
which the pea s a nts h a nded over to the St a te At b est th a t is .
, ,

one section of the fa rmin g commun ity might h a ve b a l a nced a t ,

a gre a t s a cr ifi ce the c a pit a l outl a y of the other section ; in re a lity

, ,

the working out of the pr o cess of compens a tion h a s prob a bly

resulted in a diminution of such liqui d c a pit a l a s the a gricultura l
i ndustry possessed ( For det a iled figure s s ee Appendix III )
.
,
.

Th e S upp ly of Agr i cultur a l Cr ed i ts The de preci a tion of

.

the cur rencies h a s en a bled owners of re a l est a te to rid themselves

e a sily of mortga ges a n d other debts Rum a ni a n l a ndow ners
.

h a ve ben e fi t e d a s h a ve la n d on e r s else w wh er e from tha t condi

, ,
 422 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
1
tion yet much of their a dva nt a ge w a s lost thr ough untow a rd
,

events They did not to begin wi th h a ve th e opportun ity en

.
, , ,

j oyed by the f a rmers of other coun tries of m a k ing money duri n g ,

the Wa r During the fi r st two ye a rs of the Wa r the frontiers

.
,

were closed a n d during the other two ye a rs two thi rds of the l a nd
,
-

w a s in enemy occup a tion whil e in the other t hi rd production ,

a n d m a rketing were str i ngently controlled by the Gover n ment I n .

both p a rts of the country li ve a n d de a d stock deteriora ted The , .

indebtedness of the l a rge owners w a s w iped out a fter the Wa r

.
,

but so w a s their revenue Few of them possessed a n y c a pit a l .

v a lues b eyond l a nd a n d thi s they lost a ga in st a nomin a l,

compens a tion For the l a rge fa rmers it w a s even more di ffi cult

.

to complete their stock th a n it w a s for the p e a s a nts The pe a s a nts .

were not gre a tly in debt but neither h a d they a n y c a pit a l , .

Their possessions m a y h a ve represented a considera ble sum in

the present depreci a ted cur rency but they h a ve not a corre ,

s on din
p g revenue a n d st ill less reserves in c a sh After the W ar .

m a ny of them h a d to get l a nd most of them h a d to get some ,

stock ; a n d if they got the one che a ply they h a d to pa y he a vi ly ,

for the other so th a t a ltogether they h a d a di ffi cult t a sk b efore

,

them requi rin g fa ir fa cili ties in reg a rd to credit a n d genera l

,

conditions .

If the pec uni a ry needs of sm a ll a n d l a rge f a rmers were gre a t ,

the possibili ty of s a tisfyin g them w a s in versely limi ted The .

short a ge of money w a s gener a l a n d the gu a ra ntees which fa rmers ,

could o ffer were in a dequ a te Th e l a rge own ers h a d rel a tively .

little l a nd left which might constitute a b a sis for cre di t a n d in ,

1
A cc ordi n g t o S . Ne n i te scu ( cite d
by An tim i n Ch es tia S ocia ld p l an d , .

prop erty w a s burd en d b efore t h e War with t h e foll owi ng mortgage d e bts
e

Priv a te mortgage s lei

Cre dit i ns tituti ns o

M ortga ges with out i nteres t

T ot a l
Th e y rly i n t e re s t a mo u n t d t o 26 mi lli on le i To th a t w e re a dd e d ta x es a n d i n te r es t
ea e . ,

on curre t d e bt s s o th a t a lt oge th e r a gricul tur e h a d t o p a y y ea rly i n t a x es an d in te r es t

n ,

le i o ut of a t ot a l i n c ome of le i i e 26 04 per c en t In t h e vi e w , . .
-
.

o f c e rt in R u m a n i n e c on o mi s t s t h e l a n d ow n e r s w e r e r a pidl y a ppr oa chi n g t h e p o in t

a a ,

wh re the y w ould h a v e h a d t o sell out ; an d th a t h a d some p a rt in t h e e ase with whi ch

e

th e y a cc e pte d t h e r efo rm i n 1 9 1 7 , .

T ot l d educti ons fro m l a n d t a x a mo u n te d t o

a le i y a rly dur in g e

1 9 23—7 ; a ll o w an c e s for mortg g d e bts w e re m e r e ly a e le i t h e t ota l i n teres t ,

p a y a bl e be i ng le i ( Dr Cre an ga Ven i turt le si A ve ea Romd i ei M a r i p

. .
,
r n , .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 423

the fir st ye a rs a fter the Wa r the prob a bility of a second expropri a

tion we a kened th a t b a sis still more Sm a llholders were in a still
.

worse position a s the la w forb a de them to sell or mortg a ge the

,

lots received through the l a nd reform The whole en ormous a re a .

tra nsferred to the pea s a nts w a s thus removed from us e a s a b as is

for credit a n d this in a country in which l a nd pl a yed a more
—

import a nt role a s a credit fa ctor th a n tra de a n d indu s try t a ken

together a n d a t a time when a griculture w a s quite peculi a rly in
,

need of credit Moreover the reform h a d rendered equ a lly

.
,
’
di fficul t the obt a in ing of credi ts on produce As the pea s a nts .

corn i s not st a nd a rdized it c a nn ot b e stored in eleva tors ; e a ch

lot is stored sep a ra tely in the flim sy b ui l di ngs or open ya rds of
,

coun try st a tions a n d credit oper a tions a r e of co urse not possible

, , ,

on the strength of such in di vidu a l a n d uncert a in w a rehousin gs .

The m a in di ffi cul t y a rose however not from the speci a l

, ,

ci rcumst a nces of a gricultur e but r a ther from the fi n an cia l a n d

,

economic policy of the Sta te Even b efore the Wa r the n a tion s

.
’

c a pita l wa s b a rely s uffi ci en t to fi n a n ce a gric ult ure a n d the

element a ry industry then i n existence O nl y a sm a ll por tion of .

the publi c lo a ns could b e covered a t home N ot w it h st a n di n g the .

crisis from which a ll the bra nches of production h a ve suffered ,

economic a ctivi ty comp a red to the size of the popul a tion is

, ,

gre a ter in new Rum ani a th a n it w a s in the Old Kin gdom New .

industries a n d tra des h a ve S prun g up the exch a n ge of goods ,

b etween the severa l pro vin ces is more v a ried a n d in consequence ,

the genera l requir ements in mon ey a n d credit a r e proportiona tely

higher th a n they were in 1 9 1 4 Yet the a ctu a l supply both .
,

n a tion a l a n d foreign h a s been much sm a ller bec a use un til the

, ,

end of 1 927 the govern ments pur sued a poli cy of reva loriz a tion .

In 1 9 1 4 the Old Ki n gdom h a d a p a per circul a tion of 5 00 million

gold lei for a pop ula tion of eight mil lions which a llowed 63 gold ,

lei per inh a bit a nt At the end of 1 928 the tot a l p a per circula tion
.

w a s 21 mi lli a rd lei worth in round fi gur e s 66 0 mi l lion gold lei

, .

The num ber of inh a bit a nts being now eighteen millions it follows ,

th a t the circul a tion a mo unted to 36 5 gold lei p er inh a bit a nt .

The p a ra llel is not complete wi thout t a king into a ccount the los s
in the pur ch a si n g power of the Z en estim a ted a t a bout 80 per
,

cent To bring the p a per circ ul a tion not only up to its e a rlier
.
424 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
numeric al equ a tor but to its pre w a r pur ch a sing power the
,
-

country woul d h a ve needed 8 2 gold lei p er inh a bit a nt a n d ,

for the whole popula tion milli on gold lei or 48 mi lli a rd

p a per lei .

In the second pl a ce the St a te pressed these dimi nished ,

resour ces into the service of a policy a imi n g a t the ra pid develop
ment of new in dustries a n d a t the n a tion a liz a tion— in a politic a l
sense— oi e xistin g in dustri a l u n dert a ki ngs The b a nk s were .

forced to use their resources to tha t end The c a pit a l invested .

in l a rge sc a le industry v a ried a s follows :

-

I n go ld le i
1
1 901
1
1 9 15
1 9 26

All the big b a nks , a n d the publi c exchequer , pl unged knee -

deep into
th a t industri a list cur rent At one moment Messrs Mar m oros eh . .
,

Bl a nk Co a lone controlled two fift h s of the coun try s industry

.
’
.

But none of the b a nks took a dir ect interest in f a rmi ng

enterprises Nor were indi vi du a l i nvestors tempted to do s o
. .

The insecurity of l a nd prop erty a n d the St a te control of a gri cul

tur a l m a rketing on the one h a nd coupled w ith the f a vour s
, ,

gra nted to b a nking industry a n d tra de c a used in the supply of

, , ,

c a pit a l a regula r fi igh t from the l a nd Alm ost a ll the bills

‘ ’
.

discounted by the N a t i on al B a nk were industri a l a n d com

m er ci a l while a gric ul ture w a s st a rved of credi t
, A former .

Governor of the B a nk M Or omolu a dmi tted thi s hi mself in

, .
, ,

1 925 In his report to the Bo a rd of Governors he rem a rked th a t

.

Rum a ni a h a d a Na tion a l B a nk to help tra de a n d a S ociety for

Industri a l Credit to help i n dustry but no orga ni zed a gricultura l ,

credit on a simil a r sc a le though the bu lk of the producers were

,

f a rmers .

The credit a t the dispos a l of f a rmers nowhere c a me ne a r wh a t

they needed for reconstruction a n d for the improvement of
production Rum a ni a possessed only one in stitution of agr icul
.

tura l credit for l a rge owners the First Rur a l Credit S ociety of ,

Buc a rest Until 1 9 24 its tra ns a ctions were b a sed on mortgages ;

.

in th a t ye a r a b a nking section w a s a tt a ched to i t Mortg a ge lo a ns .

Th fi t t w fi gu
1
e rs r f r ly t t h i du tri i t h O ld Ki gd m j yi g
o re s e e on o e n s es n e n o en o n

th b
e fit
en ef th L w f
s o t h E c ur g m t f N ti
e a or l I du try
e n o a e en o a on a n s .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY 425

were given by me a ns of bonds on rur a l property ; in 1 925 the

tota l issue a mounted to lei Lo a ns gra nted by th a t .

Institution a n d its bra nches in 1 9 26 a moun ted to 48 4 000 0001ei , , ,

the ra te of in terest b eing 1 2 p er cent In a ddition in 1 9 25 .

,

the St a te cre a ted with the a i d of the Na tio n a l B a nk the ,

Lending B a nks Aga inst Gu a ra ntees w hi ch never disposed of ,

import a nt resour ces the lo a ns outst a n di ng in 1 9 26 a mountin g

,

to lei In 1 923 the St a te h a d cre a ted likewise with

.
,

the support of the Na t1 ona l B a nk a S ociety for Industri a l Credit , .

In 1 9 24 its tra ns a ctions re a ched one milli a 1 d lei those of the ,

Len di ng B a nk s on ly a bout 9 5 lei For the , fa rms .

a bove l 00 h a which exi sted b efore the Wa r a sum of 600

_
.
‘

million gold lei w a s provided by mortga ge lo a ns a lone up to 1 9 1 3 ,

while to d a y -
the whole of the a gricultur a l industry is a ble to
obt a in from mortga ge b a nks co opera tives an d other a gricultura l
,
-

in stitutes no more th a n 4 25 mi lli a rd p a per lei th a t is 1 00—30 , ,

m illi on gold lei ; oi: this 3 m illi a rds is obt a ined through rediscoun ts
from the Na t i on al B a nk Mortg age bond s h a ve up to now b een
.

impossible to pl a ce on the m a rket 1

.

Th e sm a ll c ul tiva tors depended on the c o O per a tive Popula r -

B a nks Thes e were suppli ed w ith funds from a centra l in st it u

.

tion est a blished w ith St a te a ssist a nce the l atter b eing in its turn ,

a ssisted by the N a tion a l B a nk The cre d its which the N a tion a l

.

B a nk a llowed to the whole co opera tive movement did not

exceed 600 mi lli on lei in 1 923—4 According to the Buleti nul .

Agri cultur ei for April— J une 1 927 ( p the cre di ts gra nted by .

Pop ul a r B a nk s to the pe a s a nt f a rmers in 1 9 25 a mounted to

a little over 2 gold lei per h a which included in vestment credits
.
,

a s well a s workin g credits Al together the credit offered t o

.
,

a gric u l ture by the v a rious pub lic a n d semi public in stitutions -

h as not exceeded 3 per cent of the pre w a r tot a l 2 Thi s a ssertion

.
-
.

wo ul d certa in ly a ppe a r to hold good for Be s s a ra bi a Investments .

,

lo a ns & c of all the B ess a ra bi a n b a nks h a d a moun ted to 5 03

, .
,

million rubles in 1 9 1 3 equ a l to 45 milli a rd p a per lei ; a t the end

,

of 1 9 27 they were merely 1 — 1 2 milli a rd lei ; the pe a s a nts who

-

now hold ne a rly a ll the l a nd a r e supplied by the Pop ul a r B a nk s

, .

1
C S t oi cescu, i n t h e
. M
a nch es ter Gua r d i a n s R uma n i a n S up lemen t
p
’

, Ma y 1 9 27 .

2
S Ti mov, i n Na A gr a m om F rame, No 9 , 1 9 25
. . .
426 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
In 1 91 3 there were 337 b a nks with a ssets of 29 mil lion gold lei ,

m a kin g a n a vera ge of 962 lei per he a d of inh a bit a nt At present .

the numb er of b a n k s is 5 5 7 with a ssets of 632 milli on lei or 21 1 1ei ,

p er inh a bit a nt ; this sum in cludes 35 6 million lei worth of corn

di stributed in 1 925 — 6 for food a n d seed bec a use of the f a ilur e ,

of the h a rvest which w a s a me a sur e of tempor a ry a ssist a nce so

, ,

th a t the a ssets a ctu a lly a v a il a ble for b a nking tra ns a ctions were
only 8 7 lei per he a d of inh a bit a nt 1
.

The situ a tion w a s h a r dl y b etter in other p a rts of the country .

The di rector of a big b a nk in the once prosperous B a n a t decl a red

to a corresp on dent of the B uc a rest P lutus ( N ovem ber 6 ,

th a t Rum a n i a n pe a s an ts— some of them worth million s— ar e

‘

d a ily coming to me to dem a nd credits of 20 lei for some ,

wh a t longer terms a n d we c a nn ot do it B ec a use of th a t neglect

,

of a gricultur a l cre di t l a rge f a rmers were forced to b orrow from

priva te b a nk s a t 25 — 30 per cent interest whil e the p e a s a nts
, .
,

were a b a ndoned to the usur ers to whom they h a d to pa y a n y

,

thi ng up to 1 00 per cent The predica ment in whi ch f a rmers

.
,

l a rge a n d sm all found themselves w a s disclosed in a n i nterview

,

w ith M I Proh a sk a the dir ector of the gre a test B a n a t fl our mill
. .
,
-

,
’
publi shed in the P lutus of Novemb er 1 1 1 923 : To d a y he ,
‘
-

s a id w e ca n buy whe a t a t a n y price — I a m giving a w a y

,
‘

a profession a l secret — provided we

pa y in c a sh so gre a t is the ,
’
short a ge of money a mong fa rmers .

A la w for the crea tion of a n Agricultur a l Credit Institution

w a s p a ssed by the N a tion a l Pe a s a nt Governm ent in the sum m er
of 1 9 29 The ini ti a l c a pit a l is to b e of 5 00 million lei one h a lf of
.
,

whi ch is to b e subscribed by the Sta te with permission to ,

increa se the c a pit a l gra du a lly to fi ve milli a rd lei by issui ng ,

bonds Lo a ns a r e to b e gra nted on mortg a ge for shorter or

.

longer terms ; the la w a llowing the mortga ging a lso of l a nd di s

tributed under the a gra ri a n reform It w a s hoped to st a rt the .

new institution in the a utumn of 1 929 .

1
Te ofil I o n c u, Cr ed i t ul i n B as a ra bi a
‘ ’
, a rticl e i n Dr ep ta tea , Buca res t , J an ua ry 1 3 ,
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 427

S E CTI O N 2

B U R D E N S OF A G R I C U L TU R E
THE

( )
a T a xa ti on Dir ect t a.xes on rur a l property were m a de
un iform for the whole country by the la w of 1 923 which a lso ,

est a blished an income t ax for the fir st tim e The a sse s sments .

m a de on rur a l property on th a t occ a sion were to rem a in v a li d

dur ing the quinquenni a l period 1 9 23—7 The b a sis of a ssess .

ment w a s to b e either the rent a l va lue p er hect a re or the ,

t a x a ble in come of the property B ec a use of the conditions then

.

preva ili ng the Mi ni stry of Fin a nce decided th a t the a ssessments

shoul d not exceed cert a in modera te limits In f a ct the a ssessmen t .

of th a t ye a r fi x e d the t a x a ble revenue of the ha .

a r a ble l a nd a t lei th a t is 220 lei p er h a or 4 40

, .
,
-

in gold lei a s a ga i nst the pre w a r estim a te of 30 1ei per h a

-
.

In Vir tue of the fi scal la w p a ssed in Decemb er 1 926 the b a sis ,

of a ssessment w a s r a ised a s from 1 927 to three times the t a x a ble

, ,

i ncome fi x e d in 1 923 .

The t a x a ble income of the va rious c a tegories of l a nd w a s

estim a ted a s follows :

E xt t en

Gra ss l a d s
n

Ma rk et ga rdens
O rch rda s

V i n ya rd
e s

Forests i n e xpl o itati on

O th e r t x bl e prop erties
a a

Ar a bl e l d
an

T ot l a 200 00
-

The sm a ll property gives the highest t a x a ble revenue per h a of .

a r a ble l a nd with a n a ver a ge of 224 lei for the whole co untry

’

Prop e rti es up t o 5 ha le i
a bo ve 5

A more det a il ed segrega tion in to c a tegories is not possible for

1
t x bl e i n c om e of for sts i n c o urs e of e xplo ita ti on i s d ue t o t h e a ss e ss
Th e low a a e

men t a t 7 5 le i i nTran s ylv n i a a n d 1 45 le i i n Buco vi n a — r t Which i s a ltog th er

a a a e e

i ne xplic ble wh en c omp red with t h e

a a l i fi xed i n t h e O ld K i n gd om a n d t h e
e

fix ed i n B ess a ra b i a .
428 EFF ECTS OF THE STATE S
the whole coun try b ec a use the t a bles for Tr a nsylva ni a were set
up in j uga r s a n d those for the other pro vin ces in hect a res so th a t ,

the c a tegories do not coincide For t hi s re a son the figur e s for

.

Tra nsylv a ni a h a ve b een left out of the t a ble below whi ch gives ,

the t a x a ble income per h a of the v a rious c a tegories of property

.

in the Old Kingdom B ess a ra bi a a n d B ue ov in a :

, ,

Prop e rt i es up t o 5 ha . le i
of 5 to 10
of 10 50 -
63
of 5 0 25 0 -
01
v r
o e 25 0 h a .
-
08

Me dium sized property of 1 0—5 0 h a g a ve the lowest t a x a ble

-
.

income which is expl a ined by its being situ a ted in the less fertile
,

regions of the hills .

These low a ssessments c a used the revenue derived from the

l a nd t ax to rem a in on a very moder a te sc a le L a nd f a rmed by .

its owner w a s t a xed a t 1 2 per cent l a nd f a rmed by ten a nts at .

,

1 4 p er cent a n d l a n d whose owner li ved a bro a d a t 24 per cent

.
, .

The gross yield of the t ax w a s a s follows :

T ota l 1

The net yield w a s still lower , as cert ai n a llow a nces were m a de

for mortg a ges for la rge fam ilies
, , & c Th e a llow a nce for mortga ges
.

w a s a s b elow :

T o ta l

The t a ble indic a tes the li mited size of the mortga ges rest ing on
l a nd p roperty a s mortg a ges on the expropri a ted a re a were p aid
,
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 429

off in expropri a tion bonds V ery stri king is the c a se of Bess a ra bi a

.
,

where mortg a ges were pra ctic a lly w iped off no doubt b ec a use
,

the lending in stitutions resided in the former Russi a n Empire .

A second Ca tegory of a ll ow a nces ben e fit e d the l a ndo wners

who were not li a ble to in come t ax h a vin g a n a nn u a l in come of
,

less th a n lei ; they were entitled to deductions r a nging

from 1 0to 20per cent a ccordi ng to the num b er of their children
.
, .

Fin a lly l a ndo w ners whose property did not brin g in more th a n
,

lei ye a rly in come were entitled to a n a llow a nce of 25 per

cent The a vera ge income h a ving b een a ssessed a t 220 lei per h a
. .
,

it followed th a t most of the pea s a nts with holdin gs up to 1 0 h a .

could cl a im tha t a llow a nce— in fa ct out of

or 8 1 p er cent The a moun ts deducted on these two grounds were
.

a s fo llows :

L ei Le i

The tot a l a mount of these deductions w a s 1 38 5 8 6 45 01ei lea vin g

, , ,

a net yield of the t a x of lei This sum w a s a ppor

.

t i on e d b etween v a rious public a uthorities a s fo llows

Lei

T ot a l
The yield of the t a x represented 1 7 per cent oizthe t a x a ble va lue
.
,

a r a ther hi gh proportion but the burden w a s not severe a s the

, ,

t a x a ble v a lue h a d been a ssessed with grea t indulgence M Ionescu . .

Sise s ti considered th a t dur ing 1 923—7 the St a te cl a im ed only

one fi ft h of wh a t the l a nd t a x mi ght h a ve yielded Revenue
-
.

from l a nd t a x w a s est im a ted a t million lei in the 1 9 27

budget an d a t million lei in the 1 928 budget .

It would h a ve been useful for the p urpose of thi s study to

430 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
comp a re the incidence of t a x a tion a s b etween a griculture an d
in dustry Without such a comp a riso n it is not possible to j udge
.

whether the sm a llness of the l a nd t ax w a s trul y a fa vour shown

to the f a rmers or merely p a rt of a generally over lenient fi scal -

policy B ut such a comp a rison is notoriously h a rd to m a ke a n d

.
,

in Rum a ni a s c a se it c a nn ot even b e a ttempted b ec a use only

’
,

a sm a ll portion of the public revenue h a s b een derived from dir ect

t a x a tion Moreover in a country w ith a lax a dmin i stra tion the

.
,

collection of t a xes m a y a ffect the i r incidence a s much a s or more

th a n the a ssessment of those t a xes One ca n therefore merely .
, ,

note two f a cts mentio n ed by M An a st a siu in hi s a rticle on the .

di rect t a x a tio n of lim ited comp ani es 1 He st a tes th a t the di rect .

t a x a tion le vi ed upon the co opera tives of production in the Old

-

Kingdom represented 5 6 per cent of their c a pit a l a n d th a t .

,

levied upon l a rge industri a l undert a kings a b out 2 3 per cent -

.

( 4 per cent in Tr a nsylva ni a ) ; though the w riter is c a reful to

.

point out th a t the va lidi ty of the comp a rison depends on too

m a ny elements to b e a ccepted a t its fa ce v a lue (pp 605 By .

putting side by side va rious figur es he est a blished however , ,

a nother s ign ifi c a n t f a ct During the fo ur ye a rs 1 923— 6 the

.

currency h a d lost a bout 38 per cent of its in tern a l p urch a sin g .

p ower ; dur ing the s a me period the c a pit a l of limi ted comp a ni es
in the county of Ilfov ( which in cludes Buc a rest the se a t ,

of most Rum a ni a n comp a nies ) h a d a lmost doubled Yet the .

a mount of income t a x those comp a ni es p a id decre a sed dur ing

th a t interv a l in a bsolute a n d especi a lly in rel a tive v a lues One

, ,
.

would a ssum e wrote M An a st a si u th a t the collecting a ut h or i

, .
,

ties wo ul d try their h a rdest to check a n a buse tolera ted by the

a ssessment commissions The truth is j ust the opposite The
‘
. .

fi s ca l a uthorities of Buc a rest h a ve indeed instituted num erous

t a x a tion a ppe a ls dur ing 1 927 an d 1 928 but o nl y a g a inst sm all ,

indi vidu a l fi r m s or minor li m ited comp a ni es ; they did not lodge

a single t a x a tion a ppe a l a g a inst a n y limited comp a ny wi th more
’
th a n 1 00 million lei c a pit a l ( p .

M Ionescu Sise s ti gives fi gur e s sho w ing th a t the yield of the

.
-

l a nd t a x a ccorded with its a ssessment 2

.

1
I n B uleti n ul I n s ti tutului E con omi c Romd nes c Nov —De c 1 9 28 , . . .

2 Rep a rti fia P rop i etd fi lor A gr i cole p 185 . .

 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 431

Before discuss i ng im port a n d export duties w hi ch h a ve ,

constituted the m a in tribute levied on a griculture during the

p a st few ye a rs brief reference might be m a de to a nother peculi a r
,

t a x which is imposed solely upon the rura l popula tion a n d in , ,

fa ct only upon the pe a s a nts Though servitudes were a bolished

, .

long ago one of them h a s rem a ined in bein g to the prese n t d a y

,

n a mely the obli g a tion of rura l in h a bit a nts to give fi ve d a ys

,
’

ser vice for the upkeep of publi c ro a ds If a pe a s a n t h a s n o .

a nim a ls he works with h i s h a nds otherwise he h a s to give fi ve ,

d a ys work with hi s c a rt a n d oxen L a ndowners residing in the

’
.

towns pa y 30 lei ro a d t a x there a n d nothing else in the country ,

no m a tter how m a ny a n im a ls they m a y keep on their est a tes .

It m a y h a ppen tha t some p e a s a nts c a n not or will not perform

th a t servitude ; in order to con stra in them to it a dep a rtmenta l
decision of the a uthorities co n cerned fi x ed the equiva lent of fi ve
d a ys m a nu a l l a bour a fter the Wa r a t 1 5 0 lei a n d of five d a ys
’
,
’

l a bour wi th the ox c a rt a t 5 00 lei plus a h ue of 5 0 lei During

-
1
, .

subsequent ye a rs the money v a lue of the ser vitude ro s e to 6601ei

for fi ve d a ys m a nu a l l a bour
’
lei w ith one ox lei, ,

with two oxen lei with four a n d

,
lei w ith six oxen , .

The a vera ge pe a s a nt holder own in g 5 h a l a nd a n d two oxen ,

.
,

m a y h a ve h a d to pa y therefore merely 1 00 lei in l a nd t a x during

, ,

the period 1 923—7 but unl ess he performed the work he would
,

h a ve h a d to pa y lei a s ro a d t a x which a mo unted to a t a x ,

of 440 lei per h a le vied only upon hi s cl a ss S ome i llumin a ting

.
, .

f a cts concernin g thi s pe a s a nt servitude c a me to li ght durin g the

sitting of the Ilfov County Counc il on the 1 7t h of Febru a ry ,

The Prefect of the coun ty expressed the wi s h on b eh a lf of the new

Pe a s a nt Governm ent th a t p a rt of the debt the pe a s a nts h a d in
curred on a ccoun t of the roa d servitude shoul d b e remitted He .

b a s ed his propos a l on two re a sons He fi r st rem a rked th a t the .

’
county s fi n an ces were fl our ishi n g a n d th a t in con s equence they
need not be guided by the a ttitude of other counties which im ,

plied th a t the Governm ent s generous suggestion w a s not extended

’

to the whole country An d secon dl y he poin ted out th a t o ften the

.
, ,

obliga tion h a d rem a i ned unperformed through no fa ult of the

1
t t
S a e men of Mt . b efore t h e Ch a m b e r J une
Mih a la ch e , 23, 1 9 21 .

2
S ee Drep ta tea , Buca res t F bru a ry 1 9 1 9 29
, e , .
432 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
p e a s a nts but through l a ck of wor k it b ein g diffi cult to obta in
, ,

supplies of gra vel Hence it wo ul d seem to b e the rul e to ch a rge

.

the pe a s a nts with the money t a x even when they a r e willi n g to

p erform the work but there is no need for it In other words a n
, .
,

obli g a tion to p erform cert a in publi c work whe n needed of , ,

cour se a ppea rs to h a ve b een tra nsformed sirn ply thr ough

,

a dep a rtment a l decision into a perm a nent t a x with a cl a ss

incidence The di scussion fur ther di sclosed how he a vy w a s the

.

burden which th a t obliga tion l a id upon the pe a s a nts The .

’
Prefect s propos a l n a mely w a s th a t a rre a rs d a ting from the
, ,

p eriod 1 9 08 — 20 a mounting to ,lei should b e c a ncelled ,

a ltogether ; whi le of the a rre a rs from the e a r s 1 921 — 7 a moun tin g

y ,

to lei one h a lf sho ul d b e remitted The fi gur e s a r e

, .

reve a lin g in deed For they show th a t some pe a s a nts— qui te

, .

a numb er in f a ct a s the fi r st s um must h a ve i ncluded a propor

, ,

tion of gold lei h a ve been un a ble to pa y thi s imposition

—

througho u t a period of twenty ye a rs ; a n d th a t in one county

a lone a n d th a t one of the richest a rre a rs from t hi s obli g a tion
, ,

grew w ithi n seven ye a rs to the formida ble sum of seventy

millions notwithst a n d in g the l a nd reform The Ilfov Coun ty
, .

’
Coun cil a dopted the Prefect s suggestion a n d it a lso s li ghtly ,

reduced the money v a lue of the ro a d servitude for the curre n t

ye a r But seeing th a t a Pe a s a nt Governm ent h a d come in to
.

power in the a utumn of 1 928 the surpris i ng thin g is th a t neither ,

the Prefect n or a n y of the elected Coun cillors thought of sug

est in g th a t this mediev a l s e rvitude shoul d b e a b oli shed a lto
g
gether Though during 1 9 29 a p ea s a nt in the county of I lfov
.
,

owning 5 h a l a nd a n d two oxen would h a ve to pa y only 29 7 lei

.
,

in l a nd t a x 1 he h a d to pa y in a ddition
,
5 0 lei a s the equiv a lent
of the ro a d servi tude B etween themselves these two t a xes .

a n d there a r e a good m a ny others would levy over 400 lei —

P er ha .

( b) Ta r ifi s
The r e a l fi sca l contribution which a gric ul tur e h a s
‘
.

m a de tow a rds the needs of the St a te h a s b een not the t a x on

a gricult r l
ua a l nd but the export t a x
2
s a ys M Ionescu Sise s ti
, ,
’
.
-
.

1
Th ethr e efold ta x a bl e v a lu e of 1 923 i e 6 6 0 lei p h a m ultipli ed by 5
, . . er

i mp os e d a t 1 2 per c en t 396 min u s t h e a ll ow a n c e of 25 per c en t 29 7 lei

.
, .

Rep a r ti fi a P rop r i etd ti lor A qn cole, p 1 8 5

’

2 . .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 433

To which one must o nl y a d d th a t import duties pl a yed a s efi ec

tive if less spect a cul a r a p a rt in h a mperi n g the progress of
, ,

fa rmin g The stringency of c a pit a l a n d credit described a b ove

.

left the fa rmers to their own devices in the ph a s e of r econ st r uc

tion Th a nk s especi a lly to the efforts of the pe a s a nts the live
.
,

stock w a s reple ni shed ra pidly enough It w a s obviously more .

di ffi cult for the fa rmers to equip them s elves wi th m a chines a n d

im plements a dequ a te in qu a ntity a n d qu a lity for i n tensive
fa rming .

I mp or t Duti es Even b efore the Wa r the equipment of

.

a griculture h a d been of the poorest The crea tion of m a ny n ew .

sm a llh oldin gs mea nt th a t much more h a d to b e done th a n

merely to m a ke good the War d a m a ge ; th a t i s if l a rge a n d sm a ll ,

f a rmers were to h a ve the me a ns for incre a sing production The .

governments however were b ent upon protecting n a tion a l

, ,

industry in this ca se rea lly consisti n g of one f a ctory onl y the

—
,

Re s i t a which h a d b een n a tion a lized in a politic a l sense under

’
, , ,

Libera l a uspices Home productio n could not in a n y c a se s a tisfy

.

a ll the urgent needs of a griculture Nevertheless high import .

,

duties were pl a ced on a gricultur a l m a chin es a n d im plements .

Ploughs h a d to pa y on a n a vera ge 20— 30 per cent of their v a lue .

,

a n d in genera l a gricultur a l m a chines p a id a n a ver a ge of 1 20 1e i

, ,
-

per k g while li ght motor c a rs a n d comm erci a l vehicles which

.
,
-

a r e not m a nuf a ctur ed in the coun try a t a ll were o n ly im posed ,

with a b out 0 60 lei per k g The t a ble on p 434 comp a res the
-

. .

import duties imposed in 1 91 6 a n d 1 927 on a gric ul tur a l m a chines

with tho s e levied on motor c a rs -
.

On e should perh a ps point out th a t if the comp a rison is to b e

re a l one must t a ke into a ccount comm erci a l vehi cles ra ther th a n
, ,

lux ury c a rs for priva te use One will note further the enormous.
, ,

incre a se in the duties on a gricultura l m a chin es— fi ft e en fold in the

c a se of ploughs— whi le the duties on commerci a l vehicles a n d
the li ghter priva te c a rs h a ve been reduced by on e h a lf to one -

thi rd The result w a s th a t during 1 9 25 — 6 when Rum a ni a n

.
,

im ports re a ched the highest fi gure recorded up to th a t d a te the ,

im port of motor c a rs ( 1 0 mi lli on doll a rs ) far exceeded the import

-

of a gricultura l m a chines ( less tha n 3 milli on doll a rs in 1 925 an d

less tha n 6 million s in 1 926 )
15 69 69
-
434 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
As the p ri ces of a gricultur a l m a chin es a n d implements a s of ,

a ll industri a l products stood a t a very hi gh level a t the end of the ,

Ta x p e r 1 00k g .

G old lei G o ld lei

AG R C U L UR AL
I T I MP L E ME N TS
Pick a x es
H oes s cyth es ,

S p d e s grubb i n g a x es p i k e s
a ,
-

Fork s
Pl ou gh s b a rro ws rolle rs ridge ploi1 gh s e xtir p a tors grub
, , ,
-

, ,

bi g a x es c ompl ete ly fi t te d up a n d the ir a ccessori es

n -

, , 1 5 00
-

Pl a n ti ng bi di n g t h re s h in g a n d h a rrow in g ma chin es ;
, n ,
-

gr p e crus hi g m a chin e s a n d fodd e r pre ss e s w ork e d by

a n
- -

h nd a

S tea m pl o u gh s or pl o ugh s m o v e d by gas o e l e ctricity r ,

fe rtili z e r s c a tte r in g m chi n s ; h r v es tin g a n d m ow in g

- -
a e a

m chi n es ; sorte rs
a s ow i n g m a chin es fo dd e r pres s es -

,
-

m o v e d by c a ttl e or e n gi n e ; d a i ry m chin e ry w e i ghin g a

m o r e th a n 25 k g ; fo dd e r bin din g m a chin es With i ron .

- -

fra m es ; p ota to n d b e etroot h a rv es tin g ma ch i n es ; ma iz e

a - -

t h res hi g m a chi es with en gin e ; c e rea l h a rro ws wi th

n -
n -

e n gin e ; vi ne y a rd w a te r in g ma chin es - -

Thr e s hin g m ch in es worke d by h a d or c attl e

-
a n

Thr es hi n g m a chin es w ork e d by engi ne :

( a ) t h e dr u m 8 00 mm l on g .

( b) t h e dr u m m o r e th a n 8 00 mm l on g
R
.

Mo r on CA S :
Pa ssen ger c rs with op -
a en c oa ch work -

(a ) un d er kg
( b)
( c) 1 200 ,
-
1 , 5 00
( d ) a b ov e
P a sse nge r c a rs with cl ose d c oa c h work ( c o upé , se d an with o u t
p a rtiti on )
( a ) u nd r kg e

b
( ) 1 000— 1 200
, ,

( c) 1 200 1 5 00 , ,

( d ) m o r e th an 1 , 5 00 k g .

M t r l rri
o o o es , truck s tan k s , , fir e -
eng n es , i &c .

(a ) kg .

( b) kg .

( 0) l es s th an kg .

Wa r the a ddition of such he a vy duties m a de their pur ch a se well

,

nigh impossible especi a lly for the millions of sm a ll pea s a nt ,

M i i m u m d M x im u m t r iff Th r i
1
n m i m l t i fi which i
an t a a . e e s a
‘
ax a
’
ar , s no

a ppli e d h ow e ve r a s
, , R ma n u ia h a s t ar i fi c o v e ntions with
n a ll the c o un tri es which
c o me i nto qu estio n .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 435

f a rmers who h a d in their h a nds 9 0 per cent of Rum a ni a s a ra ble .

’

l a nd As recently a s the end of 1 928 when the prices of m a n y

.
,

industria l products h a d reverted to the pre w a r level or h a d -

even fallen b elow it ret ail prices for a gricul tur a l implemen ts a n d
,

m a chines were still exception a lly high in Rum a ni a a s m a y b e ,

seen from the followin g t a ble : 1

ric ultur a l i mpl e me ts

Ag n

( A v e ra ge typ es ) P os t w-
ar pric es

so rtin g ma chi n es
-

These prices refer in the m a in to the products of Americ a n

in dustry wh ich predomin a te in the Rum a ni a n m a rket a n d whi ch
, ,

rela tively h a ve more ra pidly a ppro a ched to pre w a r prices th a n

,
-

corresponding English a n d Germ a n products .

One might mention a lso the duty of 28 lei which fa rmers h a ve

to pa y for e a ch im ported s a ck which me a ns a bout 5 0 per cen t , .

of its va lue a s the price of the obj ect a t the frontier is 5 5 — 70 1ei
, .

As the a nn u a l req uirements a moun t to some s a cks t hi s

duty a dds some 5 0 mi lli on lei ye a rly to the impositions which
a gric ulture h a s to support .

E xp or t Duti es Most of the belligerent coun trie s a dopted

.

mea sures a fter the Wa r tendi ng to modera te intern a l con sum p

.

tion wh ile i ntensifying exports The governm ents concerned .

were n a tur ally a nx ious to nurse their depleted supplies a n d a t ,

the s a me tim e to recover a t the e a rliest possible moment a

fa vour a ble b a l a nce of tra de Th e Rum a ni a n Govern ment fol
.

lowed a contra ry li ne of a ction Its chief a mbition w a s to ensure .

a libera l a n d che a p supply of food for the urb a n popula tion .

In pursu a nce of th a t policy the St a te h a d recourse to a v a riety

of mea sures— c ontrol of ret a il prices restriction or pro hi bition ,

1
By c our tes y of ‘
Flugul Cy
’
L td .
, Buc a r s t
e .

F f2
436 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
of exports imposition of hea vy export duties— a ga inst which the
,

Centra l Union of Agricultur a l Syn di c a tes protested in a Memo

r a n d um in 1 921
, It w a rned the Governm ent a ga inst the effect
.

of such a policy on production a n d ur ged instea d the followin g ,

me a sures : complete freedom for in tern a l corn tra de ; export

should b e free on p a yment of a t ax ; a bonus for whe a t grow in g
,

a s lon a s whe a t export w a s t a xed the necess a ry sum s to b e

g ,

obt a ined from the proceeds of the export t ax The whole w a s .

to form a tra n sition a l progr a m whi ch a fter a ye a r w a s to give

w a y to a r égime freed of a ll restrictions a n d control .

The Views of the Agricultur a l Syn di c a tes fa iled to infl uen ce

’
the St a te s policy After a short period duri ng whi ch the export
.
,

of a gricultur a l products w a s a ltogether prohibited the St a te ,

introduced in 1 9 20 the so c a ll ed system of c on t in gen t a t ion

-
‘ ’
,

i e a r a tioning system w hi ch permitted producers a n d tr a ders

. .

to export cert a in qu a ntities on p a yment of a low t ax if they ,

suppli ed a t the s a me time a determin ed qua n t iy for in tern a l

consumption Th a t system merely led to a n a busive t ra ffi c in
.

export permi ts whi ch w a s demora lizing tra de a n d a dmini stra

,

tio n Even the b a nks in a Memora ndum presented to the

.
,

Government in 1 921 ple a ded for its repl a cement by a system

,

of export t a xes however much they di sli ked all interference with
,
‘
tra de M a ize rem a ined subj ect to the con t in gen t a t ion system
.
’

till 1 922 an d whe a t ti ll 1 924 The free export of oil b e a ring.

-

gra in s w a s not a llowed till 1 925 But b eginni ng with 1 922— 3 .

the con t in gen t a t ion system w a s a b a ndoned in prin ciple in

‘ ’

fa vour of high export duties B y this me a ns the St a te hoped to

.

prevent a n excessive export of food supplies a n d consequently ,

a rise in the cost of livi ng a n d to secur e simult a neously fresh

,

reve n ue for the Tre a sur y The t a ble on pp 437 8 gives the full li st
. .
-

of export t a xes p a y a ble for the princip a l cere a ls .

As the duties were a ssessed on qu a ntity they equ a lled on

occ a sion through the pl a y of the exch a nges 5 0 per cent of the .

v a lue of the produce To ob vi a te possible losses to the Tre a sur y

,

fi om the continuous f a ll in the currency the s e t a xes were m a de ,

p a y a ble from the middle of 1 922 m st a bilized 101 e1gn exch a nges ,

on the b a sis of: a s noted in the l a st column of the t a ble .

We h a ve a lre a dy mentioned the exp 01 t t a x of 1 0 000 lei a fter , ,

 ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY 437

Product ta x a ti o n D a te of d cree
e Ta x i n le i

8 . d
Wheat

1 0 000

M i
a ze

1 0 000

1 0 000

1 0 000
438 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S

Pro duct D a te of d e cree Ta x i n le i

1 0 000

w a rd s reduced to lei per he a d of l a rge horned a nim als .

Sheep p a id 400 lei per he a d Qu a lity c h eese p a id 45 lei p er k g

. .

a n d dried frui t 20 per cent a d v a lorem It i s suggestive tha t

. .

whe a t p a id lei per w a gon but whi te fl our which h a d , ,

a much gre a ter v a lue only lei bec a use ste a m mill s were
, ,
-

considered a s p a rt of the n a tion a l industry Petrol of wh a tever .

strength only p a id lei per w a gon The receipts from .

customs duties a r e shown in the t a ble below :

I m p ort duti es E xp rt duti

o es V ri u
a o s T ot a l
1 9 22 A pril—S pt e .

1 9 23
1 924 , 8 6 7 , 08 2
1 9 25
1 9 26 ( fir s t se v en

m on th s

Export t a xes brought therefore consider a bly hi gher revenues

’
th a n import t a xes from the time when the c on t in gen t a t i on ‘

system w a s a b a ndoned In 1 9 26 customs duties produced.

’
9 milli a rd lei— i e more th a n one t hi rd of the St a te s tot a l
. .
-

r e ve n ue andg
a bout one h a lf w a s the yield from export
-
.

t a x es As the bulk of the exports consisted of corn a n d a gri

.

cultura l products the bulk of the export t a xes w a s in

,

e vi t a bly p a id by a griculture which is confirmed by the customs

,

returns
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 439

E xp rt t x
o a es on Pe rc en t ge of ta x es fr m
a o

ag ricultur a l produc e v lue of a gricultur l xp r t

a a e o

For 1 925 a n d 1 926 figur es a r e a v a il a ble o nl y for some of the

princip a l a gricultur a l exports
1 9 25
1 9 26

These t a xes represented a very hi gh percent a ge of the tot a l

v a lue of the a gricultura l export Dur ing 1 923 a n d 1 924 for
1
.
,

whi ch the fi gur e s a r e fi n a l the revenue which the St a te derived

,

from these t a xes w a s a b out six times higher th a n the tot a l

a mount of the l a nd t ax .

Two ch a ra cteristics of the a bove t a ble of export t a xes should

be speci a lly noted The ch a n ges in the v a riou s r a tes it will b e
.
,

seen were frequent ; a n d moreover they were not decreed

,
'

, ,

sim ul t a neously for a ll kin ds of gra in Ta ke n together with the .

frequent a n d considera ble v a ri a tions in exch a nge these circum ,

st a nces m a de a ll tr a ns a ctions for futur e deli very a sheer g a mble

a n d a ltogether rendered the corn tr a de ch a otic The tra de in .
,

fa ct w a s a hn ost w iped out there were m a ny fa ilures a mong old

, ,

est a bli shed fi r m s None of the fl our mi lls worked f ull time ; those
.
-

put up for s a le co ul d fi n d no purch a sers .

The effect w a s boun d to b e mercilessly expressed in the fi gures

rel a ting to a gricultur a l exports Dur ing the h a lf ye a r which fol .
-

lowed the imposition of the 45 0001ei t a x no whea t w a s exported ,

a t a ll Considering th a t in 1 925 when the country h a d plenti ful

.
,

stocks exports suffered a further serious decli ne it seems cle a r th a t

, ,

the phenomenon w a s c a used by a bnorm a l conditions in the corn

1
E xp t duti or e s on man ufa ctur ed pr ductso ( man y the m t h e produc e of a gri
of

cul tu a l i n du s tri es ) re pres en te d d uri ng t h e

r sa me p eri od a m uch lo w e r p erce n tage of
t h e v a lu e of th os e e xp rts o :

1 9 22 1 28 per c en t
-
. 1 923 7 3 9 per c en t .

1 9 24 7 4 6 p er c en t
-
. 1 925 6 29 p er
-
c en t .

1 926 3 8 5 per
-
cen t .
440 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
tra de ra ther th a n in corn growing The im position of exp ort
-
.

duties re a cted more di rectly on f a rmers producin g for the m a rket

th a n on those who like most of the pe a s a nts produced prim a rily
, ,

for their own consum ption ; until 1 9 27 therefore the pe a s a nt , ,

fa rmers would seem to h a ve been less severely hit by the export

t a riff This a ssum ption m a de by severa l Rum a ni a n writers
.
, ,

m a y h a ve merely th e a ppe a ra nce of truth It is true th a t corn .

exports c a me m a inly from the l a rge f a rms but i ntern a l requi re ,

ments in corn a n d especi a lly in a nim a l an d d a iry products were

, ,

sa t i sfi e d m a i nl y by the p e a s a nts ; an d the t a riff poli cy w a s of

course designed chi efl y for the purpose of depressin g the in terna l

price of a gricult ura l produce In Tr a nsylva ni a 6 5 per cent of
. .

the horned a ni m a ls were mil ch cows givin g mil k va lued a t 1 0

-

milli on lei Tra nsylva ni a exported in 1 921

. kg butter .

and kg cheese ; in 1 924 the export w a s 70 k g butter

. .

a n d 1 5 0 k g cheese. Yet the im port of foreign cheese did not

.

dimin ish the duty of 24 lei per k g b ein g more th a n offset by

, .

the burdens which Rum a ni a n fa rmers h a d to be a r Condensed .

mi lk for export w a s t a xed with 401ei per kg while Dutch con .

,

d en se d milk sold a t 39 lei per k g in H a mbur g 1

. .

At a n y r a te the St a te s fi sca l policy w a s reversed in 1 927

’
.
,

The l a nd t a x a ssessments a s we h a ve mentioned were incre a sed

, ,

threefold while exp ort duties were reduced a s b elow ( decree of

,

J a n ua ry 2 1 927 )
,

C e re a ls l gu mi n ou s a n d
, e 0 11
-
b ea ri ng se ds e le i per w agon
W h e t fl o ur
a

La rge h orn e d a n i m a ls per h ea d

Pi gs 300
S h ee p 1 00

In View of its higher v a lue whe a t p a id rel a tively un der the new
, ,

t a riff a lower t a x th a n other cere a ls Customs receipts a ssumed

,
.

from th a t d a te a more norm a l a spect in the di stribution of ,

import a n d export duties

( m m illi a rd le i )
1 9 28 ( s i x mon t h s )

0 36-

0 05-

1 Fr om a n a rticl e i n t h e A rgus J un e , 24 , 1 925 .

 ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY 441

B ut a griculture w a s che ated of the be n e fit s which the ch a nge

w a s supposed to give it bec a use in the me a ntime the exch a nge
,

h a d risen w h ile the price of a gricultur a l products in foreign

,

m a rkets h a d f a llen .

In rel a tion to the tot a l extent of the a ra ble a re a the b urden ,

the a gricultura l in dustry h a d to b e a r in export duties during

1 9 24— 5 w a s in effect equ a l to a t ax of 325 lei per h a An a rticle .

from the pen of a pro minent a gricultura l expert publi shed in

the A rgus of October 1 7 1 9 23 m a i n t a i n ed th a t f a rmers h a d to
, ,

disburse over 40 per cent of the tot a l v a lue of their productio n

.

in dir ect a n d i n di r ect t a xes while h a ving themselves to be a r a ll

,

the costs a n d risks of th a t production M a nufa ctur ers tra ders .

, ,

b a nkers & c p a id t a xes on their net i ncome but the f a rmer s

, .
, , ,

compl a ined the wr iter h a d to give the St a te a h n ost h a lf the

,
’
v a lue of their gross revenue without reg a rd to the h a rvest s ,

return per h a a n d to cost production In fa ct a s a nother writer

. .
,

pointed out the a gricul tura l producers were doubly hit by the
,
’
St a te s t a riff poli cy : while it prevented them from selling to
the best a dva n t a ge wh a t they produced it forced them to use ,

the products of a n excessively protected n a tiona l industry The .

St a te derived therefore the fur ther a dv a nt a ge th a t by depressing ,

the cost of livin g it co uld continue to underp a y its offi cia ls a s

, ,

well a s to buy che a ply supplies for the a rmy .

( 0) Tr a n sp or t Rum a ni a s tr a nsport system h a s never been

’
.

a dequ a te for the needs of her a gricultur e Roa ds a n d ra ilw a ys .

a r e much below the requir ements of a n i ndustry whose tr a ding

ch a nces depend on the possibili ty of tra nsportin g gre a t b ul k

s a fely a n d che a ply within a short sp a ce of tim e .

Mo s t of the co untry ro a ds a re mere tra cks built a n d sum ,

m a rily m a int a in ed by compulsory p e a s a nt l a b our In ba d .

we a ther they quickly b ecome unus a ble except for slow a n d ,

he a vy ox c a rts Figures obt a ined from the Ministry of Publi 0

-
. ~

Works a t the end of 1 928 put the tot a l length of cla ssifi e d ro a ds
at kilometres Oi these . kilometres were i n rel a ,

t ively good con d ition ; kilometres were fi t to b e used only

in dry we a ther ; a n d kil ometres were n a tura l ro a ds with ,

out a n y h a rdened surfa ce a t a ll Only kilometres in the .

first c a tegory h a d a proper m a c a d a mized surf a ce None of these .

442 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
ro a ds fit
for the present d a y fa st an d hea vy mech a ni ca l
a re -

t r a ffi c Since the Wa r a lmost nothi ng h a s been done to improve

.
,

the qu a ntity a n d qu a lity of the ro a ds ; in f a ct even the few ,

princip a l a rteri a l ro a ds like th a t whi ch run s a long the hi ghl y

,

industri a li z ed Pr a hova v a lley h a ve been a llowed to f a ll in to di s

,

rep a ir The new provin ces h a ve received even less a ttentio n

. .

O nly now ten yea rs a fter the Wa r h a s the construction of a ro a d

, ,

been undert a ken to lin k up J a ssy the Mold a vi a n c a pit a l with , ,

B ess a ra bi a I n the l a tter province the condi tio n of the ro a ds

.

a ltogether prevents a n reg ul a r t r a ffi c a s soo n a s the ba d we a ther

y
sets i n When a n e w Government c a me into power in the a utumn
.

of 1 928 the Minister for B ess a r a bi a went on a tour of i nspection

, ,

but a fter only a few ra in y d a ys in a n exception a lly dr y ye a r he

w a s un a ble to pursue hi s trip a n d h a d to turn b a ck As most of .

the bridges on these ro a ds ar e built of wood they a r e now

in a st a te of dec a y ; on m a ny of them onl y h a lf the width is used
for t r a ffi c Some of the bigger bridges destroyed dur i ng the Wa r
.

a r e not yet rebuilt The D ep a rtment estim a ted th a t 600milli on 1e i

.

were needed ye a rly to keep the existin g ro a ds in toler a ble rep a ir ,

a n d 1 20 million s for the bridges The a ctu a l budget a llow a nce

.

is 6 0—70 millions for the ro a ds a n d 20— 30mi llions for the bridges .

The ra ilw a y system w a s pl a nned to lin k together the prin

c i a l towns a n d to serve cert a in str a tegic ends but not the
p ,

needs of the country s m a in a gricultur a l regions The l a ck of

’
.

double tra cks a n d of si d ings b esides the in a dequ a cy of the roll

,

in g stock pro vided even b efore the Wa r the spect a cle of moun ds
,

of s a cks filled with corn st a cked under the open sky in ra ilw a y
y a rds The ra ilw a ys suffered severely in the Wa r a n d the coun try s
’
.

s ub s eque n t economic policy del a yed their recovery At the s a me .

time the dem a nd m a de upon them h a s grown w ith the a d d ition

,

of the new pro vinces a n d the exp a nsio n of the urb a n centres .

An i n quiry which the A rgus co n ducted in the sprin g of 1 9 24 in to

the ret a il price s of a gricultura l produce disclosed differences of ,

40 to 200 per cent between towns which sometim es were merely

.

30 40 kilometres dist a nt from e a ch other

— 1
.

If a griculture were to depend for the tra nsport of its produc

tion solely on the r a ilw a ys it is doubtful if even the in tern a l
,

A rgu M y 28
1
d Ju
s, 1 3 19 24
a an ne ,
.
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 443

m a rkets coul d be properly served River tra nsport on the D a nube .

,

a n d to some extent on the Pruth somewh a t relieves the situ a ,

tion which is o nl y s a ved however by the pe a s a nt c a rts In the

, , , .

neighb our hood of m a rkets an d of the ports from which gra in is

shi pped a gricul tur a l a n d other products a re c a rried a hn ost ex
,

elusively in ox c a rts Dr Za h a r e an u c a lc ul a ted th a t in 1 923 the

-
. .

r a ilw a ys could pl a ce not more th a n w a gons a t the dis

pos a l of a gricul ture which w a s a ltogether in suffi ci en t A n or
, .

m a l h a rvest of 1 4 mi llion tons woul d le a ve a surplus of a bout

7 million to n s for export but the r a ilw a ys could not possibly c epe
,

with such a qu a ntity Nor woul d there be a dequ a te a ccommod a

.

tion for storing it In 1 926 when production a n d export improved

.
, ,

the ra ilw a ys proved un a ble to tra n s port the whole of the h a rvest
surplus from the i n terior to the port s during the a utumn When .

the export se a son w a s a h n ost over the Rum a ni a n St a te R a ilwa ys

were a ble to rent from the Germ a n Polish a n d Czechoslov a k , ,

ra ilwa y a uthorities freight w a gons whose delivery b ega n

e a rly in D ecember a n d whi ch were to b e used solely for the export
tra de Th a t bel a ted a rra ngement w a s in a n y c a se but a p a rti a l
.

solution a s ra i lwa y engines were equ a lly l a cking 1 One must

, .

keep in min d th a t for purposes of export r a pidity of tra n s port

pl a ys an im port a nt p a rt in determining the prices which the
a gricultur a l produce of a coun try secures .

B esides sufferin g from th a t d efi ci en t r a ilw a y service a gri ,

cultur e w a s burdened with a n unfa voura ble freight t a riff In .

fa ct a gricultur e w a s a bout the only industry which p a id the full

,

ta riff on the Rum a ni a n ra ilwa ys Accordi n g to the L a w for the .

Encoura gement of N a tion a l I n dustry a ll f a ctorie s a n d works to ,

w hi ch the ben efi t s of th a t la w h a d b een a ccorded a n d this —

me a nt a hn os t a ll comp a nies employing more th a n fift y workers

p a id only h a lf the ordin a ry freight t a ri ff both for their own good s
a n d for m a chines & c which they imported During the brief
, .
, .

two weeks sp ell of M B a rbu S t i r bey s Government in the sum

’
.
’
,

mer of 1 927 the oil comp a nies secur ed the s a me privi lege for the
,

tra nsport of their products The timb er industry a lr ea dy e n j oyed .

such fa voured tre a tment Agricultur a l products a lone p a id the

.

full t a riff Agric ul ture w a s represented by one member only on

.

1
M a n ch es ter Gua rd i a n Commer cia l , D ce m b r 23
e e , 1 9 26 .
444 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
the governing bo a rd of the Rum a ni a n St a te r a ilw a ys whil e ,

i ndustry a n d fi n a n ce h a d ten Th a t w a s not a ll Everywhere

. .

else the ra ilw a ys especi a lly when o w ned by the St ate concede
, ,

lower freights for goods going a bro a d ; but in Rum a ni a a gri

cultura l produce dest ined for e x port w a s a ctu a lly ch a rged double
the or di n a ry t a riff a fter the Wa r One of the i nciden t a l effects
.

of th a t stra nge freight policy w a s to pl a ce a t a dis a dva nt a ge the

Tra nsylva ni a n fa rmers a s their produce h a d a rel a tively long
,

l a nd j ourney to m a ke before re a ching the ports .

S E C TI O N 3

M E R C A N TI L I S M OR A GRAR I AN I S M ?
T H I S brief out lin e of a griculture s resources a n d bur dens
’

n a tur a lly invites the question : w a s the St a te s unhelpful conduct ’

the co n sequence of a n error of j udgement or the opera tion of a

delibera te policy ? One w a n ts a n a nswer to thi s question if
merely in order to supply a conclusion to the hi storic a l sketch of
the a gra ri a n problem cont a ined in the fi r st p a rt of the study ;
a n d wh a t th a t a nswer must b e ca n h a r dl y b e doubted when the ,

events of the l a st dec a de a r e Viewed a ga in st the b a ckgroun d of

the pre reform p eriod On the one side w a s a griculture : even
-
.

with its a ctu a l primitive equi pment a n d methods it m a in t a i ned

the b ul k of the p opul a tion a n d supplied two thirds of the exports
,
-

a n d two thi rds of the publi c revenue ; yet

-
dur ing the tryi ng ,

period of reconstruction a griculture w a s h a mp ered on a ll sides

,

by fi na n cia l a n d a dmin istra tive obst a cles On the other side w a s.

industry : h a rdly s ign ifi ca n t so fa r— ii one excepts mi ni ng a n d

rur a l industries a n d prob a bly bringing no pr ofi t to n a tion a l
—

economy ; yet every other a ctivity a n d comfort of the n a tion w a s

sub ordin a ted to the fostering of its prec a rious life All the e x cep .

t i on a l l a ws p a ssed dur ing a n d a fter the Wa r h a ve been openly

designed for the protection of b a nking i ndustry a n d tra de , , .

The impetuous wooing of industry a fter the Wa r represented

a ph a se widely different from the former encour a ement of g

industry E a rlier a spira tions a imed a t nothi ng more th a n the

.

’
est a blis h ment of an industry ca p a ble of tra nsform ing the co untry s
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 445
raw m a teri a ls Thi s desir e w a s never a ltogether free from a n
.

undercurrent of fe a r lest in dustri a l development should h a mper

,

a gricultur a l production a n d r a ise the cost of livin g Legisl a tion .

w a s devoted prim a ril y to the interests of corn growi n g a n d the -

fi r st commerci a l tre a ties to the interests of corn export The .

fi r st la w for the encour a gement of n a tio n a l industry w a s a dopted

in 1 8 8 7 ; but in 1 8 9 1 a le s s protectionist t a riff repl a ced th a t of
1 8 8 6 ; th a t of 1 906 revertin g to stronger protectio ni st me a sures .

I n 1 9 1 4 there were a bout 8 5 0 est a bli shm ents enj oyi ng the b e n e
fi t s of the la w for the encour a gement of n a tion a l industry Their .

production h a rdly a ppe a red in the export t a bles At home a fter .

,

thirty ye a rs of pri vileges they were still in c a p a ble of holding

,

their own a ga inst foreign competition w ithout the s upport of

hi gh protective t a riffs The v a lue of the r a w m a teri a ls used in
.

industry in 1 9 1 5 w a s
N a tive m a teri a ls lei— 80 per cent .

F or eign m a teri a ls lei— 20 per cent .

Oi the c a pit a l invested in these St a te encoura ged undert a ki n gs

-

dur ing 1 9 1 5 40 per cent w a s a bsorbed by a gricultura l a n d a llied

,
.

industries Hence a t the end of the fi r st long period of encoura ge

.
,

ment the a cti vities of Rum a ni a n industry rem a ined closely

,

dependent on the development of a gricultur a l productio n Nor .

h a s th a t st a te of things essenti a lly a ltered since the Wa r The .

figur es rel a ting to the use of mech a nic a l power cited in the ,

previous ch a pter showed th a t the industries relying on a gri

,

c ul tur a l r a w m a teri a ls still predo mi n a ted Yet the ch a ra cter of

.

Rum a ni a n in dustry— whi ch woul d be a point of i n terest in a

discussion of its Vi a bili ty— is not wh a t chi efl y concerns us here .

Our a rgum e n t is concerned in a genera l w a y with the determined

effort m a de to widen the sphere of industri a l a ctivity a fter the
Wa r a n d wi th the fa ct th a t this effort spra ng from soci a l ra ther
,

th a n from eco n omic c a uses a circum st a n ce whi ch helps to ex

—

pl a in much of the recklessness di spl a yed in th a t a ttempt .

Thr ough the l a nd reform s a ys a Rum a n i a n wr iter the hitherto

, ,
‘

wea lthy cl a ss who h a d been dependen t upon a griculture w a s

, ,

diverted for a liveli hood to other pur suits Thi s cl a ss politic a lly
.
,

predomin a nt w a s left with no other a lterna tive th a n to turn its

,
446 EFF ECTS OF THE STATE S
a ttention to the development of industry Wh a t is more n a tur a l .
,

therefore th a n th a t it shoul d b egi n to f a vour industry even a t

, ,

a l
the expense of gric ture through every me a ns a t its di spos a l
u ,
1

This ob serv a tion a pplies not only to the expropri a ted l a ndown ers
but equ a lly to the enterprising cl a ss of ten a nt fa rmers who ,

possessed money a n d grea t drivi ng power It so ha ppened more .

,

over th a t on b eing di smi ssed from a gricultur e these c a pit a lists

,

a n d entreprene urs h a d a p a th tow a rds industri a l an d b a nki n

g
pur s ui ts out re a dy for them through the a ction of politic a l events .

‘ ’
The Virtu a l expropri a tion under the gui se of n a tion aliz a tion
, ,

of foreign owned undert a k ings in the new territories ga ve them

-

the opportunity of compens a ting themselves in the industri a l

fi eld for the in fl ue n c e they h a d lost on the l a nd Th e num ber a n d .

the c a pit a l of li mited comp an ies grew very r a pidly :

Nu m b e r Ca pita l

Am ong the be n efit s most of these un dert a k ings enj oyed un der
the L a w for the Encoura gement of N a t i on a l Industry were the
follow ing : s a le of f a ctory sites a t a dva nt a geous prices free a ccess
to w a ter p ower ; exemption from customs duties for m a chi nery ,

p a rts a n d a ccessories ; v a rious reb a tes on t a xes ; reduction in

freight r a tes to industries importing more th a n 5 0 per cent of .

their r a w m a teri a ls ; preference in the distribution of public con

tra cts After the Wa r to these spe cifi c fa vours were a dded the
.
,

prohibition of export of r a w m a teri a ls a n d the fi x in g of m a ximum ,

prices for fuel ; not to spea k of high protective duties a n d of

v a rious credit privi leges Yet a ll the s e a ttentions f a iled to m a ke
.

industry prosperous even in the best post w ar ye a rs D a t a

,
-
.

a v a i l a ble a t the M i nistry of Industry a n d Commerce showed th a t

1
A ticl
r Rum i
e on I du try d M uf ctur i t h M h s t Gu di
an a n n s an an a es
’
n e a nc e er ar an s
’

S upp lemen t, Ma y 19 27 .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 447

al a rge proportion of undert a kings h a d b een un a ble to m a ke ends

meet :
Nu m b e r of u d rt kin gs n e a S ufi ered l oss es
929 86
176
on e fif t h of t h e
-
b a l an c e s h ee ts cl
-
os e d with a l oss or witho ut
1
pr o fi t s

From 1 926 onw a rd s Rum a ni a a lso experienced for the fi r st time , ,

the pl a gue of unemployment especi a lly in the engineering in ,

d ust r y The remedies which a writer in the Buc a rest A rgus sug
.

gested for it a r e instructive a s a revel a tion of the outlook presiding

‘ ’
over th a t i ndustri a l effort The Government a lone he s a id
.
, ,

c a n supply a remedy for this exception a lly gra ve situ a tion It .

should to begin wi th prohibit for a t le a st six months the import

, ,
’
of a ll a n d a n y met a l goods which ca n be produced a t home ;
priva te firm s should b e obliged to buy their m a chi nery from
Rum ani a n fa ctories when prices a r e equ a l a n d publi c a uthorities
,

should b e forbidden to im port a n y goods which could b e m a nu

fa ct ur e d in the coun try 2
.

This determin a tion to crea te a n a tion a l industry c a lled for a

fi n a n ci al po licy a d a pted to the purpose F a ilur e to i ntroduce a n .

effective t a x a tion system when it coul d h a ve been done during

, ,

the Wa r a n d the fin a n cin g of the Wa r by me a ns of p a per money

,

a n d Tre a sur y bonds h a d a lre a dy sh a ken the found a tions on

,
’ ‘ ’
which the country s fi n an ce s rested The n a tion a liz a tion of .

economic life a fter the Wa r proved to b e the stra w which broke

the b a ck of the leu Such a n enterprise coul d obviously not b e
.

fi na n ce d with foreign money a s most pub lic a n d priv a te under

,

t a kings h a d been fi n a n ce d b efore the Wa r ; every intern a l r e

source w a s therefore mob ili zed to a ssist in c a rryin g it out The .

mir a ge of n a tion a l self suffi ci en cy a ppea rs to h a ve b een so be

-

witchin g a s to convince st a tesmen a n d business men th a t an

exten s ive industry could b e cre a ted without c a pit a l a n d the ,

cur rency at the s a me time reva lorized in to the b a rga in Foreign .

holders were bought out a t a lm ost a n y price The Tre a sury the .
,

b a nks a n d individu a ls did not hesit a te to a ssume he a vy ob liga

tions tow a rds them in strong foreign currencies The report of .

the Deutsche B a nk on the s a le of the S t e a ua Rom an a sh a res

1
A rgu S pt m b r 1 5 1 923
s, e e e , . Ibid M rch 7 1 9 28 2
.
, a , .
 448 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
fra nkly a dm itted th a t gre a ter profi t s were m a de from th a t tra ns
a ction th a n from ten ye a rs of norm a l b a nkin g As the exch a nge .

continued to fall however these foreign ob liga tions thr ea tened to

, ,

ruin a ll who were boun d by them Fin a lly when p a ym en t co ul d no .

,

longer b e postponed the St a te in tervened a n d concluded on their

,

beh a lf long term a rra ngements in re a lity comp ul sory if costly

- —
, ,
'

mora tori a — w h i ch alt oget h er rui ned the n a tion s money a n d credi t ’
.

In a ll these specul a tions a gricultur e h a d neither p a rt nor

pr ofi t ; a s it h a d nothi ng to do with the bitter a n d d a m a ging
wr a ngle concernin g the tre a tmen t of foreign c a pit a l whi ch ensued
from th a t poli cy Agricultur e w a s in a ll these in cidents a mere
.

spect a tor but a sp ect a tor who w a s ultim a tely m a de to pa y for

,

the broken gl a ss B y mea ns of a v a riety of fi s ca l a n d restrictive

.

me a sures the f a rmers were prevented from r a isin g the price of

their produce in the s a me me a sure in which the currency h a d
depreci a ted .

Th a t con s tr ic t ion o f p r ices r e duce d t h e fa r m e r s i n co m e i n suc h a

‘ ’

w a y a s t o fo r ce t h e m t o con sum e t h e wh o l e o f t h e i r profi t r en oun ci n g ,

a n y i m p r o v e m e n t o f s t o c k o r fr e s h c a p i t a l i n v e s t m en t s B e ca u s e of .

t h e l o n g p r oce s s o f p r o du c t io n a n d o f t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e fa r m e r
,

s e ll s h i s p r o du ce t h e l a b ou r a n d wo rr y of a w h o l e y ea r a r e s t a k e d u p o n
,

t h e c h a n ce s of o n e m a r k e t d a y a n d h e s t a n d s t o l os e fr om e x c h a n ge
,

v a r ia t ion s m o r e t h a n a ll o t h e r p r o duce r s A gr i cu ltu r a l p r o duct ion i s

.

i n co m p a t i b l e wi t h a fl uct ua t i n g e x c h a n ge .

’
Yet in s pite of the coll a pse of the exch a nge the country s r ul ers
did not a b a ndon the belief th a t in the end they coul d force the
foreign v a lue of the leu to conform to its in tern a l p urch a sing
p ower they rem a ined therefore consistent in their in tent to keep
, ,

food plentiful a n d che a p by checking the export of a gricultura l

,

produce while impeding the coming in of foreign goods a n d money .

It w a s ch a ra cteristic of th a t a ttitude th a t no restrictions

wh a tever were im po s ed on the consumption of bre a d a s reg a rds ,

either qu a ntity or qu a lity in the ye a r a fter the Wa r though , ,

whe a t a n d flour h a d to be imported on borrowed doll a rs a n d

pounds ; a n d it w a s still more ch a r a cteristic th a t when a fterw a rds
a gricultur a l exports were prohibited or restricted this a pplied ,

not only to whe a t a n d me a t but a lso to o a ts a n d b a rley to , ,

millet a n d — c a vi a re Th e Governm ent s restrictive mea sur es

.
’

1
C Ga rofi id ,
. a rticl e i n B uletin ul I n s li tu mlui c
E conomi Romd n es c, Fe bru a ry 1 924 .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 449

nevertheless f a iled to a chi eve a n y of the re sults they were in

‘
tended to produce The expensive n a tion a li zed industry is
.
’

lea di ng a di sench a nted exi stence ; protection from foreign com

petition h a s not presented it w ith a c a p a cious interna l m a rket .

The leu h a s ultim a tely h a d to b e st a bilized a t a lower r a te th a n

either leva or d i n a r— though Bulga ri a a n d S erbi a h a d been
d a m a ged severely by the B a lk a n W a rs a n d the Gre a t Wa r— no
doubt b ec a use the two neighbour i n g Sl a v countries preferred to
e ncour a ge export r a ther th a n to restrict i t Nor h a s the Tre a sury
.

ult im a tely derived a n y ben efit fr om th a t poli cy For by de .

press ing production a n d exports the export duties a s well a s , ,

a ll other t a xes though very hi gh h a ve yielded little where a s

, , ,

lower t a xes might h a ve produced a l a rger revenue in more a ctive

’
economic conditions Le a st of a ll di d the St a te s policy succeed
.

in kee ping prices low Low prices di scoura ged production ; t h is

.

c a used in cert a in ye a rs a short a ge of a gricultur a l supplies in which ,

c a se the St a te s control of prices w a s b ound to become in op er a

’

tive All th a t it a chieved w a s to reopen the doors to the spec u

.

l a tion a n d pr ofi t e erin g which h a d flourished elsewhere during the

Wa r Moreover the che a pness of food soon bec a me a n illusory boon
.
,

for the urb a n popul a tion a s the l a ck of exports an d the depreci a

,

tion of the cur rency m a de a ll imported m a nuf a ctures very de a r .

When these two restrictive me a sur es— e xport a n d price con

trol— f a iled to work effectively the St a te di d not hesit a te to h a ve
,

recourse to more dra stic me a ns of constr a int for the s a tisfa ction
of genera l or public n eeds I n the win ter of 1 920 the a uthorities
.

requi sitioned from the more successful fa rmer s w a gons of

whe a t to be distributed for seed to those who h a d none When .

i n 1 922 the a rmy could not obt a i n whe a t a t the controlled price
of 24 000 1ei per w a gon it proceeded to requisition wh a t corn it
, ,

needed H a ving le a rnt a lesson from the experience of the Soviets

.
,

or p erh a ps merely for re a sons of conveni ence it di d not however , , ,

requisition the corn di rect from the pe a s a nts but from millers ,

a n d corn merch a nts They were obliged to sur ren der 20— 30 per
.

cen t of the whe a t they h a d collected —a n d for whic h they h a d

.

p a id lei— a t the fi x e d m a xim um price of lei per

w a gon Such requi sitions h a d perh a ps even a more disturbin g
.

effect on production a n d tra de th a n the other me a sures esp eci a lly ,

1 5 69 69
-

G g
45 0 EFFECTS OF THE STATE S
in a psychologic a l sense ; export t a xes a n d controlled prices were
a t le a st known qu a ntities but the system of requi sitions left
,

f a rmers a n d tra ders a t the mercy of every i nterference in a

coun try ridden with unr estra ined petty offi cia ls .

Th e cum ul a tive a ction of t hi s m ul tiplicity of restrictive a n d

oppressive mea sur es inevit a bly h a d the effect of b ewilderin g the
a ctivities of a gric ul tur a l producers a n d of gra du a lly depress ing
the whole rura l in dustry The p a ssive resist a nce l a rgely.
,

premedi t a ted a dopted by the pe a s a n ts who refused to grow

,

whe a t could not s a ve a gricultur e from being pen a li zed for the
,

ben efi t of the other bra nches of economic a ctivity C a pit a l .

drew a n excessive retribution for its services i n the sh a p e of

in terests w hi ch doubled the origin a l debt withi n thr ee ye a rs ;
a s di d in dustry in dem a n di ng for its products a much hi gher
,

rel a tive price th a n b efore the Wa r Accordi ng to the c a lcul a .

tions of M D Gheorghi u D irector of Customs the a ver a ge price

. .
, ,

p er hectolitre of whea t in the period 1 906— 1 4 w a s lei ,

equ a l to 1 8 44 lei per 1 00 kg In 1 927 1 00 k g of whe a t

-

.
, .

were worth 8 5 0 lei i e a bout 26 5 0 gold lei a n incre a se of

, . .
,

a b out one third We h a ve given when discussing the r e equi p

.
,
-

ment of a gricult ure with m a chin es a n d im plements the cost of

some of these goods Unfortun a tely the onl y a va il a ble
.
,

Rum a ni a n index numbers those collected by the A rgus do not , ,

extend to m a chi nes a n d such other goods a s constitute the

’
pe a s a nts m a in purch a ses ; a p a rt from food clothi ng w a s the ,

only other genera l group included Nevertheless these fi gur e s .

,

bri n g out well enough the di screp a ncy b etween the prices of
a gricultur a l produce a n d those of m a n uf a ctur ed goods

A ug . De c . De c . Dec . De c . De c . Dec . De c . Ma y
1 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
1916 1 9 22 1 923 1 9 24 1 9 25 1 9 26 1 9 27 1 928 1 9 29

1 00
1 00
1 00

G e e ra l a v e ra ge
n 1 00

1
Th e ch an ge i n t h e figur es of t h e l a s t c olu mn m ay be d ue t o s eas on a l v a ri ti ons a ,

y e t it pr o b bly i s n o t u c onn e cte d with t h e a cc ss i on of a P ea s an t G o v e rnm e n t i n

a n e

Nove m ber 1 9 28 a n d t h e c ons e qu e n t re v e rs i on i n t h e S ta te s e c on omic p o licy

’
.
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 45 1
’
Rum an i a s popul a tion consists l a rgely of fruga l a n d a hn ost self
s uffi cin pe a s nt holders it w a s only to be expected th a t the
g a ;
di sproportion in v a lue between wh a t they produced a n d wh a t
they got in exch a nge for it would inj ect i nto the rur a l m a ss a
considera ble dose of indi fferentism— a phenomenon whi ch t a ught
the Soviet Gover mn en t too a costly lesson J ust when every
, , .

thin g h a d to b e rebuilt in a gric ul ture the pe a s a n ts were reduced

,

to poverty a ga in ; an d such s a vings a s they h a d were buried a s is ,

’
the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt s h a bit in se a led bottles to s a ve the
, ,

p a per money from deva st a tion by mice There w a s no in duce .

ment for them to use these s a vi n gs for the purpose of in crea sing
productio n when they were forced to sell their produce a t h a lf
,

its re a l va lue while being m a de to pa y more th a n rea l va lue for

such necess a ries a s they h a d to buy .

As long a s the St a te s fi n a n cia l a n d economic policy rem a in ed

’

so one sidedly unpropitious its in fl uen ce w a s bound to frustra te

-

the good work which the a gricultura l dep a rtments a n d their

p ersonn el were doing They coul d h a ve little ch a nce of instillin g
.

a new spirit of enterprising optimism into the country side a s long -

a s the pe a s a nts , rightly or wrongly felt themselves to b e a s ,

persecuted a s before ; a n d the pra ctic a l work of a s sisting a n d

tra ini n g t h e fa rmers w a s necess a rily cut low to fit the stinted
resources wh ich the Government pl a ced a t their dispos a l .

Agric ul ture h a s n orm a lly received no di rect m a teri a l a ssis

t a nce from the Sta te in the sh a pe of subventions or bounties
, .

An exception occurred when the prohibition of export s c a used

a s e rious decli ne in whe a t gro w i ng a n d the Gover n ment offered
-

a bonus of 200 1e i for e a ch h a under whe a t Th a t b onus di d not

. .

represent more tha n a fra ction of the loss which the fa rmers were
sufferin g through the v a rious restrictive mea sures a n d t a xes .

Ab out h a lf a milli a rd lei w a s p a id by the St a te in th a t form ,

without its b ein g a ble thereby to check the effects of the obst a cles
which it w a s pl a cing a t the s a me time in the w a y of whea t
grow ing a n d tra de Nor h a s a gric ul ture b een f a vour ed like
.
,

i n dustry with l a ws for its protection a n d encoura gement

, .

M Ga r ofl i d it is true ena cted a la w in 1 920 for the e n cour a ge

.
, ,

ment of mech a ni ca l cultiva tion ; it exempted from export a n d

price restrictions a quot a of 5 00 k g per h a of whea t grown . .

G g2
45 2 EFFECTS OF THE STATE ’
S
with the a id of m a chines an d it exempted a gricultur a l m a chi n es
,

from the p a yment of im port duties But the me a sure w a s a bro .

g a ted in the followin g ye a r by M V Brati a nu on the ground . .

th a t it interfered wi th hi s t ari ff a n d export p oli cy A number .

of fa rmers who h a d a lre a dy t a ken a ction on the strength of

,

M Ga r oflid s la w obt a ined from the Courts d a m a ges a ga inst

.
’

the Government ; with others the Governm ent h a d to m a ke an

onerous compromise so th a t the i n cident c a used a loss to the
,

St a te without a n y a dva nt a ge to a gricul tur e An other me a sur e .

discussed a fter the Wa r con templ a ted the est a blishm ent of a
system of elev a tors a n d st a nd a rdiz a tion of corn ; it woul d a void
the gre a t loss resulting from the present system of piece me a l -

tra di ng a n d especia lly the useless a n d w a steful overl a ppin g of

,

tra nsports but so fa r nothi ng h a s b een done to c a rry out the

,

ide a The st a nda r di z a tion of cere a ls w a s de a lt with in a bill

.

which the Libera l Governmen t p a ssed in the sprin g of 1 927 The .

me a sure w a s denoun ced by the Opposition a s insin cere an d in con

sequent Wh en the Lib era ls s a id M Mih a la ch e a t l a st thought
.
, .
,

of legisl a ting for the ben efi t of a griculture they b ega n wi th tra de ,

a n d not wi th production We a r e not suffering from a com

.
‘

m e r ci a l crisis but from a crisis of production The problem of

, .

’
production must b e solved fi rst .

The indirect a i d which the St a te h a s given a gricult ure con

sists in the m a i n ten a nce of s chools model fa rms a n d experiment a l ,

st a tion s The budget of the Mi n i stry of Agric ul tur e a n d Dom a i n s

.

a mounted in 1 925 to lei or 2 72 p er cent of the -

.

St a te s tot a l budget In 1 9 27 the p ercent a ge rose to 3 5 8 p er

’
.
-

cent the correspon ding sum b eing employed a s follows

.
,

P er c nt
e .

F or ag ricultura l t chi g d r es rch

ea n an ea 1 2 78
m d l S ta te fa r m s
o e 1 0 68-

breedin g sta ti ons 1 9 36-

a d m i i tr ti on f S ta te forests
n s a o 229 9
a pplica ti of t h e gr ri n r for m
on a a a e 24 26
s t te fi s h er i e s
a 28 0
o th e r s e rvic es a n d b oo k k pi ng -
ee 7 13

1 00 00-

The size of this budget ha rdly corresponded to the im port a nce

of the agricultur a l industry or to the m agnitude of the problems
,
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY 45 3

w hi ch the l a nd reform h a d ra ised Moreover it wo ul d seem tha t

.
,

sometimes gra n ts form a lly m a de h a d fa il ed to m a teri a lize For .

i nst a nce the Govern ment m a de a pr ofi t out of the whe a t which

,

it requisitioned in 1 920 a t contro lled price s a s the corn w a s p a id ,

b a ck in kind by those who h a d received it a n d wa s sold by the

Governm ent a t world prices ; a mi n ute of the Cou n cil of Min i s ters
a ssigned the rofi t then m a de to b e used for a gricultur a l educ a
p
tion but nothi ng w a s a ctu a lly given Another Ca bin et mi nute
,
.

dest ined to the s a me purpose the considera ble surplus w hi ch the

Comm ission for the regul a tion of the corn tra de h a d re a lized but ,

the gra nt w a s never p a id The l a rge sum s collected in export

.

t a xes h a ve not been used in the interests of a gricult ure We h a ve .

a lre a dy mentioned th a t money whi ch the pe a s a nts p a id in a d ,

va nce for the l a nd they h a d received w a s not used a s it w a s

, ,

me a nt to be for the c a nce ll a tion of expropri a tion bonds but w a s

, ,

sw a llowed up in the genera l budget of the St a te Since the .

Wa r the budget of the Mi ni stry of Agriculture h a s not exceeded

,

gold lei spent l a rgely on a dmi nistra tive a ctivities ;

,

until with the a dvent of the Na tion a l Pe a s a n t Governme n t the

-

1 929 budget re a ched gold lei the entire s urplus of ,

gold lei bei n g spent in direct pra ctica l a ids to the

fa rmers .

It is indeed d ifficult to di scover wh a t steps of a n y im port a nce

the St a te h a s effectively t a ken durin g the l a st dec a de with a View
to completing the l a nd reform with a n a gra ri a n reform ; un til one
comes to the foun ding of the In stitute for Agronomic a l Rese a rch
in 1 9 27 the cre a tion of M C Gar ofii d Th a t neglect h a s told
, . . .

upon Rum a ni a n a gricult ure the more a s it coincided wi th the

strenuous efforts other co untries m a de for the purpose of improv
in g the equipment a n d output of f a rmi n g Th a t friendly competi
.

tion in the furthera nce of a gricultur e h a s not been limited to the

big a n d resourceful coun tries Even i n such a poor coun try a s
.

B ulg a ri a the Sta te found me an s to purch a se through the Agri

,

cultura l B a nk m a chin es va lued a t 5 0 million leva whi ch it ,

distributed to the pea s a n ts a t four fi ft h s of the origin a l cost

-

a llowing them three yea rs in which to a the price I n t he

p y .

a utum n of 1 927 the Czechoslov a k Minister of Agric ul tu re ,

M S r din k o expounded his Gover mn en t s a gric ul tur a l progra m

.
,
’
45 4 EFFE CTS OF THE STATE S ’

b efore P a rli a ment summin g up the requi site conditions for the
,

progress of a griculture under three hea ds :

A hi gher st a nd a rd of c ul ture on the l a nd
The techn ic a l a meli ora tion of the soil a n d ,

A che a p supply of a gricultur a l credi t .

Ag r a ri a n poli cy in Rum a ni a h a s m a de a b egin ni ng only w ith the

l a st p a rt of th a t soun d summi ng up ; the second h a s not b een
-

considered so fa r ; while the fi r st h a s b een wi dely discussed but

b a rely a ttempted Occ a sion a lly one met in villa ges or m a rket
.

to w ns with spora dic cultur a l e xp erim ents ; they were due how ,

ever not to a n y set n a tion a l pra ctice but to the priva te ini ti a tive
, ,

a n d ze a l of indivi du a l schoolm a sters or a gricultur a l offi ci a ls .

The st a nd a rd of a bility a n d of devotion to work to b e found

a mong the perso n nel of the a gricultur a l services is excellent ;

unfort un a tely it h a s so far served onl y to em p h a siz e the short

,

comin gs of a policy whi ch h a s fa il ed to give these Virtues the

scop e for an d the me a ns of ra ising the f a rmi ng communi ty .

The form a l a ction t a ken to th a t end h a s b een qui te el a bora te .

A system of di strict committees a ppoin ted by the Mini stry of ,

Agriculture w a s set up a fter the War to a ssist the Mini stry in

,

c a rryin g out schemes for the improvement of a gricultur e These .

commi ttees of a n offi cia l ch a ra cter h a d no ch a nce of fulfilli ng

, ,

in their p a rticul a r sphere of a ction an intention whi ch w a s contra

di cted by the St a te s genera l economic policy A fresh scheme
’
.

w a s in a ugura ted in 1 925 i nvolving the est a b lishment i n e a ch

,

coun ty of a Ch a mb er of Agricultur e modelled on the Ch a mbers ,

of Comm erce with a mixed membership of elected an d a ppointed

,

members ; the Ch a mbers a r e entitled to elect the i r own members

of P a rli a ment They were to co opera te in a n a dvisory c a p a city
.
-

with the Ministry of Agriculture in the p romotion of b etter

fa rming bein g free to undert a ke a h n ost a n y a ctivity to th a t end
, ,

provided they could fi n d the me a ns therefore a n d kept w ithin

the la w S ome of these Ch a mbers h a ve done thei r b est to prove
.

the useful p a rt they coul d pl a y in the sol ving of a gricultur a l

problems Unfortun a t ely the Ch a mb ers of Agric ul ture were
.
,

from the outset turned into p a rty instruments whi ch sp eedily ,

lost them their reput a tion a n d rendered them useless a s critics

a n d reformers In Novemb er 1 928 the Min istry of Ag riculture
.
,
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY 45 5
i nstituted a new group of Commi ttees for the im provement of
a gricultur a l production a n d the ha rmoni zin g of St ate a ction
with priva te ini ti a tive The system consists of a Centra l Com
.

mi t t ee un der the Cha irm a nship of the Minister of Agricultur e

a n d inclu di ng his subordi n a te he a ds of dep a rtments re re
p ,

sen t a t i ves of other economic services a n d dep a rtments of Agri ,

cultura l Credit I nstitutions of the Ch a mb ers of Agriculture & c

, , .

The decisions of the Centra l Committee a r e to b e a d a pted to

loc a l con di tions by County Committees a tt a ched to e a ch ,

Ch a mb er of Agriculture ; w hi le Comm un a l Co m mittees of a

simil a r mixed composition a r e to c arry out the v a rious pl a ns
a n d decisions on the spot The success of the work which lies
.
,

a ll in the future will depend on two conditions : on the a b i lity

,

of these Comm ittees to s a fegu a rd their profession a l ch a ra cter ,

a n d on the i r functio ni n g un der the a egis of a more helpful St a te

policy The l a tter con dition is being r a pidly fulfille d by the new
.

N a tion a l Pe a s a nt Governm ent a s a result a s M Mih a la ch e put

-

, , .

it not of p a rty bi a s but of economic logic D urin g 1 9 29 th a t

, , .

Governm ent p a ssed a L a w for Agricultur a l Credit destined t o ,

fa cilit a te the est a bli shm ent of cre di t institutions devoted to

a gricultur e with the help of foreign c a pit a l a L a w for Element a ry

Agricult ur a l E duca tion a n d for p op ula r educa tion me a nt to ,

educa te the a gric ult ura l m a sses professiona lly ; a L a w for Higher
Agric ul tur a l E duca tion me a nt to produce exper ts in the technic a l
,

a n d soci a l problems of a gricultur e a n d scientists for rese a rch ;

,

the Co Oper a tive Code to which refere n ce h a s been m a de in

-

cha pter X ; the L aw for the Improvement of the D a nube regions

li a ble to floodin g which wi ll m a ke possible the exploit a tion of
,

immense St a te properties ; a n d the L a w for the Free S a le of

Pea s a nt Property destined to help the cre a tion of e conomi ca lly
,

soun d hol d ings In a ddi tion the Govern ment is now consider
.

in g a bill for the cre a tion of a proper rur a l s urvey a n d of ground

b ooks ; a bill destined t o f a cili t a te the consoli da tion of pe a s a nt
holdings ; a bill for a gricult ura l insur a nce a nother de a lin g w ith,

irriga tion a n d other me a sur es of a pra ctic a l n a tur e

, .

The p riv a te a gra ri a n org a ni z a tions like the Agric ul tura l

,

Syndic a tes an d their Un ion a n d the p a rties representing the

,

p ea s a nts never h a d a n y ill usions concernin g the effect of the

,
45 6 ’
EFFECTS OF THE STATE S

economic a n d fin an cia l policy describ ed in the precedin g p ages .

In 1 9 20 a Congress of Agriculturists h a d a lre a dy put fo r wa rd a

considered progra m for the guid a nce of a griculture in to more
i ntensive a n d productive ch a n nels 1 Th ere w a s in th a t pro .

gra m of cour se no suggestion of restriction or control of

, ,

production except i n so fa r a s it a dvoc a ted the fixi ng of leg a l

,

st a nd a rds a n d obli g a tions for the cul tiva tion of the l a nd A .

second congress of Agricul tur ists convened by the Centra l Union

of Agricultur a l S y ndic a tes in Novemb er 1 9 23 a dopted resolu
tions i nsist ing a b ove a ll on the necessity of not i nterferi ng with
, ,

the m a rketing of a gricultur a l produce They dem a nded the .

improvement of tra nsport support for export by me a ns of ,

tra de conventions a n d a he a lthy budget b a sed on the incre a se

, ,

of di rect t a x a tion .

As re g a rds the a ttitude of poli tic a l p a r ties the Lib era l Pa rty , ,

gui ded by the l a te Ion C Brati a nu a n d a fterw a rds by his .

,

brother M V intil a B r é t ian u h a s b een in a position to d ict a te

, .
,

the economic a n d fin a n ci al policy followed un til the end

’ ’
of 1 928 Genera l Aver escu s People s Pa rty a t its Congress in
.
,

1 925 pledged itself to distribute to the pe a s a nts who h a d r e

,

cei ve d l a nd m a chines a n d i mplements needed for more r a tion a l

,

fa rmin g thus recogniz ing tha t the reform la w which it prided

, ,

itself in h a ving p a ssed in 1 921 h a d not solved the a gra ri a n ,

pr oblem B ut when the P a rty c a me into power a g a i n in 1 926

.
, ,

none of these good intentions were rememb ered The Pe a s a nt .

Pa rty s a gra ri a n progra m published in 1 924 cont a in ed a n

’
, ,

el a bora te pl a n for givin g a gricultur e the pl a ce of honour it

deserved in the coun try The progra m recog n ized th a t t hi s .

involved for the fa rmers duties a s well a s rights ; it expected the

‘ ’
St a te to help in cre a ting a n a gra ri a n conscience by educ ation ,

a n d speci a l org a n iz a tion but it considered th a t in its tur n the

,

St a te h a d a right to expect from those to whom the l a nd h a d

been entrusted proofs of their willi n gness a n d c a p a city for work
ing it prop erly The Pa rty looked to co oper a tion to enla rge a n d
.
-

improve the economic a cti vities of the rura l popula tion As .

reg a rds indu s try it a dmitted th a t it shoul d b e encour a ged in so

,

fa r only a s it w a s b a sed on the l a bour an d r a w m a teri a ls which

S d t il i Vi wA g i l Buc r t J u ry 1 1 9 21
1
ee e a s n e
"

r co a , a es , an a , .
 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 45 7

the coun try itself could provide Th a t poin t of View w a s closely .

rel a ted to th a t of the N a t ion a l ( Tra nsylva n i a n ) Pa rty In 1 927 .

these two p a rties a m a lga m ated a n d the new groupin g kno w n a s ,

the N a tion a l Pe a s a nt Pa rty c a me to p ower in November 1 928

-

, .

The new Minister of Agriculture M I Mih a la ch e promptly r e , . .

,

a sserted the Pa rty s a gr a ri a n creed in a pre s s in terview

’ ‘
1
Our .

‘
Government he decl a red is not the enemy of indu s try On
’
, , .

the contra ry we beli eve th a t the interests of the two br a nches

,

of n a tion a l economy complement e a ch other in the h appiest

possible w a y But th a t di d not a pply to industries which h a ve
.

’
been a ble to exi st o nl y out of the St a te s budget a n d from the ,

f a vours conti nuously gra nted them by governm ents These a r e .

d efi ni t ely p a ra sitic a l in dustries a n d they w ill h a ve to dis a ppe a r

,
.

The present Government h a s no i ntention of cont inui n g the

culp a ble support whi ch the industries h a ve been a ccustomed to
receive Its support will b e dir ected tow a rds a gricul tur e
. We .

a r e determin ed to m a ke a griculture the pivot of our whole

economic lif e by crea t ing sour ces of a gricultur a l cre di t by

’
, ,

profession a l educ a tion a n d by e ffective a id for the a gricultura l

industry An d in f a ct the Governm ent of M I uli u M a ni u h a s
.
, , .

a t once set to work to rec a st the whole econo m ic legisl a tion a n d

policy which h a ve dur ing the preceding ten ye a rs been built

upon the n a tiona list doctrin e of economic self s ufficien cy -
.

The tendency expounded in M Mih a la ch e s decl a ra tion h a s .

’

since been reinforced by the cre a tion of a non p a rty Agra ri a n -

Le a gue i n M a rch 1 929 More th a n twenty ye a rs a go the fa r

, .

seei n g st a tesm a n Peter Ca rp a ttempted to org a nize the l a n d

, ,

owners in a n Agricultur al S ociety for the defence of a gra ri a n

i n terests but the Society fa iled to a chieve its purpose m a inly
, ,

bec a use it h a d left out the sm a ll fa rmers a n d bec a use the n a rrow
politic a l life of the tim e impeded a suffi ci en t concentra tion upon
professiona l interests The new orga niz a tion a ppea rs a nxious
.

to put to pr ofi t the lessons of th a t ea rlier fa ilure It wo ul d seem .

to h a ve sprun g up a lmost spont a neously In 1 927 a n Agra ri a n .

Cultura l Associ a tion w a s fo unded in J a ssy for the pur pose of ,

cc ordin a t i ng the work of a gric u

-

l tur a l societies a n d institutions

in the northern Rum ani a n provin ces In October 1 928 it w a s .

1
Di mi n ea fa , D e c emb r 30 e , 1 9 28 .
45 8 EFFECTS DE THE STATE S ’

decided to e x tend the a ctivity of the Society to the whole country ,

a n d the new progr a m of the Associ a tion procl a imed a mong ,

other t hi ngs its in tention of worki ng towa rds the crea tion of a n
,

a gra ri a n
g roup i n Pa rli a ment whi ch shoul d in clude a ll r epr e
,

s en t a t i ve s of a gric ultura l in terests without reg a rd to their

p oli tic a l colour with a View to their p erm a nent coll a bora tion
, .

To some e xtent a ga in the im petus h a s come fr om the ini ti a tive

, ,

of a group of p ea s a nts from southern Tr a nsylv a ni a who orga n ,

i z e d themselves into a profession a l society a n d sought the a d vi ce

of le a din g a gricultur ists a s to the best w a y of a chi evin g their
purpose The new Agra ri a n Le a gue a ims a t bringing w it hi n its
.

r a nks a ll those connected wi th a gricul tur e from l a ndo w ner to ,

l a bour er wi thout reg a rd to their politica l a llegi a nce a n d solely

, ,

for the fur therin g of profession a l in terests The in a ugur a l meet .

ing of the Lea gue w a s held in Buca rest on 1 0t h M a rch 1 929 , .

It elected M C Ga r ofli d a s fi rs t President of the Lea gue a n d

. .

p a ssed the followin g resolution : The Le a gue is desti ned to en

‘

cour a ge to support a n d to rea lize the rights too often overlooked

, , ,
’
of the n a tion s most powerful group of producers The Agra ri a n .

Lea gue is det a ched from politic a l p a rty interests a i ming a t ,

fulfillin g the re a l economic interests of the country whi ch a r e ,

our s a lso . The S a xon member of Pa rli a ment Herr Fritz ,

Con ne r t a pp a rently g a ve the Le a gue a motto when he s a id

, ,

S a lva tion wi ll come from ourselves let the St a te merely refra in

,
’
from puttin g ob st a cles 111 our w a y .

The st a ge thus seems set for the b a l a ncing out of merc a ntil e
a n d a gr a ri a n tendencies . Th e likelih ood is th a t i ndependently
of the coming a n d going of p a rty g overnment the economic ,

experiment a ttempted duri ng the l a st dec a de wi ll not b e r e

t d g in— at a n r te on such extensive a le ar tl
y
g
p e a e a a y a a n sc p
bec a use th a t experiment h a s f a iled a n d p a rtly b ec a use the
m a j ority which h a s suffered from it is now roused t o orga niz e
, ,

itself in self —defence One m a y now exp ect therefore to see

.
, ,

Rum a ni a n a griculture enter d efi n it ely up on its new ph a se .

The two m a in tra nsform a tions which it h a s undergone h a ve

both been h a stened in their contem p or a ry developmen t
through the a ction of w a r The Crim e a n War offered to corn
.

growers opportun ities which induced the Rum a ni a n fa rmers

 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY 45 9
to a b a ndon qu a si p a stora l a griculture The pr ofit s which then
-
.

could b e m a de from corn growing especi a ll y when undert a ken

-

on a l a rge sc a le tempted the politica lly domin a nt l a ndowners to

,

extend their possessions a n d to conscript the pe a s a nts l a b our ; ’

a n d b thei r h a ndlin g of the po li tic a l m a chi ne they were a ble to

y ,

contin ue m a kin g l a rge pr ofi t s even when overse a competition

brought ruin upon the corn growers of western Europ e The -

Gre a t War initi a ted a new ph a se It broke the privileges of the.

l a nded cl a ss forcing them to h a nd over their l a nd a n d poli tic a l

,

p ower to the pe a s a nts Th a t p a rtition of the l a nd cre a ted condi

.

tions which were boun d a t l a st to bring a b out a tr a nsition from

extensive corn grow ing to intensive crop rot ation But the r e
- -
.

form w a s not a llowed to run its norm a l course After the Wa r .

,

the cl a ss whi ch h a d del a yed the p a ssing of extensive corn

gro w ing bec a use they derived a liveli hood from i t a g a i n c a used
, ,

a del a y in the progress of a gricultur e by g u i di n g a ll the resources

of the St a te tow a rds industri a l a ctivities i n which they were ,

seeking new fortun es Th e l a nd reform therefore whi ch opened

.
, ,

the w a y for the tra nsition from e xtensive to intensive a griculture ,

w a s m a de to r un side by side under unequ a l conditions of com

,

petition with a n efi or t to ch a nge the pur ely a gra ri a n ch a ra cter

,

of the country into th a t of a n a gra ri a n i ndustri a l one The -

.

e ff ects of the reform were in th a t w a in terfered with a n d di s

y
t or t e d by a n a spir a tion for economi c self sufli ci en cy which in -

a n a gr a ri a n country inevit a bly a ssumed a merc a ntil e bi a s The .

fir st ten ye a rs of the reform co ul d in those circumst a nces h a rdly

b e a ccepted a s ofi erin g a true rea din g of its ul tim a te develop
ment They h a ve to b e rega rded ra ther a s an economi c in terlude ;
.

whil e the policy whi ch h a s ch a ra cterized them sho ul d b e properly

considered to h a ve sprun g not so much from the competition of
,

two economic impera tives a s from the struggle of two soci a l

,

cl a sses for predomin a nce— cl a sses w hi ch through the peculi a r ,

a ction of the l a nd reform h a ve b een r a nged a lmost without inter

,

mixing on opposite sides of the line dividing a gricul ture from

industry 1
.

1
F or ur v e y of t h e n ew a gra ri an curr en t a n d of t h e P ea s n t G o v e rnm en t s
a s . a
’

vi e ws a n d p olicy s ee t h e s pe ci a l s uppl e m en t on R u ma ni publi s he d by t h e Ma nches ter

, a

Gua rdia n i n No v e mb e r 1 9 29 .
 C H A P TE R XI I
S OCIAL AND POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE REFORM
h wa s ch a ra cteristic of the a gra ri a n problem in e a stern
Europ e th a t it w a s comm o nl y spoken of a s the Pe a s a nt Question ,

a n d not like the Western problem a s the L a nd Question

, The .
,

ma j or fa ctor in the equ a tion w a s the a gent not the obj ect ; a n d ,

the issue hovered over the fi eld of soci a l policy ra ther th a n over
th a t of economic org a ni z a tion Oi course th a t poi nt of View
.
,

w a s n ot un a nimously held Mr Con a ch er rem a rks with j ustice

. .

th a t both o w ners of corn l an ds a n d the inh a bit a nts of to w ns

-

‘
comm only conceive of a gra ri a n l a nd a s b ein g im properly dea lt
with if disp osed of in such a w a y a s to end a nger its pr ofit a b
, le
exploit a tion under c a pit a list methods for meetin g a dem a nd
from elsewhere The l a nd hun gry pe a s a nt on the other h a nd
.
-

, ,

reg a rds l a n d a s the chief form a n d sour ce of we a lth which shoul d ,

b e equ a lly distributed even if such distribution were to le a ve

,

e a ch sh a reholder a mere subsistence The a gr a ri a n question .

genera lly resolves itself into a con fli ct b etween these points of

’
View .
1
In e a stern Eur ope where the p e a s a nts formed the m a ss
,

of the n a tion a gra ri a n me a sures especi a lly if undul y del a yed

, , ,

h a ve been a pt to ride roughshod over mere economic postul a tes ,

with a n e a se h a rdly to b e im a gined in western a gricultur e a n d ,

not a t a ll in the fi eld of c a pit a li st i ndustry .

B etween the a gra ri a n problems of e a st a n d west la y i ndeed a

world of difference There w a s a mere difference of degree i n
.

rega rd to techni que but the difference in the economi c a n d soci a l

,

o r g a niz a tion of a griculture w a s f und a ment a l A s i mple qu a nti .

t a t i ve comp a rison between the productive c a p a city of western

a n d e a stern f a rming could n ot bring out th a t v a ri a tion In the .

view of the Russia n z emstvo st a tistici a ns a n d agron om s whose ,

extensive a n d orig in a l l a bour s h a ve yielded a n i nv a lu a ble m a ss

of sociologic a l m a teria l one must reg a rd the two a s dist i nct
,
‘ ’ ‘
economic types — the c a pit a list type a n d th a t of the w a geless
’
f a mi ly economy Neither the criteri a nor the psychology of
.

1
A gra r ia n R efor m i n E as te r n E urop e, p 9 . .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 46 1
‘
modern economies with its b a ckgroun d of w a ge l a b our offer
,
’
,

the me a ns for ga in i ng a true i nsight in to the n a ture of the fa mil y

Wi rtschaft ; a n d modern economi cs c a nn ot therefore la y down
’

a n a gr a ri a n po licy which sh a ll b e univers a lly v a lid The usu a l ‘

.

purpose of a pra ctic a l a gra ri a n poli cy writes M Tseh a j a n ow ’

, .
,
‘
is to produce a s hi gh a rent a s possible Th a t is the sole a im of .

c a pit a list a griculture But i n a gra ri a n coun tries w ith a den se

.
’
,
‘
popula tion the pra ctic a l st a tesm a n mu s t n ot hesit a te to pla ce
,

other ends a n d other criteri a in the foreground a s his fi r st duty ,

is to secure for the bulk of the pop ul a tio n the hi ghest possible
st a nda rd of livin g a n d the gre a test po s sible gross income .

He will h a ve inevit a bly to correct the economic techni c a l st a nd -

point wi th the soci a l a n d in m a ny respects the a gra ri a n problem

,

will b ecome for h im a problem of popul a tion 1

.
’

If such w a s the correct a ngle from which in ea stern Eur op e , ,

a gr a ri a n problems h a d a t a ll t i mes to be Viewed th a t a ngle w a s ,

bound to become more a cute un der pressure from the popula r

dem a nds whi ch a rose out of the Wa r Such in deed w a s the .
, ,

ch a ra cter of the ensui ng l a nd reforms th a t to a ppra ise them j us tly , ,

one must reverse the order of v a lues suggested in M Ts eh a j a n ow s .

’

p hr a se The reforms left e a stern st a tesmen with the t a sk not of

.

correcting the e conomi c techni ca l st a ndpoint with the soci a l

-

but ra ther of correcting the soci a l st a ndpoint wi th the economic

technic a l Thi s t a sk however w a s delib era tely ignored for
.
, , ,

rea sons describ ed in the precedin g ch a pter As a consequence .

nothi ng h a s m a teri a lly ch a nged on the economic tech n ic a l s ide -

of a griculture The whole weight of the reform h a s been a llowed

.

to fa ll on the soci a l side ; a n d in th a t field one must therefore

expect to fi n d most of its modifying effects .

The one e fi e ct th a t st a nds out from a ll others is of course , ,

the Vi rtu a l oblitera tion of the l a n ded upper cl a ss The whole sa le .

expropri a tion of t h a t cla ss h a s been describ ed in Ch a pter VI I ,

in whi ch it h a s been sho w n th a t well ni gh all the a r a ble l a nd a n d-

a consider a ble extent of p a stur e a n d forest h a ve p a ssed in to ,

the h a nds of the pe a sa n ts L a nd property therefore is no lo n ger

.
, ,

a v a il a ble a s a source of rent or of soci a l i n fl ue n ce Considerin g .

1
N Tseh a j anow Di e L ehre
.
, von d er b c
a uer li ch en Wi rts h aft, e i n , 1 9 23 B rl . Th e b ok
o

s u ms up the c on clu s i ons t o Which tv w rk r

t h e z e ms o o e s h ad a r e e fo riv d b r e the War .
462 SOCI AL AND POLITICAL
the domin a nt p ower whi ch l a ndowners were a ccustomed to wield
’
durin g neo serfdom a n d the pe a s a nts utter st a te of dep endence
-

the soci a l ch a nge w rought by the reform is equ a l to nothi n g less

th a n a rur a l revolution One coul d not descri b e th a t effect
.

w ithout gre a tly un derr a tin g its re a ch merely a s a ch a nge in

,

the rel a tive st a ndin g of the two rur a l cl a sses For in truth the .
, ,

pe a s a nts h a ve now b een left a h n ost a lone in the fi eld a s undi s ,

put e d m a sters of it They h a ve conquered the coun try side -

.

decisively for the ir ow n cl a ss Such soci a l differenti a tion a s m a y

.

in the cour se of time develop a mong the rur a l p opul a tion co ul d

occur only wi thi n the pe a s a nt cl a ss itself an d not a b ove or ,

a g a in st i t
. The in substa nti a l remn a nt of rel a tively l a rge owners
coul d no longer fur ther their profession a l i nterests by oppressin g
or oppo sing the pe a s a nts but o nl y on the contra ry by r a llying
, , ,

them by serving them a s lea ders in a comm on c a use The new

, , .

’
Agra ri a n Le a gue represents the l a ndowners fir st thoug ht of
a ssoci a tin g the p e a s a nts with themselves The lin e of soci a l
.

contest h a s shi fted from the Villa ge a n d now runs ne a r the

boun d a ry between l a nd a n d town between agricul ture a n d
,

i ndustry Concerni ng the soci a l eff ect of the reform on the l a nded
.

cl a ss there is therefore li ttle to b e a dded to wh a t h a s b een s a id

so fa r : the work of di ssolutio n c a rried to gre a t lengths by the
reform is b ein g completed of their own wi ll by these elements
, ,

themselves m a ny of whom h a ve sold out a n d emb a rked upon

,

industri a l a n d profession a l c a reers All di scussion concerning

.

the effects of the reform on rur a l lif e a n d people must of necessity

concentra te on the pe a s a nts for whose ben efi t indeed the reform
,

w a s m a de As rega rds the life of the towns it is a ltogether

.
,

impossible to disent a ngle the repercussion of the reform from

the gener a l effect of post w ar condi tions ; except in rega rd to
-

cert a in peculi a r phila nthropic a n d cultur a l a ctivities which h a ve ,

pl a yed a n import a nt p a rt in the welfa re of the urb a n popula tion ,

a n d on which the eff ect of the reform h a d b een so deep a n d di rect

a s to j ustify a brief description of it .

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 46 3

S E CTI O N 1

S O CI A L E FFE C T S ON U R B AN L I F E A ND I N S TITUTI O N S
Dr G Ca r anfil h a s estim a ted th a t a l a ndow ner whose
. .
1

property w a s worth one milli on lei in 1 9 1 3 woul d h a ve b een ,

left with only gold lei at the b egin n in g of 1 924 t a k i ng —

a ccoun t of expropri a tion depreci a tion of mon ey a n d loss of

, ,

purch a sin g power— a n d gold lei in J a nu a ry 1 9 28 i e , . .

w ith 1 5 per cent of hi s origin a l c a pit a l One millio n lei i n vested

. .

in the b est cl a ss of sh a res a n d bonds woul d h a ve b een worth only

gold lei in 1 924 a n d gold lei in 1 928 i e 2 9 per , . .
-

cent of the origin a l c a pit a l These figur e s c a n not of course

. .

do more th a n indica te a tendency but withi n these rel a tive ,

limi ts they a r e prob a bly correct a n d a fir st gl a n ce a t them ,

might suggest th a t the l a nd h a s k no w n how to preserve

its subst a nce a t the expense of the town But we h a ve seen .

th a t in rea lity l a ndowners a n d f a rmers were given no such

opportun ity ; they were on the contra ry prevented from m a king
, ,

norm a l pr ofi t s out of their tra ns a ctions with the ur b a n pop ul a tio n .

Th e offi ci a l economi c a n d fi n a n ci a l policy left the f a rmers in a n

impecu ni ous st a te ; a n d in a coun try lik e Rum a ni a the a ffl uen ce
or poverty of the fa rming communi ty n a tur a lly a ffects the wel
fa re of all other forms of economic a ctivity But if gen era l .

poli cy a n d not the l a nd reform w a s responsible for the depression

, ,

of the f a rmers one must wi th still gre a ter rea son a ttribute to
,

the s a me c a use the di sc om fi t ur e of the urb a n tra ders a n d in

ve st or s Thi s is proved in deed by Dr Ca r a nfil s figur es They
.
, , .
’
.

show th a t the genera l run of the people who i nvested in the

‘
f a voured new industri a l enterprises found themselves worse
’

off a t the end of the fir st experiment a l dec a de th a n di d the non

fa voured fa rmers ; those indeed who merely fa iled to derive a n
, ,

income from such in vestmen ts were the fortuna te few .

One m a y set a ga in st this the a dva nt a ges which townspeople

h a ve derived from th a t policy Until two ye a rs a go Rum a ni a
.
,

w a s fa r a n d a w a y the che a pest country in Europe to live i n .

To this the reform m a y b e s a id to h a ve contributed indirectly , ,

but only in one sense It is doubtful whether the St a te s policy

.
’

A rgu M rch 29 1 928

1
s, a , .
46 4 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
would h a ve b een t h e s a me if a gricultur e h a d rem a in ed under the
i n fl uen ce of the powerful l a nded cl a ss As it w a s fa r from the .
,

p ea s a nts di ct a ting their prices to the towns— a s h a ppened in

m a n y p a rts of centra l a n d western E ur ope it w a s the towns g

which were en a bled to ext ra ct a tribute from the country side -

.

Whether the ur b a n popul a tion derived a l a sting ben efi t from the

’
St a te s e conomic policy is a nother m a tter It coul d not a lto .

gether prevent a rise in the cost of a gric ul tur a l products it ,

merely del a yed it ye a r by ye a r ; a n d th a t tra nsitory che a pness

of food stuffs w a s offset by the dea rness of the hea vily protected
-

m a nufa ctured goods Th e truth is th a t t a ken by themselves

.
, ,

ret a il in dex numbers tell nothing of the a ctu a l conditions of

living until tra n sl a ted into re al w a ges a n d s a l a ries Thi s w a s .

do e by M Mih a il Ma n oil es cu In 1 923 he di sclosed a situ a tion

n .
1
.

which w a s ba d a t the tim e a n d w hi ch h a s never ce a sed to grow

,

worse The occup a tion census of 1 9 1 3 showed th a t

.

persons or 1 8 5 per cent of the tot a l popula tion in the 01d

, .

Kingdom were living in the town s In Grea ter Rum a ni a the .

l a rger p ercent a ge of urb a n inh a bit a nts a n d ur b a n occup a tions

in Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovi n a is offset by their lesser p ercent a ge
in B ess a ra bi a so th a t in genera l the v a rious proportions rem a in
,

much the s a me In 1 9 1 3 therefore in the a b ove tot a l w a s

.
, ,

included :
i e 43 per cent employers a n d their f a mili es ;
. . .
,

1 e 25 per cent s a l a ried employees a n d their f a milies ;

. . .
,

i e 23 p er cent workers a n d their f a milies ;

. . .
,

while the rem a inder 9 per cent were a lso employees such a s
,
.
,

domestic serva nts a pprentices & c Hence 5 7 per cent of the

, , . .

urb a n popul a tion were w a ge e a rners In a lm ost a ll the Europ ea n

-
.

cou n tries the re a l w a ges of these section s of the p op ul a tion h a ve

risen a fter the Wa r I n Rum a ni a a ccordin g to the index of the
.
,

Mini s try of L a bour ( J a nu a ry 1 923) the w a ges of workers in

priv a te u n dert a kings h a d risen to sixteen times the pre w a r level ; -

a s the ret a il i n dex of necess a ries w a s 34 44 ( J un e re a l

w ages rem a ined in f a ct 5 3 per cent lower th a n b efore the Wa r . .

The situ a tion w a s much worse for St a te employees e s peci a lly ,

A rgu J ul y 23 1 9 28 1
s, , .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 46 5

for those in receipt of s a l a ries The memora ndum submitted by .

the Society of Engi neers in M a rch 1 923 st a ted th a t the nomin a l

w a ges of r a il wa ym en were nineteen times the pre w a r level but -

the s a l a ries of ra ilw a y in spectors o nl y 3 1 5 hi gher whi ch mea nt ,

th a t their re a l s a l a ries were 8 9 per cent lower This l a tter figur e . .

w a s prob a bly a pp lic a ble to a ll civil serva nts Their life through .

out these yea rs h a s been truly a m a rtyrdom Amo n g the p a tients .

of di spens a ries an d s a n a tori a for the tub erculous St a te em

l
p yo e es formed a l a rger percent a ge a
th n th a t of a n
y other ~

occup a tion .

Such a p a uperizing sc a le of remun era tion h a s been possible

’
b ec a use of the a bsence or the system a tic destruction of workers
orga ni z a tions ; a n d a lso b ec a use of the hybrid ch a r a cter of much
of the l a bour employed in industry a n d mi ning In the Old .

Kin gdom a m a j ority of the unskill ed workers were pe a s a nts who

,

took up industri a l work dur ing the periods when fi eld work w a s
a t a st a ndstill Most of the skill ed workers were foreigners
. .

Rum a ni a n workers were in a mi nority a mo n g i ndustri a l l a b our

in Tra nsylva n i a the bulk of them were pe a s a nts without l a nd ,

either bec a use they c a me from a l a rge f a mily or b ec a use they

h a d b een forced to sell out ; they were employed especi a lly in
min i ng a n d t imber fellin g L a nded pea s a nts a lso were to be
-
.

found in the timber industry working in comp a n ies th a t is in ,

tea ms who co n tra cted together for a d efi ni t e piece of work a n d

di vided the pr ofi t a mong themselves ; they usu a lly spent a b out
four months in industri a l work Dur in g the fi rst ye a rs a fter the .

Wa r numb ers of vill a gers were a ttra cted to the town s by the new
industri a l enterprises then st a rted During th a t period a gri .

culture suffered from a short a ge of l a bour being un a ble to offer ,

w a ges a n d genera l conditions a s a ttr a ctive a s those of industry .

V ery soon however a num ber of fa ctories h a d to reduce their

, ,

a ctivi ty or to close down a n d the resulting u n employment

,

checked the exodus to the town s A proportion of workers .

would a ppe a r in fa ct to h a ve retur ned to the l a nd 1 .

1
Th e i bility of in du stry t o offe r a livi g t o t h e w orke rs it firs t a ttra cte d h as
na n

i n cr s d t h e n u mb e r of e migran ts n otw ith st di g t h e o b sta cl s pl c e d i n th ir way

ea e , an n e a e

by R u m i n a uth oriti es a d by s om of t h o ve r ea c o u n tri s Th re w re fe w

an a n e e s e . e e

R u ma n i an mi gr an ts fr m t h e O ld Ki n gd om b fore t h e War But Tr ns ylv a ni a ga v e

e o e . a

a c o ns id e r a bl e n u m b e r m os t of th e m p asan t s w h o fir s t tri e d th e ir luck i n i n du s try

, e

H h
466 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
R a pid depreci a tion in the purch a sing p ower of the cur rency
h a s evidently h a d more to do with the tri a ls of the working a n d
s a l a ried cl a sses th a n a n y excessive incre a se in the cost of food
stuffs The declin e of a gric ul tura l production a n d consequently
.
,

of exports h a s cert a inly contributed to th a t depreci a tion But

, .

in how fa r the l a n d reform could be held respon sible for th a t

decli ne a n d thus indirectly for the di ffi cult y which most towns
,

people h a d of m a king ends meet must b e left to the re a der to ,

conj ecture from the a rgume n ts of e a rlier ch a pters There h a ve

, .

been a numb er of c a ses however in which town s or urb a n , ,

i nstitutio n s h a ve sufi ere d a loss of revenue through the l a nd

reform which h a s a ffected the public service they used to render .

Quit e a n umb er of the Tra nsylva ni a n towns e g owned , . .

,

stretches of a ra ble l a nd on their b orders a n d these properties ,

h a ve b een expropri a ted like those of individu a l own ers The .

town of Timi s o a ra to give a n ex a mple own ed

, c a d a stra l ,

j g
u a r s ; a ll of this l a nd w hi ch la
y b eyond a r a di us of one k m from .

the b a rriers of the town i e j g

u a r s h a s been expropri a ted
, . .
, ,

at lei per j uga r The loss in revenue h a s of cour se to b e

.

b a l a nced through an incre a se in ra tes a n d t a xes .

The outst a n d ing c a ses in this ca tegory of sufferers a r e cert a i n

prom i nent cultura l a n d ch a rit a ble e n d own m en t s It h a s b een a .

plea si n g custom with old Rum ani a n fa mili es to m a rk the fa vour s ,

a n d a lso the tri a ls of fortun e by l a rge he a rted ch a rity ; a n d a s

,
-

a ll their we a lth consisted of l a nd their ch a rity took the form of ,

gifts in l a nd to churches mona steries hospital s & c The l a nd

, , , .

of churches a n d mon a steries in the Old Kingdom w a s a lre a dy

‘
sec ul a rized in 1 8 63 The chief rem a ining e n d owmn en t s were
’
.

those concerned with the m a inten a nce of hospit a ls a s the ,

Endowment of Ci vili a n Hospit a ls a n d th a t of the Brancove a nu

Ho spit a ls of B uc a rest ; the E n dowment of the S a int Sp i ridon
,

a nd th en m i gr a te d t o A me ric a R u m a n i a n e m i gr a n ts n u m b e r e d
. in 1 9 1 0 . Th e
fi gur e s for t h e fi r s t h a lf y ea r of 1 9 24 w e r e , by c o m p a ri son , a s fo llo ws
-

Fr o m Tr a n s ylv an i a
Buco vi n a

B es r bisa a a

O ld Ki ngd o m 5 33

T ta l
o

( Dr . I Gi r ba cea , t8 0i
.
1
,
i n A rd ea l si E mi gra rea , Buc a res t ,
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 46 7

Hospit a ls a n d Alm shouses of J a ssy & c ; to which shoul d b e

, , .

a dded the Rum a ni a n Ac a demy whose a ctivities were supported ,

m a inly from the revenue of l a nd property Thes e institutions .

h a ve b een expropri a ted of a ll their a ra ble l a nd receiving a s ,

compens a tion untra nsfera ble p erpetua l bo n ds be a ri n g 5 per cent .

interest which mea ns a fix e d ye a rly in come equ a l to a b out

,

1 /1 6 t h of the revenue they derived from their a r a ble l a n d in

1 9 1 6 without t a k i ng i n to a ccount the f a ll in the purch a sing
,

power of the money Th a t consequence of the reform is the more

.

unfortun a te a s hospit a l a ccomm od a tion h a s a lwa ys b een in

a dequ a te a n d a s no public funds h a ve b een pl a ced a t the di s
,

pos a l of these endowments to en a ble them to close the ga p in

their priva te resources Indeed they h a ve b een held to the
.
,

ob li ga tion of m a int a ini ng out of their funds the clin ics a tt a ched
to the fa cul ties of medicin e though these were St a te institutions
, .

The following extra cts from the i ntroduction to the 1 927 budget
of the S t Spiridon Endowment of Ja ssy give a restra ined picture
.
, ,

of the effects of expropri a tion on its a cti vities .

The S t Spiridon Endowm e n t h a d under its c a re ni ne hospit a ls

.
,

one m a ternity cli ni c a n orph a n a ge a n a sylum for old people

, , ,

seven chur ches a n d thr ee Cloisters Its fun ds collected over

, .
,

a period of 1 70 ye a rs consisted of l a nd prop erties

, The revenue .

h a d been suffi ci en t b oth for upkeep a n d im provements bec a use ,

the rent from those esta tes h a d risen w ith every rise in the cost
of livi ng Ha d the endowment rem a ined in possession of its
.

esta tes the ye a rly revenue from them wo ul d h a ve a mounted

,

i n 1 9 27 to a t le a st lei The expropri a tion bonds yield .

a fi x e d revenue of lei ye a rly Since 1 91 9 a n effort .

h a s been m a de to intensify the exploit a tion of the Endo w ment s

’

forests but this expedi ent could not b e pressed further without
,

depreci a ting the c a pit a l itself The 1 9 1 6 budget a mo unted to .

gold lei or roughly to

, , p a per lei ; the 1 927
,

budget w a s only lei

‘
Th e trus t e e s h a v e b e e n fo r ce d by ci r cum s t a n ces t o i n tr o duce t h e
s y s t e m o f p a i d h os p i t a l s e r vi ces b u t on l y t h e s u r i c a l s e r vi ce s a r e m a d e
, g
us e of by p a t i e n t s w h o c a n a ffo r d t o p a y F or t h e r es t w e ge t o n l y p o o r
.
,

p a t i e n t s w h o h a v e t o be a tt en d e d gr a tui t ous l y i n a cco r d a n ce wi t h t h e ,

i n t e n t ion s o f t h e foun d e r s . B e ca u s e o f t h e i n s uffi ci e n t r e v e n ue t h e

11 h 2
468 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
E n d o w m en t ca n n o t p a y i t s e m p l o y e e s a li vi n wa e s o t h a t i t ca nn o t
g g ,

c l a i m fr o m t h e m d e v o t e d s e r v i ce I f so m e goo d e m p l o y e es s t i ll r e m a i n
.

i t i s o n l y b e ca u s e t h e y h a v e b e e n m a n y y e a r s i n i t s s e rvi ce Ma n y o f .

t h e m ca n n o t be p e n sion e d b ecaus e t h e E n d owm en t h a s n o m ea n s o f

p a yi ng b o t h s a l a r i es a n d p e n sion s Th e h e a d s of m e di ca l s e r vi ces a r e so
.

b a d l y r e mun e r a t e d t h a t onl y o n e of t h e m w h o h a s fou r a w a r d s for l e n gt h

,

o f s e r v i ce r e ce i v e s i n a ll wi t h v a r iou s b o n us e s 4 220 le i
, , ,4 8 0d ] . .

m on t hl y ; t h e o t h e r s b e gi n a t 3 5 5 01ei , 8 3 0d ] A ssi s t a n t s se rv a n t s
. .
, ,

& c a r e s o b a d l y p a i d t h a t w e c a n o n l y h a v e t h e wo r s t t yp e of n u r s in
g
.
,

p e r s on n e l a n d e v e n such w e c a n n o t fi n d H o s pi t a l buil di n gs h a v e fa llen

, .

i n t o suc h a s t a t e o f di s r e p a i r t h a t t h e y a r e a d i s gr a ce t o o ur u t o d a t e
p
- -

S ta t e Th e E n d o w m e n t fo un d i t s e lf i n a m o s t a w k w a r d p o s i t i on w h en
.

fo r e i gn gue s t s ca m e t o Vi s i t i t s l a r ge s t h os p i t a l t h e C e n tr a l H os pi t a l
, .

Th e foo d s e r v e d t o t h e p a t i e n t s i s o f i n fe r i o r qua l i t y W e ca n n o t p u r .

c h a s e e v e n h a l f t h e m e d i ca m e n t s a n d s u r i ca l m a t e r i a l s r e qu i r e d s o t h a t
g ,

t h e d oc t o r s a r e on l y t oo j ust ifi e d w h e n t h e y c om p l a i n o f t hi s s ta t e o f
t h i n gs . Thi s i s t h e s itua t ion i n w hi ch t h e E n d owm e n t h a s b e en pla ce d
t h r ough t h e e xp r o p r ia t io n b e s i d e s t h e fa ct t ha t t h e S t a t e h a s i m p ose d
,

u p on us t h e o b l iga t ion o f m a i n t a in in g t h e cl in i cs a tt a c h e d t o t h e fa cul t y

of m e d ic i n e A s w e c a n no t k e e p go i n g wi t h suc h a bu d ge t un l e s s t h e
.
,

S t a t e t a k e s up on i t s e l f t o m a ke goo d t h e l o ss i t h a s ca u s e d w e s h a ll be ,

fo r ce d t o c l os e t h e c l i n i cs a n d s o m e o f t h e h o s p i t a l s
’
.

The m a inten a nce of the clini cs cost the Endowm ent 8 623 494 1ei , ,

in 1 925 tow a rds w hi ch the Ministry of Educ a tion contributed

,

one milli on lei In 1 927 the Endowment further received a sub

.

ve n t i on of lei from the Mi nistry of Publi c Hea lth a n d

lei from the J a ssy muni cip a lity .

The Buc a rest Endo w ment of Civili a n Hospit a ls h a s h a d to

f a ce the s a me d ifficult ies It h a s reduced the num ber of b eds
.

to 5 0 a n d then to 20 in e a ch of its cli n ics ; it dem a nds from a ll its

p a tients a fee of 1 40 lei p er d ay which is much a b ove the e a rn
,

i n gs of workers or of j un ior clerks a n d a ddi tion a l fees for sur gic a l

,

opera tions its buildings a r e in a st a te of dec a y The Endowm ent .

h a s b een criticized for h a ving rein vested its fun ds wi th un ,

r ofi t a ble res ul ts in oil sh a res a n d i n gener a l for i n effi ci en t

p
-

, , ,

a dm i n istra tion ; but b e th a t a s it m a y it coul d only h a ve a ggra ,

va t e d a situ a tion the origin of whi ch la y in the l a nd reform .

The Pe a s a nt le a ders h a ve shown themselves unrepent a nt in t h is

reg a rd They dem a n ded the tot a l expropri a tion of a ll endow
.

ments a n d the m a inten a nce of h OS pit a ls & c out of publi c fun ds ,

.
,
.

Their one a nxiety w a s to a bolish l a ndlordism a n d in their view ,

 EFFECTS OF THE REFO RM 46 9

the Endow ments h a d pressed the pe a s a nts a s h a rd a s a n y money

gra bbing ten a nt During the deb a te in the Ch a mb er in 1 921
.
, ,

M Mih ala ch e s a id : We c a nnot a llow a phil a nthropic institution

.

first to c a use di se a se a mong the people of this coun try by

we a keni ng them a n d then to t a ke in one here a n d there to
,
’
nurse in its hospit a ls .

’
The Rum a ni a n Ac a demy is the coun try s highest cultura l
institution enga ged in m an ifold a n d indi spens a ble a ctivities
,
.

The Ac a demy t hr ough the v a rious sections publi she s origina l

, ,

studies which woul d not fin d a comm erci a l publisher ; it h a s in

its keepin g Rum a ni a s most import a nt li bra ry ; it h a s m a in t a ined
’

out of its fun ds two a gricultur a l schools a n d other educ a tion a l

a ctivities Oi the . h a l a nd which the Ac a demy possessed .

b efore the reform h a h a ve been expropri a ted 1 Most of . .

the l a nd , h a w a s formerly let to pe a s a nts on generous

.
,

condi tions ; a s a consequence the Ac a demy h a s received a ,

sm all er compens a tion th a n n eighbouring individu a l owners .

The expropri a ted a re a woul d h a ve brought in a t current prices , ,

a revenue of lei ; the fi x ed ye a rly interest on the

perp etu a l bonds a moun ts to lei From the rem a ini n g .

l a nd the Ac a demy derives a n income of a bout

, lei ; the
recent Eli a s bequest brings in 1 8 00 0001ei y ea rly ; the Ferdin a nd , ,

Found a tion contributed one milli on lei e a ch ye a r but in 1 926 ,

this w a s commuted into one fi n al gift of 5 million lei For the .

m a inten a nce of the Libra ry the Mini stry of Educ a tion contri
butes a subvention of lei ye a rly Roughl y therefore .
, ,
’
the Ac a demy s yea rly income re a ches a b out 5 m illion lei Th a t .

sum h a s not en a bled it to c a rry on its former a ctivities It could .

not pa y its employees s a l a ries comm ensura te with the rise

in the cost of li vi n g It could not m a int a in its buil din gs in proper
.

condition ; the Aca demy h a s onl y recen tly b een a ble to build ,

through the Eli a s b equest a fir e proof repository for its i mport a nt ,

-

a n d irrepl a ce a ble coll ection of m a nuscripts docum ents a n d old ,

books Rea di n g a ccommodation is pit ifully in a d equa t e in rel a tion

.

to the im porta nce of the Libra ry a n d to the growing numb er of

rea ders M a ny useful studies sub mi tted to the Ac a demy a r e w a it
.

1
Th es e w r ki d y pr p r d
fi gur es e e n l e a e for t h e purpos e of thi s study by t h e A c a d e my s ’

a d mi n i s tr tiv e s ta ff
a .
470 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
in g inva in to b e published The sum formerly sp ent on publi s hi ng
.

wa s gold lei th a t of recent ye a rs onl y a b out 1 200 0001ei

, , , ,

or gold lei ; the proportion b ein g still worse if one t a kes

into a cco unt the rel a tively hi gher cost of p a per a n d print i ng .

One must a lso rememb er th a t i n the me a nwhile the coun try h a s

doubled its size a n d pop ul a tion The Libr a ry is sufferin g severely ;
.

the ga p c a used by the Wa r in the supply of essenti a l foreign

public a tions c a n not now b e m a de good nor ca n new foreign ,

b ooks be a cqui red regul a rly b ec a use of the depreci a ted exch a nge
, .

Th e ye a rly expendi ture on the Libr a ry formerly a mounted to

gold lei a n d now to p a per or a b out
gold lei Fro m 1 928 onw a rds notwithst a ndi ng the severe r est ri c
.
,

tion of its a ctivities the Ac a demy h a s h a d no prosp ect of b ein g

,

a ble to b a l a nce its budget .

S E C TI O N 2

S O CI A L E FFE C T S IN T H E VI LL AGE
I f you
‘ ’
consider the m a tter ca refully w rote Ion Ghi ca in ,
‘
1 8 72, you will observe th a t it w a s a lw a ys only one cl a ss of our
people which a roused sym p a thy a t home a n d a bro a d— the cl a ss
of those who tilled the soil ; for they a lone h a ve followed the
p a th which Providence h a s tra ced for m ank ind : to live by the
’
s we a t of one s brow Thirty fi ve ye a rs l a ter a fter the despera t e
.
’
-

rising of 1 9 07 on e of the big l a ndowners M I B ibiceseu r e

, , . .
,

c a lled with much une a siness how the pea s a nts h a d toil ed to
protect the new St a te in time of stress a n d to m a in t a in it in
pe a ce .

‘
Y et— I i t wi t h t h e d e ep e s t s o rr ow w e h a v e n o t s h o w n t h e se
sa y —

peo p l e m uc h g ra t i tu d e o r a ffe c t io n Th e n e w i n s t i t u t i on s h a v e gi v e n
.

us r ig h t s ; t h e y cou l d n ot i n s t i l i n t o us s e n t im e n t s le t a l on e d e m oc r a t i c—

s en t i m e n t s —
a n d a s en s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y S o t h a t w e ha v e b e e n s a t is fi e d
.

w i t h e n j o y i n g t h e p o s i t i o n s w e h a d a c qu i r e d m a k i n g us e of t h em for
,

t h e c o n s t a n t i m p r o v e m e n t o f o ur c o m fo rt s b u t t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r n ee d s
,

h a v e b e e n t h e l a s t o f our ca r e s if i t h a s b e e n on e a t a ll
,
I l oo k i n t o .

my c o n s cie n ce a n d a ck nowl e d ge a n d co nfe ss m y e l f gui lt y

’
1
,
s .

’
J ust when the new St a te s fi r st sp a n of life was a b out to clos e
1
Pr efa ce t o I n Ces i i un ea A gra rd .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 471

a hn ost a century a fter the restor a tion of a utonomous govern

ment a n d a fter h a lf a centur y of n a tiona l i n dep endenc e— the
deputy M D P a t ra sca n u sp ea king in the Ch a mber a t J a ssy
. .
, ,

thus a ssessed the gift which th a t politic a l rena scen ce h a d brought

to the pea s a nts :
Con s e que n tl y of a ll t h e c oun tr i e s i n h a b i t e d by R um a n i a n s i t i s i n
‘
, ,

fr e e R um a n i a t h a t t h e p e a s a n t i s t h e wo r s t o ff Th e u lt i m a t e c o n c l u
.

s i o n i s s t i l l m o r e p a i n fu l : t h e l o n ge r o n e o f t h e co un tr y s p r o v i n ce s h a s
’

b e en s e p a r a t e d fr om i t t h e m o r e i t h a s e s ca p e d o ur r es tr ic t i v e a g r a r ia n
,

l a ws a n d t h e b e tt e r i s t h e con d i t i on o f it s p e a s a n t s W h a t a t e r r i ble .

d i sco v e r y for us l 1
When the pe a s a nts l a nd rights were for the fi rst tim e restricted
’
,

by Mor uz zi in 1 8 05 the num b er of big a ni m a ls for which they

, ,

could cl a im gra zing w a s li mited to 1 6 in B ess a ra bi a a n d 1 2 in the

Mold a vi a n lowl a nds the men with only 4 oxen formin g the lowest
,

c a tegory B y the time the pe a s a nts were em a ncip a ted in 1 8 64

.

those w ith 4 oxen h a d b ecome the le a di ng c a tegory ; in 1 906 in ,

some of the counties only 1 7 per cent of the households possessed

, .

domestic a ni m a ls while in other coun ties a s m a ny a s 32 pe r cent

, .

of the households h a d no l a rge a nim a ls a t a ll not even a mil ch ,

cow But while the pea s a nt wa s impoverished the country

.
,

a pp a rently incre a sed in subst a nce Rum a ni a in cre a si n gly en .

‘
j oyed the reput a tion of b eing an eminen tly a gra ri a n country ’
,

a n d of deriving gre a t r ofi t from i t S a ys M Iorg a :

p . .

‘
Our oldu ltu r e b e fo r e t h e r efo r m o n l y e x i s t e d t h r ough a n
a gr i c , ,

i n j us t i ce t h r ou gh a s o c i a l e vi l w hi c h h a s n ow b e e n r e m o v e d T e a r s n o t
, .
,

o n l y d r o p s o f r a i n wa t e r e d t h e fu rr ows
,
I n o r d e r t h a t a c e r t a i n qua n t i t y
.

o f R um a n i a n co r n s h ou l d be fo un d a t a gi v e n t i m e i n t h e wo rl d s
’
, ,

m a r k e t s a w ho l e p op ul a t i o n un t i l a s h o rt t i m e a go h a d t o l a b ou r
, , ,

fo r ci b l y a lm o s t un d e r t h e w h i p ; a m a n s o w n fi e ld s r e m a i n i n g t o be
’
,

ca r e d for l a s t a n d w i t h t h e l ea s t a d v a n t a ge A n d a l a r ge p a rt o f t h a t
.

e n o r m ou s su r p l u s w hi c h w e e xp o rt e d ca m e fr o m t h e d e p r i v a t i o n o f t h e

p r o duce r s t he ms e l v e s We we r e s e ll i ng t h e b r ea d w h i c h w a s d e n i e d t o
.

t hose w h o m a d e it
2
.
’

This was liter a lly true : a t the s a me time a s the big corn export
wa s being b uilt up the consum ption of m a ize the pea s a nt s
, ,
’

1
pe e ch i n t h e d e b t o t h e bill for c
S a e n o m puls ory ag ricultura l l a b o ur s , as re ported
in L mia Buc res t S e pte mb er 23 1 9 1 8
na , a , , .

A rticl e i n P lums N o v m b e r 26 19 23
2
, e , .
47 2 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
st a ple food fell from 230 kg p er hea d of pop ul a tion in 1 8 90
, .

to 1 46 k g in 1 9 03
. .

Ex a ctly the s a me thing w a s h a ppenin g in the neighbour i ng

Russi a n Empire ; the formida ble growt h of the corn export a fter
the em a ncip a tion of the serfs in 1 8 6 1 w a s a ccomp a ni ed by a
, ,

ste a dy decre a se in the a vera ge i ntern a l consumption Such a n .

‘ ’
emin ently a gra ri a n country Rum an i a will never b e a ga in ,

Professor Iorg a a ssures us : the free sm a llholders will work less

’
for others a n d will ea t more themselves .

One can di stingui sh in bro a d lin es three m a in p eriods in th a t

, ,

downw a rd trend in the st a tus of the pea s antry .

1 Dur ing the fi r st the pe a s a nts enj oyed on the whole

.
, ,

yeom a n freedom an d rights to the l a nd until the fir st w a s

form ally cur t a iled by Mih a iu the Bra ve tow a rds the end ,

of the six teenth centur y .

2 Th e second p eriod l a sted t ill the form a l em a ncip a tion of

.

the serfs in 1 8 64 ; w ith a period of tra nsition from 1 746— 9

, ,
’
onw a rds when the pe a s a nts servi le ties b ega n to loosen
,

a n d the l a ndlords ende a voured i nste a d to strengthen the i r

ow n title to the l a nd .

3 The third period coincided w ith the form a l reign of

.

constitution a l lib erties when a s a consequence the t a sk

, , ,

of constra ining the pe a s a nts wa s t h rown upon the a dm ini

s t r a t i ve m a ch i nery
1
.

During the fi r st period the free p e a s a ntry h a d the use of all the
,

l a nd a n d if their servitudes gra du a lly incre a se d it w a s onl y in

, ,

so fa r a s this w a s required to meet the person a l needs of the l a nd

lords ; until with the cre a tion of a st a nding a rmy the pe a s a nts
, ,

were c a ll ed upon to procur e suppli es r a ther th a n to supply

soldiers This st a te of things which m a de the pea s a nts servil e
.
,

l a b ourers bec a me perm a nent wi th the loss of a utonomy when

, ,

the p e a s a nts were seldom c a lled upon to figh t but h a d to work ,

a ll the more to s a tisfy dem a nds from the ever ch a ngin g pr i nces
-

1
M Ch e ba p
. xc l t th u h u rtu
i n h i s e e l en
, o g , n fo na e t ly r ph di id
, un fi ni s h e d m onog a , v es
l l hi t ry
t h e ega s o p t i t
of t h e i
e a s a n s n o t wo ma n p ri d r u d ti
e o s : ( 1 ) f om t h e fo n a on of

t hePri cip liti

n a r
es t o 1 8 6 4 , a n d ( 2) f o m 1 8 64 t o o ur ow n d y ubd vid
a s ; s i i n g t h e fir s t
i t r u d ti
n o ( a ) f o m t h e fo n a on t o 1 74 6 9 , a n d ( b
—
) f o m 1r74 6 d y
— 9 t o o ur ow n a s Th e .

di r c c id r bl but
ffe e n e i s n ot ons e a e , li ht in t h e g o f e en r c t r rch h v pr rr d
ese a we a e efe e to
d pt divi i
a o a ti which
s on i n mer lly r i s fo m a mo e o e c rr ct .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 473

from the luxur ious boi ar s a s well a s indi rectly from the suzer a in
, , ,
’
Porte When the p e a s a nts bur dens b ecomin g un b e a ra ble
.
, ,

c a used them to migra te in l a rge num b ers thereby dim inis h ing ,

the resour ces of the Tre a sury Ma vr o cor d a t b ega n the movement
,

for the dim inution of servitudes which ended with the complete
e m a ncip a tion of 1 8 6 4 The boia r s countered th a t tendency with
.

’
successful efforts to reduce the pe a s a nts rights to l a nd a n d to ,

tra nsform their own usufructu a ry title into on e of proprietors h ip .

The tendency in the words of M Ch eba p w a s to enl a rge the

,
.
,
‘

lib erty of the pe a s a nts up to their full em a ncip a tion a n d to ,

restrict their rights to l a nd up to the full em a ncip a tion of the

est a tes of boi ar s a n d mon a steries 1
Under the r e gime of the.
’

Org a ni c Sta tutes the indivi du a l holdings b ec a me so sm a ll th a t ,

for the fir st tim e the pea s a nts found themselves un der the
,

necessity of lea sin g from the l a ndl ords a ddition a l l a nd beyond ,

th a t to which they were lega ll y entitled In the me a s ure there .

,

fore in which the l a n dl ords were losin g the right to comm a nd

,
’
the pe a s a nts l a b our they were given me a ns of a dva nt a geously
b a rga ini ng for it When the p ea s a n ts were em a ncip a ted in
.
,

1 8 6 4 though it h a d to be done by a coup d eta t the l a ndlords

’ ’

, ,

succeeded in fur ther c urt a iling the l a nd rights a n d in n a rro w i ng

the l a nd reserve of the pe a s a nts a process whi ch they a fterw a rds
,

ne a rly completed when they bought up the St a te dom a ins .

During the thi rd period moreover when the pe a s a nts were

, ,

constitution a lly a ltogether free the l a nded cl a ss besides b eing

, ,

owners of the l a nd h a d a lso a cqui red un controlled m a stery over

,

the government of the new n a tion a l St a te They were provided .

thus wi th a fresh in strument for securing the p ea s a nts l a bo ur ’

,

thr ough the use of fi sca l im positions a n d of a d ministra tive

me a sures ; these c ulm i n a ted in the l a ws on a gricul tura l contra cts
which so diluted for the pe a s a nts the wi ne of freedom th a t it w a s
to them sc a rcely more tolera ble th a n the bitter w a ters of serfdom .

It wi ll b e seen th a t throughout th a t evolution the one con

sta nt a nxiety of the upper cl a ss h a d been to m a ke sure th a t the
pea s a nts would work the l a nd If they encro a ched increa sin gly
.

’
upon the pea s a nts l a nd rights it w a s solely a s a me a ns of
’
a cquiring a hold on their l a bour The la n dl ords a ction never
.

1
R egi ma l L egi i A gr a re p 28. .
474 S OCI AL AN D POLITICAL
te nded like the English enclosures to drive the pe a s a nts a w a y
, , ,

so th a t the l a ndl ords might extend their own f a rmin g On the .

contra ry their a im w a s to obvi a te a n y need of doin g so by

,

tyi n g the cultiva ting pe a a nts to the vi ll a ge J ust a s genuin e

s
.

feud a lism w a s un know n i n the old Rum a ni a n provin ces so ,

modern Rum a n i a h a s never know n a genuine c a pit alist a gri

cultur e The l a nded dignit a ries of the old oli ga rchi c a l pro
.

vinces b ec a me the l a nded offi ci a ls a n d profession a l politici a ns

of the new democr a tic St a te ; hence the la rge l a ndow ners h a ve
never h a d the opportunity of b ecomin g a producin g cl a ss but ,

h a ve rem a ined a ben efi ci a ry cl a ss They w a nted from their .

la nd a rent a n d not pr ofi t s requi ring the investment of c a pit a l

, ,

a n d a person a l effort It w a s not to their interest therefore th a t

.
, ,

the pe a s a nts shoul d b ecome l a ndl ess a n d perh a ps a b a ndon the

Vill a ge but r a ther th a t they sho uld be held to the tilling of the
,

l a nd This led m a ny i nfl ue n t ia l l a ndow ners to put forw a rd a

.

curious propos a l a fter the rising of 1 907 They re a lized th a t the

, .

existing a gra ri a n system could not l a st much long er ; but they

did not w a nt either to p a rt wi th their l a nd a n d thus m a ke room ,

for independent pe a s a nt fa rming or themselves to emb a rk upon

,

intensive c a pit a li st f a rming In ste a d they ur ged a s a me a ns of

.

solvi ng the a gra ri a n problem a return to feud a l a gric ul tur e

they proposed th a t l a ndowners sho ul d be obli ged to let the
pe a s a nts fa rm in m é t a ya ge a ll the a re a beyond 25 0 hect a res
from every est a te The produce w a s to be h a lved The propos a l
.
1
.

w a s ch a r a cteristic of the n a ture of Rum a ni a n l a n d lordism ; it

would in effect h a ve revi ved the servitude upon the est a te a n d ,

for the pe a s a nts the oblig a tion to pa y tithe only th a t now they ,

were me a nt to pa y one h a lf inste a d of the tra di tion a l tenth

-
.

’
The security a n d regul a rity of the p ea s a nt s contribution w a s
in consequence the one purp ose w hi ch i n fl ue n ce d the policy
of the upper cl a ss throughout those sever a l periods the difference ,

b etween one period a n d a nother resulti n g merely from the me a ns

employed to prevent the p e a s a nts from becom ing tr uly a n d fully
em a ncip a ted As long a s the pea s a nts were i i ee of the l a nd their
. ,

l a bour w a s tied ; when their l a bour h a d to b e freed the l a nd w a s ,

tied ; a n d when a t long l a st through the l a test reform both l a nd

, , ,

1
C Ga r ofl id , Ch es lie A grarci , p 4 2
. . .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 475

an d l a bour were fi n ally freed the m a rket w a s tied In the light

, .

of its own a nte cedents the post w a r eco n omic poli cy of di scrimin a
-

tion a g a inst a gricul tur e now ca rried on a lmost wholly by pe a s a nts

, ,

is more e a sily un derstood ; a n d one ca n underst a nd a lso why the

pe a s a nts though in possession of the l a nd h a ve not felt th a t
, ,

now their ex istence is secure but in s te a d h a ve thought it timely

,

t o orga n iz e themselves for soci a l a n d politic a l a ction .

’
The c a uses from which the pe a s a nts di s a bilities spra ng were
m a nifold As a husb a ndm a n he suffered from n ot h a ving enough
.

l a nd for extensive fa rmi ng a n d not enough tra ining a n d resources

,

for inten sive fa rming At the s a me tim e he w a s a s a citizen

.
, ,

the Victim of bi a ssed legisl a tion a n d even more of m a la d m in i st ra

,

tion of la w a n d j ustice Oi these four groups of dis a bili ties

.

weighi n g upon the pea s a nts the l a nd reform co ul d remove only

the fi r st a n d th a t merely i n principle for even if it took all the
, ,

l a nd a wa y there w a s not enough of it to en a ble a ll pe a s a nt

,

households to live from exte n sive f a rmi ng Correspondingly .

,

more weight a tt a ched to the remova l of the dis a b ili ties comprised
in the second a n d thi rd groups ; yet the supply of educ a tio n a n d
working resour ces is a t best in the embryoni c st a ge while dis ,

crim in a ting legisl a tion though somewh a t ch a n ged in a spect

, ,

rem a ined a s burdensome a fter the r efo1 m a s it w a s b efore it .

As reg a rds a dm ini stra tive mora ls they h a d little ch a nce of ,

im provin g durin g a tim e when offi ci a ls could not possibly live

on the s a l a ries which the St a te p a id them ; a n d when e very
institution an d section of the comm uni ty— Cour t an d Uni ver
sities a rmy an d schools— w a s dra w n into the politic a l co n test
,

betwee n the old rulin g groups a n d the new popul a r forces .

1 Th e E con omi c S i tua ti on of th e P ea sa n tr y Once more one

. .

must regret the a bsence of co or d in a ted inqui ries into the effects
-

of the reform Sociologic a lly tested m a teri a l on the ch a nges

.
-

th a t a r e t a king pl a ce in vill a ge life is non existent there b eing -

o n ly spora di c observ a tions a llowin g glimpses into odd sections

,

of the new h a bits an d trends We c a nnot therefore hope to do

.
, ,

more in the brief sur vey w h ich foll ows th a n point out incipient
, ,

v a ri a tions which a ppe a r lik ely to become perm a nent ch a nges .

It would b e n a tura l to t a ke it for gra nted th a t such a ra dic a l

l an d reform would im prove to a s imila r degree the life of the
476 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
p eople for whose ben efit it w a s en a cted were it not for the ,

experience of the reform of 1 8 64 when a gre a t constitution a l,

a dv a nce w a s n ullifi e d by me a ns of retrogressive l a ws a n d the i r

a busive a d mini str a tion The in di gence under whi ch the pe a s a nts
.

l a b oured b efore the reform of 1 8 6 4 w a s tr a nsformed a fter it in to

a st a te of chro ni c poverty From tha t st a te they could h a r dl y
.

f a ll lower u nl ess their holdi ngs h a d b een t a ken a wa y from them

, .

Yet therein lies the chi ef di fference b etween the reform of 1 8 6 4

a n d th a t of 1 9 1 7— 21 : the fi r st left the pe a s a nts w ith less l a nd

tha n they h a d b een a ccustomed to till— a s h a pp ened almost

everywhere when the pe a s a nts were em a ncip a ted— whi le the
second h a s given them p ossession of a lmost a ll the a va il a ble
a r a ble l a nd .The a nn ui ty they h a ve to pa y for it h a s b een esti
m a ted by M Ga r ofli d to b e equ a l to merely ten d a ys l a bour in
.
’

the ye a r Moreover the reduction in the size of the p e a s a nt

.
,

holdi ngs in 1 8 6 4 w a s m a de the mea ns for the conscription of

p e a s a nt l a b our to the detrim ent oiztheir own c ultiva tion wherea s
, ,

in the present c a se the dis a ppe a r a nce of l a rge property h a s a lso

done a w a y with the me a ns a s well a s the occ a sion for th a t
, ,

exploit a tion of pe a s a nt l a bour For the fir st tim e therefore

.
, ,

since the spre a d of whe a t growi ng in Rum a ni a the pea s a nts

-

h a ve g a in ed th a t freedom of a ction wi thout w hi ch a n i mprove

ment in their own fa rmi ng coul d not even begin It is true th a t .

rel a tively few pe a s a nts h a ve been endowed with economic a lly

self cont a ined hol d ings but a dm ittin g th a t in consequence they
-

m a y not b e economic all y a s a utonomous a s they co ul d wi sh it ,

is nevertheless beyond a doubt th a t they a re in a v a stly better

p osition th a n they were b efore Other things b ein g equ a l a given
.
,

a gricultur a l pop u l a tion ca n obt a in thr ough pe a s a nt f a rmi n g a

much richer gross production th a n under a system of extensive
l a rge sc a le fa rming ; a n d ii in a ddition they ca n in the fir st c a se
-

, ,

ret a in for themselves a l a 1 ger sh a re of the produce of their l a bour

th a n when the l a ndlords h a d to b e p a id from it it is e vident th a t ,

the pe a s a nts st a nd to b ene fit under such a 1 efor m a s the present

, ,

both from a n a b solute a n d from a rel a tive incre a se in r et ui n s

from the l a nd .

For re a sons d esc1 ibe d l n the preceding ch a pters the l a nd ,

1 e fo1 m h a s not so i a 1 b een a ccomp a nied by a n in c1 ea s e in a gri

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 477

cultur a l production The onl y question therefore is whether the

.
,

new a gra ria n r egime h a s given the pe a s a n ts a rel a tively l a rger

sh a re of the produce The truth is however th a t l a rge property
.
, ,

a n d f a rmin g now pl a y an a ltogether sub or d in a te p a rt an

y
a dv a nt a ge which the pe a s a nts m a y hope to derive must be

obt a i ned not a s a cl a ss from the other section of the rura l com,

munity but r a ther a s a professiona l group from other industries

, ,

a n d tr a des Rum a ni a n a griculture is now pra ctic a lly i d en t ifi e d

.

wi th pe a s a nt fa rming a n d wh a t we h a ve s a id concern i ng the

,

fa te of a gricultur e d urin g the fir st dec a de of the reform describ ed ,

therefore on genera l lin es how the pe a s a nts fa red in th a t period

, ,
.

The y suffered not only th rough a n un friendl y po licy but a lso

‘

through the inst a b ility a n d inconsequence of m a ny me a sur es ,

t a ken un der pressur e from some interested group Too few of .

their grieva nces were redr essed for them to h a ve re a ched

a h a ppy economi c a n d soci a l position M Ga r ofli d h a s indeed . .

m a in t a ined th a t they were worse off th a n b efore He h a s pro .

d uc e d fi gur e s to show th a t before the Wa r the income of a , ,

‘
middling pe a s a nt household fa rmin g 5 h a w a s 6 8 5 lei a n d
’
, .
, ,
’
th a t of a t a il end household fa rming 3 h a 41 8 lei ; in 1 922—3
‘
-

these two c a tegories h a d incomes of a n d 9 48 0 1e i where a s , ,

to equ a l their pre w a r income the a moun ts shoul d h a ve been

-

an d lei The in comes of these c a tegories h a d thus

.

fa llen by 25 per cent Considering th a t it w a s a fa ll from such

.

mea n tot a ls a s 68 5 a n d 41 8 gold lei re a lized under the h a rd ,

r egim e of neo serfdom wh a t h a s been the use of the a gra ri a n

‘
-
’
,

revolution which rui ned the l a rge owners without bringing relief
to the pea s a nts 1 M Ga r ofli d b a sed his c a lc ul a tion on the m a rket
.

prices of the prin cip a l cere a ls so th a t prob a bly the fi gur es wo uld ,

b e less unfa vour a ble if the m a n y other products w hi ch the

pea s a nts put on the m a rket were included ; moreover to simplify ,

his problem M Ga r oflid delibera tely left rent out of a ccount

, . .

But tha t is j ust the princip a l relief which the reform h a s brought
to the pea s a nts On the b a sis of the cu s tom a ry méta yage condi
.

tions they would h a ve h a d to pa y for the expropri a ted six

milli on h a a ra ble l a nd one h a lf of the produce r a ised with their
.
-

o wn seed besides other sm a ll obli g a tions in l a bour a n d in kind

, .

1
Articl e i n A rgus , J uly 26 , 1 923 .
478 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
The v a lue of these subsidi a ry oblig a tions w a s equ a l a t le a st to
the ten d a ys l a bo ur whi ch a ccording to M Ga r ofii d n ow suffi ce
’
, .
,

for the p a y ment of the a nnui ty a n d to the a mount of the l a nd ,

t a x up to 1 9 27 Therefore th a t h a lf of the produce whi ch

.
,
’
formerly would h a ve b een the l a ndown ers sh a re roughl y ,

three milli on tons ye a rly at the a vera ge yield of , k g per .

h a is thr ough the resettlement a cle a r g a in for the pe a s a nts

.
, .

As the tot a l num ber of pe a s a n t fa mili es is j ust over three millions

one can estim a te in a rough a n d re a dy fa shion th a t thr ough
, ,

the fa ct of b eing owners a n d no longer ten a nts e a ch pea s a nt

household h a s been a ble to a d d ne a rly k g corn to its .

ye a rly stock of food Duri n g the controvers y whi ch c a lled forth

.

M Ga r ofli d s a rticle it w a s pointed out by M Man oil es cu th a t a

.
’
.

pe a s a nt household spent on a n a vera ge not more th a n one fi ft h -

of its income on m a nufa ctured good s a n d th a t i n consequence ,

it w a s a ffected only to tha t lim ited fra ction by the excessive

dea rness of industri a l products ; hence he concluded th a t spea k ,

ing bro a dly the income of the p e a s a nts h a d incre a sed 30 times
,

but their cost of li ving o nl y 1 3 tim es 1 M Ma n oile scu s poin t . .

’

w a s qui te j ust i fi e d w ith two reserva tions,

Dur ing th a t period .

m a ny new f a rmste a ds were cre a ted or old o n es e nl a rged b esides ,

which the Wa r d a m a ge h a d to b e m a de good a ll thi s ent ailin g ,

a higher expenditur e on industri a l products th a n M Ma n oile s cu .

a llowed for ; secondly like M Ga r ofli d he h a d b a sed his estim a te

, .
,

of the pe a s a nts income on the only a v a ila ble Rum a ni a n in dex

’

num b ers whi ch rel a te to ret a il prices a n d these were of cour se

, , , ,
’
much higher th a n those which went i nto the p e a s a nts pockets .

M Ga r oflid a lso referred in the a bove mentioned a rticle to

.
-

the position of the l a ndless p e a s a nts In the purely a gric ultura l .

regions with a dense popul a tion the bre a k up of the l a rge est a tes
, ,
-

h a s restricted the dem a n d for l a bour ; for thi s re a son a n d b ec a use ,

the medium s ized f a rms can a fford to pa y onl y reduced w a ges in

-
,

rel a tion to the reduced prices obt a in a ble for the i r crops the ,

a ver a ge d a ily w a ge does not exceed 1 5 20 lei a n d food

— Ha d it .
’

kept level with the rise in the cost of livin g it should h a ve b een
three times a s high M Ga r ofli d w a s wr itin g a t a time when the
. .

big f a rmers were compl a ining of a short ag e of l a bo ur during the

Articl i A rgu J uly 1 6 1 9 23
1
e n s, ,
.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 479

a gricultura l se a son hence his figur e s were prob a bly subj ect to
,

con sidera ble v a ri a tions in sp a ce a n d in time Four ye a rs l a ter .

,

in severa l pl a ces we foun d in fa ct th a t the cost of l a bour a n d

, , ,

c a rting w a s a bout the s a me a s before the reform the lesser ,

dem a nd b eing b a l a nced by a le s ser o ffer on the p a rt of the new

pe a s a nt proprietors .

In the a bsence of system a tic eviden ce a ll di scussion of the

pe a s a nts m a teri a l position a fter the reform is bound to m ove
’

’
specula tively from one side to the other following the writer s ,

bi a s a n d the isol a ted observa tions on which he relies The figur e s .

quoted in the section on e o O pera tion showing the percent a ge of

-

members with l a rger sh a res in the Popul a r b a nks to h a ve in

cre a sed wo uld j ustify the View th a t the p e a s a nts a re better off ;
,

whi le the contra ry a ssum ption could fi n d equ a lly strong support
in the fi gur e s mentioned in the previous ch a pter wi th reference ,

to a gricul tura l t a x a tion which showed th a t in the coun ty of

,

Ilfov m a ny pe a s a nts h a d during a ll those ye a rs been un a ble to

p ya the ro a d t ax — a n inst a nce which w a s by no me a ns isol a ted .

Only a full st a tistic a l inquiry coul d est a blish whether these

a pp a rent contr a dictions were due to v a ri a tions from district to

di strict or between one section of the pe a s a ntry a n d a nother

, .

Al s o we should then fi n d out the re a sons which h a ve c a used the

,

pe a s a nts to get in to debt a g a in an d perh a ps d iscover whether

,

the worst sufferers h a ve b een the newly settled p ea s a nts who ,

h a d to orga ni z e a f a rmste a d in a dverse c i rcumst a nces or ,

the old sm a llholders who m a y h a ve lost the use of some of the

,

l a nd they fa rmed before .

Whil e the reform h a s m a de little ch a nge in the mode of

f a rming a n d in the cl a ss of fa rmers it h a s withi n the s a me cl a ss
, , , ,

tra nsferred a gre a t de a l of l a nd from some h a nds into others .

To some extent there h a s been a ch a n ge of persons but prin , ,

ci a ll a ch a n ge in the a re a f a rmed by e a ch household F a m ilies

p y , .

with grown up sons for ex a mple woul d hold more th a n b efore

-

, , ,

wh ile famil ies without sons would hold less F a mili es who before .

m a y h a ve h a d no me a ns of buyi n g l a nd h a ve now p erh a ps a , ,

tolera ble holdi ng of their own while well to do pe a s a nts a o

,
- -

customed to rent a d di tio n a l fi eld s from the l a rge owners a r e ,

prob a bly un a ble to get s urplus l a nd a n y more This d ispl a ce .

48 0 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
ment in the occup a tion of l a nd h a s in cert a in villa ges completely
upset the former st a te of thi ngs a n d m a ny sm a llholders h a ve
,

been left with excessive me a ns of production for whi ch they a re ,

trying to find employment Th is no doubt is one of the re a sons

.

why sh a re culti va tion is still so preva lent a n d especi a lly why

-

, , ,

the l a nd which c a me into the m a rket a fter the reform h a s

fetched such exorbit a nt prices The highest prices were p a id.

not where the l a nd w a s b est but in the hill regions where the
, ,

popula tion wa s most dense ; a n d sometim es in pl a ces th a t were

only 5 0 km a p a rt from e a ch other the prices would v a ry by a s
.

much a s 1 00 per cent The pe a s a nt does not wi lli ngly move a wa y

.

from his Vill a ge a n d l a nd is the o nl y form of in vestment he

,

a ppreci a tes B eing a ccustomed to extensive f a rmin g he va lues

.

more l a nd a n d not better i mplements & c ; a ni m a ls in the Old

, , .
,

Kingdom a r e kept only in such numbers a s the holdin g c an feed

, .

B a nks a n d other c a pit a li st undert a kings ha ve not yet won the

’
pe a s a nts con fid en ce Hence the price of la nd rose continuously
.

un til two ye a rs a go ; since then it h a s tended to declin e in some ,

p a rts by a s much a s one h alf bec a use of the short age of money
,

a n d bec a use of the a gricultur a l crisis Am ong the p e a s a nts who

.

b ought l a nd severa l ye a rs a go when there w a s li tera lly a rush

,

for it m a ny a r e un a ble to pa y th e debts incur red to th a t end ;

,

especi a lly in the hill regions where the l a nd w a s more expensive

,

but less productive On the whole the reform h a s h a d within

.
,

the m a ss of the pe a s a ntry a levelling effect which will prob a bly

l a st a s long a s the coun try rem a ins a gra ri a n Wh a t is left of .

rel a tively l a rge property if purch a sed or distributed woul d a d d

, ,

not even h a lf a hect a re to ea ch of the existin g pe a s a nt holdin gs ,

while l a nd s a les a mong pe a s a nts a re a n uncomm on event .

If in the li ght of a ll these fa cts a n d considera tions one is to

ventur e a n y a nswer a t a ll to the question whether the pea s a nts
a r e m a teri a lly better off a fter the reform it is perh a ps s a fer to ,

dissect the reply s omewh a t in thi s m a n ner

1 As a cl a ss the pe a s a nts a r e enormously ben efi t e d h a ving
.
, ,

secured a lmost a ll the a ra ble l a nd a t a nomin a l price a n d in , ,

consequence a monopolistic control of a gric ul ture .

2 As fa rmers in their profession a l c a p a city th a t ga in is

. , ,

more p otenti a l th a n a ctu a l ; a s fa rmers the p e a s a nts a r e prob a bly

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 48 1

not better situ a ted th a n before They h a ve h a d to suffer from .

price a n d m a rketing restrictions ; from the hi gh cost of money of ,

im plements & c ; from the ba d st a te of ro a ds a n d ra ilwa ys ; from

, .

a n excess of costly form a lities a n d a dmin istr a tive a buses .

3 But for the time b eing production for the m a rket in

.
, , ,

rega rd to whi ch the pe a s a nts h a ve b een a t a di s a dva nt a ge t a kes ,

o nl y second r a nk in their economy production b eing m a i nl y for ,

perso n a l consum ption As the pe a s a nts themselves produce most

.

of the thi ngs which they consume they a r e a s priva te house , ,

holders more comfort a bly provided with necess a ries bein g in

, ,

a position to ret a i n for their own use a l a rger sh a re from the

produce of their l a bour It is not im prob a ble indeed th a t if .

, ,

they h a ve been un a ble to im prove thei r equi pment a n d h a ve ,

foun d it d iffi cult to m e et t a xes an d other im positions this h a s ,

p a rtly been due to their h a ving used the new surplus in the fir s t
pl a ce for the increa se of their own domestic a llowa nce a n d not ,

for the purpose of enl a rging their tra ding a ctivities In brief 1
.
,

a n d spe a king genera lly the pe a s a nts h a ve disposed of l a rger

,

suppli es th a n b efore ; they h a ve b een short of mon ey b ec a use

they did n ot sell more ; a n d they did not sell more b ec a u s e they
h a ve e a ten more Ch a pters IX to XI h a ve expl a ined why the
.

output of a gricul ture did not re a ch the p oint where it might h a ve

s a t i sfi e d the bod i ly needs of the p e a s a nts without dim inishin g

the surplus a va il a ble for the m a rket .

2 M a ter i a l Con di ti on s of L ife It is the more unfortun a te

. .

th a t one c a nnot est a bli sh st a tistic a lly the a dva nce the reform
s e t goi n g in Vi lla ge li fe a s the e lements of th a t improvement
,

coul d not of course b e u n iformly distributed either over the

, ,

whole country side or over a ll the a spects of the life of a n indi

-

vidu a l household There is no d iffi cult y therefore in picking out

.
, ,

isol a ted circum st a n ces w hi ch wi ll support equ a lly well wholly

contra dictory Views Direct cont a ct with the Villa ge however
.
, ,

sets a ll doubt a side The fir st blossoms of a b etter life a r e Visible

.

to every one who p a sses through the vill a ge street or sits in a

1
Th e i n quir iesPr ofe ss or s A I Ch upr ov a d A S Postni k ov
of . . cite d by
n . .

Profess o r Koss i ns k y i n th i s s ries es t bli s he d th t i n R u ss i a t h e creati o of p e a s n t

e , a a n a

fa rms a d t h e i n cre ase i n th ir yi ld fir s t of a ll res ul te d i n i n crea s e d c ons umpti on

, n e e ,

a m on g t h e p ea s an t s W h o h a d for m e rly s uff e r e d fr o m a s h or ta e of fo o d Th e p ea sa n ts

, g .

fi rs t sa t i s fi ed th e ir own n ee d s b for e th e y tur n e d th e ir a tte n ti on t o t h e m rk e t

e a .

1 5 6 9 69
i
-

I
48 2 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
p ea s a nt p a rlour a n d who remembers th a t one must exp ect ,

nothing b etter tha n poverty where bl a ckest misery reigned onl y

a few ye a rs b efore More sign ifi can t st ill th a t ch a n ge in the .
,

a spect of Vill a ge life obviously r e fl e ct s a ch a nge in the whole

outlook of the pe a s a nt His e vident a n xiety to ra ise hi s st a nda rd .

of li ving fin d s expression a s keenly in the dem a nd for schools a s

in a b etter provi sion for hi s bodily comforts .

( a ) Housi ng The reform h a s h a d a twofold cfi e ct on rura l

.

housing It h a s a dded very considera bly to the sp a ce a va ila ble

.

for pe a s a nt fa rmste a ds a n d it h a s initi a ted a n improvement in ,

the buildings foun d thereon .

Rum a ni a n Vill a ges a r e divided into two di st inct typ es In .

the highl a nd a n d hill regions following the confi gur a t i on of the ,

l a nd the vill a ges a r e frequently composed of sc a ttered f a rm

,

stea ds ; in the pl a i n a n d often even in the va lleys le a di ng to i t , ,

the Vill age s ettlement is comp a ct stretchin g sometim es for one ,

or more k ilometres on b oth sides of the high ro a d side streets ,

being found only in the l a rger V ill a ges The fa rmstea ds them .

selves likew ise displ a y two m a in t y pes The typ e foun d i n .

S a xon Vi lla ges a n d in those in fluen ce d by them shows a group

, ,

of buildings m a ssed round a rect a ngul a r y a rd w hi ch they shut ,

in completely a n d which is closed tow a rds the street with a hig h

a n d m a ssive g a te The typic a l Rum a n i a n fa rmste a d like the .
,

S ax on h a s the house tow a rds the street but the other buildi ngs
, ,

a re sc a ttered roun d the f a rm y a rd a n d the whole is gener a lly -

i ‘
sep a ra ted from the street merely by low w ttle a fe n c n
g
g
g
1 -

The problem which the reform h a d to solve in thi s conn exion

differed in the v a rious provinces In the new provin ces especi a lly . ,

in Tra nsylva ni a the reform found the Rum a ni a n pe a s a n ts who

, ,

formed the poorer section of the popul a tion ill pro vided with ,
-

1 Dr B a u i n h is a rticl e on Villa ge B i logy ( p

. G . n ,
m a k es t h e foll ow i n g o .

c omm n t Dr Lup as xpl i n s thi s d ifi er ences a s foll ows Th e R u mani n i s ot afr a id

e : . e a a n

o f h i s urr u di gs
s o He h sn thi n g t o hid e from t h e p s e r by n d bu i lds h is h o u se
n a no a s a
-

with a n o p e b lcon y givi n g it a gay a n d fri e dly a p e ct j u st b e c u se h e fee ls hims lf

n a ,
n s ,
a e

a t h om e Th e oth r n ti n liti es a lw y s s h o w a r t irin g a n d u nfri e n dl y te n d e n cy

. e a o a a e ,

which s h ws th a t th e y f e l th e ms lv s t o be li en t o thi s regi on One c n i m agin

o e e e a .
1
a e

a S a x on or a M gy a r write r r e torti g e g
a th a t t h e S a x on a n d M gy r v ill ge rs h a d
n , . .
,
a a a

t o s hut th e ms e lv s i n for prot cti on a g i ns t t h e d o ubtful h a bits of t h e R um n i a ns

e e a a ,

but th t t h e R u man i an p ea s ts c o uld ff ord t o live with o p n far mste a d s b ec a u se

a an a e

th e y h a d n othi ng t o f a r fro m the ir more civili ze d n i ghb ours There i s n o li m it t o

e e .

t h e i n ge n uity of n a ti o a li s t s ci ol ogi s ts
‘ ’
n o .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 48 3

f a rmste a ds ; these were either in s uffi ci en t in size or b a dly pl a ced ,

in m a rshy or rocky ground on the edge of the Vi ll a ges Most of

, .

the vi ll a ges a re m ixed but e a ch n a ti on a lity li ves in a qu a rter of

,
‘

its own so th a t even where better l a nd w a s a va il a ble the S a xon

,

a n d M a gya r Vill a gers sold prefer a bly to the i r own kinsmen The .

reform la w for Tra nsylva ni a a s we h a ve seen permitted the

, ,

expropri a tion of l a nd situ a ted wi thi n a ra diu s of 600 m etres

from the e dge of a V illa ge for the cre a tion of new f a rm s te a ds .

In the Old Kingdom the fa rmste a ds suffered from overcrowdi n g .

B eca use of loc a l circ umst a nces the pe a s a n ts genera lly refused
,

to sell the l a nd they owned round the Villa ge ; newly m a rried -

couples were a ccommod a ted with a house in the p a re n t a l y a rd ,

w ith the result th a t in some pl a ces the y a rd w a s crowded out

with the households of two or three gen era tio n s The reform h a s .

provided a dequ a te sites a t the two e n d s of existing Vill a ges or ,

sometimes it h a s est a blished new settlements a t some cro s s

ro a ds In a d di tion cert a i n a re a s h a ve been reserved for the needs
.
,

of future genera tions All this forms a n im port a nt soci a l a spect

.

of the l a nd reform .

The serious p a rt of the rura l housing problem in the Old

Kingdom la y in the qu a lity of most pe a s a nt houses I n this .

r e spect the reform could exercise a di rect a melior a ting in fluence

only where new Vill a ge settlements were set up but indir ectly , ,

through the genera l a dva nce in the st a te of the pea s a n ts it h a s ,

given a stimul u s tow a rds a n a ll round improvement in Vi lla ge

-

bui l di ng The tot a l number of rura l bu i ldings a n d households

.

( lega lly m a rried ) w a s a s follows

Buil d in gs
Pro vi ce
n I n h bit d
a e Un in h bite d
a T ot a l H o u s h old s
e

1
Af te r Al . Al i m an ist ea n u .

1 12
484 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
No pe a s a nt li ved in a rented cott a ge Every f a mily h a d its own .

house which it bui lt a lmost a lw a ys itself with such m a teri a ls a s

it could a fford Most houses consisted of a rough wooden fra me
.

fi lle d in wi th soil a n d pl a stered w ith cl a y mixed with m a nur e

a n d short lengths of str a w ; the roof w a s gener a lly covered w ith

th a tch or wooden sl a bs The w a lls were lim ew a sh ed i nside a n d

.
,

outside usu a lly every spri n g These houses h ad no foun d a

, .

tions the floor like the w a lls b eing of b ea ten cl a y Most houses
, , , .

consi s ted of two rooms one serving a s a f a mi ly bedroom an d the

,

other b eing reserved a s a p a rlour w ith in b etween a sm a ll h a ll ,

in whi ch stood the op en hea rth Design a n d m a teri a ls were .

extremely primi tive a n d a s a rule in s a ni t a ry An i nquir y

, , , .

undert a ken by the Mini stry of Agriculture in 1 906 est a blished , ,

th a t the rura l h a bit a tions were di vided in to

3 8 p er cent undergrou n d hovels
.
,

26 5 per cent s in gle roomed cott a ges

-
.
-

5 0 6 per cent with two rooms

-

.
,

1 4 6 p er ce n t w ith three rooms a n d

.
,

4 5 per cent houses wi th more rooms

-
. .

According to buildin g m a teri a ls these houses were di vi ded a s

follows
of brick or stone ,

of wood on stone founda tions

, ,

of w a ttle m a tt ing covered with cl a y a n d

-

were o nl y of cl a y .

The l a st two c a tegories were considered by Rum a ni a n experts

a s unh ygienic Their preva lence would seem to b e a modern
.

’
phe n ome n on which a ppe a red with the loss of the pe a s a nts
,

timb er rights ; for in hi s monogra ph on Mehedi n t i published in ,

1 8 5 9 Ion Ionescu s a ys th a t in the Villa ges of th a t co unty 901

,

houses were built of bricks of wood a n d on ly 6 03 of

, ,

b e a ten cl a y Most of the houses listed by the inquiry of 1 906

.

h a d tiny wi n dow s which not un freque n tly were fi x e d a n d di d

,

not open a t a ll The census of 1 9 1 2 found th a t the Old K i ngdom

.

s till h a d bor d ei e th a t is h a lf buried one roomed hovels

, ,
- -

with no windows a n d a low roof of the kind in which the ,

i nh a bit a n ts of the D a nubi a n steppe used to live during unsettled

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 48 5

times b ec a use the low d a rk roofs of these dug outs h a d a b etter

,
-

ch a n ce of esc a pi n g the eye of m a ra u d ing in v a ders It is ch a ra c .

t eri st i c th a t a la w of 1 8 94 prohibited the co n structio n of such

huts a n d ordered the destruction of those a lre a dy existing
, ,

givin g their owners a respite of fi ve ye a rs — which e x pire d i n

‘

1 8 99 And it is equ a lly ch a r a cteristic th a t these huts were most

.

numerous i n the fertile regions the coun ties of Dolj a n d Rom a n a ti

h a d Vill a ges in whi ch such huts formed the m a j ority of the
h a bit a tion s The 1 9 1 2 census a lso fo und
. inh a bi t ed b a rns
a n d st a bles .

I i n evertheless these miser a ble h a bit a tions looked a ttr a ctive

, ,

to the p a sser by th a t w a s due to the pe a s a nt s inn a te sen se of

-

,
’

proportion a n d to the fa ct tha t he only used such m a teri a ls a s

,

co ul d b e found where he li ved so th a t the house ble n ded ,

h a rmoniously w ith its surroun di n gs The more solid a n d .

hygie n ic houses which a r e b eing built a t present a r e not a lw a ys

a n a esthetic improveme n t on the old especi a lly when they a r e ,

covered with gl a rin g tin sheets But the use of brick w a lls is
-
.
-

spre a ding a s well a s of wooden fl oor s a n d w indows a r e m a de on

, ,

a more gene rous sc a le It is a genera l tra it of pe a s a nt b uil di ng

.

th a t every a dva nce i n well bein g fi n d s expression fi r st in more

-

solid a n d sp a cious fa rm buil din gs The pe a s a nt th a t is invest s

-

.
, ,

a bove a ll in the buildings with the help of whi ch he m a kes h i s

income a n d is more modest with the house in which he spends

,

i t a tendency which is more m a rked a s the p e a s a n t a s cends i n

,

t h e sc a le of we a lth ; so th a t it is e a sier to detect the well b eing -

of a Vill a ge from its fa rm buildings ra ther th a n from its houses

-
.

The vill a ges of Tra nsylva ni a h a ve much b etter houses a n d

buil dings In 1 920 the province h a d
. dwellin gs w ith ,

a n a ver a ge of fi ve inh a bit a nts ; or 1 7 5 per cent were .

,

built of stone or 22 8 per ce n t of brick a n d

, or .
,

5 1 3 per cent of tim ber In the Old Kin gdom the problem ca n
. .

be solved only gra du a lly a n d the st a te of t hi ngs est a b li shed by

,

post w a r inquir ies is still extremely ba d On a n a ver a ge there

-

a r e fi ve persons to e a ch room in some vill a ges even six a n d the

, ,

rooms a r e such tha t they give 4—5 cubic metres p er p er s on ,

i n stea d of the 25 metres requi red by hygie ni c st a nd a rds The .

Centra l Resettlement O th ee is a ctively e n ga ged wherever pos

48 6 S OCI AL AND POLI TICAL
sible with a dvice a n d help in the form of credits in the en
, , ,

o ur a i n
g g of hi gher st a nd a rds in the new houses th a t a r e b eing
guilt .

( b) A li men ta ti on During a di scussion in the Rum a ni a n

.

Ac a demy a t the b egi nnin g of the centur y on the incre a se of pel

la gr a the Prim e Min is ter M D A S t ur d za st a ted th a t from the
, , . . .
,

a ccounts of centr a l a n d coun ty a uthorities it w a s evi dent th a t

m a ize h a d to be distributed every two ye a rs to destitute p e a s a nts

I n o ur cou n tr y fa m i n e i s c o n s t a n t fo r i t p r e v a i l s n ot onl y w h en t h e ,

p e a s a n t h a s n o t h in g t o e a t bu t a l so w h e n h e i s fo r ce d t o e a t m oul dy
,

m a i ze . B e fo r e Go d t h e r e i s n o e x cu se for t hi s : t h a t o ur o wn k it h a n d
k in —
t h a t p a rt o f our s o ci e t y w h i c h wo r k s for us a ll a n d p r o duce s t h e
c ou n tr y s w e a lt h s h ou l d h a v e t o be
g i t s d a i l y foo d a n d t o s ub s i s t m a i nl y
’
—

o n a foo d w h i c h i s p oi s o n
’
1
.

The Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt it h a s b een s a id is born a veget a ri a n , ,

‘
.

Th a t w a s true enough if it referred to soci a l cir c um st a nces ,

r a ther th a n to person a l t a stes Th a t h a bit w a s a bove a ll the .

result of necessity a n d in p a rt the inj un ction of the Church

,
.

The fi sh d a ys prescrib ed by the Church num bered 1 94—200

‘
-
’

d a ys ye a rly which most p e a s a nts scrup ul ously obser ve d wi t h out

, , ,

however b eing a ble to a d d more th a n once in a while fi sh fresh

, ,
’
or s a lted to th a t diet But a s from a ll a ccoun ts the p e a s a nts
, .
, ,

me a tless d a ys were usu a lly 300 in the ye a r penur iousness cle a rly ,

di ct a ted them a s much a s religious observ a nce Only in reg a rd .

to b eef did p erson a l t a ste pl a y a p a rt in the composition of the

pe a s a nt s diet Most pe a s a nts a r e a ni m a ted by a feelin g a ki n
’
.

to worship for the b o vi ne species The e x is their comp a ni on .

in work a n d the ide a of e a ting his flesh is repugna nt to m a ny

pe a s a nts Even in hospit a ls they often refuse to touch b eef a n d
. ,

those who do it a s indeed most of the town speople a lw a ys

, , , ,

refer to it a s cow fl esh -

’
.

Th a t the pe a s a nts h a d to sub sist on a n i n suffi ci en t qu a ntity

of food cle a rly a ppe a rs from the decli ne in the consumption of
m a ize from 230 k g in 1 8 76 to 1 46 k g in 1 903 p er he a d of
. .

popul a tion without th a t f a lling off b eing compens a ted by the

,

a ddition of ot h e r i n gr e d i e n t s to the pe a s a nt s diet Dr A Ur bea n u

’
. . .

a ffi r m e d indeed in his P robleme S oci a le th a t the qu a ntity

, , ,

1
A n na ls f
o th e R uma n i a n A ca d emy , vol . xx iii , pp 334
. .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 48 7

of a ni m a l products consum ed by the pe a s a nts h a d con

t in uously a n d incre a sin gly di mi ni shed since 1 8 60 M V intil a . .

Br ati a nu st a ted in 1 91 4 th a t there were Vill a ges without one

, ,

single mil ch cow ; when milk w a s needed for medic a l purposes

-

, ,

it h a d to be brought from the neighbourin g towns Wh a t in .

,

such circum st a nces must h a ve b een the qu a lity of the food

,

given by the l a rge owners a n d fa rmers to their l a b ourers m ay

b e inferred from the decl a ra tion of Dr B a la sia n somet ime chie f
.
,

medic a l offi cer of the county of Ilfov He rel a ted how he h a d

.

seen p e a s a n ts r un a w a y from the fi eld s thus losing the money

,

due for their l a bour bec a use they co uld no longer st a nd the food
,
.

The 1 9 07 la w on a gricultura l contra cts ga ve the district medic a l

o ffi c er s the right to prescrib e a st a nd a rd for the food which

l a bourers received in the fi eld s But the law a dded th a t medic a l

.

officers or Vill a ge m a yors coul d intervene for such a pur pose o nl y

a t the speci a l request of the d i s sa t i s fi e d pe a s a nts a n d this ,

n ulli fi e d the pr a ctic a l v a lue of the provision bec a u s e of the ,

degree in which the pe a s a nts were dependent on the loc a l l a nd

lords Moreover the law only provided for c a ses i n w hi ch the
.
,

food w a s unfi t for h um a n cons umption ; it did not concern itself

wi th c a ses when the food w a s merely in s uffi cien t .

Dur ing the yea rs of the Wa r the food of the rur a l pop ul a tion
bec a me still worse th a n it h a d been before A l a rge num ber of .

men were conscripted for m ilit a ry duties eve n before Rum a ni a ,

entered the Wa r a n d th a t a ffected the qu a ntity a n d qu ality of

,

a gricultur a l work At the end of 1 9 1 6 two thir ds of the country

.
-

w a s occupied by the Centr a l Powers who dur ing the fo llowing

,

two yea rs requisitioned a ll the a v a ila ble supplies le a vi n g the ,

popul a tion b a rely enough for keep i ng a live The unoccupied .

section of the coun try w a s crowded w ith the a rmy a n d a m a ss of

civi li a n refugees so tha t the in dividu a l food a llow a n ce w a s
,

sc a rcely better th a n in the occupied territory The popula tion .

continued to suffer severely un til the 1 9 1 9 h a rvest M Gl av a n . .

,

e.
g. found
, extreme m i sery in the Mehedin t i county : M a ny ‘

pe a s a nts s a id th a t on festive d a ys when they coul d not go to

,

work an d get food a s p a rt of their wa ges they a t e only once a ,

d a y so tha t the children might h a ve m a iz e when the old people

,

were a t work .
48 8 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
The reform h a s exercised a more r a pid a n d d irect in fl uen ce
on food th a n on housin g It w a s n a tura l th a t the pe a s a nt shoul d
.

seek to reli eve hi s gre a test w a nt fi r st The two thi n gs whi ch he .

di d a t once were : fi r st to repl a ce in p a rt hi s m a ize di et wi th

,

W he a ten bre a d a n d secon dl y to stop e a ting m a ize whi ch w a s

, , ,

un fi t for food A memora ndum of the Cercul de S t udii Econ e

.

i
m ce st a ted th a t till 1 91 6 the home con sum ption of whe a t
1

a mounted to w a go n s ye a rly 8 0 per cent of whi ch , .

were used in the town s le a vi ng a ye a rly a vera ge of 1 5 k g

, .

of whe a t for e a ch rura l inh a bit a n t After the Wa r a re a a n d .

,

popul a tion of the country h a d doubled but whe a t con sum p ,

tion h a d trebled a n d the fa ct th a t the pe a s a nts oi Tra nsylv an i a

,

a n d Buco vin a a t e more bre a d th a n they produced coul d not

a ltogether a ccoun t for th a t r a pid i n cre a se in whe a t consumption .

The ch a nge whi ch is t a kin g pl a ce in the h a bits of the p e a s a nts

in the Old Kingdom is demonstra ted concretely by the a pp e a r a nce
of a b a ker in a h n ost every vill a g e — a n occup a tion whi ch formerly
w a s unknown outside the town s — a n d even of two or thr ee ,

in the l a rge villa ges The extent of t hi s ch a ng e v a ries from

.

pl a ce to pl a ce but l a ndow ners of my a cqu a in t a nce a ssert th a t

,

there a r e V ill a ges where formerly m a iz e a lone w a s consumed ,

but in which the regul a r diet now in cludes a s much bre a d a s

md md liga .

The proof th a t the p e a s a nts no longer consum e ba d m a iz e li e s

in the pra ctic a l di s a pp e a r a nce of pella gra The pre w ar inquir ies .
-

h a d in gener a l est a b lished th a t the pe a s a nt s diet w a s d e fi ci en t

’

in a lbuminoids th a t it cont ai ned a minim um of fa ts a n d a n

,

excess of c a rbohydra tes During the l a st few ye a rs a num b er

.

of inqu i ries m a de by me d ic a l students under the dir ection of ,

Professor Me z in ces cu h a ve est a blished a m a rked i mprovement

,

i n the feedin g of the rur a l popul a tion The sixt y i nquir ies r e .

l a t in g to v i ll a ges in the severa l geogra p hi c a l regions h a ve con

cluded th a t the lowl a nd Vill a ges enj oyed a more a bun d a nt food
supply th a n the Vi ll a ges in the hills a n d moun t a in s these l a tter ,

being on ne a rly the s a me level This observ a tion is suggestive .

,

bec a use the lowl a nd Villa ges whi le situ a ted on the most fertil e
,

s oil h a d b een before the reform a mong the poorest The fi gur e s
,
.

R p rt d i t h A gu J
1
e o e ry 20 1 9 23
n e r s, anna , .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 48 9

collected d uring these inquir ies in a number of vill a ges for e a ch

of the regions g a ve the follow in g d a ily individu a l a vera ges
Tota l
R eg ions A lbumi n o ids F tsa H ydr o c a rb ons c l ori es
a

Lo wl an d
H ighl an d
A v e ra ge for t h e thr ee r gi ons
e 1 40 7
-
1 24 2

Dr Lupu found during a n inqu i ry he m a de in 1 906 into the

.
,

di et of 40 f a mili es consisting of 1 8 0 indivi du a ls th a t the indi

, ,

vidu a l a vera ges did not exceed 73 40 gra mmes of a lbuminoid s -

a n d 27 8 4 gr a mmes of f a ts
-
hydroc a rbons a lone being up to ,
‘ ’
norm a l I t a ppe a rs from these inquiries concludes Dr B a nu
.
, .
,

who cites the re sults of those conducted a fter the Wa r th a t ,

‘

during th e l a st ten yea rs the nourishment of the pe a s a nts h a s

improved which is very prob a bly due to the b etter m a teri a l
,

situ a tion res ulting from the l a nd reform 1 One m a y n ote e speci .
’

a lly the consider a ble rise in the proportion of f a ts which shows ,

th a t besides e a ting more whe a t the pe a s a nts h a ve b egun to

consume a re a son a ble proportion of the a ni m a l food stuffs pro -

d uce d on their holdin gs .

These welcome im provements ca n of course not be t a ken to , ,

mea n th a t the food of the pe a s a nts is now a dequ a te in qu a ntity

a n d qu a lity or th a t they could uproot in the present gener a tio n s
,

the ill effects of a lifetime of st a rva tion Dr A Ur be a n u records . . .

in his recent book th a t one ba d h a rvest suffi ce s to c a use a r e

currence of pella gra From this he dr a ws two conclusions : fi r st
.
,

tha t physiologica lly the power of resist a nce of the pe a s a nt is

still very low— which unfortun a tely is o nl y wh a t could b e , ,

expected ; a n d seco n dly th a t p ell a gra is not due to the e a t ing

, ,
’
of mouldy m a ize but is the consequence of the pe a s a nt s org a n ic
,

e xh a ustion Pella gra in his opinion will rea pp e a r a s long a s the

.
, ,
’
pe a s a nt s nouri s hment is biologic a lly in a dequ a te in dependent ,

of the fa ct of whether he e a ts ba d or good m a ize or whether he ,

repl a ces m a iz e wi th whe a t Dr Ur bea n u j ustly a dded th a t this . .

1
Dr . G . Banu , B i ologi a S a telor , p p 9 7 —9 . .
49 0 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
problem h a d a cul tura l side to i t The life wh ich the pe a s a nts .

h a ve led for s evera l genera tio n s— m a n wi fe a n d children a ll , ,

working excessively in the fi eld s a n d comi ng home to a l a rder ,

whi ch besides m a ize fl our con t a ined only a few veget a bles a n d
-

perh a ps a little cheese — through such a li fe the pe a s a nts h a ve

lost the a rt of cooking To help them to a knowledge of how to
.

choose a n d prep a re their food therefore is biologic a lly a s im , ,

port a nt a p a rt of the problem a s to h a ve en a bled them to a cqui re

l a rger s upplies .

( 6 ) A lcoh oli s m Indigence is a pt to c a use those who suffer

.

from it to forget or to b ecome indifferent to the he a lthy pur

, ,

poses to which grea ter a ffl uen c e shoul d it come their w ay , ,

might b e usefu lly a pplied One effect of the in cre a se in the me a ns

.

a t the dispos a l of the p e a s a nts h a s b een a corresponding growt h

in the co n sumption of a lcohol .

The a lcoholiz a tion of the Rum a n i a n vill a ges whi ch h a d ,

a lre a dy gone fa r b efore the Wa r b eg a n in the eighteenth century ,

.

The Porte h a ving prohibited the export of corn from the

Rum a ni a n provinces the sur plus whi ch it di d not cl a i m itself
,

beg a n to b e used by the l a ndlords in distilleries whi ch g a ve b oth

fodder for the fa tte n ing of a ni m a ls a n d spir its For these spirits , .

a n outlet h a d to b e found The l a ndlords O pened pub lic houses

.
-

in the vill a ges on their est a tes obli gi n g the Vi ll a gers to buy a ,

cert a in qu a ntity e a ch yea r ; sometim es l a bourers were p a id in

spirits L a ter the export of corn w a s left free but drinking
.
, ,

h a d become a h a bit a n d pot a toes repl a ced corn a s r a w m a teri a l

,
-

for distilli ng while the m a ki ng of spirits from plums a t home

,

s pre a d a mong the pe a s a nts The St a te m a de no e ffort to check

.

the growing production a n d consum ption of a lcohol After the .

rising of 1 9 07 the numb er of public houses in rura l a re a s w a s -

leg a lly restricted to one for e a ch 1 00 inh a bit a nts i e roug hly ,
. .
,

for e a ch 20 households After the Wa r a la w a llowed pe a s a nts

.

in the wine growi n g districts to prep a re a n d ret a in for person a l

-

consumption wine a n d spirits from their own vin eya rds a n d

orch a rds Th e opening of new pub lic houses w a s if a nyt hi ng
.
-

, ,

encoura ged M V intil a Brati a nu st a ted in the ewp osé d e motifs

. .

to his la w for the restriction of the m a nufa cture of a lcohol th a t

i n every one of the provinces the number of public houses h a s
‘ -
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 49 1

been a llowed to grow under pretext of in cre a sing tr a de conducted

by Rum a n i a ns overlooking the grea t h a rm th a t w a s b eing c a used
,

to the Rum a ni a n p eople in f a ci lit a tin g the spre a d of a lcoholi sm .

To sum up we could sa y th a t since the end of the Wa r we h a ve

,
’
pursued r a ther a policy for the a lcoholiz a tion of the country 1
, ,
.

The n umber of fa ctories a n d distill eries for the production of

a lcohol re a ched 1 5 9 by 1 926 ; most of them were e n j oyi n g the

protection of the la w for the enco ur a geme n t of n a tion a l industry ,

which en a bled them e g to im port their m a chi n ery duty free

, . .
,

& c A la w p a ssed in 1 9 24 li mited the num ber of f a ctories to those

.

a lr e a dy in existence but it did not lim it the qu a ntity or the

,

strength of their output This st a te of things w a s bol dl y curbed

.

by M V intil a Brati a nu in 1 926 though a s Mini ster of Fin a nce

.
, ,

he ri s ked losing resources thereby j ust when the Tre a sury w a s

b a dly depleted The 1 927 la w obli ged a ll a lcohol fa ctories to
.

orga nize themselves i nto a s y n di c a te which w a s to control ,

production a n d s a les The Mini stries of Fin a nce of Industry

.
, ,

a n d of Agriculture were e a ch to h a ve o n e deleg a te on the b o a rd

of directors N 0 new distil lery could there a fter b e est a blished ;

.

tot a l production w a s fi x e d for p eriods of three ye a rs b eing reduced ,

from period to p eriod a n d e a ch fa ctory w a s a llotted a m a ximum

,

ye a rly production All s a les h a d to b e m a de through the S y n d i

.

c a te a lcohol co ul d not b e sold of a strength exceeding an d

it h a d to b e a rom a tiz ed before b ei ng put on the m a rket Fin a lly .

,

the duty on such a lcohol w a s r a ised from 1 1 to 1 04 lei per k g .

,

while frui t or win e a lcohol on ly p a id 1 0 lei per k g As a res ul t .

of the la w the ye a rly production of industri a l a lcohol fell from

w a gons to 5 8 0 in 1 9 28 Another result h a s been the
, .

s pre a ding of cl a ndestine m a nuf a ctur e of a lcohol a n d of the ,

discovery duri n g 1 9 28 th a t wood a lcohol w a s m a king its a ppe a r

a nce in the dr inks put on the m a rket .

The growing co n sum ption of a lcohol is in a w a y evident from

the incre a se in the revenue derived from i t :
1 9 26
il
m m l i on le i )

1
A rticl e by Dr Al x . e . Ma n ole s cu i n Ad evé rul ,
u ust
A g 1 1 , 1 9 25 .

2
F ir st ni e mon ths
n .
492 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
The cons umption of a lcohol in degree dec a litres -

was
1 920 1 -

1 9 21 — 2
1 9 22— 3
1 924

The consum ption p er he a d of p op ula tion reduced to 1 00 a lcohol ,

°
,

w a s a s follows

O ld Ki gd n om Tra ns ylv n i a B ess ra bi a

a a Buc ovin a
13 -
5
16 -
6
13 -
1
18 -
6

The effect of M Brati a nu s Act on the production a n d con sum p

.
’

tion of industri a l a lcohol is shown in the t a ble b elow :

( ih litres )

Pr oducti o n C ons u mpti on

The consumption p er he a d of popul a tion of the sever a l k i nds of

, ,

bevera ges v a ried a s follows

( in litr es )

Wi n e

These fi gur es do n o t include the m a ny other v a rieties of spirits

put on the m a rket .

The pea s a nts fa vourite drink is the gfui ca a bra ndy di stilled
’
,

from plums with usu a lly a strength of

,
Its cons umption
v a ries with the ye a rly output of the plum orch a rds but it is ,

1
B ul ti ul S t ti ti 1 9 25 No 4
e n a s c, Ib id 1 9 28 N o 3
, . .
2
, . .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 49 3

beyond doubt l a rger th a n th a t recorded in the offi ci a l fi gur e s a s ,

it is impossible a dequ a tely to control a ll the priv a te stills of which ,

there a r e s a id to b e nea rly The con sum ption of th a t

spir it in the vi lla ges fa r exceeds tha t of win e a n d beer a n d is ,

the more h a rmf ul a s most of these home brewed bra ndies a ccord -

ing to the result of offi cia l tests cont a in d a ngerous chemic a l ,

impurities The number of licensed houses w a s a s foll ows

.

I n 1 9 26

Public h o u s es

ur a l
R Urb an

Provi n c e b oro ugh s b rou gh s O ut lic

o -
e nses T ta l
o

T ota l I
1

The tot a l fi gur es work out a t one licensed house to a bout 35 0

inh a bita nts But the a ctu a l num ber of public houses is cert a inly
.

much gre a ter m a ny of them bein g c a rried on without a licen s e

,

but w ith the conn iva nce of the loca l police The i nquiry con .

ducted by the Ministry of L a bour e a rly in 1 929 into the s a le , ,

a n d cons u m ption of a lcohol in the industri a l centres of the J i u

v a lley in Tra nsylva ni a found e g 35 unli censed houses in one
, , , . .
,

pl a ce a t P et r osa m a n d a bout 30 a t V ul c a n At the a n ti

'

, , .

a lcoho lic co n gress held a t Buc a rest in 1 9 26 it w a s st a ted th a t ,

there were public houses in the country i e roughl y one , . .

to e a ch 1 00 inh a bit a n ts whi ch is a b out the proportion tha t one

,

meets w ith in most pl a ces .

The dri nk problem is gra ve in Rum a ni a It me a ns th a t some .

w a gons of corn a r e d a ily tra nsformed into a lcohol a n d

disp e n sed in tha t d a m a ging form to a pop ul a tion whi ch succum bs
to it the more e a sily a s it is undernourished a n d wea kened by
dise a se According to Dr Gerot a the ye a rly consum ption per
. .
,

hea d of popul a tion w a s 28 2 litres of a lcohol a n d 1 2 47 k g .

of me a t ( 35 6 k g in the to w ns a n d 2 77 k g on the l a nd ) ;
. .

milli on lei were spent in 1 9 24 on a lcohol a n d mi llions on

1
B uleti n ul S ta ti s ti c , 1 9 28 , NO 3 . .
494 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
me a t Drun kenn ess is a pp a lli n gly frequent The exp os ed e motifs
. .

to M Brati a nu s bill mentioned th a t p e a s a nts bought a lcohol

.
’

°
of 9 6 a n d w a tered it down to h a lf strength for person a l ,

consum ptio n a n d a lso th a t sp i rits of 9 6 were bein g consumed

,
°
.

In 1 925 Dr Obrej a st a ted th a t divi ded by t h e number of

.
,

a dult inh a bit a nts the a ver a ge ye a rly consum ption of a lcoholi c
,

drinks a mounted to 1 5 0 litres per i n di vi du a l Since the Wa r .

,

the pe a s a nt women h a ve a b a ndoned their former restra in t

a n d ca n be seen openly drin king in the licensed houses of
v ill a ges a n d m a rket towns The problem ca n of co urse not
-
.
, ,

b e solved by fi s ca l me a sures a lone ; the whole soci a l a n d cul

tura l b a sis of pe a s a nt li fe will h a ve to progress t o a h a ppier
st a ge b efore the hold which drink h a s g ai ned on the vi ll a ge
could b e sh a ken Offi cia l poli cy ca n contribute in m a ny w a ys
.

to th a t end by curbin g a ll sorts of a buses which the d rink

,

tr a de h a s hitherto b een a ble to perpetra te unmolested On .

i n qui ry into the c a uses of l a bour un rest a mong min ers in the Ji u
v a lley in the wi nter of 1 928 — 9 the L a bour Min istry foun d e g
, , , . .
,

th a t debts contra cted by the mi ners a t public house s were r e

t a in e d from their w a ges which in consequence dwin dl ed e a ch week
, .

The s a me inquir y e s t a blished the existence of a l a rge numb er of

unlicensed pub lic houses The M inister of L a bour in the new .

P e a s a n t i s t Government M I R aduc a nu besides t a kin g steps for

, . .
,

ending such a buses a tt a cked the problem di rectly by est a blish

,

i n g in the v a rious centres with the a i d of the mini ng comp a nies

, ,

t ea-
houses in which cup s of t e a a r e sold a t a bout 1
4
d e a ch . .

During the fi r st four d a ys the six t ea houses sold cups -

of t ea An a rticle in the Drep ta tea of Febru a ry 1 5 1 929

.
, ,

a ffi r m e d th a t the u nr est in the v a lley with its const a n t thre a t ,

of strikes fa ded a w a y when t ea b eg a n to t a ke the pl a ce of

,

a lcohol The gra vi ty of the problem a p a rt from Vit a l issues m a y

.
, ,

b e g a thered from the s t a tement of the Dir ectora te of the Gen

d a r m er i e th a t 24 per cent of the crim es committed in rur a l .

d istrict s during 1 9 1 8 — 23 were a ttribut a ble di re ctly to a lcoholi sm .

In 1 929 the new P e a s a n t ist Government decreed th a t publi c

houses should b e closed on S unda ys a n d holi d a ys ; it is instructive
t o fi n d tha t t h is wise mea sure w a s welcomed by the pea s a nts
the mselves .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 49 5

S E CTI O N 3

HE A L TH A ND V IT A L S T A TI S TI C S
’
Wh a t h a s b een s a id hitherto concerni n g the pe a s a nts housi n g ,

food a n d dr in k is sufficient to suggest tha t on e c a nnot expect

their he a lth to be fl our i shin g The effect of the reform in th a t
.

respect h a s not so far been very m a rked but there a r e m a n y ,

re a sons why progress should h a ve b een slow duri n g the few

ye a rs which h a ve el a psed s ince the en a ctment of the new l a nd
l a ws
.

Rum a ni a is fa r from being confronted a s yet w ith the prob

lem of over popul a tion She only h a s a bout fift y seven inh a bit
-
.
-

a n ts to the squ a re kilometre a n d her a gricultur a l production

is c a p a ble of exp a nding considera bly The flight from the l a n d

.

keeps within modera te limits ; there is not s uffi cien t in dustry to

’
give employment to a l a rge number of people a n d the pe a s a nt s
a tt a chment to the soil is very s tro n g The ye a rly incre a se of
.

the rura l popula tion still exceeds the numb er of those who le a ve
the vill a ge Emigra tion on the p a rt of the rura l elements w a s
.
, ,

o nl y men a n d 431 women in 1 9 26 a n d these b elon ged ,

m a inly to the n a tion a l min orities Wh a t effect the new a gr a ri a n

.

legisl a tion will h a ve on the n a tura l in cre a se of the rur a l popula

tion ca n only be v a guely forec a sted on the b a sis of soci a l
experience The ch an ges in the condition s of beque a thing
.

pe a s a nt l a nd described in Ch a pter V I will prob a bly le a ve

, ,

young er so n s little prospect of becoming themselve s owners of

holdi n gs however sm a ll a n d wi th the dis a ppe a ra nce of l a rge
, ,

properties a gricultur e wi ll b e a ble to give employment o nl y to a

restricted number of l a bourers On the other h a nd it h a s been
.
,

esta bli shed in Fr a nce a n d elsewhere tha t sm a llh olders tend to

lim it the siz e of their f a milies Agric ul tur a l l a bourers show no
.

such restra int b eing hopeful of deriving in old a ge a i d from the

,

l a bour of their children but the pe a s a nt who a cquires a piece of

,

l a nd seems a n xious to a void the spli tting of hi s property a mong

severa l sons ; a p a rt from the r est ict ive infl uen ce which a rise in
the st a nd a rd of living genera lly exercises on the num ber of
chi l d ren The fa ct of the l a n d reform h a vin g been del a yed ti ll
.

now h a s left free pl a y to the n a tura l incre a se of the rura l popula

49 6 SOCI AL AND POLITICAL
tion a n d it will b e i nteresti ng to see how fa r a n d how qui ckly
,

th a t incre a se wi ll be checked by the resettlement of the pe a s a nts .

The new distribution of property a s res ulting from the reform

, ,

is b ound to le a d to the gr a du a l in t en sifi ca t ion of Rum a ni a n

a griculture a n d a s the sm a lln ess of the holdi ngs limi ts the use
,

of m a chines more intensive a gricultur e will in the fi rst pl a ce

,

me a n an incre a se in the use of h a nd l a bour The pe a s a nt house .

holds a s we h a ve seen still h a ve a good dea l of l a bour to sp a re

, , ,

enough to b a l a nce the requi rements of intensive cultiva tion ; so

th a t a ltogether it seems re a sona ble to a ssume th a t the l a n d wi ll
b e a ble to m a int a in the present p op ul a tion in a hi gher st a nda rd
of li vin g without the need of emigra tion from the vi ll a ges but ,

a lso w ithout much room for a n in cre a se in the num ber of

cultiva tors .

The numb er of m a rri a ges showed a conti nuous a n d hi gh

proportion a l in cre a se
1 9 00 1 3 4 per i n h bitan ts
a

1 905 16 0
-

1910 18 4
-

19 15 14 3
-

19 18 17 6
-

19 19 22 0
-

1 9 20 25 0

In 1 9 20 the country registered a n exception a l increa se in mar

r ia es
g in rura l districts followed by a ste a dy declin e
,

1 9 20 1 9 21 1 922

R ur a l commu n es
U rb an c omm u s ne

This phe n omenon a pp e a rs sti ll more clea rly from the figur e s
below rel a ting to the Old Kingdom a lone a n d le a ve no doubt ,

th a t the incre a se w a s directly a ttribut a ble to the l a nd reform

R ura l M rri a ges i n t h e O ld K ingd
a o m
1 9 13 1 9 14 1 9 15 19 1 8 19 19 A vre a ge 1 9 20

Observa tions h a ve est a blished th a t genera lly the num ber of

m a rri a ges is di rectly proportion a l to the output of a griculture .

The number of divorces incre a sed in the s a me me a sure a s th a t

of m a rri a ges
 E F F ECTS OF THE REFORM 49 7
I n th e O ld Ki gd
n o m

The tot a l number of divorces in the whole of the country wa s

in 1 920 Divorces were much less frequent in the country
.

R ur a l c omm un e s Urb an c ommu n es

7 6
-

( pe r 1 0 000 i nh a bita n ts ) 20 0
-

1 08 21 5
-

88 17 0
-

The number of births per , inh a bit a nts showed the

,

following va ri a tion :

And in a bsolute figures for the whole of Rum a ni a

R ur a l c omm u n es Urb an c omm u n es

The a vera ge ye a rly i n crea se in the rura l popula tion in the ye a rs ,

b e fore the Wa r w a s 20 per thous a nd inh a bit a nts a n d in the

, ,

ur b a n popul a tion only 7 4 per thous a nd R um a ni a h a d the

-
.

second hi ghest percent a ge of bir ths in Europe 36 6 per thous a nd ,

inh a bit a nts comin g a fter J ugosla vi a whi ch h a d 38 6 per thou

,

s a nd Thi s hi gh proportion of births w a s offset by a n equ a lly

.

high proportion of dea ths

1 901 — 5 25 4 ( per 1 000 i n h a bitan ts )
1 9 06 — 1 0 25 8
1 9 1 1—15 24 4
19 1 8 45 -
7
19 1 9 33 -
7
1 920 26 0
49 8 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
Still -

b i rths an d in f a nt mort a lity showed a high degree of fr e

q uen c :
y
S till -
births ( p er 1 00 birth s )
Wh ol e
c oun try

I nf a nt mort a lity wa s as follows per , in h a bit a nts

Up t o 1 yea r Up to 1 8 yea rs
1 9 01 30 4
-
56 -
7
1 905 30 6
-
53 -
3
1 9 10 31 5
-
56 -
1
19 15 32 8
-

57 -
1
19 18 10 4
-
42 7
19 19 22 4
-
46 1 -

1 9 20 30 9
-

5 6 33
-

Genera l mort a lity of the rura l pop ula tion in the post -
wa r
w a s a s follows

Y r ea s 20—4 0 a bov e 40

In Vill a ges infa nt mort a lity showed the follo w in g proportions

per i n h a bit a nts :
0— 5 yea rs 5 — 1 5 /1 8 yea rs T ot a l

At the beginning of the century infa nt mort a lity in the fir st

month a fter birth w a s higher by 6 per cent on the l a nd tha n .

in the towns a n d in the fir st ye a r a fter birth by 2 per cent

,
.

1
Af te r Dr . G . Ba n u .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 49 9

Com p a red with the mort ality of c hil dr en in the fir st ye a r a fter

b i rth in the neighbour in g pea s a nt countries the Rum a ni a n figure ,

referring to the period 1 8 95 — 9 w a s much h igher :

Rum a ni a 21 5 per cent
, .

Bulga ri a 1 5 0 per cent

,
.

Serbi a 1 6 1 per cent

,
-
.

V ery signi fi c a nt in the light of the hi story of the l a nd problem

is the fo llowi ng t a ble cited by M B ibice s cu on p 21 of hi s book :
,
. .

M O T IT Y o CHI L D RE N I N H F I S T Y E AR AF T E B I TH
R AL r T E R R R

R ura l c om m un e s U rb an c omm u n es

P er c en t . P er c en t .

1 8 70—4 16 0
179 26 4
1 8 8 0—4 18 0 -
24 0
1 8 8 5 —9 17 7 23 5
1 8 90—4 21 6 24 0

From the tim e of the p ea s a nts em a ncip a tion to t he end of the ’

century the mort a lity of chi l dr en under one ye a r therefore a s

ste a dily incre a sed in the vi ll a ges a s it decrea sed in the to w ns .

Accor di ng to Dr Gli c sm a n the hi gh frequency of infa nt

.

’
mort a lity on the l a nd w a s due l a rgely to the pe a s a nt wom a n s
excessive l a bour durin g the period of pregn a ncy a n d feedi ng ,

to her insufficient nourishm ent to the l a ck of pr e per medic a l ,

a ttend a nce a n d to soci a l prej udices

, M a ny b a bies were born .

p rem a turely a n d were under weight There were m a ny c a ses .

of a sphyxi a tion thr ough whooping cough the b a bies being left -

a t home a lone while the mothers worked in the fi eld s A loc a l .

inqui ry into the c a uses of rura l mort a lity conducted j ust before
the Wa r a n d referring to a di strict with inh a bit a nts ( the
l a nd belongi n g to fi ve owners ) confi r m e d the excessive mort a lity
a mong children of one a n d two ye a rs of a e but it a lso c a me to
g ,

the conclusion th a t most of them could h a ve been s a ved The .

inquiry extended over thr ee ye a rs between 1 9 1 0—1 3 During th a t .

period there were births ; 45 5 b a bies di ed in their first ye a r ,

th a t is 1 7 per cent an d mort a lity of children up to the a ge of

, .
,

two yea rs a ccounted for one third of a ll the de a ths The c a uses
-

of de a ths a mo n g chil dren up to three ye a rs of a ge were

344 di se a ses of the bre a t h ing orga ns ;
1 5 4 g a stro enteritis ; -

21 2 inn a te debility ;
1 6 4 tet a nus ; 1 22 epidemics .
5 00 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
The gre a t number of ch ild dea ths thr ough tet a nus a phenomenon
,

unknown in more developed countries is a proof of the degree

,

of misery an d i gnora nce which preva iled on the l a nd Frequently .

the wom a n g a ve birth lying on t h e groun d on some stra w or in ,

the fi eld s During b i rth the wom a n w a s considered un clea n

.
‘ ’

a n d for thr ee d a ys she a n d her child were a ppro a ched by no one

s a ve the midwi fe when there w a s one or some old wom a n of

, ,

the f a mily Mother an d chi ld were then w a shed with holy w a ter
.
,

a fter w hi ch they were considered to be cle a n a g a in Dr Gli csm an

. .

sta tes th a t he m a de a n effort to a ct preventively in two com

munes by v a ccin a ting newly born b a bies a g a inst tet a nus but
,
-

th a t he w a s forced to a b a ndon the a ttempt bec a use it w a s

strongly O pposed by the loca l priest He a dded th a t there w a s
.

one sin gle m idwi fe for a ll the inh a bit a nts w hi ch me a nt

,

th a t pregn a nt women h a d li ttle ch a nce of gettin g expert help

even when they wished it .

The effect of the a bsence of me di c a l a ttend a nce m a y b e seen

from the follo w i ng figures rel a tin g to the ra te of mort a lity
,

a mong the rur a l pop u l a tion of the Old Kin gdom a n d to p a tients
up to the a ge of ni neteen ye a rs

An other in dex to the hea lth of the popula tion m ay b e foun d

in the t a ble b elow giving the n umber of suicides between 1 9 1 9
,

and 1 9 25 :

R ur a l
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 01

Most of the s uicide s on the l a nd were a ttributed to drink a n d

pella gra 1
.

We sh a ll h a ve a ga in to refer to the St a te s he a lth pok e y ’

,

whi ch is no doubt p a rtly responsible for the high ra te of mort a lity .

Preventive a ction is needed a bove a ll a n d a ction of a soci a l ,

n a ture more th a n of a medic a l kin d We c a n not here a rgue the .

point a t length though it is a poin t whi ch peculi a rly concern s

,

o ur study but will merely refer i n brief to pella gr a which is

, ,

undoubte dl y a soci a l m a l a dy ; a n d to cert a in fa cts est a b li s hed

by the a rmy a uthorities whi ch offer rem a rk a ble evidence in ,

support of the View th a t soci a l r a ther th a n biologic a l condi tion s

a re re s ponsible for the b a d he a lth of the pea s a nt popula tion .

Pell a gra whi ch a mong Tra nsylva ni a n pe a s a nts is known a s

,

poor m a n s sickness w a s un known in the Rum a ni a n pro vinces

’
,

notwithst a ndi ng frequent fa min es a s long a s millet whe a t a n d , , ,

’
b a rley formed the b a sis of the people s food The disea s e .

a ppe a red with the cultiv a tion of m a iz e a n d spre a d with i t .

M a iz e w a s i ntroduced in the Rum a ni a n pro vinces a bout 1 700 ,

a n d it bec a me r a pi dl y popul a r with the pe a s a nts j ust bec a use

a s a n a utumn crop it withstood the clim a te b etter th a n the

frequently fa iling summ er crops But it must b e rememb ered

-
.

th a t the ch a nge from millet to m a ize coincided with the lowering

’
of the pea s a ts sta tus a n d well b ein g
n
2
.

B ul ti ul S t ti ti 1 9 27 N o 2
1
e n a s c, , . .

2
ci l ri i
Th e so a o g n of t h e br u ht
s eas e i s di
by Dr Cr i ht
o g o ut e g on i n h i s Hi s tor y of
.

E p id emi cs i n B r i ta i n ( 1 8 9 1 , pp 1 07 by i t r ti c p ri
. wi h
w a y of a n n e es n g om a son t
di v l l pr y
me e a e os
‘
v ry t p
Th e a i n g y e s of
. di th r xi t c
se as e s , or ei t
e s e n e a t on e i me a n d
b c
a sen e a t a n o th r v ri ti
e , a r e a re fl e x of t h e a li
a ons i n t h e d
fe of t h e p e o plc in foo a n d h

i w
dr nk , d
a ges tic c
o m es
, rt t w li
o mf o o n c u try li
f e or o n
, lik pp r c
fe , a n d t h e e
’
Th e a e a an e .

an d di pp r c
sa l pr y
ea a n e of e os di v l E ur p
i n me e a c p i t
o e was a p l r
ase i n o n Th e e la g a .
‘

of t h e N rth I t li p
o a an try
e a sa n u G c y th r l t d
( an d of R ma ni a , a s o n a n d s om e o e imi e
r r t l pr y
a ea s ) i s t h e n ea es a ffi n i ty t o e os p ci di
a m on g t h e s e es o f di
s ease Th e t w o sea ses .

are cl ly lli d
o se a ppr ch th r
e i n t h e i ns i d uous a oa pt
of th ir i plic ti
ei sy m om s , i n e m a ng t h e

ti u utriti th u h
ss e n -
on ro g rv rv u u cti
t h e n e es or t h e n e o s f n thr u h
, utriti
ons o g th e n on ,
in th ir cu u ti
e i cu bl ch r ct r
m la n g a n d n r a e a a th ir tr
e a n d in i ib l ty by
e ans m ss
, ii i n h er i
t c
an e
’
. y pt ct b
S m oms a n d e ffe s e i n g a lik th r u t e e e m s r l ti b tw
a ls o b
, e a e a on e een t h e

c u
a ses .
‘
t r l l pr y
Th e m os gen e a e xpr es s mn for e os i s a s e m i putrid t xic ch r ct r or o a a e-

o f an i mal f ood j u t s , li d p l r it
a s for t h e a l e e la g a , putrid t xic ch r ct r
i s a se mi or o a a -
e

i br d p rrid c u d t d ly
of t h e [ m a z e ] ea or o ge , ons me s e a i
’
day id d
fr om d ay t o , an d a e a nd

b tt d by th r c diti
a e e o e on Th
ons
‘
id th
ese a. i ng t p rt u u l
i n gs a re for t h e m os a the s a
c c it t
on o m a n s of p v rty o e h r hip
and a ds L pr y
s [ e os ] w a s a m or bus mi ser i a e of t h e
M iddl but
e A ges , wh l
on t h e v ry c
o e n ot a e it
o mm on on e ; an dily h k w a s eas s a e n off

by ti l li Wh
t h e n a on a fe c diti ch
en t h e on onsd v r littl Th t h pp i
a n ge e e so e
’
a is a en ng in .

u
R m an a i with p ll r tr l dr r
e a g a , a f e t h e an e fo m .
5 02 SOCI AL AND POLITICAL
The fi r st c a ses of pell a gra were not recorded till a b out 1 8 30 in
Mold v
a i a a n d 1 8 5 0 in Mu teni a After th a t the di se a se spre a d
n 1
.

both in a b solute num bers a n d in proportion to the siz e of the

popula tion

1880
1 8 98
1 8 99
1 9 00
19 01 6 8 -

1 9 02 7 0
1 903 77
1 9 04 8 1 -

1 9 05 105 2-

According to Professor B a b e s there were p a tients i n 1 9 1 1 ,

in 1 91 3 a n d a b out , j ust b efore the Wa r The .

a ver a ge mort a lity from pell a gra w a s 5 p er cent There is no .

doubt th a t the incidence of the dise a se h a s dimi nished consider

a bly a fter the Wa r a n d Professor B a be s h a s poin ted out in
, ,

bringing the following t a ble to the a ttention of the Rum a n i a n

Ac a demy th a t the l a rgest num b er of p a tients w a s found in the
,

coun ties in which m a ize w a s more extensiv ely cultiva ted .

19 12 1 9 14 1916 19 18 1 9 19 1 9 20 1 921 1 922

It is interesting to note the st a tement of Professor B a b e s th a t ,

1
A cc rdi g to Professor V B b s t h e di seas e i s c tr cte d dur in g t h e w in ter
o n . a e ,
on a ,

but m kes i t s a ppea ra c e with i ts ch r ct ri s t c r s h with t h e s pri g s un Pr ofes or

a n , a a e i a , n . s

Ba b es m d a n e xp e ri m e t with whit mi c e W t ll w e re fe d on m i ld e we d ma iz e ; t h e
a e n e

a n i ma l s which w e r e k e pt i n t h shad re c ov e r d but th os e which w er e e xpos e d t o

e e e ,

t h e s un s uccu m b e d Pe ll a gr fl ec t s t h e p ti t i n thre e w a ys it a tta cks t h e s ki n t h e

'

. a a a en : ,

diges tiv e o rga s a n d t h n erv o u s s y ste m c a u i n g a bur n in g sens a ti on i n t h e thr oa t

n , e ,
s ,

pa i ns i n t h s tom a ch a d a n a b n or ma l n e rv o u s s tate
e n .

2
Af te r B ibices e u p 22 , . .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 03

pell a gra is prev a lent a mong the colon ies of Rum a ni a n emigra nts
in the south western regions of the United St a tes
-
.

The soci a l origins of the pop ul a tion s ill he a lth is a lso con ’
-

fi rm e d by the serious extension of tuberculosis We will mention .

onl y the e vidence obt a ined a few ye a rs a go d uring a n inqui ry

un dert a ken a mong the schoolchil d ren of Cluj by Professor ,

I uli u Ha ti ega n He found th a t a mong the 291 b o a rders of a

.

gir l s second a ry school o nl y 1 37 displ a yed no e vident signs of

’

tuberculosis ; but 92 5 per cent of the girls rea cted positively .

to the Pirquet test Alm ost a ll the pupils b elonged to country

.

districts In a University Hostel for women students to which

.
,

a dm ission w a s gr a nted a fter a medic a l ex a min a tio n onl y 47 8 9 ,

p er cent of the 1 1 9 bo a rders di spl a yed no e vident signs of

.

tub erculosis ; a n d from 36 4 men a n d women chosen a t r a ndom

from the students of Cluj Uni versity only 1 47 were free from ,

a ll symptoms In 1 9 23 de a ths from tuberculosis re a ched in

.

Rum a ni a 37 per inh a bit a nts a s a ga inst 30 in Hunga ry ,

an d 9 9 in the U ni ted S t a tes

-

On a nother occ a sion Professor B a be s reported th a t the

a vera ge percent a ge of youn
g men found un fi t for m ilit a ry ser vice
increa sed a s follows
1 8 9 0—92, 5 6 per cent .

1 8 93—9 6 , 7 0 per cent -

.

1 8 9 7, 8 3 per cent
-

It is possible of course th a t the l a rger number of rej ections ma y

, ,

h a ve been due to stricter st a nda rds But cert a in conclusive .

e vidence w a s obt a ined from the ex a min a tion of recruits ,

20—1 ye a rs of a ge born in 1 8 9 3 An a nthropometric study 1 m a de

, .

by M Nicol a e Ta ba covi ci sometim e chief of the st a tistic a l

.
,

service in the Rum a ni a n Wa r Offi ce found th a t the a vera ge ,

height of those ex a min ed w a s 1 6 5 cm which w a s equ a l to the .

,

a ver a ge Eur ope a n height a n d th a t this siz e w a s s uffi ci en t l

, y
we ll represented with 8 02 per cent of the me a sured recruits
-

. .

But the eviden ce a ssumed a n a ltogether different a spect when

the height w a s rela ted to the chest me a surements of these men ,

a rel a tion which forms a reli a ble index to the physic a l st a te of a

1
A rh i va p en i m
§ ti i n 1a si R eforma S ocia li , vol . 1
, No . 1 , 1 9 1 9 , p p 21 7 — 23
. .
5 04 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
p opul tion The men were di vided i to th ee groups those
a . n r :

whose chest me a surement w a s less th a n ha lf their height those ,

in whi ch it w a s equ a l to it a n d those in which it w a s a bove it

, .

A c omp a rison w ith corre sponding B ulga Ii a n figur e s ga ve the

fo llowi ng r e sult s f
G RO UP
1 2 3
P e r enc t . P er en c t . P er en c t .

u
R ma n a i 1 6 28
-
6 35-
7 7 37~

Bulga a ri 3 41 18 88-
77 7 1 -

The num b er of those wh ich fell below st a nd a rd therefore wa s , ,

considera bly gre a ter in Rum a n i a M Ta ba covi ci did not press

. .

the p oint th a t Bulga ri a w a s a country of sm a llh olders but he ,

brought out further signifi ca n t fa cts ; of the ex a min ed recruits

8 8 8 8 p er cent c a me from r ur a l districts Accordi ng to their
. .

height the rur a l recruits ga ve a much gre a ter percent a ge in the

‘
lower groups These inqui ries entitle us to conclude th a t from
.

the p oin t of View of height our rur a l pop ul a tion is in a st a te of

considera ble i nferiority a s comp a red with the ur b a n popula tion .

This res ult w a s the more serious a s the rur a l in h a bit a nts formed
more th a n four fi ft h s of the coun try s pop ul a tion M Ta ba covi ci
-
’
. .
,

therefore m a de a n a ttempt to tra ce the c a use of th a t physic a l

,

d e fi ci e n cy excluding for ob vious re a sons a ll p ossibility of inn a te

,

p yh s i olo ica l d iffe r en ce s b etween the ur b a n a n d rur a l groups or

g
between the va rious geogra p hi c a l regions Workin g on the hypo .

thesis th a t the distribution of property a mong the i nh a bit a nts

of a coun try is the best index to their economic well b ein g he -

group ed for e a ch coun ty : the recrui ts whose height r em a ined

below 1 65 cm an d ( b) the rur a l inh a bit a nts own in g less th a n
.

2 h a of l a nd e a ch
. The res ulting figur e s est a blished a r e
.

m a r k a bly close correl a tion b etween the two f a ctors a s is shown ,

by the a ccomp a nying di a gra m The p a ra ll elism of the corre

>
.
‘

sp e nding curves is st a tistic a lly evident a n d in consequence the

re a son for the uns a tisf a ctory height of our rura l popula tion must
’
b e s ought in the uns a tisfa ctory di stribution of l a n d property .

M Ta ba covi ci priva tely informed us of a further experiment on

.

s imil a r lines m a de a t the Wa r Offi ce in 1 9 1 6 the m a teri a l of ,

which unfortun a tely w a s lost w ith m a ny other documents

, ,

duri ng the retre a t In the second c a se the urb a n recruits were

.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 05
elim i n a ted from the test a n d the rem a in der were ex a mi ned w ith
a View to est a blis hi n g a ccordin g to coun ties three sets of f a ctors :
, ,

( 1 ) Physic a l d efi ci en cy a s resulting from the u n s a tisf a ctory rel a

tion between height a n d chest mea surement ; ( 2) the pre va
lence of tubercul a r a rthr itis a n d ( 3) in suffi cien t pe a s a nt property
( b elow 2 The resultin g cur ves a ccordin g to M Ta ba covici , .
,

displ a yed an even closer p a ra llelism th a n the di a gra m here r e

lo w 2 Ha Ru r a l re c r u ut s s m a l le r th an 1 65 c m

produced ; a n d in the c a se of one coun ty a pp a rently B ac au a ll , ,

those rej ected on medic a l gro unds from one p a rticul a r cl a ss of

recruits belo nged to th a t section of the pe a s a ntry which o w ned
less th a n 2 h a l a nd . .

’
The a vera ge length of a pe a s a nt s life in most civilized
cou n tries a ccordi n g to Dr B a be s w a s 5 0 ye a rs before the Wa r
, .
, ,

where a s in Rum a n i a it w a s onl y 30 ye a rs As there exi s ts a .

‘

rel a tion betwee n mort a lity a n d morbidity we a r e e n titled to ,

s t a te th a t the Rum a ni a n pe a s a n t is much more u n h e a lthy th a n

the pe a s a nt of a n y other civilized country 1 M Mih a la ch e h a s . .

a s serted th a t d uring the Wa r the Rum a ni a n soldiers more e a sily

fell victim s to epidemics th a n the Rum a ni a ns of B ess a ra bi a a n d

Tr nsylva ni a After the Wa r the pe a s a nt nour i s hed him self
a 2
.

better especi a lly qu a ntit a tively a n d there is a n incipient im

, ,

provemen t in hous ing But w a r exh a ustion a n d the spre a d of

.

a lcoholi sm h a ve not yet a llowed the im proveme n t in m a teri a l

con di tion s to be a r p a lp a ble res ul ts a n d to this must be a dded ,

1
Cit d by I
e . B i bi ces e u, p 26 . .
2
S pe ch i n
e the Ch a m b e r , 1 9 21 p 3 6
, . .
5 06 SOCI AL AN D POLITICAL
the a pp a lling incre a se in sexu a l di se a ses The num ber of .

i n h a bit a nts receivi ng me di c a l tre a tment for syphili s w a s

1 9 12
1 9 14
19 16
19 18
1919
1 9 20
1 9 21
1 9 24
1 9 25

These figure s by no me a n s give a n a ccur a te pictur e of the

preva lence of th a t dise a se me di c a l offi cers st a te th a t in cert a in
villa ges h a lf the popula tion is infected with it a n d the socio ,

logic a l i n quiry conducted l a st ye a r by the semi n a r of Professor

D Gusti est a bli shed th a t 75 per cent of the inh a bit a nts of the
. .

Fundul Moldovei a Villa ge of Bucovin a re a cted positively to the

, ,

W a sserm a nn test A very p a inst a kin g inquir y w a s conducted by

.

a group of Tr a nsylv a ni a n doctors into the prev a lence of sy hili s

p
in a b out fift y Vill a ges b elonging to four different coun ties
,
.

Blood tests were m a de from every sin gle f a mily a n d the resul t ,

w a s th a t in cert a in Vill a ges the percent a ge of those inf ected w a s

a s high a s 25 while the genera l a vera ge w a s 1 0 per ce t 1
,
n .

Dr L e on t in M unte a nu a fter keeping under observa tion over a

.
,

p eriod of 26 months sol di ers qu a rtered in Ora de a M a re -

( Tr a nsylva ni a ) a n d m a kin g W a sserm a nn tests proved th a t ,

syphilis i nf ection incre a sed with the length of mi lit a ry service .

He found a mong fi r st ye a r soldiers 3 437 per cent infected with

-
.

syphi lis a n d a mon g second ye a r soldiers 5 1 31 p er cent whil e

,
-
.
,

a mong those who h a d signed on a g a in a n d h a d served more th a n

two ye a rs the percent a ge w a s 8 722 In the second pl a ce he .

,

found th a t the tot a l num b er of those inf ected rose from ye a r t o

ye a r
1 923—24 2 5 per cent , .

1 924 —25 3 5 per cent , .

1 925 26 4 1 5 per cent

—
,
2
.

The provi s ion which the St a te m a de for the prevention a n d

curing of dise a se never h a d b een a nyt h ing but tri fling yet even ,

1 Cit d by Dr
e . G B a n u pp 1 09 — 1 0, fro m t h e A n n a l s
.
, . of the Min i stry of H e a lth .

2
ih .
, p 1 13
. .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 07

th a t w a s reduced a fter the Wa r The proportion whi ch ex pen di .

tur e for pub lic hea lth represented in the tot a l budget of the St a te
w a s 4 per cent i11 1 908 3 4 in 1 9 1 1 2 5 in 1 9 1 4
.
,
in 1 9 20
-
,
-

, ,

in 1 924, in 1 925 2 5 in 1 926 2 7 in 1 9 27 a n d 2 9 in 1 9 28

,
-

,
- -
.

The percent a ge of the l a st few ye a rs w a s in re a lity still sm a ller

b ec a use sep a ra te a ccoun ts h a d been est a bli shed for the r a ilw a y
budget One must a lso rememb er th a t this decre a se coincided
.

with the limit a tio n of the a ctivities of hospit a ls kept up by priv a te

endowment These functioned a lm ost exclu s ively in the tow ns
.
,

while pub lic expenditure w a s devoted m a i nly to he a lth services

in the country di stricts It is therefore im porta nt to note th a t
.

exp enditure on pub lic he a lth b esides being reduced w a s a lso , ,

redi stributed in a w a y w hi ch still more deprived the rura l districts

of medi c a l a n d s a nit a ry a ssist a nce B efore the Wa r a n d during .
,

the fi r st p ost w a r ye a rs the public he a lth s e rvices were centra liz ed

-

in the Genera l S ani t a ry Dir ectora te but in 1 924 they were tra ns ,

ferred to a n ewly constituted Ministry of He a lth The e ffect of

-
.

th a t ch a nge on the di stribution of the Dep a rtme n t s budget m a y ’

b e seen in the t a ble below : 1

Ce n tra l
a dm i ni s tr a ti on

As long a s the old org a ni z a tion l a sted therefore the centra l , ,

a dministr a tion used up an d of the tot a l budget ,

but with the crea tion of the Mi n istry a bout w a s spe n t on

centra l a dministra tion le a ving the a ctive services which h a d
, ,

in their c a re a popul a tion twice a s l a rge a s before correspondingly ,

depleted of resource s It is not surprising th a t a s offi cia lly

.
,

a dmitted in 1 923 of the 8 70 rur a l he a lth di visions onl y 409 h a d

,

perm a nent me di c a l he a ds whi le 1 6 4 of the positions were v a c a n t

, ,

8 3 were occupied by medic a l students a n d 21 7 h a d provisio n a l ,

incumbents Whi le in the town s the profession w a s seriously

.

overcrowded the a uthorities could not fi n d a pplic a nts even for

,

1
Dr AI P Ili rticl i A u
. . . J u ry 3 1 1 9 26
e, a e n r or a , an a , .

2
Th e rigin a l gold
o le i s u ms m ultipli e d by 45 .
5 08 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
the r ump services m a int a ined in the co untry di stricts One of .

the re a sons for th is w a s di sclosed by the r app or teur of the 1 9 29

budget of the Mi nistry of He a lth He told the Ch a mber th a t a t .

the end of 1 928 the Min istry h a d unp a id estim a tes a moun ting
to 1 90 000 0001e i le ft over from previous budgets ; these in cluded
, ,

tra nsport a llow an ces to rur a l me d ic a l offi cers some of them ,

d a ting b a ck to 1 9 26 ; a llow a nces for the m a intena nce of p a tients ;

for fuel & c The 1 929 budget coul d o nl y provide
, . lei
for the p a ym ent of those a rre a rs thi s being an a moun t for ,

which j udgement h a d been obt a in ed in the Cour ts a g ai nst the

Min istry 1 Therefore not even the poor nomin a l s um s in scrib ed
.

in the budget h a d in f a ct b een forthcoming When the centra l .

a dm ini str a tion enj oyed such f a vour ite tre a tment it w a s not

un n a tura l th a t c a ndida tes for the neglected fi eld posts should

b e sc a rce ; especi a ll y a s those who would h a ve liked to devote
themselves to the urgent work th a t is to b e done in the Villa ges
found their usefulness cra mped by a n excess of duties a n d a n
i n suffi ci en cy of me a ns .

The m a n y leg a l provisions concernin g public hea lth a r e

rendered senseless by the pra ctic a l im possibili ty of c a rry ing out
their intention ; medi c a l offi cer s a r e oblig ed to est a bli sh a n d
isol a te cont a gious c a ses but hospit a ls or i n firm a ri es for their
isol a tion do not exist Moreover neglect from the centre e n
.
,

gendered indifference in the bra nches to j udge from the circul a r ,

which the M i nistry of He a lth h a d t o issue in J un e 1 927 The .

’
Mini stry s inspectors it compl a in ed h a d found th a t m a ny of the
, ,

rura l he a lth ofli c er s were not li ving a t their offi cial pl a ce of

residence but congreg a ted in the town s a n d some of them even ,

in the c a pit a l The Ministry ordered them to settle forthwith a t

.

the pl a ces to which they were a pp ointed Wh a t a rura l me di c a l .

o ffi c er is expected to p erform a pp e a rs from the fi gur es which

Dr Gli cs m a n rel a ted in 1 920 concerni ng the county of Mehedin t i

. .

For a popul a tion of there were 8 district hospit a ls but ,

two of them were closed ; there were 4 hospit a l doctors an d one ,

district doctor who h a d a lso periodic a lly to inspect the com

,

munes ; further 5 0 se ca lled s a nit a ry a gents for 1 7 1 communes

,
-

a n d 21 midwives The county h a d no in fi r m a r ies The tot a l

. .

A d vé ul J u ry 9 1 929
1
e r , an a , .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 09
num ber of tra ined midwives w a s in the towns a n d
in rur a l districts or one to 6 2 rur a l comm un es —a commune
,

genera lly includi ng severa l Vill a ges I n 1 924 the number of .

bir ths w a s in the town s a n d in the vill a ges which ,

mea nt th a t one midwi fe h a d theoretic a lly to a tte n d yea rly to

, ,

39 5 child b i rths spre a d over a l a rge a re a 1 The situ a tion would

-
.

seem to b e b etter in Tra nsylva ni a where a ccording to M Enesc u , .

,

there w a s in 1 920 one doctor to i n h a bit a nts one mid w ife ,

to one chemist to a n d one hospit a l to in

h a bit a nts Infa nt morta li ty h a s rem a ined a t the s a me high
.

‘ ’
level for the l a st 20 ye a rs or more For pur poses of hygie n e .
,

s a ys Dr Ba nu we h a ve neither org a niz a tion nor a n y system a tic

.
,
’
policy And the cur a tive servi ces on the l a nd work u n der such
.

limit a tions of personnel a n d equipment th a t the pea s a nt h a s

only a n a rrow ch a nce of recovering from the m a la di es which he
is not helped to a void .

S E CTI O N 4

C U L TU R A L A ND P S Y CH O L O G I CA L CHANGES
E d uca ti on
in tense a ctivi ty in a ll fi eld s of educ a tion
. An
h a s b een m a ni fest in Rum a ni a since the Wa r The country side .
-

is di s pl a yi n g extr a ordi n a ry keenness for more a n d b etter schooli ng ,

a n d public a uthorities h a ve m a de pr a iseworthy efforts to open

the doors of educ a tion to the m a sses who h a ve a cqui red l a nd a n d

politic a l power ; they h a ve rel a tively done more for educ a tion
th a n for a n y other fi eld of soci a l policy .

S uch a n effort w a s more th a n c a ll ed for by the hi gh percent a ge

of illitera tes which the country st ill h a d The census of 1 8 99 .
,

the fi r s t to be more c a refully conducted found th a t 78 per cent , .

of the i nh a bit an ts a b ove 7 ye a rs of a ge co ul d neither rea d nor

write the number of women illitera tes rea chi n g 90 per cent
, .

The 1 9 1 2 censu s est a b lished th a t of the in h a bit a n ts a bove 8 ye a rs

,

of a ge 393 per cent coul d rea d a n d write a n d 6 0 7 were illite

, .

ra tes The proportion for the rura l districts a lon e w a s wor s e

.
,

1
Dr G B u citi g r p rt f Dr T I
. . an n acu f t h Mi i try f H lth 1 9 26
e o o . . on e s , o e n s o ea , .
5 10 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
the tot a l num b er of i llitera tes rea c h ing 6 7 4 p er cent a n d a mong .

women 8 42 p er cent Oi the severa l pro vin ce s Olt eni a h a d the

.

worst figur e with 71 2 per cent rur a l illitera tes while Dor odg e a .
,

though economic a lly b a ckw a rd h a d the b est fi gur es with 75 2 ,

p er cent illi tera tes in 1 8 9 9 a n d 5 4 8 per cent in 1 9 1 2 ( 608 per

. .

cent of the rura l popula tion in

. In hi s b ookl et on the
a ctivity of the Ministry of Educ a tion Dr C An gelesen st a ted . .

th a t on the e ve of the Wa r the num ber of illitera tes w a s 43 per

cent in the Old Kingdom 40 p er cent in Tra nsylv ani a 6 0 per
.
, .
,

cent in Bucovin a a n d 94 per cent in B es sar a bia As the figur e for

.
, . .

the Old Kin gdom is much b elow th a t est a bli shed by the census
of 1 9 1 2 one ca n reg a rd the a bove percent a ges a s o nl y a ppr oxi
,

m a tely a ccur a te th a t for B ess a ra bi a 1 seem ingly a ppl yi ng merely

,

to the Rum a ni a n in h a bit a nts of th a t provin ce ; Hun ga ri a n

st a tistics g a ve in 1 9 1 0 the percen t a ge of illitera tes in th a t
Kin gdom a s 338 a n d Austri a n st a tistics for the s a me yea r g a ve
,

the percent a ge for B ucovin a a s Spe a k i ng genera lly more ,

th a n h a lf the popul a tion w a s illitera te when the new St ate w a s

formed a fter the Wa r .

E lemen ta r y Ed uca ti on Th a t circumst a nce is especi a lly sur

.

prisi n g in View of the f a ct th a t element a ry educ a tion w a s m a de

free a n d compulsory in Rum a ni a a s e a rly a s 1 8 6 4 these prin ,

c i les b eing inscrib ed into the Constitution of 1 8 66

p But Cu za .
,

the a uthor of th a t la w coul d do no more th a n procl a im the

,

pri nciple ; a s b uil din gs a n d te a chers could not b e cre a ted by

d ecree his la w very n a tura lly a dded th a t a ttend a nce a t schools
,

w a s oblig a tory wherever schools e x ist Sin ce then schools h a ve

not come into b eing in s uffi ci en t num bers to m a ke of th a t
Constitution a l prin ciple a re a lity In 1 8 8 4 the coun try h a d .

rura l schools with pupils boys a n d 473 gi rls ) a n d

tea chers The num ber of urb a n schools w a s 1 65 w ith
.

ms tv o s ta ti s tic s of 1 9 05 cit d i n t h e exp ose d e motifs t o t h e n e w

'
1
Th e ze and 1 907 , e

la w for e l e m e n t a ry e duc a ti o n v ll owi g p erc e t ges of th ose b i n g

ga e t h e fo n n a e

a bl e t o r d a d write a m
ea n on
g t h v a ri o u s n a ti on a liti es of B es s a r a bi a
e

N ti ona lity
a Women N ati on a lity
G e r ma n s B ul g ri ns a a

P o l es 529 -
Turc s

J e ws 24 1 -
Ukra i i n s n a

R u ss i ns ( Littl e )
a 11 5 -
M old a vi a ns
R u ss i a n s ( Gr a t ) e 21 1 -
Gips i es
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 11

pupils a n d 5 1 6 te a chers On the e ve of the Wa r in

.
, 1 91 2
1 3, the situ a tion of element a ry educ a tion wa s a s foll ows
A ve ra ge A ve rage
Number . of n u m b r of e n u m b e r of

Nu mb e r of Nu m b e r of r gi s tere d
e pupils p r e pupils pe r
C omm u n es s ch ools t a che rs
e pupils s ch oo l tea che r

There were in a ddi tion 25 6 priva te element a ry schools in the

town s fun ctioni ng w ith the permission of the Min i ster of Educ a
tion These schools notwithst a nding their overcrowdin g were
.
, ,

fa r from bein g a ble to a ccommod a te a ll the childr en of school a ge ,

a s ma be seen from the followi n fi ur e s giving the position

y g g ,

in 1 922

Tota l

Ma ny of the registered pupils however did not a ttend school

, ,

either b ec a use their p a rents foun d a pretext for keepi n g them a t

home or bec a use the condi tions of the buil din gs & c prevented , .
,

the regul a r functioning of the school so th a t it is s a fe to sa y th a t

,

in 1 9 22a b out h a lf of a ll the chil dren of school a ge were receiving no

tui tion a t a ll O nly a bout h a lf the schools h a d buildi ngs of the ir
.

own while the rem a inder were c a rried on in rented houses whi ch
,

were unfit for the purpose The bulk of the schools h a d o n ly one
.

room a n d duri n g the wi nter m a ny could not hold their cl a sses

,

bec a use of l a ck of fuel The num ber of chi ldren who were un a ble
.

to g a in a dmitt a nce incre a sed therefore in proportion to the

, ,

num ber of those registered especi a lly in the rura l d istricts

, .

The numb er of pupils who fi ni sh e d their element a ry schoolin g

w a s in f a ct much sm a ller th a n those registered B etwee n the .

census of 1 8 99 a n d tha t of 1 9 1 2 pupils took their

,
512 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL

Chi ldr n ofe i s te r e d

R eg
S ch o o l ye r a s ch oo l
ge a pupils

cer t ifi ca t e in
rura l schools a n d in ur b a n element a ry
schools The increa s e in the tot a l numb er of pupils registered
.

m a y b e see n from the t a ble b elow

Pup i ls r gis te r d in
e e

Po pul a ti on e l m n t r y s ch ools
e e a

Pe r c en t .

or 19
19
25
4 0
5 0
5 7
88
83
1 00
10 5

The s t a te of eleme n t a ry educ a tion in 1 9 23— 4 b efore the p a ssing ,

of the new la w w a s a s foll ows in the Old Ki ng dom

, ,

Num b er of school s ,

Numb er of te a cher s ,

Number of childre n of school a ge ,

Number of regi s tered pupils ,

Number of pupil s who took the cer t ifi ca t e ,

A new la w on element a ry educ a tion w a s prom ulga ted on

24t h J uly 1 9 24 It ch a n ged the a ge for compulsory school
.

a ttend a nce from s eve n to five the fi r st two ye a rs h a vi n g to b e

,

s pent in a ki n derg a r t e n a n d it extended the d ur a tion of a tten

,

d a nce a t elem e n t a r ys ch ools from four to seven ye a rs During the .

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 13

l a st thr ee ye a rs genera l te a chi ng w a s to be comb ined with tra in

ing in h a n di cra fts for which purpose , workshops of va rious
k in ds were set up a ll over the coun try For the c a rry ing out .

of thi s progra m a n a vera ge of new tea chi ng posts were

cre a ted ye a rly from 1 922 un til 1 926 the ye a r Dr An gelescu , .

wr ote hi s report while the number of school buil di ngs w a s a lmost

,

doubled during th a t tim e :

Nu m b e r of e l m n t ry
e e a

s ch oo l s N umb e r of te a ch e rs
1 9 21 2 -

1 9 25 — 6 1 9 21 — 2 1 9 25 — 6

T ota l

Angeles cu w a s hopeful th a t if t hi s e ffort were kept up ,

Dr .

in fi ve or s ix ye a rs room woul d h a ve been fo un d for every chil d

of school a ge , a n d illitera cy woul d then speedi ly di s a ppe a r The .

budget which the St a te pl a ced in 1 900—1 a t the dispos a l of the

Mini stry of Educ a tion represented 1 0 per cent of tot a l ex pen di .

tur e ( the Ar my receivi n g 1 9 4 per between 1 901 — 8 it fell

to 9 5 per cent a n d in 1 909— 1 0 to 7 p er cent rem a ini n g at t hi s
.
, .
,

level up to the War In 1 923 the Ministry received 7 3 p er cent

. .

of the budget an d in 1 926 it re a ched 2 643 1 1 4 2401ei or 1 02 per

, , , ,

cent of the tot a l budget 1 In its turn the Ministry a llotted 5 9 per
. .

cent for elementa ry educ a tion in 1 900 5 6 per cent in 1 9 1 6

.
, .
,

a n d a bout 44 per cent in 1 926 Aga in from the a moun t a llotted

. .
,

for element a ry educ a tion 69 per cent w a s spent on urb a n schools .

a n d 31 per cent on rur a l schools i n 1 8 6 5 ; in 1 89 5 — 6 the rur a l

.

schools received 5 2 per cent a n d the urb a n 48 per cent ; in 1 9 1 0

. .

the proportion wa s 6 5 per cent a n d 35 per cent a n d in 1 9 24 . .

roughl y 74 per cent an d 26 p er cent I n proportion to the siz e

. .

of the popul a tion a n d to the n umb er of pupils the yea rly s um s

the St a te s p ent on element a ry educ a tion a moun ted in the period
1
rea lity th a t p erc en ta ge w a s s ubstan ti a lly l ow e r a s i n 1 9 26 t h e ra ilw a y bud get
In , ,

which s h ow e d a he avy d efi ci t w as i sol a ted from t h e gen era l budget

, .

L 1
5 14 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
1 914—1 5 to 2 5 gold lei
1
per inh a bit a nt a n d 22 gold lei per pupil ,

a n d in p er inh a bit a nt a n d 460 lei per registered

1 924, 46 25 lei -

pupil the a vera ge expenditur e h a vin g thus been reduced by

,

roughl y one thi rd In 1 91 0 the Un ited St a tes were spen d in g

-

lei per pupil Engl a nd 9 1 6 0 Germ a ny 5 2 20 B ulga ri a

, ,
-

26 4 0 Sp a in a lone with 1 25 0 lei h a ving a lower a ver a ge of

,

expenditur e per pup il th a n Rum a ni a .

The most strikin g a spect of th a t post w a r development is the -

sh a re whi ch the pe a s a nts h a d in m a k i ng it possible The St a te .

w a s not in a position to supply the fun ds for the c a rr in g out of

y
the construction progra m described a b ove a n d the Mi nister ,

of E duc a tion a ppe a led therefore for priva te a ssist a nc e— not to

the we a lthy people of the coun try but to the m a ss of the ,

p e a s a ntry The response wa s such th a t w ithin four yea rs a ll the

.

schools were rep a ired a n d schools were newly b ui lt or

,

ra di c a lly rep a ired together with severa l thous a nd houses for the
,

he a d te a chers M a ny vill a ges a n d sometim es in di vidu a l pea s a nts

-

.
, ,

offered l a nd for the school ; they contributed re a dy money or ,

p a rt of their produce most of the Vi lla gers concerned helped in

the a ctu a l construction m a king bricks cuttin g tim ber c a rting —
, ,

s a nd a n d bui ld i ng the w a lls

, .

Th e S t a t e c o n tr i bu t e d fr e e t i m b e r fr o m i t s fo r e s t s for a v a l u e o f
‘
,

a l m os t t w o m i ll i a r d s fo r t h e c o n s tr u c t io n o f t h e s e s c h o o l s
,
Th e Mi ni s tr y .

o f E d u ca t io n t h e co un t y a n d co m m u n a l a u t h o r i t i es h e l p e d t h e p oo r e r
,

c o mm u n e s wi t h s e v e r a l h u n d r e d m i ll i o n le i Th e l a r ge r p a rt o f t h e .

mo n e y h owe v e r s a y s D r A n ge le s cu w a s co ll e c t e d fr o m t h e p e a s a n t s
’ ‘
.
, , ,

i n t h e fo r m o f v o l un t a r y gi ft s o f m o n e y w hi c h u p t o t h e p r e se n t h a v e —

r e a c h e d o v e r on e a n d a h alf m i ll i a r d le i gift s i n k in d a n d i n l a b ou r wi t h —
,

t h e i r o w n h a n d s a n d wi t h t h e i r ca rt s co n t r ibut e d fr e e t o t h e co m mun e s,

fo r t h e b ui l d i n g of t h e s c h oo l s 1
’
.

Thi s movement begun by the pe a s a nts of the Old Kingdom , ,

s pre a d to the new provi nces i n 1 9 23 a n d to the towns There , .

is no doubt th a t the initi a tive c a me from the pe a s a nts themselves ,

who soon a fter the distribution of the l a nd b eg a n to send in

requests for the cre a tion of schools offering to supply the l a nd ,

a n d to put up the b uil ding a t their own cost if the Ministry would

only provide them with a te a cher In the county of Const a n ta .

,

e the M i nistry contributed merely lei for the bui ldi ng

.
g .
,

1
A cti vi ta tea M i n i s terului I ns tr ue fiun ii , p 1 0 . .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 15

of element a ry schools the County Council , lei a n d the ,

pe a s a nts themselves 1 2 0000001ei Or t a ke the suggestive c a se

, ,
.
,

of the commun e of S om a rtin ( county of F agara s Tra nsylva ni a ) , ,

with a mixed Rum a ni a n a n d S a xon popula tion of some 300

fa mili es As for some rea son it w a s not found possible to build
.
, ,

a new school the p a rish meetin g un a nim ously decided on the

, ,

propos a l of the S a xon priest in Octob er 1 928 to close the com , ,

mun a l publi c house a n d to use the buildi ng for school purposes .

P r ofessi on a l E d uca ti on Side by side with the buildi ng of

.

element a ry schools the Ministry a pproved the construction of

5 4 tra inin g schools for te a chers 48 second a ry schools 37 tr a de , ,

schools a n d 20 commerci a l schools In their c a s e a lso priva te

, .

i niti a tive h a rnessed itself to a t a sk which the public a uthoritie s

h a d no me a ns of fulfillin g the f unds being collected by speci a l
,

loc a l com mittees who in a lmost every c a se moreover supervised

, , ,

the a ctu a l building so a s to s a ve the cost of contra ctors a n d other

,

intermedi a ries .

B esides element a ry schooling the rura l popul a tion needs ,

a bove a ll tr a in in g in a gricul tur a l methods a n d in h a ndicr a fts ,

for the win ter mo n ths The more wide a w a ke pe a s a nts woul d
.

seem to underst a nd t hi s very well Those of eight Villa ges in .

the county of Gorj led by their m a yors a n d priests petitioned

, ,

in 1 91 5 for the crea tion in one of their commun es of a n a mb ul a nt

h a ndicra fts school
‘
W e t h i n k t h e t im e h a s c om e for t h e son s of p e a sa n t s t o be gi v e n
b o t h h a n d ic r a ft a n d a gr i cu ltu r al tui t io n for m a n y of t h e m h a v e go d , o

h o l d i n gs of la n d a n d s h ou l d t h e y t i l l it r a t ion a ll y k nowi n g a l so s o m e
, ,

t r a d e w h ic h t h e y m igh t ca rr y o n i n win t e r a n d w h e n t h e we a t h e r i s
ba d t he y c o ul d e a r n goo d mon e y t o m a k e t h e i r life e a s i e r A s t h e
, .

s e co n d a r y s c h o o l s a r e o f n o us e t o t h e p e a s a n t s i t wou l d b e a go o d t hi n
g,

t o a b o l i s h t h e m a n d us e t h e m on e y a ll o tt e d t o t h e m i n t h e b u d ge t fo r
t h e e s t a b li s hm e n t i n t h e i r p l a ce o f a s m a n y a m bu l a n t h a n d i c r a ft s c h o o l s
w h e r e v e r a d i l ige n t p o pu l a t ion h a s t h e d es i r e t o l ea r n t h es e h a n d i
c r a ft s kn o w i n g ful l we l l t h a t t h a t i s t h e on l y m ea n s o f b r i n i n
,
g g a b o ut a
m o r e p e a ce fu l e x is t e n ce a n d on e wi t hou t wa n t 1 .
’

Steps for the s a tisfa ction of such wise desires were only t a ken
recently w ith the esta blishment of the
, h a ndicra ft schools to
which reference h a s been m a de Agricultura l tea chin g a s such .

1
Cite d i n O A An a s t a s i u, op
. . . ci t .
, p 101
. .

L 12
516 SOCI AL AND POLITICAL
is only j ust b eginning to receive a ttention a s m ay b e seen from ,

the follo w in g t a ble gi vi ng the a gricultura l schools of all

kin ds
S ch oo ls

H i gh e r a gric ultur a l s ch ools

S e c on d a ry a gricultur a l s ch ools
viticultur a l s ch oo ls
Lo w e r a gric ultur l s ch oolsa

viticultur a l s ch ools
h orticultura l s chools
a picul t ur a l s ch oo l s

E lemen ta ry a gricultur a l s ch oo ls
viticultur a l s ch ools
h orticultura l s ch ools
h a n dicr fts s ch ools
a

Wi n te r s ch o ls o

A gricultur a l a ppre n tic eship s ch ools

G irls d omes tic s ci en c e s chools
’

Accord i ng to st a nd a rds these schools were group ed into

3 high schools of University st a nd a rd ;
,

3 second a ry schools ;
47 lower schools ;
1 3 element a ry schools ;
1 winter school ;
1 8 a pprenticeship schools .

Nine lower a n d two element a ry schools were m a int a in ed by

priva te institutions the rem a inder were St a te sup p orted The
,
.

two points worth noting a r e fi r st the a b sence of a gricult ur a l , ,

’
te a chi ng till in keeping with the Ra ubwirtsch a ft whi ch ‘

h a d b een the rule in R um a ni a n fa rming ; a n d secondly the , ,

efforts m a de in recent ye a rs to wi den a gricul tur al educ a tion .

Oi the 47 lower schools 1 1 were est a blished in 1 9 23—4 The

,
.

1
Ag ricultura l te chi n g h a d b e n d e cree d as ea rly a s 1 8 64 y et it w as n egl e cte d
a e , ,

i n k e pi n g with t h e S ta te s gen e r a l p o licy i n f v o ur of t h e tra d e s ch ools es t a bli s h ed

’
e , a ,

m uch l a t r e

A gr icultura l S ch ools Tra d e S ch ools

Nu m be r Nu m be r Nu m b e r Nu m be r
of s ch oo ls o f pupils of s ch oo ls of pupil s

19 19 68 1 22 2
1 9 28 97 3, 6 9 0 314
At t h e e n d of 1 9 28 , fo ur d ifi e re n t Mi ni s tri es s h a re d i n the c on trol of t h e Agricultur a l
ch l
S oo s .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 17

higher schools a ct in effect a s tra ini n g schools for the te a c h in g

personn el of the others The second a ry schools a r e supposed
.

to supply experts for experiment a l st a tions a n d te a chers for the

element a ry schools ; the course involves three ye a rs of school
work a n d one ye a r of pra ctic a l work The lower schools prep a re .

their pupils for the m a na gement of sm a ll fa rms or for subordin a te

positions on l a rger undert a kings ; the cour se l a sts three ye a rs
'
,

followed by one a n d a h a lf ye a rs of pra ctic a l work The schools .

of Tra nsylva n i a a n d Buco vina h a d till 1 923 a course of o n ly two, ,

ye a rs The element a ry schools wi th a curriculum extending

. ,

over two ye a rs were introduced in 1 901 with a view to tra ini ng

,

sons of pea s a nts in ra tiona l fa rmin g Th is type of school a ppe a rs .

to b e on the decli ne a s most of the pe a s a nts send their b oys to

,

school in the hope of the ir obt a ini n g a fterw a rds some post a n d ,

they therefore prefer to enter them into the h igher gra de schools .

Now a fter the extension of element a ry educ a tion over seven

,

ye a rs the l a st three of which a r e to in clude element a ry tra i n ing

,

in a gricul ture the speci aliz ed element a ry schools will h a ve no

,

useful f unction to perform Fin ally the schools for a pprentices

.
, ,
’
a tt a ched to the St a te s model f a rms a r e b a sed m a i nl y on pr a e ,

tic a l work theoretic a l te a chi ng b ein g limi ted a n d spora dic The
, .

cour se extends over th ree ye a rs .

Altogether the orga niz a tion an d extension of a gricultura l

,

te a chi ng b ore no rel a tion to the techn i c a l needs of the in dustry .

The figur es given l a ter on show th a t the whole system h a rdl y

touched the pra ctising pe a s a nt f a rmer ; there w a s only one winter
school of the k ind so successfully a ctive elsewhere a n d a mbul a nt
, ,

te a chi ng by lectur e a n d demonstra tion w a s o nl y b egun in 1 924 .

The tot a l te a chin g st a ff includi n g th a t of the priv a te schools

, ,

num b ered 407 in 1 924 ; of these on ly 29 0 were perm a nently

provided for in the budget the rem a inder bein g extra ordi n a ry
,

a ppo i ntments m a inl y a t the lower gra de schools which coul d

, ,

b e confirmed or termin a ted The num ber of pupils w a s .

during the session of 1 922 3— or 39 4 per school a n d 1 3 per form

— -

— a n d 35 4 who h a d p a ssed on to pr ctic l work th t

a a ; a was

or 1 90 per cent more th a n in 1 9 1 3— 1 4 ( in the Old K ing dom ) a n d

.
,

or 40 per cent more th a n in 1 920—1 A good test for the

. .

pra ctic a l usefulness of these schools is supp lied by the survey

5 18 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
whi ch M Ernest Grinte s cu D irector of Agricul tur a l Educ a tion
.
, ,

h a s prep a red to show the c a reers t a ken up by those who fi n i sh ed

,

the v a rious cour ses The t a ble below only refers to those schools
.

whi ch kept such a record 1

m
2 c m
2 8 g E
0
0

54 3
2
E
+9 2 8 5 8 1 3
" 1 "I

2
+3
03 (7)

2 53
8 011 0015 $ 0 6 5
2 mh . fi fi ’

a
‘
h
g0 g
—
g o
o
w 5
fiw
< o <G E 0
Q~ = 8 o 0 0

1 . H i gh e r Agr S ch ool of .

Buc a r s t ( s i ce 1 8 6 2)
e n

2 S e c on d ry A gr S ch oo l of
a .

R om n ( s i n c e 1 8 8 5 )
a

3 . S c d a ry N a ti on a l A gr
e on .

S ch oo l f Chi s i n au ( s i n c e
o

4 . L o w e r Agr S ch ools .

O ld K i ngdo m
( b) Tra s ylv n i a
n a

( c ) B ess ra bi aa

5 . E l me tary A gr s ch oo ls
e n .

6 . S ch ool s f d o m s tic s ci en c e
o e

By fa r the l a rgest proportion therefore of the gra du a tes from , ,

the higher an d even from the lower Rum a ni a n schools h a ve

become offi cials Th a t tendency h a s not ce a sed to opera te to
.
,

j udge from the figur es rel a tin g to the newly est a bli shed B ess a -

ra bi a n schools Hence the a ctivity of the High S chools seems to

.

le a d m a in ly to a n exp a nsion of the va rious a d mini stra tive

org a ns the number of te a chi ng posts b eing very limi ted ; more
,

over a ccording to Dr G Ant ipa a b out 1 00 highl y tra ined

, . .
,
-

Tra nsylva ni a n a gr on om s who b efore the reform h a d b een in ,

ch a rge of va rious undert a kings a r e now wi thout employm ent ,

.

Most of them prob a bly belong to n a tion a l min orities a n d ar e ,

therefore less fa vour ed with offi ci a l positions

,
The percent a ge .

of gra du a tes from the hi gher a n d lower Rum a ni a n schools who

h a ve settled down a s pra ctic a l f a rmers on the i r own a ccount i s
less th a n 1 0 per cent a n d is equ a lled by the number of gra du a tes
.
,

who h a ve a ltogether a b a ndoned the agric ultura l profession .

1
S coa lele d e A gr i cultur d d i n Romci n i a , 1 9 25 p 32 , . . Pe rc en tage s as in t h e origin a l .

2
Th e grea te st n u m be r of t h e dipl oma h o ld e rs h a d r ema in ed i n H un ga ry s o th a t ,

t h e ir prese t o ccup ati on c o uld n ot

n be tra c ed .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 19

The Tra nsylva ni a n fi gur es show a more s a tisfa ctory distribution

a n d M Gr in es cu suggests th a t the percent a ge of those who b
.
t e

c a me pr a ctic a l fa rmers would h a ve b een found to b e much hi gher

if more of the Tra nsylva ni a n gra du a tes could h a ve been tra ced .

The figur es rel a tin g to element a ry schools a r e rel a tively even

less s a tisfa ctory ; their purpose w a s to tra in sons of pe a s a nts for
the ra tion a l c ul tiva tion of their own sm a llholdings yet fully ,

one qu a rter of the gra du a tes h a ve b ecome offi cials a n d 1 3 per

cent h a ve a b a ndoned agricultur e
. .

O n e of t h e gr ea t e s t n e e d s fe lt by m os t s c h o o l s i n t h e Old K i n gd o m
’
,

s a ys M Gr i n te scu r e s u lt s fr o m t h e a b s e n c e o f t e a c hi n g m a t e r i a l
‘
. .
,

A l m os t e v e r y s c h o o l s ho w s i n t hi s r es p e c t a l a ck o f m a t e r i a l s uc h a s
m a p s a n d d i a gr a m s co ll e ct i o n s o f s e e d s a m p l e s s i m p l e phy s i c a l a n d
, ,

c h e m i ca l a pp a r a t u s &c ,
The r e a r e s e v e r a l e l em e n t a r y s c hoo l s a n d
.

s c h o o l s o f d om e s t i c s c ie n c e wh i c h l i t e r a ll y h a v e n on e o f t h e u s ua l t e a c h

i n g m a t e r i a l I n t h a t r e s p e ct t h e s c h oo l s of t h e n e w p r o vi n ce s h a v e l i ttl e
.

t o co m p l a i n o f e s p e ci a l l y t h e a gr i cu ltu r a l a ca d e m y o f C l uj a n d t h e
,

s e con d a r y Vi t i cu lt u r a l s c h oo l o f C hi si n au w h i c h a r e p r o v i d e d wit h
,

l a b o r a t o r ie s a n d e v e r yt hi n g t h a t i s n e e de d fo r fa ci l i t a t in g t e a c hi n g a n d
t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s t a ff All t h e l owe r s c h oo l s of t h e n e w p r o vi n ce s a r e
.

e qu a l l y well p r ovi d e d
1 ’
.

As a result of the l a nd reform the a gricultura l schools depending

on the Min i stry of Agriculture were provided w ith h a l a nd .
,

th a t is 73 per cent of the tot a l a re a of

. h a a t their dispos a l
. .

The centra l a uthorities contribute the cost of the st a ff an d the

m ai nten a nce of the students but for the rest the schools woul d ,

seem to b e self supporting In 1 923 the tot a l working budget

-
.

of all the schools w a s a s follows

Revenue ,

Expenditure ,

Net pr ofi t ,

The net in come coul d h a ve b een hi gher but for the f a ct th a t p a rt

of the revenue w a s spent on stock a n d b uildi ng rep a irs a n d th a t ,

p a rt of the produce w a s sold below cost to the c a nteens of the

students a n d personn el 1 0 per cen t of the gross revenue w a s
. .

set a side a s a reserve fun d ; of the net pr ofi t 1 0—20 per cent w a s .

destin ed a s a bonus to the hea ds of the schools whi le 8 0—90 per ,

cent were distributed a mong the students The insufficiency of

. .

1
§ w a ld e d e A gr i cultun i d i n R omé n ia , p 42 . .
5 20 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
the endowment received by these schools is seen from the fa ct
th a t in 1 923 thei r workin g c a pit a l onl y a moun ted on an a vera ge
t o 96 6 lei or a b out £1 48 0d per h a . . .

The la w on a gricultur a l schools p a ssed in J uly 1 929 re , ,

presents the tendency of the new Governm ent to lay the

em p h a sis on pra ctic al r ather th a n on theoretic a l educa tion It .

pl a ces a gricultur a l schools un der the control of the Mi nistry of

Agric ul ture Pupil s a r e not to b e a dmitted till they a r e six teen
.

ye a rs old when it is a ss um ed they will h a ve m a de up their min ds

,

to t a ke up fa rmin g a s a profession The la w a lso expresses the .

decentra liz i ng policy of the Governm ent a s it a llows e a ch school ,

to a d a pt its work to the needs a n d ch a ra cter of the district It .

will be seen therefore th a t the difference between Lib era ls a n d

, ,

P e a san t i st s goes a s deep in educ a tiona l m a tters a s in economic

policy .

A d ult E d uca ti on Adul t E duc a tion in Rum a n i a h a d un til

.

recently imp lied only the a tt em pt s m a d e in the Army a n d else ,

where to te a ch grown ups how to re a d a n d write After the

,
-

Wa r however a dul t educ a tion h a s extended b oth in scop e a n d

, ,

a ctivity Public a uthorities a n d priva te org a niz ations a re en

.

d ea vour in g to cover the coun try w ith a system whi ch sh a ll spre a d

some knowledge of the sciences a rts an d cra fts a mong the m a sses
, , .

Th e M inistries of Educ a tion of Agriculture of L a bour a n d of

, , ,

Wa r a ll ha ve a progra m for a d ul t educ ation The la w of 1 924 .

which reorg a ni zed element a ry tea chin g a lso cont a ined provisions
for the est a blishment of schools a n d courses for a dults a n d m a de
a ttend a nce a t them compulsory The Mini stry of Educ a tion put
.

the numb er of those who a ttended these schools in thei r fir st

yea r of a ctivity a t priva te est im a tes mention onl y
The Ministry of Agric ul ture h as orga ni zed a mb ul a nt
a dult schools which supply courses in a gricultur a l subj ects con

sisting of 6 —22 lectures followed by pra ctic a l demonstra tions

,
.

The courses a r e held in the l a rger rura l centres a n d f a cili ties for
bo a rd a n d lodging a r e provided for those who a ttend them .

Oi the priv a te org a niz a tions devoting themselves to pop ul a r

educ a tion the oldest a n d most import a nt is the Tra n sylva ni a n
‘
Astra foun ded in 1 8 6 1 the full n a me of which is The Associ a
’
, ,

tion for Rum a ni a n Litera ture a n d Rum a ni a n Culture After the

 EFFECT S OF THE REFORM 5 21

War the Astra extended its a ctivities to the other provinces

‘ ’

of the co untry In a ddition to sp eci a l cour ses for illitera tes the
.

‘
Astra works m a inly by me a ns of in di vidu a l lectures ; it en
’

cour a ges a n d a ssists in the org a ni z a tion of study circles of whi ch

there were 6 08 in 1 9 26 the num ber of lectures re a chi n g 772 In
, .

the Old Ki ngdom the Lea gue for the Cul tur a l Un ion of a ll ‘

Rum a ni a ns foun ded in 1 8 91 h a s a s i mi l a r a cti vity to th a t of

’
, ,

the Astra though on a more modera te sc a le Oi the post w ar

‘ ’
,
.
-

orga ni z a tions those which a r e a ctive on the l a nd a r e the so

,
‘
c a lled Na tiona l Clubs a n d the Prince Ca rol Cultur a l Endow
ment The Endo wment h as b een sp eci a lly concerned with the
’
.

est a blishm ent of centres in the Vill a ges from w hi ch a ll cul t ur a l

a n d soci a l a cti vities sho ul d b e c a rried on In principle these .

centres a r e i ntended to cont a in lecture a n d re a di ng rooms a n d -

to b e pro vided with libra ries fir st a id st a tions a n d even w ith ,

-

l a nd for agricultur a l experim ents Until now 6 00 such centres .

,

h a ve been est ablished though the b ulk a r e in evit a bly in a ,

rudim ent a ry st age A monthl y publi c a tion is i ntended to a ssist

.

them in their work a n d to keep them in touch wi th e a ch other .

Thei r li bra ries now cont a i n a bout b oo k s a n d the ye a rly ,

n umber of lectur es a n d soci a l evenin gs is a bout One

shoul d a lso mention the successful University extension work
c a rried on m a inly in Tra nsylva ni a by the Professors of Cluj
University Fin a lly the St a te obliges every Villa ge te a cher to
.
,

orga niz e a cert a in numb er of lectur es song an d the a tric a l even ,

ings & c in the ye a r ; a n d villa ge priests to hold every three

, .
,

weeks region a l meetings in a ltern a te centres with a j oin t service , ,

sermons a n d other edifying proceedi ngs

, .

The Offi cial B ulleti n of the Min istry of Educ a tion g a ve in

its fir st i ssue for 1 925 the report in whi ch the di strict a d mini
stra t e r of Alex a ndri a i n the county of Teleorm a n described
, ,

wh a t steps he h a d t a ken to a pply the new la w on a dul t educ a tion .

The document is va lu a ble both beca use it c onfi rm s the keenn ess
of the Villa gers a n d bec a use it throws a sidelight on the country s ’

a dmini stra tive methods The a dmi nistr a tor w a s determin ed

.

th a t the new leg a l provisions shoul d b e a success in hi s district .

Therefore he obli ged every pe a s a nt to give a hun d redth p a rt of his

produce a n d other contributions were imposed upon public a ns
, ,
5 22 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
mill ers a n d upon a n y one who h a d business with the a uthorities
, .

The res ul t w a s th a t on Novemb er 1 1 924 29 a dult schools

, , , ,

with pupils b eg a n to work in the district Cour ses were

, .

held d a ily b etween 5 —7 p m by 6 4 vill age te a chers to cl a sses

, . .
,

of a t le a st 5 0a dul ts The a ttend a nce w a s so strong th a t in cert a i n

.

pl a ces duplic a te cl a sses h a d to b e a rr a ng ed Moreover m a ny .

,
‘

’
p e a s a nts thought th a t two hour s te a chin g w a s not eno ugh a n d ,

a sked p ermi ssion from the te a chers to b e a llowed to come in

the d ay time a lso with the chi l d ren for it b ei ng win ter they
-

, ,
“

”
h a ve a nyhow not hi n g to do at home Thi s keenness of the
pe a s a nts to improve their minds is undoubte dl y the most
striking a s we ll a s the most solid element in the new educ a tion a l
, ,

movement It is a repro a ch to the former system whi ch h a d left

.

them without educ a tion a l opportunities though there is no doubt ,

th a t the stim ulus h a s come l a rgely from the new condi tions on the
l a nd ; a n d it puts in its proper pl a ce the a rgum ent w ith which some
p eople opposed the l a nd reform a s b eing b eyond the level of the
,
’
pe a s a nts educ a tion The pe a s a nts a r e b etter off a n d they h a ve
.
,

more freedom in the use of their tim e Their spir its h a ve b een .

roused by the Wa r a n d their resettlement a s l a ndown ers h a s

,

fill ed them wi th a new sense of p erson a l dig n ity The extension .

of the fra nchise h a s helped to dra w the Vi lla ge in to publi c life .

Their min ds a r e a stir a n d a s we h a ve seen gre a t efforts a r e

, , ,

being m a de by publi c a uthorities a n d priva te institutions to live

up to th a t c a ll for educ a tion Some of these efforts however
.
, ,

h a ve met with criticism a s to w a ys a n d me a ns a n d h a ve roused ,

doubts a s to their fi t n e s s to the end in view .

The a ctivi ty of the a dmin istra tor from Al ex a ndr i a however ,

pra iseworthy in i ntent a n d a chi evement shows th a t for the , ,

c a rry ing out of the new educ a tion a l provisions loc a l officials a re ,

a ll owed to devi se a n d i mpose a n a d di tion a l system of t a x a tion

not discussed or a pproved by P a rli a ment This school t ax more .

,

over is levied prob a bly solely upon the pea s a nts an d there is
, ,

re a son to b elieve th a t it is but one in a whole set of impositions

dict a ted by loc a l o ffici a ls on their own a uthority The c a se of .

Alex a ndri a is by no me a ns isol a ted Fur ther it is wi dely .

,

a ffi r m e d th a t m a ny of the new school bui ldi ngs h a ve been le ft

un fi n i sh e d a n d a re rotting a w a y a n d th a t others a r e but fl im sy

,
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 23

structur es dest i ned to a short life In the second pl a ce the

‘
.
,

a r t ifi ci a l b a sis of the movement is s a id to a ppe a r in the poor

qu a lity of the te a ching personnel ; in the feverish rush to cre a te

new schools m a ny unfi t elements h a ve b een e n g a ged a s te a chers .

Exp a nsion without rega rd to a va il a ble mea ns h a s c a used the

Gove rnm ent to pa y s a l a ries whi ch were dr iving the better
elements a wa y A pub lic a ppe a l issued by the Gen era l Associ a
.

tion of Te a chers in 1 925 st a ted th a t Vill a ge tea chers were r e ce iv

ing monthly s a l a ries of lei a n d those with 25 ye a rs service
,

lei— or a bout £1 1 2s 0d a n d £2 1 2s 0d a month

. . We . . .
‘

ca n sa
y,
without ex a gger a ting th a t in the me a sure in which the
,

num ber of school bui l di ngs rose the qu ality of the te a chin g
personnel fell a n d ba d remun er a tion h a s un dermi n ed the will
,
’
to work of the good elements a mong the te a chers 1
.

The new Mini ster of Educ a tion M I Cost ach es cu st a ted in , . .

,

the Ch a mber i n J a n ua r y 1 929 th a t m a ny schools h a d b een fo und

,

to work ir regul a rly ; the te a chers left their posts wi thout le a ve

of a b sence t a kin g trips to the tow ns a n d neglectin g their cl a sses
,
.

In the genera l h a ste to m a ke up a rre a rs s a ys Dr G Stra t the , . .

,

erection of school buil dings h a s b een confused w ith educ a tion .

As usu a l el a bora te lega l provisions h a ve b een devised in the

,

a bstr a ct without rel a tion to the possibili ty of giving them sub

st an ce S ome critics doubt whether the pe a s a nts in thei r poverty

.

—whi ch the St a te h a s done little to mitig a t e— could a fford to

di spense for seven ye a rs with the help of their children The .

severest strictur es h a ve been directed a ga inst the settin g up of

s econd a ry schools in cou n try di stricts The pe a s a nts h a d seen .

how fun ctions were conti nuously cre a ted for people who secured
a c e r t ifi ca t e or some a ca demic degree a n d s e in their a nxiety , ,

to give thei r chi ldren a b etter ch a nce in life they do a ll they ca n ,

to send their sons to a sec ond a ry school These a re un a ble to .

a ccommod a te a ll the a pplic a nts whil e tech ni c a l a n d comm erci a l

,

schools a re a b a ndoned to the mi norities or to the more pra ctic a l

Tra nsylva ni a ns The educ a tiona l a uthorities h a ve p a ndered to
.

tha t misgui ded a ttitude by cre a ting more such second a ry schools ,

modell ed on the French cl a ssic a l lycée The consequence is th a t .

,
‘
especi a lly in the a bsence of techni c a l schools the sons of ,

N D s vi i rticl i S i t t d Md i
1
. a co c , a e nM rch 1 9 26oc e a ea e ne, a .
5 24 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
pe a s a nts th a t is a ll the comi ng life blood of our n a tion fa ll over
,
-

e a ch other in their a nx iety to get i nto the seconda ry schools .

The m a j ority of cour se a r e left on the w ay a n d fa il to re a ch the

, ,

University Wh a t becomes of these young men Do they retur n

.

to the vill a ge ? No D o they t a ke up some tra de Never They

. .

come to the town to swell the pitiful m a ss of a pplic a nts for offi cia l
posts a n d of the most b a rren pr olet a 1i a t For the pupil of a .
’
,

technic a l school if he di scovers in hi mse lf a gift for study will

, ,

p a ss to a theoretic a l school but the unsuccessful pupil of a ,

lycee will a b a ndon i t but never enter a technic a l school He

’ ‘
, .

’
b ecomes a n o ffici a l 1
It is the s a me in the Uni versities The
. .

fa culties of a rts a n d la w a r e overcrowded to a degree which lea ves

no room for serious te a chi ng a n d lea rning All these throngs of .

students merely cra ve a di plom a whi ch shoul d open the door to

some o ffici a l p ost In ple a s a nt contra st a r e the in st a nces t o b e
.

n oted a mong sons of the few old l a nded f a mili es whi ch form ,

the re a l é li te of the co untry an d a r e now ruin ed by the expropri a

tion ; they a r e devoting themselves to study for the s a ke of
schol a rship a spiring a s it were to rega in through i ntellectu a l
,

prowess the le a dershi p whi ch their fa mili es formerly held through

une a rned privi leges .

All improvements in a gric ul tur e s a id Ion Ionescu seventy ,

ye a rs a go in his he a rtfelt p a tri a rch a l style must begin with the

, ,

improvement of the tiller hi m self— oi h im whose fun ction it is ‘

to receive the r a ys of li ght a n d to gui de them towa rds the soil .

If we fi r st c ul tiva te a n d improve the m a n there is nothi ng w hi ch ,

’
we m a y not therea fter im prove a n d cultiva te in our country .

B ec a use those who r ul ed the n a tion a l St a te took no notice of

such s a g a cious a dvice they h a d in the end to h a nd over the
’
n a tion s m a in p a trimony the l a nd to a m a ss of p ea s a nts who , ,

h a d in no w a y b een prep a red for gettin g the b est out of thei r

ch a rge Since the Wa r an a ttempt h a s been m a de to a tone for
.
,

th a t neglect but the effort wo ul d h a ve been more convinc ing if

,

it h a d not been lin ked to a genera l policy which soci ally a n d

economic a lly wa s un f a vour a ble to the p e a s a nts Professor V irgil .

B zi r ba t h a s pointed out how differently Spiru H a ret h a d a cted

‘
.

He re a lized th a t schooling could not be effective a mong p eople

Pr f r 0 R adul cu M tru i t h A d vé ul A pril 1 6 1 9 27
1
o e sso . es -
o , n e e r , , .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 25

who were too depressed to m a ke use of it ; his fir st a ction a s

Mi ni ster of E duc a tion therefore w a s t o enco ura ge villa ge
, ,

te a chers to t a ke a n interest in the spre a ding of co opera tive -

org ani z a tions for the im provement of the pe a s a nts existence

,
’
.

If nevertheless the educa tion a l effort of the l a st few ye a rs rests

on solid foun d a tions though some of the upper structure m ay
,
-

b e fl im sy it is bec a use it h a s been dem a nded a n d supported by

,
’
the p eople themselves M a ny of the pe a s a nts elemen t a ry m a teri a l
.

w a nts a r e still un s at isfie d yet they h a ve re a dily s a crifi ce d money

,

a n d leisure on the a lt a r of knowledge None of the soci a l effects .

of the l a nd reform h a s j ust ifi e d tha t me a sur e so imme di a tely ,

or promised so well for the futur e a s th a t keen des i re whi ch the ,

p e a s a nts di spl a yed a s soon a s their ch a ins were loosened to

, ,

a ttend to the improvement of their mi nds .

( b) Cri me a n d Confli ct It is a m a tter of en dl ess surprise to

.

the Visitor from the ci vili zed West to fin d how honesty is t a ken
for gra nted a mong the pe a s a nts of the ill reputed B a lk a ns -
.

Ion Ionescu mentions in hi s monogra phs th a t it w a s a widespre a d

h a bit a mong l a ndown ers to store their corn in b a rns a n d loft s
built out in the fi eld s a n d no one ever touched it We h a ve our
, .

selves come a cross Villa ges in which a num ber of newly r e

settled p ea s a nts were using a big b a rn t a ken from a l a rge o w ner , ,
’
a s a common store room E a ch pe a s a nt s hea p of corn w a s piled
-
.

’
next to a nother s a n d there w a s no suggestion th a t thi s promis
,

cui t y mi ght le a d to loss through p ilf er a ge The pe a s a nts honesty ’

.

w a s i ngr a in ed ; not even revolutions a ffected i t In a series of .

a rticles on the revolution of 1 8 48 prob a bly wr itten by Ion Ionescu , ,

it wa s a ffir m ed tha t dur ing the t h ree months of revolution a ry r é

gime in our coun try not a sin gle obli ga tion of the pe a s a nts tow a rds
’
a dl
l n ords rem i ed a n un fulfill e d 1
L a ter in the me a sur e in whi ch .
,

the conditions un der whi ch the p e a s a nts lived were depressed the ,

n umb er of crimin a l a cts com m itted by them incre a sed Crim i .

n a li t
’ ‘

y s a id Liszt is a fter a ll but one a sp ect of soci a l lif e

, , , , .

With the a dvent of the exploiting tena nts an d usurers the ,

pe a s a nt it would seem a dopted two mora l codes : one w hi ch

, ,

he a pp lied to de a li n gs with his fellow V illa gers the other in his -

rel a tions wi th the l a rge ten a nts w ith offici a ls a n d other m a sters , .

1
T m n ul R omd n ,
ci No ve m be r 1 9, 1 8 6 1 .
5 26 SOCI AL AND POLITICAL
With the l a tter he w a s sly a n d tricky a s often a s possible .

B ec a use a s Professor I S imi on e scu s a ys The Rum a n i a n pea s a nt

, .
,

— a
ccused of b ein g l a zy sly a n d given to dr ink— is a t bottom
, ,

a primitive b ein g who led a l a tent life of hi s o w n i m a gin in g .

M a n y of the Vices im puted to h im were in fa ct hi s only me a ns

’
of self defence a n d preserv a tion 1 The m a in c a uses of Violence
-

a mong the pe a s a nts themselves were a lcoholi sm an d a bove a ll , ,

l a nd disputes The Dir ectora te of Gend a rmerie a s we h a ve seen

.
, ,

a ttributed 24 per cent of the crim es comm i tted in rur a l di stricts

.

dur ing 1 9 1 8 — 23 directly to a lcoholi sm Be for e t h e Wa r lan d di sputes .

c a used most of the qu a rrels a n d crim es It is o nl y n a tur a l there .

,

fore to fi n d th a t rur a l crimes h a ve decre a sed a fter the reform a n d

, ,

th a t improvement wo ul d no d oubt h a ve b een still more m a rked if

a buses in the a ppli c a tion of the reform h a d not le ft so much b ad

blood behi nd in m a ny vi ll a ges The genera l incre a se in crimi n a l .

o ffences a univers a l p ost w a r ph e n om e n on is shown in the foll ow

,
-

ing t a ble referring to the Old K ingdom a n d B ess a r a bi a

1 9 14 1919

Pro vi c e n Po pul ati on Nu m b r e

The next t a ble divides the sentenced in di vidu a ls a ccordi ng t

their n a tion a lity religion occup a tion a n d degree of c ultur e :
, , ,

Y r
ea NAT I N A I T O C T E
L Y O u UL UR cc
'
r A rr on

E
3 O

a e 33 . 8
O

;
c
‘

5 1: 5 2 3
d 90
15 m 3 2
5 5 s 2 5 g s ao 4
’

m
.

Z in D C» a: 1- 5 0 {I t A

1 9 14 309 266 34 9 29 8 6 5 3 1 00 206

1 9 19 4 04 36 1 42 1 38 5 2 16 1 1 193 21 0
1 9 20 5 38 4 94 42 2 5 17 8 10 3 25 6 28 2

In cre a se 1 9 1 4—20 6 5 ,
1 28 85 180
Tow ns man a n d P easa n t E con omi a N aj ion a lci vol x viii No 6 19 27
‘
‘ ’
1
in , .
, .
,
.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 27

A more recent t a ble of those sentenced for crimin a l ofi en c es in

the Old Ki ngdom a n d Bess a ra bi a shows them to h a ve been dis
tributed a ccording to their occup a tion a s follows

Ag ricultur is ts Tr d e rs
a Worke rs

One will note the terrible incre a se of crime a mong individu a ls

wi thout occup a tion Agricul turists m a de 79 per ce n t of those
. .

sentenced in 1 923 a s a g a inst 8 9 per cent in 1 9 1 4 ; in B ess a ra bi a .

the percent a ge decre a sed from 9 2 in 1 91 9 to 78 in 1 9 23 The .

fall is expl a ined by the fewer num ber of c on fli ct s concerning

l a nd property a ft er the reform And the ye a rs t o whi ch the .

a b ove fi ur es refer were those during w hi ch the l a nd reform w a s

g
b ei ng a pplied The report of the D i rectora te of Gend a rmerie on
.

‘
the period 1 91 8 — 23 s a ys on this poi nt : Among the m a i n c a uses
which determine the comm ission of crimin a l ofi en ce s by our
rur a l popul a tion is the existence of a st a te of tra nsition which
mu st preva il until the completion of the l a nd reform .

A l a rge num ber of l a wsuits b esides these crimi n a l ofi en c e s

, ,

a r e due to the insecure st a te of the right of property The a bsence .

of a groun d b oo k of surveys a n d pl a ns or frequently of an y

, , , ,

other docum ent a ry e vidence m a kes it d iffi cul t to est a b lish the title
,

of o w nership ; hence the import a nce of possession in Rum a ni a n

la w Proof of possession a n d of loc a tion of boun d a ries depends
.
, ,

mostly on the evidence of wi tnesses ; a n d to the a ssertion of one

set of wit n esses th a t of a nother set can b e indefi ni tely opposed .

‘
Th a t st a te of insec urity is the c a use of most of the rura l la w
sui ts There a re l a wsuits concerni ng possession cl a ims di vi
.
, ,

sions bound a ries— an d their consequences : qu a rrels insults

, , ,

m a teri a l d a m a ge physic a l Violence murder 2 There h a ve

, ,
’

b een a t first few l a ws ui ts between the pe a s a nts resettled in

1 8 6 4 but they bec a me more numerous with the spli tting up
,
-

1
B uleti n ul S ta ti s ti c No 2, 1 925
, . .

2
d i
An r e R é d ul es cu, Vi a ta J urid i ca si Ad m i n i s tra ti vd
'

a S a telor , pp 47 4 8
.
-
.
5 28 S OCIAL AN D POLITICAL
of their prop erties There wi ll b e more th a n enough b etween the
.

pe a s a nts now resettled unl ess more reli a ble me a ns for the
,

est a bli shing of property rights a r e i ntroduced M R é d ul escu . .

,

a j udge of the supreme cour t believes th a t a p ea s a nt likes ,

not hi n g b etter th a n a quiet life b ut th a t he h a s a n ingr ai ned sense

,

of j ustice His right is wi th him not merely a question of we a lth

.
,

but of di gni ty He resents not so much the m a teri a l loss a s the

.
‘
,
’
a tt a ck on his rights an d di gnity The townsm a n is apt to look .

a t everyt hi ng in terms of money a n d to work out the possible

pro fit a n d loss b efore he eng a ges in a l a wsuit But to the pe a s a nt .

hi s property is a p a rt of his b ein g If he think s he is in the right .

,

he will a ccept no compromi se ; he will r a ther get himself in to debt

th a n give in Thi s pre di sposition un doubtedly h a s its dr a w
.
‘

b a cks for sometimes it c a uses hi m to go too fa r w a st i ng d a ys

, ,

a n d weeks spen di n g money poisoning hi s rel a tions with other

, ,

Vill a gers Yet it h a s a lso gre a t v a lue b ec a use th a t st a te of min d

.
,

h a s contributed to the s a fegu a rdi ng of property One mi ght .

’

hope therefore to see crim e a n d con fli ct di mini sh still further

, ,

on the l a nd when property rights a r e s a fegu a rded by proper

a dmi ni stra tive in str uments a n d not merely by the stubb ornness
,

of the pe a s a nt own ers .

T h Ch i P h l a s s een i n R eligi ous a nd S oci a l

( )
c e a n
g gn s yc o o
gy ,

Outlook The a n xiety of the pe a s a nts to emerge out of their

.

slough of ignora nce is p a rt of a comprehensive psychologic a l

evolution stim ul a ted by the reform They a r e b ecomin g so to
,
. ,

sp e a k ment a lly e n fr a n chi z e d Th ey a r e developing a person a lity

,
. ,

a s individu a ls a n d a s a cl a ss ; or r a ther their person ali ty h a s b een

rele a sed from physic a l a n d soci a l bond a ge a n d is cl ai min g its

freedom especi a lly in things of the spir it not w ithout some of
, ,

the ex a ggera tions which a r e frequently the fi r st fruits of sup -

pression The old le a ders who in a certa in me a sure enj oyed

.
‘
,

the co n fidence of the pe a s a ntry a r e most of them brushed a side ,

to d a y The priests h a ve lost a good de a l of their former prestige

-
.

a n d a uthority the te a chers a lm ost a s much

,
Publi c a d m in istr a .

’
tion is wea k a n d compro mised by the politici a ns The pea s a nts .

a r e not so s i mple a s to h a ve f a iled to see th a t most of these

supposed le a ders spiritu a l a n d soci a l were workin g for their own

, ,

s elfi sh interest s Mistrust in the ch a ra cter of these individu a ls

.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 29

h as engendered doubts in the doctrines they were e xpoundin g .

‘
D uring the l a st dec a de the minds a n d he a rts of our pe a s a nts
h a ve un dergone a fa r more r a dic a l tra nsform a tion th a n in a
ce ntur y 1
.

Religi on As everywhere else the Wa r h a s set free much

.
,

spir itu a l questioning in Rum a ni a a ffectin g men s a ttitude to ,

’

reli gion an d to the est a bli shed Church Th a t effect i s not the .

s a me in villa ge a n d town For the ruling cl a sses in the severa l.

B a lk a n St a tes the Church h a d been prim a rily a n instrument in

the n a tion a l struggle ag a inst the Tur k s a n d a fterwa rds a mongst ,

themselves The Chur ch w a s a St a te institution an d the St a te

.
,

w a s n a tion a li st a n d olig a rchi c Religious fervour which in .

,

the fi r st pl a ce would h a ve mea nt commun ion with the sister

Churches of the Greek Orthodox creed w a s im possible in such-

con d itions The Church h a d no inner life of its own a n d religious

.
,

devotion w a s exh a usted with form a l O bserva nces Now however .

,

for the fi r st time in centur ies a religious reviva l is notice a ble in ,

the town s p a rtly due to the psychologic a l uphe a va l c a used by

,

the Wa r p a rtly no doubt to the fa ct th a t the St a tes a re more

,

consoli d a ted a n d the n a tion a l struggle therefore no lo n ger

, , ,

emotion a lly so a ll a bsorb ing Thi s new current initi a ted by a

-
.
,

few of the clergy rests on wh a t ar e a s yet sm a ll but hi gh minded

,
-

groups in the you n ger genera tion who a r e seekin g to retrieve ,

from un der the a shes of lifeless extern a ls the mystic fi r e of the

E a stern creed While in the towns therefore th a t reviva l of
.
'

, ,

reli gious sentiment fin d s expression in a closer communi on with

the est a bli shed Chur ch the re vi va l in the vi lla ges is le a ding
,

ra ther a w a y from it The Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt h a s never b een truly

.

reli gious His piety spra ng fr om a fea r of sin a n d its con se

.
‘ ’

u en ces w hi ch induced him strictly to perform a ll the form a l

q ,

prescriptions of the Church ; in f a ct he performed m a ny other

rites rooted in old p a ga n superstitions He prob a bly fe a red
, .

more th a n he loved the Church an d its serva nts bec a use of ,

its a uthority to register an d to punish worldly sins a n d he ,

showed nothin g but gra t ifi ca t i on when the l a nds of the mon a s

t er i es were secula rized The e a se with w hi ch th a t complete
.

confi s ca t i on w a s c a rried out dea lt a he a vy blow to the prestige

1
Oni s ifor Gh i bu, a rticle i n S oci eta tea de M d ine , vol
. ii , No 35 1 9 25
.
, .

M m
5 30 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
of the Chur ch an d the growth of the p olitic a l St a te releg a ted it
,

to a sub ordin a te position Intern a l we a kness h a stened tha t .

decline Afte r the secula r iz a tion m a ny churches were le ft with

.

out priests ; the priesthood w a s neglected by the St a te an d the

qu a lity of the incum b ents continuously fell esp eci a lly a s the ,

org a niz a tion of the n ation a l St a te w a s at the s a me time O peni ng

m a ny new a ttra ctive fi eld s of a cti vity Most vi ll age priests were .

crudely ignora nt m a ny were a lmost a s illitera te a s their fl ock

, ,

a n d some a s M R a du Rosetti
, the noveli st a verred were
.
, , ,

out s poken a theists Those to whom poverty w a s ir ksome .

coupled more lucra tive occup a tions with their mi nistry ; like the
‘
priest who set Ion G hi c a musing on the comp a tibili ty b etween
the c a lling of priest a n d the tra de of public a n They encoura ged ’
.

’
a n d defended the pe a s a nts superstitions whi ch ga ve them an ,

e a sy hold on their fl ock a g a in st the i ntrusion of more progressive ,

Views As a b ody the rura l clergy were un fit for spir itu a l or
.
,

mora l lea dershi p The Chur ch w a s merely a nchored in the p ag a n

.

sup erstitions a n d beliefs w hi ch a re ever present w ith sirn ple

p eople whose life is con di tioned a hn ost a s much by the a ccidents
of n a ture a s by their own work These superfi cia l form a l ties a r e .

a pp a rently giving w a y now under the ment a l a n d spir itu a l

se a rchings w hi ch a re di sturbing the tra di tion a l p a ssivity of the

Villa ges Th a t questionin g of tra nsmitted Vi e ws a n d beli efs h a s
.

re a ched even the religious li fe of the vill ages s a ys M Oct a vi a n , .

Gog a sh a king the supreme mora l f a ctor of the multitude

‘
, ,

sometimes thr ough cloudy mystic tendencies a t tim es thr ough ,

imp a tient r a tion a li sm A h a rd struggle is goin g on a roun d our .

Villa ge churches their old w a lls seem to we a ken the a ncient

, ,

Christi a n ideology is sufferi ng h a sty revisions An ext ra ordin a ry .

cr 0p of religious sects with tens a n d hun d reds of thous a nds of ,

followers h a s emerged a ll over the country during the l a st few

,

ye a rs out of th a t mora l storm helped by the org a nic we a keni ng ,

of the Church 1 Le a dership of the Vi ll a ges h a s p a ssed to th e

.
’

a bler p e a s a nts themselves who a r e often pre a chi n g on beh a lf of ,

one or the other sect St a te a n d Chur ch a r e incli ned to reg a rd .

this phenomenon a s a d a nger to themselves yet repression of

.

these sects without reform of the est a b lished Chur ch is likely

, ,

1
Articl e on
" ‘
l he R e li gi o u s Pr o bl e m
’
, in Ta m Noas trd'

, vol . iii , No 1 1 1 9 22
.
,
.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 31
to prove a s little effective a s it di d in pre w a r Russi a At a n y -
.

ra te nothing reve a ls the new temper of the pea s a ntry more

,

strikingly th a n this cra ving for spir itu a l a dventure a fter the ,

hollow discip li ne of their p a st religious life .

S oci a l P s ych ology an d Class Di vi si on Th e domin a nt ch a ra c .

t er i st i c of the Rum a ni a n Village h a d been its unva rying st a bility

of outlook a n d h a bits Genera tions followed e a ch other w ithout
.

’
m a king a n y ch a nge in their wa ys of li vi n g The pea s a nt s gui di ng .

line w a s tra ced by the conduct of his f a thers a n d forefa thers in

simil a r c i rc umst a nces If he w a s c a lled upon to fa ce a n y fre s h
.

problem a pe a s a nt never took a decision before he s a w wh a t the

others were do ing All thi ngs h a d fi r st to be t a lked over w ith the
whole Vill a ge From t hi s soci a l conserva tism spra ng his greg a
.

r i ous h a bit of life The pea s a nt preferred to live in the Vill a ge

.
,

a t a gre a t s a cr i fice of time a n d l a b our r a ther th a n settle on hi s ,

holding a few miles a wa y Th a t conserva tism w a s in no w a y the

, .

result of de a dness ; a t the worst it w a s a symptom of st a gna tion .

As Professor R adulescu Motru fin ely s a id : Like the whe a t in the

-

country s neglected fur rows the soul of the pe a s a nt c a nn ot ripen

’
,

into fruit It li es a tired reserve below the sur fa ce of the soil 1

.
, , .

But th a t dorm a nt seed is beginni ng to germin a te A spirit of in .

dependence is running through the pe a s a nt m a sses s a ys M Goga , .

,

in the a rticle a lre a dy cited One notices a n un a ccustomed .

buoy a ncy in their w a ys a livelier gle a m in their eyes a ripple of

, ,

boldness a n d a bove a ll a critica l temp er whi ch knocks a t every

, , ,

g a te Th a t nervous fluid h a s over fl ow ed into the f a rthest

.

h a mlet a rous i ng m a ny questionings

, Who a r e w e ? How .

m a n y a re w e ? Wh a t is it we a r e recei vin g ? Who gives it us ?

Wh a t is our right ? Th a t a wa kening beg a n d uri ng the Wa r
’
.

Fe a rf ul sufferin g due in a l a rge me a sur e to ba d ma n a gement

, ,

coupled with the obvious disli ke of fa cing risks shown by m a ny

members of the ur b a n upper cl a ss m a de the pe a s a nts bitterly -

critic a l of the r ul ers When some o fficer belongin g t o th at cl a ss

.

h a ppened to fa ll in a ction the comm ent of the pe a s a nt soldiers

,
-

‘
wa s : From them one is fa llen from us one is left Those a mong , .

them who were t a ken westw a rds a s prisoners of w ar a n d those ,

who took p a rt in the m a rch on Bud a pest sa w tow ns a n d vil l a ges ,

1
Th P ych l gy f t h V il l g i S i t t d Md i v l iv N
‘ ’
e s o o o e a 3 1 9 27
es , n oc e a ea e n e, o .
, o .
, .

Mm2
5 32 SOCI AL AND POLITICAL
whi ch ga ve them a Vision of a world b etter th a n th a t in whi ch
they lived All thi s m a de the pea s a nts more critica l of their
.

surroun di ngs a n d of their superiors a n d the gra nt of l a nd a n d ,

of the right to vote g a ve them more confidence in themselves .

Th ey a r e begin ning to feel th a t a t l a st they count for something

in their country They m a y still b e hesit a nt b ein g doubtful of
.
,

their new position but a more i ndependent temper is a ssertin g

,

itself in their a ttitude towa rds other cl a sses Formerly a n y .

,

town sm a n w a s inva ri a bly gre eted h a t in h a nd with I ki ss your ,

h a nds Now stra ngers a r e simply p a ssed by people they know

’
.
, ,

m a y get a good d a y ; whil e the loc a l l a ndlord is merely a sir

‘ ’ ’
,

a n d no longer the cocon a s ( youn g b oi a r ) of o nl y a few ye a rs a o

g .

The pe a s a nts in brief a r e b ecomin g cl a ss conscious They

, , .

a r e b eginning to t a ke thin gs into the i r own h a nds This is ‘

.

the expl a n a tion of the phenomenon which up to a point ,

one m ay welcome th a t in those pro vin ces with a better c ul ture

,

the p a rt which used to b e pl a yed by the intellectu a ls h a s

’
p a ssed to the more wide a w a ke pe a s a nts 1 The genera l r un of .

Villa ge te a chers a n d priests recrui ted a s they were from inf erior ,

m a teri a l could comm a nd a uthority o n ly a s long a s the St a te a n d

,

the Chur ch they represented i mposed i mpli cit ob edi ence upon
the p e a s a nts On the other h a nd fligh t from the l a nd t a kes in
.
,

Rum a ni a the form of a flight not of poor l a bour ers but of the ,

sons of the b etter off pe a s a nts a n d of the Vill a ge intellig entsi a

-
.

Prolonged suppression fi r st by a lien rul ers a n d then by a ,

n a tion a li st oliga rchy h a s c a used the liveli er young men to a spire

,

to esc a pe from the plough a n d the Vill a ge a n d to become boia r s ,

too th a t is to j oin the r uli ng cl a ss As offi ci al a ppointments h a d

,
.

b een m a de condition a l on the possession of a degree the posses ,

sion of a degree w a s a ssum ed to entitle its owners to a n offi cia l

a ppointment D egrees in the fa cul ties of law a n d a rts were e a sy
.

a n d che a p a n d the poli tic a l p a rties found it simplest to recruit

,

a rmies of p a rtis a ns by cre a ting offici a l j obs for a ll those degree

holders The Rum a ni a n once s a id the wise a n d witty M Ca rp

.
’
,
.
,
’
‘
is b orn a burs a r lives a n o ffi ci a l a n d dies a pensioner The
, ,
.

a ddition of the new p rovi nces in w hi ch the Rum a ni a n pop u l a tion ,

ticl e on L ea d e rs of t h e Vi ll age Nea s tre November

"

am
’
P Ne moi a n u, in
T
‘
1
. ar Th e ,

1 9 25 .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 33

had been kept a wa y from offi ce brought fresh w a ter to th a t ,

current a fter the Wa r One a spect of it is the top he a vy growth .

-

of the town s ; the other a spect is the a b a ndonment of the Vill a ge

to the c a re oi the le a st qua lifi ed a mong those with some kin d of
.

schooli ng Profession ally a n d cultura lly the vill a ge is bound to

.

suffer thereby a n d soci a lly the tendency might b e d a ngerous

, ,

were it not for the uncommo nl y sound sense a n d b a l a nced temper

of the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt .

The l a nd reform h a s ini ti a ted a rec a sting of soci a l stra t a ,

b oth on the l a nd a n d a s between l a nd a n d to wn The proce ss

,
.

is only b eginning on the l a nd a n d its outcome coul d h a rdly b e ,

forec a sted a s m a ny fa ctors mi ght intervene to di vert it from the

,

p a th on which it h a s been st a rted by the reform itself The l a nd .

lord cl a ss of course h a s dis a ppe a red without ch a n ce of return ;

, ,

if the pea s a nts could ever be induced or forced to reli nquish their
stubborn clinging to their holdings it woul d o n ly b e in fa vour
of some Soci a listic form of o wners h ip Soci a l st r at ifi ca t ion .

in the Villa ge therefore could o nl y me a n some di fferenti a tion

, ,

within the m a ss of the pe a s a nt cl a ss The reform itself h a s h a d .

a leve lling effect It h a s ra ised m a ny l a ndless pe a s a nts into the

.

ra nks of sm a ll o w ners a n d it h a s left little a ra ble l a nd from which

,

well to do p e a s a nts might incre a se their holdings Whether th a t

- -
.

effect wi ll l a st depends on m a ny technic a l a n d soci a l fa ctors .

No pe a s a nt would give up hi s holding however sm a ll it might be , ,

if improvement in the methods of cultiva tion or the development

of Villa ge i n dustries or both should en a ble hi m to eke out a , ,

living on hi s own piece of l a nd Without such developments .

,

a n d in the a bsence of opportuni ties for work on the l a rge

est a tes it is prob a ble th a t some of the sm a llest holders wi ll drop

,

out especi lly

, a if tow ns a n d industry offer them a n Opening 1
.

1
Th C mm u i t th r tici
e o ch i d t th ir tr diti l M rxi pr m i
n s eo e ans , a ne o e a on a a an e se s ,

h a v e n o d oubts wh a te v e r on t h e s oci a l e v oluti on of t h e vi llage I n a priv te l tte r a e

written i n J u e 1 927 M S Ti mo y of t h e I n t r a ti o a l A gric ultura l I ns titut e i n

.
,

n , . .
, e n n

Mos co w to ld a R uma n ia n c orres po d ent wha t h e th o ught would h a ppen i n R u ma i

, n n a :

I t see ms t o m e th a t t h e a gr ri r efor m m us t crea te a n u n i mp orta n t s tra tu m of rich

‘
a an

a n d w e ll t o d o p easan ts a nd c o n tribute a t t h e s me ti me t o t h e pr o l e t ri z a ti on o f
- -

, a a

t h e gre a t m a ss of t h e r ur a l p opul a ti on thu s fa cilit a ti n g t h e e x is te c e of t h e l a rge

, n

a gricultur a l u n d e rt a ki gs Th a t pro ces s will bri g a b out b efore l g a cl s s ‘

n . n on a

diffe r n ti ti on i n t h e vi lla ge
e a One c a nn o t s ee h o w t h e r efor m i s s upp ose d t o h a v e
crea te d a cl a ss of rich pe san ts I t may p oss ibly tur n s ome p ea sa n ts i n to pro l ta ri a ns
a . e ,

b e c a u s e it h as d on e a wa y with t h e l a rge estates which h e lpe d t h e v ery s ma ll h old ers

 5 34 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
S o fa r ,though ba d blood h a s b een c a used by a buses in the a pp lic a
tion of the reform no confl i ct divides the villa gers into those with
,

l a nd a n d those wi thout a n y Those p ea s a nts who for one re a son

.
,

or a nother h a ve not received l a nd un der the recent reform a r e ,

con fi d en t th a t their turn will come in good tim e Moreover .

,

wh a t rem a ins of the l a rge est a tes a s well a s the St ate s model ,
’

a n d experiment a l f a rms sti ll offers some outlet for l a b o ur

, As .

long a s these reserves rem a in the l a n dl ess pe a s a nts will fa sten ,

their hopes a n d cl a ims upon them The St a te f a rm serves a s a .

‘

lightning conductor for loc a l di scontent s a ys M Henri S t a hl in

-

, .

his notes on R us eti The only t hi ng the pe a s a nts can see in it is

.

th a t it Withholds from them l a nd they need for purposes w hi ch

they reg a rd a s trivi a l ; for s a id one of them the horse h a s o a ts
, , ,

while m an h a s no whe a t It is cur ious to note th a t the powers

.

which ruled in Rum a ni a dur in g the l a st dec a de im posed upon the

vi lla ge a soci a l st r at ifi cat i on whi ch ex a ctly corresponds to the
Communist st a ndp oint The constitution of the Agric ul tur a l
.

Ch a mbers which were conceived a s pur ely profession a l bodi es

, ,

a ccorded right of membership o nl y t o persons o w ni ng more th a n

3 h a l a nd The sm a ll er p e a s a nts were thro w n pell mell in to the

. .
-

L a bour Ch a mb ers with industri a l workers a n d a rtis a ns thus ,

being more or less offi ci a lly cla ssifi ed a s prolet a ri a ns The .

a rr a ngement sm a cks of a n i ntention to di vide the Vi lla ge pro

fessi on a lly a n d po litic a lly The new Agr a ri a n Le a gue is a t t emp

.

ting j ust the contra ry .

If the dis a ppe a ra nce of the l a nded cl a ss h a s left the vi ll age

a more comp a ct unit th a n it w a s b efore it h a s conversely t a ken ,

a w a y w ith it the m a in link b etween town a n d Vi lla ge Th e old .

soci a l sep a ra tion b etween the two h a s been deepened by a clea r

cut difference of profession a l i nterests Town a n d vill a ge were .

not only two sep a ra te worlds but two worlds a lmost a lien to e a ch ,

other Except the l a ngu age they h a d h a rdly a nythin g in common

.

in their lives Withi n the l a st dec a de the rel a tions between

.

to k e e p go i n g But i f t h e di s a pp ea ran c e of t h e l ar ge e sta tes w er e t o h a v e s uch a n

.

e ff e ct on s o me p easan t fa m ili s i n wh a t w a y c o uld th a t h e lp t h e l ar ge e s t a t es

e ,

— which a re o n e — t o e xi s t ? Th e on ly w a f m k i a n y s en s e of th a t s ta te me n t i s
g y o a n g
t o re ga rd it as a h op e ful wi s h
‘
Wh a t M Ti mo y pr ob bly h a d i n mi n d w as th a t
’
. . a

wh e n t h e p eas an ts h a d b e c ome prol et a ri a n s t h e tur n w o uld c ome for t h e l a rge s ca l e -

S ci li s tic fa r ms cultiv a te d by a r m i es of l a b our e rs i n t h e w ord s of t h e C omm u n i s t

‘ ’
o a , ,

Ma n i fes to Thi s of c our se w o uld be i n a cc ord an c e with sou n d M a rxi an di a le ctic s

.
, ,
.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 35

town a n d vill a ge h a ve b een thoroughly tra nsformed The widen .

ing of poli tic a l li fe h a s brought the to w n politici a n to the Vill a ge ,

a n d the new economic org a ni z a tion h a s sent the pe a s a nt to to w n .

After the reform the tra di ng a cti vities of the pe a sa nts h a ve

,

gre a tly exp a nded both in the w ay of buyi n g a n d selling These

, .

more intense tra ding rel a tions h a ve not so fa r produced a better

underst a nding b etween the two sections of the popul a tio n The .

pe a s a nt is a pt to consider the townsm a n merely a consum er not ,

a producer a s a p a r a sitic f a ctor whi ch lives from extortion a te

,

prices a n d pr ofi t s ; especi a lly a s durin g the period under review

the b etter orga nized tra ders an d b a n kers a lso received pre fer en
ti a l tre a tment in the St a te .

Nevertheless the pea s a nt h a s no sense for soci a l revolution

,
.

If he revolts it is solely a ga inst a buses He never thinks of

,
.

ch a nging his st a tus except through lega l me a ns a n d he is a nxious

,

to m a ke due compens a tion for a n y boon he m a y receive We .

h a ve s een how on every occ a sion when the pe a s a nts h a d a n

opportuni ty of st a ting their cl a ims to the l a nd they inva ri a bly ,

offered more th a n fa ir compens a tion for a n y privileges which the

l a n dl ords might h a ve h a d to forgo a lthough those privi leges
,

were b uilt on fl agr a n t a buses And even in the revolution a ry

.

a tmosphere of the post w ar ye a rs— to quote from our own ex

-

e r i e n ce in the whole of the B a lk a ns not o nl y in Rum a ni a — w e

p , ,

h a ve never once he a rd pe a s a nts suggest th a t they ought to get

the l a nd without h a vin g to pa y for it In the s a me w a y they h a d
.

no thoughts for poli tica l revolution Their qu a rrel w a s with th eir

.

direct tormentors l a ndlords a n d loc a l offi ci a ls while they looked

, ,

upon Ki n g a n d Centra l Governm ent r a ther a s a court of a ppe a l ,

a s it h a d b een dur ing the rul e of the old Princes ; though the
’
pe a s a nts ch a nces of being he a rd h a d sorely lessened from the
time when Mih a iu Sut z u set a side Monda y of e a ch week a s a d ay
on which he received o nl y pe a s a nt petitioners Modern demo .

cra tic methods require the pe a s a nts to send in st a mped petitions

for a n y cl a im or compl a int which a r e more often lost th a n solved
,

in the endless comp a rtments of the bure a ucra tic hiera rchy The .

new reforms h a vi n g brought the pe a s a nts into more direct cont a ct

t h the m a chinery of St a te it is a lso prob a ble th a t discontent
,

ll vent itself more di rectly a ga inst the centr a l a uthorities .

5 36 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
V a rious cir cumst a nces h a ve in f a ct contributed d uring the l a st
dec a de to h a rden the pe a s a nts old politic a l m istrust : the mis
’

c a rri ages in the a pplic a tion of the l a nd reform the gre a t extension
of the corps of gend a rmerie a n d its repe a ted use for the frustra
,
’
tion of the pe a s a nts new right to vote the dem a gogic courting
of the Vi ll a ge by politici a ns Violently a busing their opponents
a n d outbid d ing e a ch other in promises whi ch seldom come to

fruition .

It c a nn ot b e long however b efore the pea s a nt m a sses will

, ,

b e in a position to see cle a rly wh a t they w a nt a n d to insist on ,

getting it Their genera l st a ndpoint w a s outli ned by M Mih a la ch e

. .

in his gre a t sp eech on the reform in 1 921 To him a ll reforms , .

could only h a ve one go a l : to ra ise the p ea s a nts out of their mora ss

of physic a l a n d mora l mi sery— a misery more complete in re ality
th a n th a t ill ustr a ted by the few fa cts given in t hi s ch a pter He .

refused to consider the l a nd reform prim a rily from the a ngle of

production We c a nnot look merely a t the surplus in the b a l a nce
.

of e xports but must a lso t a ke i nto a ccoun t the d efi cit it c a uses

,

wi thin the country For if the surplus of severa l thous a n d wa gons

.

which l a rge property g a ve for exp ort w a s obt a ined a t the price
of ruining the he a lth of the m a ss of p e a s a nt l a bour ers of thei r ,

b ei n g kept in ignor a nce an d poverty— then gentlemen we prefer , ,

a thous a nd times the he a lth a n d vi gour of the people to the

surplus w a gons for export 1 Nor were they willi ng a n y longer

.
’

to trust the a ccomplishment of such improvements to the f a irness

a n d public spir it of other cl a sses The o n ly h 0pe lay in the
.

redistribution of politic a l power a s the a blest P e a s an t i st thi nk ers

,

h a d re a lized long a go After the risin g of 1 9 07 M S eb a sti a n

.
, .

Mor uzzi a dmitted th a t our society h a d been constituted in such

a wa th a t the few who governed h a d a lw a ys interests differing
y
’
from those of the m a ny who were governed As a consequence .

the va rious legisl a tive reforms pushed thr ough by a few generous
,

S pirits
, h a d in pr a ctice rem a ined a de a d letter M Mor uz z i . .
,

therefore a ppe a led to a ll the p a rties to j oin h a nds for the pur pose
,

of s a ving the p e a s a nt In revie wing the p a mphlet M C Stere

. . .

replied th a t nothing w a s to b e expected from a n a greement a mong

groups who in one w a y or a nother were a ll interested in keeping
1
S p ee ch i n t h e Ch a m b e r ,
1 9 21 , p 35
. .
 EFFE CTS OF THE REFORM 5 37

the pe a s a nt un der A more logic a l deduction from the premises

.

est a blished by M Mor uzzi hi mself w a s th a t nothing coul d offer

.

a serious gu a r a ntee for genuine soci a l reform except a reform of

the fra nchi se whi ch woul d shi ft the centre of po litic a l gra vity
”
tow a rds the m a ny who a re governed a n d destroy the very ,
’
b a sis of the a ctu a l politic l system
a
1
.

S E C TI O N 5

TH E P O L ITI C A L E FFE C T S OF T H E RE F O R M
A victorious w a r usu a lly g a ve the people a n d the cl a s
wh o conducted it a stronger hold on power th a n they h a d
b efore Authority a n d those who represented it a cquired a fresh
.
, ,

reput a tion for strength a n d a bility But in e a stern Eur ope th a t .

h a bitu a l trend w a s reversed a fter the l a st Wa r In th a t region .

power p a ssed not to the b ure a ucra tic n a tion a list upper cl a ss -

which h a d rul ed till then but to the m a ss of pe a s a ntry The

, .

semi a utocra tic feud a l struct ure of the e a stern St a tes proved
-

economic ally a n d soci a lly inc a p a ble of st a ndin g the stra in of a

modern w a r The mi ghty Ts a rist empire crumpled up lik e a n
.

empty egg shell Rum a ni a might h a ve suffered the s a me fa te

-
.

h a d not two thirds of the country f a llen spee d ily into the h a nds
-

of the enemy a n d the other t hi rd been a rrested in p a ssive self

defence ; an d h a d the rulers a b ove all not h a stened of their own
, ,

a ccord to surrender l a nd a n d power to the pe a s a nts The .

dict a torshi ps of the Right or of the Left open or veiled which , ,

h a ve since then pullul a ted in th a t region disclose how un willin gly ,

those volunt a ry reforms were gra nted .

‘ ’
L a nd a n d Liberty ! In the min ds of the e a stern pe a s a nts
the two ide a s h a ve at a ll tim es b een insep a ra ble The pe a s a nts .

seem i t ui tively to remember th a t m the not very dista nt p a st

n
possess i on of l a nd h a d been the condition for the enj oyment of
person a l li berty the loss of the fir st bringing wi th it the loss
,

of the second The two notions h a ve b ecome id en t ifie d in their

.

sentim ents a n a ssoci a tion whi ch goes a long w a y to expl a in why

,

pe a s a nts a re fille d with a n ove r powering desire to possess a strip

of l a nd of their own Nor does th a t desire lea d them a stra y in
.

Vi p R md 1
d O ct b r 1 907
a a o n eas c , o e .
5 38 SOCI AL AND POLITICAL
the w a lks of our modern soci a l org ani z a tion L a nd without .

lib erty or li berty without l a nd woul d in deed b e no more th a n

h a lf a freedom The Rum a ni a n rulin g cla ss co ul d a fford to put
.
-

off the cl a mour of the p e a s a nts with occ a sion a l gr a nts of l a nd

,

a s long a s it kept control of p ower The h be r a l provisions of the

.

Constitution an d the m a ny reform l a ws m a y h a ve been well me a nt

by the few ide a lists who prop osed them but they a lw a ys worked ,

crooke dl y in the h a nds of those who a pplied them Occ a sion a lly .

a fl a s h of rep ent a nce woul d c a use one Or the other of the rulers

to confess th a t their professions were b ein g den ied by their

pra ctice but fa ilin gs a dmi tted a t the conf ession a l ha ve seldom
,

been known to reform history In re ality the Rum a ni a n p e a s a nts

.

h a ve bee n kept in serfdom right up to the Gre a t Wa r There w a s .

no possibili ty of reformin g th a t st ate of thin gs by me a ns of

Constitution a l a ction for the St a te w a s rul ed by the interested
,

l a nded cl a ss Nor coul d it b e ended by revolution a ry a ction

.
,

bec a use the sufferers themselves were mor a lly a n d physic a lly
exh a usted ; a n d a lso b ec a use Rum a ni a w a s wedged in b etween
two re a ction a ry empires who wo ul d not h a ve toler a ted a r evolu
t i on a r y movement a t their frontiers Hin ts in th a t sense— not
.

a n ultim a tum a s h a s b een suggested— m a y h a ve b een p a rtly

,

responsible for the fra ntic repression of the risin g of 1 9 07 Th a t .

geogra ph ica l situ a tion goes a long wa y to expl a in why the

pe a s a nts submitted t o ill tre a tment before the War a s well a s
-

the resigned s urre nder of the ruling cl a ss in 1 91 7 The o nl y .

hope for a ch a nge in the con di tions prev a ili ng b efore the Wa r
, ,

la y in opposin g the new plutocr a cy to the old l a nded cl a ss .

Th a t considera tion induced the sm a ll but a ble S oci ah st group to

j oin the Liber a l Pa rty e a rly in the century ; a n d no doubt it w a s
,

due to their i nfl uen ce th a t m a ny of the well soun d ing reform -

l a ws were p a ssed b efore the Wa r B ut wh a t a dv a nce could a

.

few a dministr a tive texts a chieve when the whole St a te a n d its

a ttend a nt ofii c es like the economy of a feud a l m a nor were
, ,

m a int a ined from the tithes a n d corv é es of the p e a s a nts ?

All the condi tions on w hi ch th a t structure rested were swept
a w a y by the Wa r The rulers lost their prestige an d the ruled
. ,

their p a tience Revolution sw a llowed up a utocr a cy a n d feud a lism

.

in the neighbouring empires Rum a ni a itself w a s enl ar ged with

.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 39

three new provinces not conquered by fea ts of a rms but de

, ,

t a ch e d from Russi a a n d Austri a Hun g a ry by their own r evolu -

t i on a r y a ction In a ll three of them the pe a s a ntry w a s more

.

cl a ss conscious th a n in the Old Kingdom a n d formed the b a ck

-

bone of the domin a nt p a rties As the Old Kingdom is the centre

.

of politic a l a ction however it w a s inevit a ble th a t there a lso the

, ,

pe a s a ntry should b e a ctively orga nized so th a t it could defend ,

an d consolid a te the g a in s of Wa r a n d Revolution F or under the .

,

new conditions the struggle is not a mere issue between p a rties

,

dis a greeing a s to whether cert a in ends whi ch they a ll a ccept a s ,

desira ble or un a voida ble sho ul d b e a ppro a ched w a rily or in h a ste

, ,

by conserva tive concessions or by a r a dic a l sweepin g of the boa rds .

In Rum a ni a the conflict re a ches down to the bedrock of soci a l

outlook a n d economic interest The pe a s a nts a r e divided from
.

the other groups by the m a ny di scord a nt tra it s of outlook a n d

a i m which s ep a r a te a cl a ss of frug a l m a nu a l workers from the

more self indul gent middl e a n d upper l a yers of our typ e of

-

s ociety ; by a ll th a t is mutu a lly j a rring in the w a ys of country

m a n a n d townsm a n ; a n d a ls o — the pe a s a nts now control ling

a gricultur e— b the cl a sh of poli cy b etween a gra ri a nism a n d
y
merc a nt ili sm Ah n os t the only politic a l sentiment whi ch these
.

cl a sses sh a re in comm on is thei r determined b elief in the in st it u

tion of priva te property But even there priva te property a s
.
, ,

conceived by the sm a ll pe a s a nt holder is a v a stly di fferent thi ng

from the priv a te property to whi ch the b a n ker a n d m a nufa ct
a spire . The pe a s a nt b elieves th a t l a nd shoul d b e di stributed to
a ll
, a ccording to the person a l needs of e a ch hou s ehold ; the

c a pit a li st beh e ve s th a t we a lth is there to be illi mit a bly a ccumu

l a ted by e a ch m a n a ccor di ng to hi s a bili ty to prevent others
,

from getting a n equ a l sh a re of it From whi ch it is clea r th a t in

.

cre a ting severa l mi llion of new priva te o w ners the recent a gra ri a n
reforms h a ve not genera ted a multitude of petty c a pit a lists a s ,

the M a rxi a n doctrin a ires chose to m a int a in B y exten ding the .

system of sm a llhol di ngs the Russi a n Revolution a n d its coroll a ry

movements h a ve in f a ct like the French Revolution checked
, , ,

the progress of l a rge sc a le c a pit a list property a n d production on

-

the l a nd .

The m a in point lies in the di fferent politic a l b a ckground of the

5 40 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
two movements The French Revolution g a ve the pe a s a nts a
.

gre a t de a l but it did not give them poli tic a l infl uen ce Power
, .

rem a ined in the h a nds of the ur b a n mid d le cl a ss who proceeded ,

to fa shion a society to its li king In th a t respect the prospect .

is now r a di c a lly di fferent in e a stern Europe The re a l centre of .

poli tic a l power is the vi lla ge a n d moreover the vill a ge knows , ,

something a n d is r a pidly le a rni ng more of wh a t it w a nts a n d

, ,

ca n do The brea k up of feud a h sm in the West opened the w ay

.
-

for the com ing of the industri a l ca pit a list a cquisitive society
-
‘ ’
.

Wh a t wi ll b e the n a ture of the society w hi ch the bre a k up of -

feud a lism under condi tions whi ch deny the succession to c a pi

,

t a li sm will bring forth in the e a stern h a lf of Eur ope ?

,

Th e Ti me a n d Temp er of th e Na ti on a li s t M idd le Cla ss Th e .

rise of the p e a s a nts from serfdom to m a stery without a n y vi olent ,

de struction of the i r opponents c an only b e expl a in ed by a

,

pec ul i a rity in Rum a ni a s soci a l structur e We h a ve described

’
.

in the introductory p a rt how the Rum a ni a n people entered

upon politic a l independence without a n a tion a l mi ddl e cl a ss .

There w a s a t one end the m a ss of the servi le pe a s a nts a n d a t the ,

other end fa r removed the sm a ll cl a ss of privileged l a ndl ords

, , ,
’
with a sprink ling of men in libera l professions The country s .

economic org a n iz a tion w a s still rudi ment a ry ; a rticles of everyd a y

need were m a nufa ct ured by a rtis a ns a n d the very limi ted tra de ,

— the pe a s a nts b eing well nigh self —s ufli ci en t — w a s in the h a nds

-

of foreign merch a nts Th a t p a tri a rch a l w a y of life together with

.
,

the intrusion of a n a lien a dm ini stra tion over a p eriod of severa l

centuries h a d left no room for the growth of a n a tion al mi d dl e
,

cl a ss.

With the cre a tion of the n a tion a l St ate the former obst a cles
to economic a n d soci a l evolution were removed a n d the coun try ,

a ppe a red to m a ke good use of its new opp ortuni ties Public .

ser vi ces were orga n ized with a will a n d endowed in reg a rd to

personnel on a generous sc a le The towns exp a nded r a pidly a n d
.
,

the dem a nd for m a nufa ctured goods rose in proportion Never .

t h eless soci a l evolution ret a ined some of its former s t ult ifi e d

,

tra its The ch a nge w a s so sudden a n d the a mbition to emulate

.
,

the orga niz a tion of the western St a tes so keen th a t every one ,

who h a d a n y schooling wh a tsoever wa s q uickly a b sorb ed in the

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 41
m a chinery of the new St a te Together with the tra di tion a l
.

repugn a nce of l a nded people for merc a ntile occup a tions a n d the ,

a bsence of a money a n d l a bour m a rket th a t circum st a nce c a used

,

the supply of m a n ufa ctures to b e left to foreign producers a n d ,

the role of intermedi a ries to be a b a ndoned a s before to the

country s foreign inh a bit a nts Publi c offi ce s a n d libera l pro
’
.

fessions on the other h a nd were m a de the closed preserve of

, ,

the few educ a ted Rum a ni a n elements a fter the style of the old
,

boi a r offi ce s In the ea rly st a ges the continu a tion of a system of

.

pri vileges w a s no doubt i nspired by j ea lous a nxiety for the

un h a mpered progress of the new St a te It w as o nl y n a tur a l .

th a t a fter a protra cted struggle for n a tion a l independence the

le a ders should b e suspicious a n d circumspect especi a lly a s the ,

neighbour ing a utocra tic empires did not even then ce a se their
di sin tegra tin g intrigues But a fter a short time the privilege
.
,

to serve w a s turned in to a privilege to enj oy The people .

devotin g themselves to a publi c c a reer bec a me under the gui se ,

of a n exclusive p a triotism a politic a l brotherhood— neither more

,

principled nor more ze a lous a n d cert a i nl y not more indul gent

,

tow a rds the pe a s a nts th a n the mon a stic brotherhoods of the

Mi ddle Ages As t h is bur e a ucra tic middle cl a ss produced nothing
.

a n d consumed everyt hi ng th a t entered the pub lic purse the ,

working of the system depended on their ret a ini ng undi vided

control of the politic a l m a chi ne Civic rights were denied to the
.

foreign section of the popul a tion which w a s the o n ly one to

,

perform the economic fun ction of a middle cl a ss whi le the m a ss ,

of the re a l people w a s deprived of soci a l freedom In th a t wa y a ll .

competition for power in the St a te w a s effectively d a mm ed up .

The few elements whi ch were a ble gra du a lly thr ough good luck
or keen wits to brea k t h rough thei r soci a l dis a bili ties a n d rise
from below were i niti a te d into the mysteries of the b ure a ucra tic
,

brothe rhood an d qui ckly a b sorbed into it In the words of Mr a n d. .

Mr s H a mmond Selection a n d a ssimil a tion a s de Tocquevi ll e

.
,
‘
,

sa w a n d not exclusion a r e the true me a ns of preservin g a cl a ss

, ,

monopoly of power .

The n a tion a l middle cla ss whi ch w a s thus evolvi ng genera tion

by genera tion bore a very di fferent cha ra cter from th a t of its
Western coun ter p a rt In b oth regions the middle cl a ss wa s the
.
 5 42 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
expression of the ur b a n section of the pop ula tion in the E a st ,

if a nythi ng more so th a n in the West bec a use the bre a k b etween ,

the towns a n d the feud a lly ordered coun try side w a s so very -

a brupt The e a stern cl a ss too represented a pop ula r re a ction

.
, ,

a g a inst the former pri vil eged rule of the few gre a t l a n dl ords .

B ut here the s imil a rity wi th the West ended The Rum a ni a n .

middle cl a ss movement w a s a purely politic a l expression It did

-

not rise up with a n industri a l revolution or even with a c a pit ali st ,

reorg a niz a tion of a griculture— not in short on a w a ve of , ,

ch a nged economic a n d soci a l outlook a n d requir ements but a s a ,

n a tion a list opposition to foreign dom in a tion The only i nterest .

of th a t middl e cl a ss once the in depende n ce of the coun try w a s

,

a ssured w a s to curt a il the poli tic a l privileges of the b

, oi a r s so ,

th a t power should b e vested in themselves They were b ent upon .

orga nizing not a n economic system but a politic a l one not a n ,

industry but a St a te ; a n d wh a t in consequence they requir ed

w a s not free l a bour a n d a fr ee m a rket but an e a sy fl ow of ,

revenue Thi s need h a rmonized w ith the a nx iety of tha t new

.

cl a ss to w a rd off politic a l competition from the wi der m a sses of

the people a n d they showed therefore no h a ste to reform the
,

soci a l org a niz a tion of the coun try The s ui gen eri s servile system .

instituted by the l a ws on a gricultura l contra cts w a s devised a n d

fl our i s h e d under the nomin a l reign of the new Constitution a l
‘
liberties : Tha t p eriod of sl a very dur ing which the p e a s a nts ,

were utterly exh a usted w a s j ust the golden epoch the tim e of
, ,

glory for the Liber a l Pa rty — the p a rty of the n a tion a list middle
cl a ss Th a t w a s the t ime s a id M Mih ala ch e when the new
.
‘ ’
, .
,
‘

“
bourgeois cl a ss c a me into being with the motto : Get ,
‘
Get rich from the public pur se th a t is For the w a y of the
’
, .

Libera ls w a s to c a use the middle cl a ss inste a d of tryi ng to work ,

a n d prosp er to throw itself upon the powers of the St a te in order

, ,

to govern 1
.

Moreover b esides h a ving its roots in poli tic a l r a ther th a n in

,

economic furrows the new middle cl a ss w a s not soci a lly a n

,

un a lloyed l a yer of urb a n society Though its members spent .

their life a n d their income in the towns the gre a t m a j ority of ,

the politic a l le a ders derived their incomes from the l a nd ; a n d

Mih il E mi cu S i i P li ti r pri t d 1 9 1 4 p 5 43
1 a n es , cr er o ce, e n e , . .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 43

the a t a vistic a ttra ction of the l a nd w a s so powerful th a t it w a s

every Rum a ni a n s a mbition to own a moste a n est a te if only
’
, ,

of a hundred a cres or s e These est a tes l a rge or sm a ll were

.
, ,

inv a ri a bly worked by the pea s a nts under the system of a gri
cultur a l contra cts which a s we h a ve seen brought in a s a fe
, , ,

return without requ iring either c a pit a l investment s or persona l

m a n a gement from the l a ndowner s Even th a t sm a ll section of .

the middl e cl a ss whi ch l a ter b eg a n to t a ke a n in terest in i ndustri a l

undert a kings prob a bly in most c a ses invested in them a surplus
, ,

obt a ined from neo ser vile a griculture Hence there w a s no clea r
-
.

cut di vision b etween the l a nded cl a ss a n d a t lea st the upper , ,

l a yer of the new mid d le cl a ss One coul d h a ve counted on one s

.
’

fi n ger s the publi c men who di d not belong or who were not ,

rel a ted to one of the l a nded fa milies The two cl a sses over
,
.

l a pped extensively in their membership a n d therefore in their ,

outlook a n d interests Directly or indir ectly the priva te m a teri a l

.

interests of the middl e cl a ss le a ders were intertwin ed with their

-

i nterests a s l a ndo w ners ; a n d in the second pl a ce their interests

, ,

a s priv a te individu a ls coincided w ith the i r interests a s public

men B ec a use in the a bsence of a n y other sources of production

.
, ,

the St a te of which they were the privi leged ben efi ci a ri e s w a s

, ,

supp orted ah n ost solely from the contributions of the pea s a nts .

Nor w a s th a t bur den shi fted in a n y a ppreci a ble me a sure from

the shoulders of the pe a s a nts when l a ter on the middl e cl a ss
beg a n to foster the growth of in dustry Th a t policy w a s h k e wi se .

inspired by n a tion a list ra ther th a n by economic motives a n d in , ,

consequence the St a te distributed more f a vour s to the new

,

industries th a n it received ben efi t s from them It will be remem .

bered tha t even a fter the Wa r one of the a rgum ents used by
those who opposed the l a nd reform w a s th a t a gric ul ture a lone ,

run on the old b a sis w a s in a position to give a sur plus for the
,

m a intena nce of the Sta te S o tha t to sum up a whole constella

.
, ,

tion of circumst a nces mitig a ted a ga in st the relea se of the pe a s a nts

from their b onds As the middle cl a ss developed from poh t i ca l
.

root s h a ving no interest in the rele a se of a l a bour supply or in

,

the cre a tion of a gre a ter dem a nd for good s but every intere s t in ,

a voiding the setting free of fresh politic a l forces a n d a s m a teri ,

a lly they were both a s priv a te in dividu a ls a n d a s pub lic men

, ,
5 44 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
still dependent on e xtra ctin g from the l a nd an excess of reve n ue
without c a pit a l expen di ture or person a l effort— wha t in such ,

conditions coul d h a ve induced the new mi ddle cl a ss to fr ee the

,

pea s a nts from the g a lleys of the n a tion a list bourgeois St a te ? -

H a ving b egun by cold shouldering the em a ncip a tion of the

-

pe a s a nts in 1 8 6 4 the n a tion a li st le a ders only g a ve a thought to

,

l a nd reform when the n a tion a list St a te of their cre a tion wa s

p a ssing through some crisis due to d a ngers of w a r or revolution , .

S oci a l reform so to spe a k w a s a n emergency item in the policy

, ,

of the n a tion a list middle cl a ss The proof of th a t lies in the f a te .

of the spora di c reforms en a cted un der the pressur e of some crisis

, ,

the a dva nt a ges of which were subsequently a n d in a lmost every

c a se c a ncelled or reduced by subversive l a ws or desultory appli
c a tion The l a test reforms the un mi st a k a ble children of the Wa r
.
,

a n d of the Russi a n Revolution h a ve proved no exception to th a t ,

rule We h a ve in Ch a pter X given a sketch of the m a ny obst a cles

.

which were pl a ced in the w a y of a gricul ture dur ing the di ffi cult
period of its tra nsform a tion a fter the Wa r a n d we h a ve seen how
, , ,

esp eci a lly a ll the fa vour s of the St a te were one sidedly di verted
,
-

tow a rds industry an d fin an ce For the l a test reform at l a st forced .

the n a tion a list cl a ss to seek an economi c foun d a tion for its

existence in the tra dition a l mid dl e cl a ss fi eld s of a ctivity Yet -
.
,

ch a ra cteristic a lly enough it di d not a ttempt to g a in a foot ing

,

in those fi eld s by priva te initi a tive a n d Open competition under ,

the a egis of the cl a ssic a l lai ssez fa i r e principles but on the con -

, ,

t r a r y through the old methods of St a te intervention c a rried to

, ,

extreme lengths We h a ve a privileged le a ding cl a ss s a id a

.
‘ ’
,

P e a san t i st writer which no longer dr a ws its revenue from l a nd

,

properties a s under the old r egime but from the moderniz a tion
, ,

of economic li fe from c a pit a l investments credit an d inter

, , ,

n a tion a l exch a nge But this it does through the St a te a n d with

.

the help of the St a te j ust a s under the old r egim e

, The l a nd .

monopoly h a s ch a nged into a monopoly of credit a n d of politica l

power : the rest is a mere p a rody F ar from representi ng the .

western Libera l conceptions Rum a ni a n Libera li sm is a ctu ally

,

obli ged to impede the growth of a bourgeoisie in the re a l sense ,

’
of the term .

As soon a s the l a nd h a d to be a b a ndoned to the pe a s ants ,

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 45
’
in deed the interference of the St a te in the country s economic
,

life i ncre a sed to lengths re a ched nowhere hitherto except in

Soviet Russi a Prices tra de imports an d exports foreign credits
.
, , , ,

a n d to a cert a in extent b a nking were a ll pl a ced under St a te

, , ,

control An d when in 1 923 th a t policy c ulm in a ted in the

.

’
n a tion a liz a tion of the country s min era l wea lth one h a d the ,

stra nge spect a cle of a n a tion a li st an d not otherwise progressive

middle cl a ss rushi n g he a dl ong in to the sphere of S oci a li sm True .

to its cha ra cter an d tra dition th a t cl a ss wa s not concerned w ith ,

opening new sources of production but r a ther with securi n g ,

new sources of revenue for the St a te whi ch it controlled a n d

exploited It did not rea lly m a tter to the rulin g cl a ss if they
.
-

lost control of a griculture a s long a s they co ul d g a in control of

some other pivot a l sour ce of revenue Wh ile the system thus .

evolved in to a v a st enterprise of bure a ucra tic p a ra sitism it is ,

prob a ble th a t not a ll of those interested looked upon it merely

a s a me a ns for person a l or p a rty profit There w a s a t le a st c a n di d .

conviction if not w isdom behi nd the nepotism of the b est

, ,

a mong the n a tion a list le a ders They fir mly beli eved tha t politic a l
.

independence could o nl y rest securely on i ndustri a l an d fin an cial

self sufli cien cy Any a ttempt to give the Sta te a truly modern
-
.

orga ni z a tion w rote M Cor t e a n u by a llowing free pl a y to

, .
,

priva te in iti a tive a n d openi ng the doors to the civili z ing in fl uen ce
‘
of foreign c a pit a l a n d enterprise is in the eyes of the Libera ls ,

an a ttempt a ga inst the s a cred n tion a l tr a di tions B efore the

1
a .

foreign c a pit a list could b e s a fely let in the coun try h a d to ,

possess a n a tion a l moneyed cl a ss of its own ; a n d a s the n a tion

a li s t s were im p a tient to displ a y a ne a tly trim med a n d well a rmed - -

St a te no mere a ccumul a tion of h a rd won s a vi ngs ye a r by yea r

,
-

would h a ve a nswered their pur pose The n a tiona list cl a ss the .

,

gua rdi a ns of the n a t i on a h st Sta te h a d somehow to b e enr iched ,

qui ckly Whence coul d such we a lth be e xt ra cted ? In a n a pology

.

for n a tiona list economi cs M Zeletin wr ote a few ye a rs a go th a t.

it w a s e a sy for the Engli sh a n d the French who h a d a ll their ,

colonies to exploit to produce a rich middle cla ss But Rum a ni a

, .

h a d no colonies a n d therefore the r ulin g cl a ss w a s driven to

,

exploit its own people The people h a d to b e bled for the good
.

1 Tend i n tele d e e volu ti e a le cla sei Td rd n esti 1 926 , .

N n
5 46 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
of the St a te The toll t a ken from the pe a s a nts soci a l freedom
.
’

w a s a levy for n a t ion a h st independence .

The P ea s an t Revi va l Politic a lly a mi ddl e cl a ss a cts a s a

.

buffer between the two soci a l extremes softening the a sperity of ,

their a ss a ults upon e a ch other The a b sence of a genui ne mi ddl e

.

cl a ss in Rum a n i a h a d en a bled the l a ndown ers to contin ue en

sl a vi ng the p e a s a nts even un der the r egim e of Constitution a l
lib erties But for the s a me re a son the l a nded cl a ss foun d itself
.

defenceless when the Wa r threw the pe a s a nt m a sses in to ferment .

F a ced with the spectre of revolution the r uli ng cl a ss h a d to ,

sur render everyt hin g j ust a s b efore it h a d gra sped everythi ng

, .

‘ ’
In the words of M a rx the expropri a tors a re expropri a ted
, .

B ec a use of its a mbition to rul e an d to rul e a lone th a t cl a ss h a d

, ,

neither t a ken the trouble to org a ni ze itself in to a m a nufa ctur ing

cl a ss nor h a d it a llowed the producin g ur b a n mi d dl e cl a ss
, ,

mostly of foreign origin to a cquir e p oliti ca l st a tus ; it m a de no

,

e ffort to org a nize a gric ul ture itself nor di d it encour age the ,

gro wt h of a rur a l mi ddl e cl a ss from a mong the pe a s a nts When .

the crisis c a me therefore there wa s between them a n d the m a ss

, ,

of p oor p e a s a nts no reserve h a vin g a n interest in m a in ta ining

the e x i sit in g soci a l order or the in fluence to do so The d ebd cle
’

.
,

of the St a te a n d of those who ruled it left a poli tic a l va cuum ,

through which the only other soci a l cla ss the pe a s a ntry rose , ,

a uto m a tic a lly so to spe a k to the sur f a ce of politic a l life a ga in

, ,
.

The Very b a ckw a rdness of economic a n d soci a l poli cy in the

n a t i on a h st St a te h a d indeed helped to conserve the pe a s a ntry a s

a cl a ss . The neo servi le a gra ri a n system h a d sorely exploited the

-

workin g p ea s a nt but a more progressive c a pit ali st system might

,
’
h a ve destroyed h im a ltogether As it w a s the crisis in the n a tion s
.
,

history found the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt in the condi tion in whi ch

Mr a n d Mrs H a mmond h a ve described the English pe a s a nt to
. .

h a ve b een b efore the enclosures : St a ndi ng in r a gs but st a ndi ng ,

on his feet .

The w a rped progress of the Rum an i a n n a tion h a d held up

the rise of a middle cl a ss un til our own times when Con st it u ,

t ion a l rights could no longer b e withh eld from the m a ss of the

peo p le But the letter of the Constitution never m ateria lized
.

into politic a l lib erty a n d socia l equa lity It wa s the misfortune .

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 47

of the pe a s a nts to secure their ema ncip a tion j ust when the
n a t i on a h st mid dl e cl a ss h a d freshl y come in to p ower a n d co ul d ,

therefore feel no inclin a tion tow a rds a llowin g a n y competitor to

grow up a g a in st it The coming of government by the people
.
,

therefore in no w a y me a nt government for the people Aft er

, .

1 8 64 the burdens of the pe a s a nts incre a sed ; the screen of la w

a n d order only seemed to le a ve them more helplessly isol a ted

from the se a t of power ; the est a blishm ent of a system a tic

a dministr a tion onl y seemed to incre a se the num bers of exploiters .

As Mih a il Emi nescu Rum a ni a s grea test poet once s a id the

,
’
, ,
‘

boia r s a t a h a d
le st the merit of b e i ng few— a
b out one to
inh a bit a nts— a n d li mited in their needs B ut there is no limit .

” “
to the num bers a n d vor a city of the Libera l bourgeoisie .
’

The s a me circ umst a nces h a ve produced the s a me effects a fter

the l a test reform The two gre a t reforms contends M Mih a il
.
, .

S erb a n h a ve in truth on both occ a sions o nl y ch a nged the

, , ,

pe a s a nts m a sters In 1 8 64 they esca ped from the feud a l l a ndlords

’
.

o nl y to fa ll into the h a nds of the new l a ndo wners a n d ten a nts ;

in 1 9 1 8 they esc a ped th a t a gra ri a n soci a l dict a torshi p o nl y to fa ll
-

Victim to exploit a tion by fi n a n c e a n d the whole merc a n tile

system In fa ct they now p a id two tithes inste a d of one : one they
.
,

p a id to the b a nkers in the form of usur ious interests the other ,

to the St a te in the form of export an d other t a xes In 1 86 4 their .

l a nd w a s freed a n d thei r l a bour conscripted ; a fter 1 9 1 8 their

l a bo ur w a s freed but the ir produce conscripted I t is true .
‘ ’
,

a d mits M Mih a la ch e
‘
. th a t to d a y the pe a s a nts a r e no longer
,
-

the serfs of the gre a t proprietors ; th a t is the o nl y evident

progress a n d a merely form a l one a t th a t For serfdom h a s
, .

not di s a ppe a red it h a s merely ch a nged its a sp ect : now it is

,

serfdom to the b a nkin g trust whi ch di ct a tes the conditions on ,

which the produce is sold Free l a bour but t a xed an d coerced

.
,

tra ding— th a t is the modern method of serfdom 1 Never perh a ps

. .
’
, ,

h a ve the pe a s a nts been so enra ged by the rul e of the l a ndlords ,

un der whom a fter all genera tions of them h a d been a ccustomed

, ,

to l a bour a s they a ppe a r to b e now under the economi c pressur e

,

of urb a n tra de a n d fin a n ce The one wa s a n old fa mili a r e vil

.
,

bound up with the l a nd ; the other is a new e vil sprun g upon them
1
Noul B egi m A gra r , 1 9 25 p 4, . .

Nn 2
5 48 SOCI AL AND POLITICAL
from the mistrusted town j ust when they h a d rid themselves ,

of the fir st Even in the sob er review published by memb ers of

.

the Cluj U ni versity p opul a r indign a tion bur sts th rough in verses
, ,

w hi ch a t the end sn a p wi th the writer s p ent up feeli ng s : ’

-

Th e s cu r vy a n d c r a v e n ci ocoi u 1
‘

Ha s m o v e d fr om t h e m a n o r i n t o a b a n k wi t h s t ee l d oo r s .

W h a t e ve r p l ough d r aws fro m t h e r i c h

the s oi l ,

Th e ci ocoi u sei z es wi t h hi s k n a vi s h tr i ck s .

On e fi n e d a y h e wi l l r ob y ou e v e n of r oa d s a n d sk y

Th e ci ocoi u ,

Th e usu r e r ,
Th e b a n k e r .

There w a s however a v a st difference b etween 1 8 64 a n d 1 9 1 8

, , .

If the n a tion a li st ruli ng groups were now dr iven to a cqui re the

economic a ttributes of a cl a ss it w a s b ec a use the l a nd reform ,

a n d the Wa r together with the comi n g of rein forcements fr om

,

the new provi nces h a d sh a ped the pe a s a nts a lso into a conscious
, ,

soci a l cl a ss The thun dering of the gun s s a id M Mih ala ch e

.
‘ ’
, .
,

w a s too fi e r c e not to sh a tter the film whi ch covered the eyes

‘

of the m a ny thous a nds who h a d been in the trenches a n d ,

i
’
to let them see light n its own true cl a rity 3
The a ttempt to .

repe a t the fe a t of 1 86 4— t o nullify the effects of a me a sure

which it w a s not possible to refuse— h a d now to f a ce grim a n d
org a nized opposition The pe a s a nts who h a d the l a nd in their .

h a nds a n d who h a d seen pomp an d power colla pse in brittle

,

i n effectiveness a ll a round them were no longer in a mood to ,

lie low under a buse Leni n him self in a nnouncing the new .
,
‘
economic policy a d mitted th a t to use force tow a rds the
,

p e a s a nt mi ddle cl a ss woul d b e the worst t hi ng we co ul d do A .

cl a ss which cont a ins so m a ny mi lli on p eople must b e tre a ted

’
with consider a tion And a Rum a ni a n wr iter echoin g th a t
.
,
’
s entim ent decl a red th a t it w a s p ossible to st a mp one s foot
,
‘

1
Th e R u m ani a n v ora cio u s s p e ci es of ra v ens A ppli ed i n ea rlie r ti mes
n a me for a .

t t h e s e rv a n t s w h o c oll e cte d ta x es on b e h lf of l a n dl o rd s & c ; and l a t r a s a n ick

o a , .
, e ,

n a me t o t h e l rge t e n n ts to o ffi ci a ls a n d i n gen e r a l to t h e up s ta rt me m b e rs of t h e
,
a a , ,

l n d o wn i ng a n d ruli g cl as s
a n .

2
A Co t r us i n S oci eta tea d e M a m e N o v e m b er 1 1 9 28
. , , , .

3
S p e e ch i n t h e Ch m b e r 1 9 20 p 36 a , , . .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 49

when it w a s a question of two or three thou s a nd l a rge owner s ,

but the sever a l m illion of new sm a ll owners must be f a ced h a t

’
in h a nd
When even the Comm uni st di ct a torship h a s to a ck n owledge
the l a tent poli tic a l strength of the pe a s a nts they must be counted ,

a s a correspondi ngly strong but a ctive politic a l force in Rum a ni a ,

where together with the l a nd they h a ve a cquired unive r s a l

’
suffr a ge Thr oughout the country s rece n t history the position
.

of the pe a s a nts with reg a rd to l a nd rights w a s closely p a ra llelled

by their position a s rega rds politic a l rights Durin g the long .

period of Turkish domin a tion poli tic a l li fe if it could be c a lled ,

thus w a s lim ited to the intrigues of the gre a t boi a r s for or a ga in s t

,

the ephemera l occup a nts of the throne Settled politic a l rights .

could not exist for either lord or villein in the a bsence of a n

, ,

e st a blished system of government O nl y with the retur n to

.

na tion a l a utonomy were the two Rum ani a n provinces endowed

with a body of constitution a l la w ; a n d the Orga nic St a tutes ,

which consecra ted the boia r s a s lords of the l a nd a lso set them ,

up a s the sole holders of politic al p ower Nor di d the Pa ris .

convention do more th a n dil ute th a t monopoly of privilege ,

linking up politic a l rights with l a nded property L a nd property .

s a id Ion Ionescu w a s everyt hi ng an d m a n work a n d in t e lli

,
‘
, , ,

gence nothin g The first n a tion a l P a rh am en t w a s e lected by

.
’

owners of l a nd For a moment a fter hi s coup d éla i Cuz a

.
,
’
,

tr a nsferred power to the m a ss of the people by me a ns of un ivers a l ,

suffra ge But though the fi r st Rum a ni a n Constitution ( 1 866 )

.

recognized p oli tic a l rights to a ll sections of the p op ul a tion the ,

electora l system turned th a t good principle in to a queer pr a ctice .

The deta iled worki ng of the system w a s described by Ion Ionescu

in his monogra ph on the effects of the a gra ri a n reform in Mehe
d in ti
.
1
I n tha t coun ty the electors were di vided i nto four colleges
1 The fi r st college in cluded the l a rge l a ndowners with more th a n ,

300 duc a ts ye a rly revenue ; it consisted of 31 electors p a ying ,

together lei in a nnu a l t a xes who elected one deputy , .

2 The second college consisted of 6 9 electors with less th a n

.

300 duc a ts ye a rly revenue e a ch p a yi ng together , lei t a xes .

They too elected one deputy 3 The third college in cluded the
, , . .

1
J ud eyuz M ehed i n gi , pp 1 9 0 2.
-

.
550 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
qua lifi e d urb a n electors , 243 in a ll , who elected two deputies .

4 Fin a lly , the four th college consisted of 46 7 electors ,

. delega ted
by the m a ss of the ur b a n a n d rur a l popul a tion ( one delega te
for fift y fa mi lies ) who elected one deputy Th e t a xes p a id by
, .

t hi s college a mounted to one million lei a nnu ally In 1 8 8 4 the .

fr a nchise qu a lific a tions were a ltered a n d the number of colleges

w a s reduced to three but the ch a nge o nl y ben efi t e d the m a ss of ,

the ur b a n popula tion Moreover even wi thin these limi ts the .

,

system w a s never a llowed to work f a irly In r e a h t y the pe a s a nt .

m a sses were Vi rtu ally di sfra nchised for they were never a ble ,

to secure the election of deputies from a mong themselves a s ,

they h a d in the div ans a d h oc The a b sence fr om Pa rli a ment of .

even one s i ngle pe a s a nt deputy w a s b ew a il ed by Ion Ionescu in

connexion with the fi r st Constitution a l Pa rli a ment of 1 8 6 6 ; a n d
we h a ve seen th a t t hi s w a s still the s a me in 1 9 1 7 when the gre a t ,

Constitution a l l a nd a n d fra nchi se reforms were deb a ted a t J a ssy 1 .

Profes s or N B a siles eu ga ve on pp 46—8 of hi s b ook t h e foll o wi n g o utli n e of t h e

1
. .

pr i n cipl es a n d w orkin g of t h e old e l e cto r a l s ystem :

Th e R u m a ni a n e l e ctors w e r e divid e d for t h e Cha mb er i n to thr e e cl as s es or c oll e ge s

a cc ordin g t o t h e fi s ca l c ens u s .

Th e fir s t c oll ege i n clud e d th ose w h o h a d a y ea rly i n c om e of a t l e as t lei fr om

r ea l e sta te ; t h e s e c o d c oll ege th ose w h o res id e d i n t h e town s an d p a id a t l ea s t 20 le i
n ,

yea rly i n dir e ct ta x es ; an d t h e thir d c oll ege th os e w h o did n ot c ome withi n t h e s c op e

of t h e fir s t t w o .

Th e e e l ctors of t h e th ird c oll ege did n ot h ow e v e r v ote all of th em di r e ctly Th ose , ,

.

wh o h ad a y early i n c ome of 300le i from r ea l es tate or p a id a ren t l of le i ye rly a a ,

a s w e ll as t e a ch e r s a n d pri es ts v oted dir e ctly Th e oth e rs t h e m s s voted i n

, .
, a ,

dire ctly ea ch fifty of th e m e l e cti n g on e d e l eg te w h o v ote d with t h e d i re ct v ote rs

,
a .

I n t h e se c on d pl a c e t h e fi rs t c o ll e ge e l e cte d 7 7 de puti s t h e se c o d 7 2 whil e t h e

,
e ,
n ,

thir d onl y h a d 40 Th e offi ci l stati stics re l a tin g t o t h e l e cti ons of 1 9 1 1 g ve t h e

. a e a

n u m b e r o f fi rs t c o ll e g e l ct o r s o n t h e r e gi s te r a s
e e of t h e s e c on d c oll e ge a s

a n d of t h e th i rd c o ll e ge a s di re ct a n d i n dir e ct v ote rs C ons e qu e tly . n ,

e l e ct or s w er e r e pr es e n te d by 40 d e puti es an d t h e e l e cto rs of t h e fir s t

a n d se c d c ll ge s by 1 49 d e puti es
on o e .

Th e m illi on p a sa n t citi e ns h d n o v oic e a t a ll i n t h e e l e cti on of t h e S ena te

e z a ,

which w a s e l cted by t h e l a rge l a d own ers a n d by t h e to wns Th e S ena te h d equ a l

e n . a

p ow e rs with t h e Ch a mber t h right t o v eto a n y bill a n d t o up set a y G ov e rn m e n t

, e ,
n

which did n ot e j oy i t s c fid en c I t w o uld be idl e t o b li e ve th a t t h e 40 de puti es

n on e .
‘
e

of t h third c oll e ge r a lly re pre e t d t h e p eas an ts All t h e p ar ti es w ere a li k e in

e e s n e .

h a vi g e v e r ll owe d th a t t o h pp e
n n a Press ure w as u se d t o pre v e n t tea che rs a n d
a n .
’

pri es ts w h o w ere public ffi c ia ls fro m v oti ng if the y w ere s u s p e cte d of i n d e pen d en t

,
o , ,

vi e ws M ore o ve r t h le cti on of d e l ga tes a l m os t n e v e r ta kes pl ce in f ct Th e vill a ge

. , e e e a a .

m y or a pp oi n ts s ome of h i s m i n i on o p a rty a g n ts i n dic a te d by t h e pre fe ct on

a s, r e :

t h e d a y o f t h e p oll th e m n w i ll v ote a s o rd e re d by t h e G o v e rnm en t To m a k e

se e .

still more s ur e of t h res ult t h e G ov e rn m n t eonfi s ca t es t h e c a rds of s u s pe cte d

e ,
e

l ctor s n d m k s i t s ow n a g n ts v ote with th e m All t h e e l e ctora l o p erati ons a re

e e a a e e .

n othi g but a fr a ud fr o m b egi nn i n g t o en d

n M ost of t h e 40 d e puties s upp os ed to .

h a v e b e e n ch ose n by t h e p eas a n ts a r e i n r eality e l e cte d by t h e G ov e rn men t .

’
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 551

Elsewhere the introduction of represent a tive government

a n d the gr a du a l widening of the fr a nchise h a ve included in their

scop e urb a n a n d rur a l citizens a like The limiting qua lifi ca t ion s .

were b a sed on va rious indi vidu a l a n d soci a l criteri a but nowhere ,

on a section a l differenti a tion b etween town a n d co untry except

in Rum a ni a ( a n d now to the s a me effect in S oviet Russi a )
, , .

After the second B a lk a n Wa r when the Libera l Pa rty ra ised the ,

question of l a nd reform they a lso a dvoc a ted a reform of the

,

fr a nchise The in tention a pp a rently w a s to give the vote t o a ll

.

who could re a d a n d write votin g together in a sin gle college, .

The a rra ngement woul d h a ve mea nt a gre a t improvement on the

one in force a t the time but it woul d still h a ve le ft the rura l popu
,

l a tion a t a di s a dva nt a ge In an y c a se fra nchise reform like l a nd

.
,

reform w a s a llowed to b e dorm a nt till the outbre a k of the

, ,

Russi a n Revolution in duced the p a ssing of a h a sty ra di c a l

me a sur e Together w ith the expropri ation of the l a nd in 1 9 1 7
.
,

the I a ssy Pa rli a ment voted the expropri a tion so to spe a k of the , ,

politica l privileges which the upper cl a ss an d to some extent ,

the urb a n pop ul a tion h a d enj oyed till then An a mendm ent to
, .

the Constitution est a blished the principle of univers a l fra nc h ise ,

’
w ith proportion a l represent a tion a s p a rt of the coun try s f und a ,

ment a l la w 1 .

Lik e the l a nd reform the electora l reform p a ssed from one

,

extreme to a nother from a retrogra de three cl a ss fra nchise on

,
-

the Prussi a n model to full uni vers a l suffra ge An d in its c a se

, .
,

a lso the gener a l pri nciple a lone w a s a dopted a t I a ss in 1 91 7

, y ,

the det a iled provisions for its a ppli c a tion rem a ini ng to b e en a cted
by me a ns of a speci a l la w a fter the end of the War The s ubse
, .

quent evolution of the fra nchise reform h as served the critics

a s a pointed comm ent a ry on the spirit which la
y b ehi nd the I a ssy
decisions It w a s t a ken for gra nted th a t the m a ss of the pe a s a nts
.
,

who were determi ned to get the right to l a nd which they h a d ,

a lre a dy possessed h a d much less un derst a ndi ng for the impor

,

t a nce of the right to vote whi ch they h a d never exercised S o

, .

convinced were the r uli n g cl a ss th a t once the p ea s a nt got the

-

fir st he would not trouble a bout the second th a t when the fi n a l ,

1
Th e c a lle d L a b o ur gro up a dvo cate d i t s e xtens i on
so -

to women a l so but fo u n d
,

n o s upp ort for thi s vi ew .

552 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
l a nd la w w a s p a ssed in 1 921 M Ar gent oia n u excl a imed : An d
, , .
‘

now the Pe a s a nt Pa rty m a y rest in p e a ce ! Unli ke the l a nd ’

reform therefore which w a s c a rried thr ough immedi a tely a fter

, ,

the Armistice the fin al suffra ge a rra ngements were del a yed for
,

ne a rly fi ve ye a rs The new un ifi e d Constitution w a s p a ssed in

.

1 9 23 a n d its provisions bore di stin ct tr ac es of the ch a nge of

,

temp er w hi ch h a d intervened dur ing th a t del a y I n 1 9 1 7 the .

I a ssy Assembly h a d voted for univers a l di rect equ a l an d

‘
, ,

comp ul sory suffra ge w ith proportion a l represent a tion , Pro ’

.

’
p ortion a l bec a me in 1 9 23 minority represent a tion ( Ar t ‘ ’
.

without a n y fur ther elucid a tion of wh a t the l a tter mea nt The .

subsequent electora l la w provi ded in f a ct th a t a p a rty secur ing

40 p er cent of a ll the votes c a st in a gener a l election shoul d fill
.

two thirds of the se ats in the Ch a mber Moreover the politic a l

-
.
,

i n fl uen ce of the new univers a l voter w a s side tr a cked by the -

pro visions l a id down concerning the composition of the second

Ch a mber Article 67 of the 1 9 23 Constitution m a int ai ned in
.

ful l the legisl a tive powers of the Sena te equ a l in every respect ,

with those of the Ch a mb er but it took the election of S en a tors ,

to a l a rge extent out of the h a nds of the electora te Pa rt of the .

S en a tors were to b e elected the others were to sit by right Of , .

the fi r s t some were to be elected by the voters of forty ye a rs of

,

a e a n d a bove a n d the others by v a rious profession a l bodi es

g , .

The qua lifi ca t ion s of the members by right were such th a t a t ,

le a st for a genera tion or two the bulk of these S en a tors w ill ,

ine vit a bly b e derived from a mong the groups who h a d ruled the
country hi therto B ec a use of these a n d other provisions none of
.

the Opposition Pa rties took p a rt in the di scussion or votin g of the

me a sure ; hol di ng a lso th a t the Pa rli a ment of 1 923 h a d no Consti
t ut i on a l powers They left the Libera l P a rty to b e a r the whole r e
.

sponsibili ty for the new Constitution 1

.

Hence the cur t a ih n en t of the rights form a lly gra nted to the
pe a s a nts in 1 9 1 7 w a s pursued in the politic a l fi eld more bra zenly
th a n in the economic fi eld where it h a d to b e done in a ro und ,

a bout w a y through the oppression of a griculture

,
Moreover .
,

during the fi r st ten ye a rs a fter the Wa r the country w a s i n fa ct

1
F or a d e ta il ed critici s m of t h e 1 9 23 C titution s ee my a rticl e i n Th e J oum al of
o ns

Comp ara ti ve Legi s la ti on a nd I n tem a ti ona l La w vol vi P a rt I Fe bru a ry 1 9 24

,
.
, , .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 553

rul ed by a veiled dict a torshi p of the L ibera l Pa rty The electora l .

m a chi ne w a s t a mpered with to a degree whi ch went fa r even for

Rum a ni a ; a dmini stra tive interference with the exercise of
politic a l rights kept p a ce th a t is with the legisl a tive e x tension
, ,
’
of those rights Professor I or ga s rem a rk th a t b etween 1 8 6 6 a n d
.

1 9 1 7 Rum a ni a w a s re a lly without a Constitution a pp lies wi th

equ a l truth unti l the end of 1 9 28 One might sa y by w a y of com .
,

p a rison th a t Engl a nd h a d a work ing Constitution whi ch w a s not

,

w ritten a n d Rum a ni a a written Constitution w hi ch w a s not

,

workin g The e x perience of those ten ye a rs proved th a t n ot wi t h

.

st a ndi ng Wa r an d Revolution wh a t M Stere predicted in 1 907 still .

held good— th a t no reform would work until the politic a l system

w a s itself reformed an d un til its spirit co n formed to the letter of
the country s democra tic la ws F a r from h a vi ng m a de the Pe a s a nt
’
.

P a rty superfl uous they showed th a t the pe a s a nt reviva l woul d

,

not be a r p a lp a ble frui t until the pe a s a nts were orga ni zed for
picking it The l a nd reform h a d not solved the soci a l problem
. .

’
It h a d put i nto the pe a s a nts h a nds a powerful in strument but ,

they could not use it to a dva nt a ge without the concurrence of

b enevolent governm ent Wh a t m a tters from the st a ndpoint of .

the Pe a s a nt Pa rty excl a imed a Pe a s a nt deputy is not a little

’
, ,
‘

more l a nd or other such ben efit s for the pe a s a nts but the
, , ,

a ss ur a nce of lib erty of cultur e of j ustice whi ch would follow

, ,

from the governin g of the country by those who l a b our with

their h a nds a n d with their bra ins 1 .

Th e P ea s an t M ovemen t The Pe a s a nt Pa rty w a s founded .

immedi a tely a fter the Wa r by a group of Vill a ge te a chers a n d

priests together wi th a few progressive intell ectu a ls from the
,

town s The a ppe a ra nce of such a Pa rty w a s not un n a tur a l when

.

the whole politic a l life w a s in the melting pot a n d the l a nd a n d -

fra nchi se reforms seemed to give the pe a s a nts a domin a nt role in

the St a te But while the orga niz a tion of the Pa rty w a s spon
.

t an e ous the doctrine on which it rested w a s of old st a n di n g It

, .

h a s been represented for m a ny ye a rs by the Populist 2 cur rent

led by M C Stere a n d grouped roun d the a ble revi ew Vi ata
. .
,

Romdnes cd of I a s sy
'

.
,

1
M V V
. H . . ane
s in t h e Cham e b r
A ur ora ,. e D ce m b e r 10, 1 926 .

2
In R u man i a r
P op aran i s t, f o m p ap or = p eop le .
554 S O CI AL AND POLITICAL
The Pop ulist current of which the Rum a ni a n P opora ni st
,

current w a s a section wa s in the a gr a ri a n countries of e a stern

,

Eur ope the counterp a rt of the L a b our movement in the West .

The Industri a l Revolution h a d r a ised economic an d soci a l issues

which h a d throw n the m a sses in to ferment everyw here Whil e .
‘

the democr a tic Vir us w a s n a tur a lly most a ctive a mong the com
p a ct in dustri a l m a sses the slower mo vin g coun try side coul d
,
-

not re m a in a ltogether untouched by it Modern educ a tion .

a n d me a ns of in tercourse were brin ing the gre a t pub lic con

g
t r over si e s in to the vill a ge The loss of l a nd the pe a s a nts s uffered
’
.
,

through the enclosures in Engl a nd a n d a t the time of their

em a ncip a tion in other Eur ope a n co untries together wi th the ,

rui nous a gric ul tur a l crisis in the second h a lf of the centur y ,

m a de the villa ge rip e for a st i m ul us th a t woul d push it i nto h n e

l a r forces
’
a mong the contending pop u In the gre a t struggle
.

a g a inst feud a lism bur ghers a n d pe a s a nts h a d b een a ccustomed

,

to figh t side by side a n d in 1 8 48 the town s genera lly found

,

the pe a s a nts re a dy to help them More a n d more however

.
, ,

the growi ng di vision of l a b our w a s di fferenti a ting b etween the

interests of to w n a n d l a nd In the me a sur e in which the sever a l
.

fi e ld s of production were becomi ng speci a liz ed the a gr a ri a n ,

co untries of e a stern Eur ope a ppe a red to foll ow a differe n t soci a l

trend from the i ndustria l West ; a n d in the la tter the ur b a n
, ,

working cl a ss a ppe a red b oun d towa rds a go a l other th a n th a t of

-

which the Villa ge pop ul a tion dre a mt For th a t re a son the e a rly
.

le a ders of the L a bour movement m a de no effort to win un der

st a nding a n d support from the p ea s a nt Th ey fe a red th a t he
.

would b e a hindr a nce ra ther th a n a help in their revolution a ry

m a rch ; an d they were convinced th a t l a rge se a le production -

woul d b efore long extermin a te the p e a s a nt a s it h a d destroyed

the a rtis a n Their progra m therefore stood uncompromi singly
.

for the n a tion a liz a tion on the l a rgest possible sc a le of property

a n d production in a gricultur e a s much a s in in dustry The
'

.
,

p e a s a nt s c a rdin a l a mbition w a s thereby scorned a n d flouted

’
,

a n d the n a tur a l communi ty of interests b etween h a ndworkers

in fa ctory a n d f a rm w a s confused from the very b eginni ng of the

politic a l m a ss movement .

This circumst a nce h a d the effect in western Europe of d r i vm g

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 555
the pe a s a nts into the Conserva tive c a mp ; a n d a s a consequence , ,

i n those coun tries which lik e Fra n ce a n d Germ a ny h a d a con

, ,

si d era b le pe a s a nt popul a tion strong sections of the L a bour ,

’
movement dem a nded a n d effected a revi sion of Soci a li sm s
a gr a ri a n progra m If the impossibili ty of th a t progra m w a s
.

ob vious in Germ a ny a n d Fra nce it w a s boun d to be gl a rin g ,

‘

in the pe a s a nt countries of e a stern Eur ope As one tra velled .

e a stw a rds a cross the Continent fa ctories bec a me sca rcer whil e
fa rms multipli ed un t il a griculture spre a d itself out ah n ost with
,

out riva l on the va st pl ai ns of Russi a The revolt a ga inst .

Ma rx ism followed ex a ctly th a t va ri a tion in economic struct ure .

It tra velled e a stwa rds in ever wi denin g circles un t il it struck the

shores of Russi a ; there it su ffered in tense loc a l infl ue n c es a n d the ,

retur ni ng ripple c a me b a ck tra nsformed out of a ll recogn ition , ,

a s Populism an d i n th a t gui se overflowed into the neighbo urin g

,
’
a gr a ri a n regions 1 The soci a l reformers of e a stern Europe dis
.

covered th a t the M a rxi a n bra nd of Soci a lism offered them no

guid a nce for the solution of th eir spe cifi c problems The soci a l .

problem they h a d to fa ce w a s in the n a ture of a pe a s a nt question

a n d not of a prolet a ri a n question a n d they were not wi lli n g to ,

subordin a te the most intense a sp ir a tions of a people to the ‘

cl aim s of a formula The pra ctic a l consequences of th a t st a nd

’
.

poin t were summ ed up by M Stere in the serie s of a rticles .

publi shed by him in 1 907 un der the title Soci a l Democra cy or ‘

-

’
Populism In a country hke Rum ani a in which the pe a s a nt s
.
,

formed 9 4 per cent of the t a xp a yers politic a l progress h a d n o

.
,

me a ning u nl ess it tended tow a rds a rur a l democr a cy ; a n d th a t

ide a l me a nt in turn th a t our economic evolution a s the whole ,

structur e of our St a te w ill necess a rily h a ve to ret a in its speci fic

,

pea s a nt ch a ra cter Hence economic progress must tend a bove a ll

.

’
to orga nize the n a tion s economic li fe on pe a s a nt founda tions :
a Vigorous pe a s a ntry ow ni n g the l a nd it till s an d unitin g
,

thr ough a comprehensive co opera tive system a ll the vi r tues of -

sm a llholdi n g with a ll the tech n ic a l a dva nt a ges which to d ay -

a r e a ccessible only to l a rge f a rmers

’
.

This profession of fa ith written more tha n twenty ye a rs ago , ,

1
Thi s and th r qu otati ons ar e from my ess a y Ma rx v t h e P san t which
the o e
‘
. ea
’

forms an i n troduction to th e hi story a n d phil osophy of t h e Pe san t Mo veme n t

'

a .
556 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
woul d no doubt b e a ccepted to d ay by the le a ders of the Pe a s a nt
-

P a rty a s a correct a n d comprehensive st atement of thei r own

politic a l creed M Mih a la ch e only g a ve a more sentiment a l
. .

turn to the s a me ide a when he s a id in 1 920 th a t the cre a tion of , ,

the n a tion a l St a te on democra tic foun d a tions w a s b ound to le a d

to the recogn ition of th a t funda ment a l element on w hi ch the
St a te rests : the Pea s a nt An y wi se poli cy must m a ke of the
. .

p e a s a nt who 1 s the producer of wea lth the sol di er the t ax

—
, ,

p a yer the life spring of the p eople 5 lea ders— the kernel of our
,
~
’

na tiona l prosperity Th a t st a ndpoint determin es every a spect

.
’

of the poli tic a l a n d economi c progr a m of Pe a s a ntism a s well a s ,

its a ttitude towa rds other Pa rties a n d soci a l groups .

The centra l pill a rs of the Pa rty s creed are fir st a n unm it i ’

, ,

g ted b elief in the Vi rtues of represent a tive governm ent a n d

a , ,

secondly a n e qu a lly strong conviction th a t the w a y to the

,

gre a test h a ppiness of the l a rgest number of Rum ani a ns lies

through co opera tive pe a s a nt a gricul tur e With such b eliefs a s
-
.

its gui ding tenets it w a s inevit a ble th a t the movement sho ul d

come into confli ct wi th the groups which h a ve rul ed the country
hi therto Politic a l contest i ndeed is o nl y j ust b eginni ng in
.
, ,

Rum a ni a The recent reforms h a ve broken thr ough the wa lls

.

whi ch defended the b ur e a ucra tic m a nori a l e x istence of the up p er

-

cl a ss Th e expropri a tion of l a rge property especi a lly h as de

.
, ,

stroyed the soci a l b a sis of the old Conserva tive Pa rty It li ngered .

i m p otently for a short tim e a fter the Wa r s oon however to , , ,

bre a k up its sc a ttered remn a nts a tt a chi ng themselves to v a rious

,

other P a rties An a ttempt m a de by Genera l Averescu to cre a te a

.

new politica l grouping of the Right f a iled m a in ly on a ccount of the

a bsence of a n soci a l re a son for its existence an d a lso b ec a use
y ,

of the in effi ci en cy of the chief prot a goni sts Thi s a lthough the .

a ttempt w a s fostered by the Lib er a ls either b ec a use they wished ,

to h a ve on the ir right a grouping with whi ch they mi ght a ltern a te

i n power a s they di d in 1 9 26—7 a n d thus put off the a dvent of
, ,

popul a r governm ent or b ec a use they hoped by th a t mea ns to

,

divert from themselves some of th e sh a fts which the new Pe a s a nt

movement w a s l a unching In a n y c a se the dis a ppea ra nce of
.
,

the Conserv a tive Pa rty a n d the b i rth of a politic al m a ss move

ment h a ve pushed the Libera l Pa rty to the extreme Right I n .
 EFFE CTS OF THE REFORM 557

th a t position it fi n d s itself a ltogether on the defensive It h a s to .

protect from a ss a ult its old poh t ica l power a n d privil eges a s well ,

a s the urb a n merc a ntili st org a niz a tion of society in which it h a s

-

its roots And a s its power w a s obt a ined un til now not thr ough
.

the exercise of some cruci a l soci a l fun ction but only through the ,

exploita tion of politic a l privileges the Libera l P a rty coul d with

,

st a nd th a t a ss ault only by working up from politic a l li cence to

a pr a ctic a l dict a torship .

Dur in g the p a st dec a de the Lib era l suprem a cy h a s been more

exclusive th a n it ever w a s before the Wa r when Libera ls h a d to ,

a ltern a te in power wi th the Conserv a tives a t the w ill of the ,

Ki ng It wa s only beca use the Crown supported it th a t a one

.

p a rty d ict a torship could a ssert itself a fter the en a ctment of t h e

l a nd reform a n d of univers al fra nchise The emergence of a .

popula r movement cl a mour ing for strict Constitution a l govern

ment struck the Cour t a s a prelude to revolution And s e in a .
,

sense it w a s boun d to be For in a country in whi ch the Crown

, .
,

notwithst a ndi ng the existence of a wr itten Constitution h a d ,

been a ccustomed to exercise qu a si a utocra tic powers a n d the -

ruling groups to do wi th the country a s they ple a sed a popul a r ,

dem a nd for la w a n d order cl a imed nothi ng less th a n a r evolu

‘ ’

tion in the custom a ry methods of govern ment Th a t expl a in s .

the a ttra ction whi ch the Pe a s a nt Movement h a d for the more

’
ide a listic of the younger intellectu a ls a n d the Lib era l Pa rty s ,

fa ilure to est a bli sh itself a s the recognized exponent of the urb a n

a n d industri a l pop ul a tion It a lso expl a ins why the movement
.

ga in ed the new provinces which were ch a fing un der the stra in of

,

a n e x cessive an d incompetent centr a li sm 1 Th a t the B ess a r a bi a n .

Pe a s a nt Pa rty w ith its Ra dic a l temper shoul d un ite wi th the

, ,

Pe a s a nt Pa rty in the Old Kin gdom wa s in the n a tur e of thi ng s , .

But subsequently ( 1 927 ) the group w a s a lso j oined by the

Na t ion a l ( Tra nsylva ni a n ) Pa rty though its le a ders were recruited
,

from the provi nce s ur b a n intelligentsi a with a bourgeois r a ther

’

th a n P ea sa n t i st outlook Fin a lly it expl a ins why the S ocia h st

.
,

industri a l workers j oined h a nds with the N a tion a l Pe a s a nt P a rty -

1
I n t h e ge n e a r l e le cti n of No v em be r 19 28 — t h e fir s t r ea lly fre e l cti o ft r t h
o e e n a e e

Wa r— n e e t h e
ith r Lib er l n or t h e Pe opl e s ( A v re s cu ) Pa rti s w re a bl e t o s e cur e a
a
’
e e e

se a t in Tr a ns ylva ni a an d Bes sa ra bi a .
558 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
in opposition to the merc a ntili st Lib era ls The possible lim its .

of the S ocia h st movement ar e in Rum a ni a even n a rrower th a n

the lim its of in dustry The bulk of the workers enga ged in the
.

chi ef industries— mining forestry & c — ar e pea s a nts who ow n

, , .

l a nd a n d who never hesit a te to return to the plough if they ca n

,

m a ke a livi ng from it M Ma dg ea r u is convi nced th a t i n a gr a ri a n

. .

coun tries it is much e a sier for pea s a nts a n d workers to co 0pera te -

p oli tic a lly seei n g th a t the i ndustri a l prolet a ri a t h a s only recently

,
’
emerged from the pe a s a ntry 1 In e a rlier ye a rs Rum a ni a n .
,

Populi sts a n d S oci a lists h a d j oined in the h ery doctrin a l b a ttle

provoked by M a rxism between h a ndworkers in town a n d on the
l a nd N ow the S oci a lists h a ve not been un willin g to fin d shelter
.

under the wings of the Pe a s a nt Pa rty b ec a use it h a s b ecome cle a r ,

th a t none of the urgent soci a l problems coul d b e solved until the

Constitution a l issue w a s settled However much they m a y h a ve .

been di vided by cl a ss doctri nes or section a l i d iosyn cra sies all ,

these groups felt uni ted by their f a ith in the pra ctice of r epr e
s e n t a t i ve government Therefore they n a tur a lly ra lli ed round
.

the newly rele a sed pe a s a nt force bec a use through it a lone co ul d ,

government by the people b e pe a cefully secur ed a n d sec ur ely held .

To g a in some insight into the fun d a ment a ls of the Pe a s a nt

Movement one might seek to extra ct from its soci a l structur e
,

a n d from its economic tenets a n a nswer to two generic ques

tions Wh a t pl a ce does the movement t a ke withi n the lin e of our

.

custom a ry poh t ica l divisions ? An d secon dl y is the movement , ,

likely to f urther or to tra verse the typ ic a l org an iz a tion of modern

’
society evolved in the West ? The Pea s a nt P a rty s progra m
\

m a kes it possible to give a direct a nswer to the fir st question ,

though not a simple a nswer Th a t progra m does not fit ne a tly

.

into a n y of the tra di tion a l politic a l doctri nes It is a n eclectic .

progra m h a vin g a ppropri a ted from a ll the exi stin g doctrines such
,

of their tra its a s best suited the a spir a tions of the new movement .

In its a tt a chment to the principle of priva te prop erty the Pe a s a nt

movement is prob a bly more orthodox th a n the st a unche s t
Conserva tive p a rties It sh a res wi th Libera l ideology a n uh
.

swerving devotion to the pra ctice of represent a tive government

on a fully democra tic b a sis whi ch is n a tura l enough with a m a ss
,

1
Articl
e on P
‘
ti m d t h T w W rk r i A u
ea s a n s an e o J uly 1 9 1 923
n o e s
’

, n r ora , , .
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 559

movement ; a s well a s a disli ke of excessive St a te interfere n ce

with the life of groups an d in di vidu a ls The a ttitude of the .

Pe a s a nt Pa rty to protection whi ch it a dmits o nl y for those

,

industries whi ch st a nd a ch a nce of sur vivi ng on such m a teri a ls

a n d l a b our a n d m a rkets a s the country itself ca n ofi er comes ,

very ne a r the essenti a l me an in g of Free Tra de But most of .

these simil a rities a r e held w ith a ch a r a cteristic difference The .

Pe a s a nts ide a of priva te property is widely di fferent from th a t

’

of Con s erva tives in the w estern a cqui sitive S ociety ; a n d their ’

dislike of St a te interference is fa r from a belief in la i s s ez a i r e .

In rega rd to l a nd especi a lly the pea s a nts b eli eved emp iric a lly
, ,
’
in a property of use long b efore th a t ide a w a s worked out
‘

theoretic a lly in some of the post w a r proj ects a n d l a ws As long

-

a s the pe a s a nts hold such Views on the o w nershi p of l a nd it is

unli kely th a t they would a pprove the unrestricted a ccumul a tion

of other forms of property A c a rdi na l a im of the Pe a s a nt
.

progra m is in fact increa singly to limi t the p ower a n d function

, ,

of c a pit a list middl emen— fi n a nciers tra ders a n d others of

‘ ’
, ,

their k i nd ; but it in tends a c hi eving this through co oper a tio n -

the a xi s on which their whole economic system revolves a n d not ,

through the S ociah st method of n a tiona liz a tion St a te own ers hi p .

a n d control is a pproved however for essenti a l public services

, , ,

a n d even for such l a rge sc a le industries a s mi ning & c

-
which , .
,
’
merely collect the coun try s n a t ur a l resour ces Co opera tion is .
-

preferred in other words where the indi vidu a l is a more or less

, ,

complete uni t of production a n d where individu a l effort con

tributes more th a n m a chinery to the fin i s h ed product ; but
where the individu a l worker is merely a cog in a va st m a chine ,

requiring for its e ffective working concentra tion of property a n d

production then it is considered j ust tha t property a n d control
,

shoul d be vested in the n a tion One must a d d to thi s the det a il

.

th a t the Pe a s a nt progra m d efini t ely fa vours the org a ni z a tion a n d

protection of l a bour a n d the provision of equ a l opport un ities
,

for a ll Hence while th a t progra m is a t va ri a nce with the st a nd

.
,

poin t of the Ma rx ist S oci a list Pa rties of the Continent its ,

economic industri a l a n d socia l tra its bring the movement on

, ,

the whole closer to English L a bour th a n to either Conserva tives

or Lib era ls In brief the Pe a s a nt progra m represents economi
.
,
5 60 SOCI AL AN D POLITICAL
c a lly a n d soci a lly a select combin a tion of the instin ct of Liber ali sm
with the ide a l of S oci a li sm ; a combin a tion th a t m a y become
even in the in dustri a l west the progra m of a progressive move
ment indiff erent to doctrin e but in tent upon the e a rly re a liz a tion
of soci a l j ustice through a pplied evolution
, .

One fi n d s a simila r un orthodox blendi ng of Views in the

n a tion a l outlook of the Pe a s a nt movement No other section of .

the p eople is so fi rm ly a tt a ched to tr a nsmitted n a tion a l ch a r a c

t e r i st i c s a n d less cosmopoli t a n in its customs a n d h a bits B ut
, .

a p a rt from the Soci a lists no other section of a p eople is less e a ten

,

up wi th the a mbitions of poh t ical n a tion a lism Every pronoun ce .

ment a n d a ction of the e a stern Pe a s a nt movement h a s shown

th a t it pl a ces a s much fa ith in interna tion a l co opera tion a s it -

does in econ omi c co opera tion a t home -

Any a ttempt to a nswer the second question by constructing ,

out of these progra mm a tic points a pictur e of the society they a r e

likely to produce must inevit a bly touch upon the b orderl a nd of
,

sp ecula tion One or two premises m a y b e st a ted d efini t ely

.

enough The new movement seems determined to encour a ge

.

’
the coun try s a gra ri a n development a n d to b a se it on sma ll ,

p e a s a nt fa rmi ng Such a line of evolution woul d bre a k a w a y

.

sh a rply from the p a th upon whi ch the in dustri a l West is

irretrieva bly set Inste a d of m a mm oth works a n d comp a ni es
.

a n d trusts— f a ted a s M a rx h a s predicted to outgrow the s a fe

, ,

limits of priva te control an d to r un stra ight in to the a rms of

S oci a lism sm all uni ts of own ershi p a n d enterprise m a de effi ci en t
—
,

by co oper a tion ; instea d of the b lin d struggle of e a ch for hi mself

-

a l a rge me a sure of a dj ustment a n d mutu a l a i d ; i nste a d of cold

blooded control by un known m a sters const a nt p ersona l conta ct ,

b etween the a gents of production ; inste a d of the so ulless m a chi ne

a n d the h a ted f a ctory the living an d b eloved l a nd ; in ste a d of
,

the i n d efi nit e sub di vision of stereotyp ed l a bour a n infin i t e ,

v a riety of work a n d the s a tisfa ction of cre a tive a chi evement

inste a d of the restless an d bitter spir it c a used by the spectre of
unemploym ent the d a ily lesson i n p a tience an d persevera nce
,

brought home by the contest w ith the forces of n a ture These .

b a sic differences between one civiliz a tion a n d the other op en up

such a w ide vi st a of specula tion a s to their h k e ly effects a s ,
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 61

c a nnot pos s ibly be comp a ssed within a few p a ges Wh a t will b e .

their effect on the life of the people a n d on the growth of

p opul a tion ? Wh a t the effect on the temper of the na tion a n d on
the psychology of its severa l cl a sse s ? Or on the growt h of cities
a n d on the structur e of government ?

In the me a sure in which the Pe a s a n t Movement h a s a n

opportu ni ty of a sserting itself the imm edi a te effect will n o doubt ,

b e a re a ction from the excesses of the rece n t p a st S ome form .

of devolution wi ll come to repl a ce the extreme ce n tra li z a tion

of governm e n t in force hi therto The utter neglect of the Vill a ge .

m a y be fo llowed by some check on the super fici a l but expe n sive

brilli a nce of the c a pit a l town a n d of the ho s t of St a te di g n it a ries .

I n R um a ni a the merc a ntili s t excesses of the l a st ten ye a rs h a ve

sh a rpen ed the a nt a gonism between town a n d coun try which
h a s been felt throughout centr a l a n d e a stern Europe a fter the
Wa r The confli ct between pe a s a ntry a n d bourgeoisie in the
.
‘

’ ‘
field of the ci r cul a tio n of good s s a ys a Rum a ni a n writer is , ,

a s a cute a s th a t between bour geoisie a n d prolet a ri a t in the field

of di stributi on And M N Lupu Kost a k i considers th a t in

.
’
. .
-
‘

a coun try where a s in Rum a ni a the i nterests of a gric ulturists

, , ,

who constitute the producing cl a ss p a r excellen ce a r e const a ntly ,

crossed a n d i n j ured the m a chi n ery of St a te becomes a n a busive

,
’
institution a n d resist a nce to it a re a l a ct of civic br a very 1
.

Such a dem a nd a s th a t put forw a rd by the Serbi a n Pe a s a nt

Pa rty a few ye a rs a go th a t a s much of the public money should ,

b e spent on the Villa ge a s the vi ll a ge contributed in t a xes a n d

ra tes would gre a tly reduce the resource s a va il a ble for urb a n
,

b
development be it good or d An d the diversion of the St a te s
a
2
, .
’

1
A rticl e Ta m Noa s tr d 1 925 p 1 01 9
in , , . .

exp os e d e moti s t o t h e n e w A d mi ni s tr a tiv e L a w ( 1 9 29 ill u stra te d in figur es

’
2
Th e f )
the e xtre m po ve rty of t h e rur l a d mi ni s tra tive un its Th e
e a . a v e ra ge y ea rly r e v en u e

o f t h e rur l c o mm u es w a s
a n

I n t h e O ld K i n gd om l i e

Buc ovi n a

Tra ns ylv ani a

B essa ra bi a

I n B ssa ra bi an d t h e 01d Ki n gd o m h owe v e r t h e c o mm u es w e re a t ifi ci a l a d m ini

e a , , n r

s t at iv
r u n its ge e r lly c omp ose d of se v er l villa ges wh e rea s i n t h e for me r A u stro
e n a a ,

H un g ri n pro vin c s e ch vill ge w a s a u ni t i n itse lf If o e divid d t h e c omm u a l

a a e a a . n e n

re v u by t h e n u m b e r of vill ges the refore o e o bta in e d t h e foll o wi ng m ore a ccur a te

en e a , , n

c om pa ris on :
 5 62 S OCI AL AND POLITICAL
benevolence tow a rds a gricultur e m a y force some p a inful r e
a dj ustments in the lif e of the ur b a n upp e r a n d mi d dl e cl a sses -

But this need not necess a rily b e a ba d thing for the m a ss of the
urb a n inh a bit a nts Enough h a s b een s a id throughout thi s b oo k
.
,

a n d esp eci a lly in the other sections of t hi s ch a pter to show th a t ,

un der the old r egim e the a rbitra ry control of the St a te profi ted
o nl y a n a rrow c a ste of the urb a n hiera rchy whi le the m a ss of ,

the town dwellers derived h t t le a dva nt a ge from it either in the

-

w a y of individu a l freedom or of co m mun a l ser vices N ow .

workers a n d lower middl e cl a ss a r e boun d to get their sha re fr om

-

an
y me a sure of democr a cy which the Pe a s a nt movement m a y
enforce Wh a t the town s m a y lose in splendour the to wn p e pula
.

tion should g a in in comfort B e th a t a s it ma y the rea l poin t

.
,

is tha t in a country in which eighty fi ve p er cent of the pOpula

-
.

tion lives on the l a nd a n y check on the towns which helps to

,

bring more li ght a n d he a lth to the Villa ge must ultim a tely b a l a nce
’
out for the n a tion s good .

One could not presum e to defi ne the limi ts which th a t r e

dressing of the soci a l b a l a nce in fa vour of the p e a s a nts woul d
re a ch As the pe a s a nts h a ve only j ust b een truly em a n cip a ted
.
,

a n d a gric ultur e pl a ced i n a position to a dopt modern methods of

fa rming it is too e a rly to a n a lyse the soci a l structur e whi ch those

,

ch a n ges will produce A genera l bi a s in fa vour of a gra ri a ni sm

.

is cert a in but less so the strength of th a t bi a s Pe a s a nt po licy

,
.

w ill receive its emph a sis from the evolution of the pe a s a ntry a s
a cl a ss ; a n d seeing th a t the pe a s a nt holdings w hi ch a lre a dy ,

occupy a h n os t the whole of the a r a ble a re a a vera ge merely ,

3 11 a e a ch the st a nd a rd of h vi n g w ithi n the pe a s a nt cl a ss w ill

1
.
,

c lea 1 l b e set by the development of f a rming tech ni que a n d of

y
co oper a tion r a ther th a n by soci a l doctrine
-

,
.

S o much seem s s ure th a t neither of the two po litic a l extremes

,

c a n hop e to h n d recruits a mong the pe a s a nts As long a s .

S oci a lism to sa y nothing of Communism rem a ins in tent upon

, ,

01d Ki ngd om le i
Be ra bi a ssa

Buc o vi na

Tr n sylva n i a
a

Th e re v e n u e o f vi ll t ges i n t h e O ld Ki n gd om w s far b e l o w t h e m in i m u m th a t w o uld

a

h m 6 b e e n n ee d e d m e re ly fo r t h e p a y me n t of s uch offi ci a ls a s t h e la w r e qui re d .

 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 63

experim enting with M a rxi a n tenets in a gricul ture it ca n expect ,

nothing but hostility from these invetera te a sp i ra nts to priva te

holdi ngs On the other h a nd the ide a of Professor R adulescu
.
,
‘
Motru th a t a Conserva tive policy might b e b a sed upon the
reli gious tra di tiona l a n d Con s er va t ive pea s a ntry wo ul d s ee m
'
’
, ,
’
to spring from a confusion between the pe a s a nts psychologic a l
tra its a n d their poh t ical needs A cl a ss which h a s still to ga in
1
.

most of the good thi n gs of lif e a n d the right to control its

own destiny c a nnot but b e a n a rmy of a dva nced reformers
, .

M Ga r ofl i d c a me closer to the re a lities of modern society when he

.

contended th a t in a gra ri a n coun tries democra cy ca n only b e

‘
,

re a l i t it rests on medi um sized property Without such ~

.

property a n y poh t ica l r egim e b e it Conserv a tive Lib era l or

, , ,

P ea sa n t i st becomes di ct a tori al The cre a tio n of such a property

, .

requi res onl y one condition th a t which the bourgeoisie enj oyed ,

everywhere— liberty 2
This is a theme whi ch for a num ber of re a sons M Ga rofli d , , .

a lw a ys espoused T oget h er with most Rum a n i a n a gricul t ura l

.

experts he w a s convin ced th a t better f a rming co ul d b e initi a ted

only through a cl a ss of well to do pea s a nts o w ners of good sized - -

,
-

holdings The cre a tion of such a cl a ss moreover w a s desired

.
, ,

by the more fa r sighted l a ndown ers in their own interests We

-
.

h a ve seen th a t some Conserva tive wr iters a dvoca ted it b eca use

the medi um sized fa rms woul d h a ve a cted a s a buffer between
-

l a rge own ers a n d the m a ss of the pe a s a nts a n d bec a use in th a t ,

w a y m a ny of those left wi thout l a nd wo uld h a ve given the l a rge

est a tes a regula r supply of l a bour As M Ga r ofli d well knew . .
,

liberty i e la i ss ez—fa i r e wo ul d h a ve turned m a ny pe a s a nts into

. .
,

l a ndless l a bour ers a s surely a s it turned the a rtis a ns i nto f a ctory

h a nds Fi n a lly the a bove quot a tion suggests th a t with a rur a l
.
,

middle cl a ss M Ga r ofli d hoped to check the incipient merca n

-

t ili st domin a tion of the Liber a l bour geoisie a s well a s to forest a ll ,

a possible m a ss movement from the Left .

1
S ee T d r d n i s mul, Uh S ufi et si Profess or R ad ules cu Motru i s on e of
0 P oli ti ed .
-

R um ni t di ti ui h d
a s m os pr gress ive thi n ke rs Th e p mphl t wr itt n i n
’
a s n
g s e an d o . a e , e

1 922 a pp a re n tly r pres n t d a r e vuls i o

, e a ga ins t t h e s puri o u s Lib r li s m th n i n
e e n e a e

p ow e r I t i s ch ar cteri stic of t h e m n a d of t h e mo v e m e n t th t Prof ss or Motru h as

. a a n a e

s i n c e j i n e d t h e P as
o t P rtye an a .

2
L e cture on Th e S o ci a l R ol e of t h e M e dium s i e d Pr ope rt y
‘
-
z
’
.

0 o 2
5 64 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL
A pe a s a nt middle cl a ss wo ul d still be good for a gricul tur e
-

a n d the h a rd pressed remn a nt of l a rge property needs it more

-

th a n ever a s a buffer But politic a lly the hour of its usefulness

.

is p a st For the p e a s a nt m a ss movement whi ch M Gar ofli d

. .

dre a ded h a s come ; a n d while this will un doubtedly check the

a ttempt to est a blish a merc a ntilist suprem a cy it is un h k el to
y ,

fa vour the rise of a n a gra ri a n c a pit a lism It is signi fi cant .

th a t when the Agra ri a n Le a gue w a s foun ded recently under ,

M Ga r oflid s presidency with the decl a red a im of f urthering the

.
’
,

profession a l interests of a ll c ul tiva tors its a dve n t w a s but h a lf ,

he a rte dl y welcomed in P ea sa n t i st qu a rters A le a der in the .

’ ‘
Pa rty s offici a l orga n expressed the suspicion th a t cert a in
1

people seem to look upon the Le a gue a s a n a ttempt to re vive

’
Conserva tive feud a l a gra ri a ni sm a n d w a rned them a ga in st a n y
-

a ttempt to short cir cuit the work of the Pe a s a nt P a rt y

-
The .

kind of Conserva tive a gra ri a ni sm so skilfully pur sued hitherto

by the Germ a n L a nd bun d is indeed out of pl a ce in the co untries
of the Pe a s a nt movement Even in Cz echoslova ki a where .
,

a griculture h a d re a ched a n a dv a nced st a ge of c a pit a list develop

me n t the a gra ri a n movemen t st a rted w ith j ust those middle cl a ss

, ,
-

Views a n d elements whi ch M Ga r ofli d fa vour ed h a d a fter the .

, ,

Wa r a n d the rel a tively modera te a gra ri a n reform to be t uned ,

up to the more R a dic a l temper of the sm a llholders .

To s um up the element a ry conditions which govern the

,

Pe a s a nt movement in e a stern Eur ope ca n b e st a ted very sim ply .

In Rum a ni a a s in most of the neighbouri ng coun tries the l a rge

, ,

owners a r e a s a cl a ss reduced to i n signi fi ca n ce Nor is the .

rem a i n ing l a nd reserve s uffi ci en t to feed the growth of a weighty

rura l middl e cl a ss Hence a gric ul ture a n d a n y agra ri a n move
-
.
,

ment will a s fa r a s one ca n see be domin a ted by the m a ss of

, ,

sm a ll pe a s a nts On the other h a nd there is for m a ny ye a rs to

. ,

come no pos s ibi lity of indu stri a l exp a nsion on a sc a le big enough
to cre a te a numerous industri a l prolet a ri a t hold ing Soci alistic ,

views on property a n d production Until this h a ppens t here is .

no room for the growt h of a powerful politica l org a ni z a tion to

the Left of the Pe a s a nt m a ss From which it follows th a t t h roug h .

its own i n ner structure a s well a s through the pl a ce it occupies

,

D pt t J u ry 1 5 1 929 1
re a ea , an a ,
.
 EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 65

in rel a tion to other soci a l groups the Pe a s a nt movement must ,

necess a rily le a n tow a rds the Left wi ng of poh t ica l a lignment in

Rum a ni a .

Nevertheless the emergence of thi s movement is likely to

,

give st a bi lity to the politics of a country situ a ted in a disturbed

region a n d which enters upon its a dolescence in such restless
times a s our s Even the Pa rty which h a s done le a st for the
.

Pe a s a nts sees a n d a dm its th a t The good sense p a triotism .

‘
, ,
’
intelligence a n d modera tion of the pe a s a ntry s a id a Libera l
, ,

le a der will brin g into the life of the poli tic a l p a rties a n d hence
,
‘
,

into the li fe of the country a n element of ste a dy n a tion a l ,

development 1 A m a ss movement with such a strong emph a sis

.

on the in di vidu a l should be ca p a ble of rising to a democr a tic

conception of socia l j ustice without h a ving a ltogether to rely
~

for its fulfilm en t on the he a vy h a nded discipli ne of the St a te -

.

It shoul d b e a ble to promot e equ a lity without the dev a st a tion of

liberty It sho ul d i n stil i nto publi c life b oth the p a tience whi ch
.

is inborn in the yeom a n tiller of the soil a n d a lso his dogged

resist a nce to Violence a n d a buse Dict a torships Red or W hi te .
, ,

should h n d it h a rd to fl our i sh where the Pe a s a nt movement is

est a b lished Any a dva nce resting on it m a y m a ke but slow
.

progress yet the progress should b e ste a dy For if the pe a s a nts

, .

a r e more d i ffi cu lt to org a ni ze th a n in dustri a l workers their ,

powers of resist a nce a r e infi ni t ely gre a ter They ca n bide thei r .

tim e An d to th a t element a l strength gre a t ide a lism is now

.

a llied Th e movement is a stir with th a t crus a ding spirit which

.

inspired the e a rly L a bour movement in Engl a nd Like the l a tter .

,

it h lls m a ny of the best a mong intellectu a ls old a n d young w ith , ,

a p a ssion a te ze a l to serve the people ; a ze a l a kin in e a gerness to

‘ ’
tha t goin g to the people which perh a ps w a s the most movin g
- - -

’
episode in Russia s revolution a ry history but a ze a l a pplied in ,

o ur c a s e to pr a ctic a l politics a n d with the odds of power on ,

its side .

S e much of this pictur e h a s h a d to be sketched wi th the

brush of i m a gin a tion th a t no one could expect to see it come out
una l tered from the workshop of Time M a ny of the det a i ls a r e .

1
M N Ch ir c ulescu R ep mt
. .
, on th e New Con s ti tution submi tted to th e Ch a mber on
5 th M a rch 1 9 2 3 p 3 , . .
5 66 S OCIAL AND POLITICAL EFFECTS
b ound to va ry a little a n d some of them m a y in the long r un
,

va ry a gre a t de a l Or not impossibly some unf oreseen di scovery

.
, ,

or a fresh j erk to the course of history m a y ch a nge the picture

out of recogni tion Wh a t hi stori a n of a revolution a ry ch a nge
.

could t hi nk of predi cting fin alit y for its results ? But a t le a st

one genera l conclusion emerging from thi s study should rem a in
un a ffected by age : th a t the more far re a chi ng effects of this
-

gre a t reform which a politic a l uphe a va l h a s c a lled forth will

, ,

blossom a n d b e a r fruit in the soci a l li fe of the people r ather th a n

,

in the field of a gr a ri a n economics .

 CONCLUSION
THE Rum ani a n reform m a y be likened to a n histori ca l
ca r r efour a meeting pl a ce from w hi ch m a ny p a ths r a di a te in a ll
,
-

di rections— p a ths of inquiry a n d of specul a tion The la w itself .

only m a rks the st a ge where p a st a n d futur e tre n d s in the

country s historic a l development cross e a ch other A d e scr ip
’
.

tion of its texts wo ul d not s uffi ce for the elucid a tion of th a t

story For this one must go f a rther a n d deep er dra win g light
.
,

from hi story a n d economics fr om sociology an d poli tics The

, .

hi ghw a y of our work w a s m a pped out a s a sociologic a l study of

the evolution of the pe a s a ntry a s a cl a ss ; but a t m a ny po i nts
we were forced or perh a ps merely tempted to m a ke excur sions
, ,

in to the by w a ys of releva nt sciences If th a t w a s needed a s a

-
.

mea ns of giving reli ef to the m a in story it h a d the sub sidi a ry

,

a dv a nt a ge of brin gin g out cert a in a spects in the soci a l progress

of e a stern E urope which m a y be new to the Western re a der .

It h a s for inst a nce reve a led some peculi a r fe a tur es in the

, ,

economics of a b a ckw a rd a gra ri a n coun try a n d it h a s shown ,

wh a t a poor a lloy such a b a ckw a rd economic structure m a kes

w ith the forms of a dv a nced governm ent It h a s fur nished for
.

poli tic a l science some striki ng m a teri a l on the n a ture a n d h a bits

of n a tiona lism ; a n d it h a s incident a lly ra ised the question
whether we shoul d not revise our estim a te of the m a in forces
a n d events w hi ch h a ve moulded the history of e a stern Europe .

The custom a ry historic a l verdict h a s been s a t i sfi e d with

ch a rging to the Tur kish inva sion a ll the e vils which the peoples
of south e a stern Europe h a ve suffered The coming of the Turks
-
.

a n d their prolonged domin a tion cert a i nl y contributed to a rrest

,

a n d w a rp the politic a l development of the B a lk a n p eoples .

Yet for the m a ss of the popula tions concerned the consequence

w a s not a ltogether ba d for the s a me circumst a nces likewis e
,

del a yed the soci a l h a rdening which goes with the growth of
the modern n a tion a list mili t a nt St a te It is ch a ra cteristic th a t
-

the fi r st Prince to lower the st a tus of the pe a s a ntry wa s

Mih a iu the Bra ve who w a s a lso the fi rst to equip a pro
,

fe ssi on a l a rmy a n d to use it for exp a nsion a n d not merely for

5 68 CONCLUS ION
defence And it w a s o nl y with the emergence of a n a tion a list
.

r ul ing cl a ss a n d the erection of a n el a b ora te politic a l a n d milit a ry

,

structur e tha t the p eople were c a lled upon to m a ke con t ri bu

,

tions of a size which they coul d not give wi thout prostra tion a n d
whi ch therefore coul d not be secured without coercion In fa ct .
,

the pe a s a nt never touched dur in g the times of qu a si feuda l

,
-

serfdom the depths of misery which w a s hi s lot du1i ng neo ‘

serfdom under Constitution a l governm ent During the severa l .

’
centuries of foreign domi n a tion the pe a s a nts a n cient l a nd rights
were spora di c a lly a bused but w ith the coming of n a tion a l
,

governm ent they were quickl y a n d system a tic a lly suppressed .

And if in the l a wlessness of the first period the pe a s a nt s l a rder ’

w a s occ a sion a lly r a ided a n d emptied of its good thi n gs in the ,

p eriod of n a tion a l independence the ex a ctions of St a te a n d upper

cl a ss seldom left him with a nyt hing to put in it Th e history .

of the Rum a ni a n people reve a ls a close a n d pl a in correl a tion

b etween the rise of n a tion a l Government an d the soci a l depression
of the pe a s a ntry .

V ery r a re were the voices to condemn such m a ltre a tment of

the m a ss of the people a n d no heed w a s p a id to them a t a ll
, .

The interest a n d a mbition of the ruling cl a ss were a bsorbed in

a frenzied pursuit a fter the tr i mmings a n d tr a pp i ngs of ci vili z a
’

tion In 1 9 06 the St a te celebra ted with gre a t pomp its golden

.

j ub ilee In. 1 9 07 it w a s Visited by a desper a te pe a s an t rising put ,

down with wholes a le m a ss a cre This brought home to most people

.

how rotten were the found a tions on which the St a te rested a n d ,

c a u s ed m a ny of them to pre a ch a n d press for reform The nee d .

for reform w a s conceded by the rulers in 1 9 1 3 when the coun try ,

exp ected a t a n y moment to b e dra gged into the B a lk a n w a rs .

B ut the d a nger p a ssed a n d nothi ng w a s done until the Gre a t ,

Wa r impera tively forced the question to the fore a g a in Fur ther .

hesit a tion a n d tergivers a tion were only ended by the Russi a n

Revolution B etween the two coun t l ie s there w a s a gre a t sim i
.

la r it y of co n ditions In neither of them w a s the 01 ga m z a t l on of

.

the St a te a n d the mora le of the people c a p a ble of st a n ding the

stra in of prolonged effort a n d it w a s ine vit a ble tha t i n the c a se
, ,

of a bre a kdown the m a sses should be tempted to bre a k the ir

,

ch a ins In Ru s sia the w a r with J a p a n w a s followed by the a bor

.
 CONCLUSION 5 69

tive ris ing of 1 905 wh ile the Gre a t Wa r ended for her in the
,

Revolution of 1 9 1 7 The lesson w a s too fe a rful a n d too ne a r to b e

.

lost upon Rum a n i a s rul ers Wh a t ye a rs of a rgum en t h a d fa iled

’
.

to a chieve even on a modera te sc a le w a s a ccepted in 1 9 1 7 over

n ight a n d in a sweeping me a sure The inerti a from which the
.

good in tentio n s expressed before the Wa r suffered a n d the ,

conspicuous ill will shown to the bene fi cia rie s of the reform a fter
-

the Wa r le a ve no room for doubt tha t Wa r a n d reform st a n d in

,

close c a us a l connexion to e a ch other .

This conclusion finds further support in the m a n ner in which

l a nd w a s distributed under the reform An a gra ri a n reform .

a ppli ed in norm a l conditions would h a ve b a sed the selection of

the ben efi ci a r i e s on cert a in economic st a nd a rds Under the .

Rum a ni a n reform however l a nd w a s given not to tho s e who

, ,

could m a ke the b est use of it but to those who suffered most in

,

the Wa r Even the Pe a s a n t le a der M Mih ala ch e h a d to a dmit

.
, .
,
‘
th a t a differen t criterion woul d c a use a mora l revolt in the
vi ll a ges Ou the s a me grounds the siz e of the holdi n gs w a s fi x ed
with a View not to sound fa rming but to t h e s a tisfa ction of the
l a rgest possible num ber of cl a im a nts In every other a spect the
.

reform be a rs the imprin t of h a sty work c a rried out in the throes

of a n emergency The whole reform therefore a mounted to a
.
, ,

redistribution of l a nd property w ith little a ccount t a ken of the

,

economics of the a gricultura l industry The new la w thus con .

t in ue d the tr a di tion of a ll the reforms from 1 8 6 4 onwa rds but ,

with two import a nt di fferences Where a s the ultim a te res ul t of

.

the reform of 1 8 6 4 when the pe a s a nts were em a ncip a te d h a d

, ,

been to enl a rge the a re a a n d especi a lly to strengthen the st a tus

, ,

of l a rge property the l a test reform h a s a hn ost a nnih il a ted i t

, .

And w hi le in 1 8 64 the b a l a nce of compen s a tion weighed he a vily

in fa vour of the l an dlords they h a ve now received no more th a n
,

a nomin a l compens a tion for the l a nd th a t h a s been t a ken a w a y

from them These two va ri a tions woul d j ustify the description

.

of the new reform a s a revolution— a soci a l revolution c a rried

through by pe a ceful mea ns but a revolution none the less when
,

me a sured by the sudden an d sweeping ch a nge it h a s c a used in

the rel a tive position of the two rur a l cl a sses .

It is instructive to consider in retrospect the effects which

5 70 CONCLUS ION
were expected to follow from such a reform a s forec a sted by one ,
’
of the country s le a di ng poli tici a ns In a p a mphl e t on The .
‘

Adv a nt a ges of Expropri a tion written e a rly in 1 91 4 M Vin t ilét ’

, , .

Brati a nu a ttempted a com p rehensive list of them a s sum m a riz ed ,

below
F or th e L a n d own er
1 . He wi ll s e cu r e p e a ce o n t h e l a n d a n d a s tr en gt h en e d d efen ce of
,

p r o p e rt y .

2 . Wi t h t h e mon e y r e ce i v e d a s com p en sa t ion h e wi l l p a y h is d e b t s ,

i m p r o v e h i s fa r m o r i n v e s t i n i n du s tr y a n d comm e r ce
, .

3 . Th e v a lu e of t h e l a n d l e ft t o hi m wi l l be e n h a n ce d .

4 . W h a t r e m a i n s of l a rge p r o p er t y w i ll be b e tt e r fa r me d a s t h e ,

p ea s a n t s w i ll h a v e m o r e a n d b e tt e r a ni m a l s whi l e t h e l a n dle ss ,

p e a s a n t s wi ll d e r i v e a d v a n t a ge fr om m o r e i n t en si v e cult i v a t io n .

5 . Th e d e v e l o p m en t o f n a t io n a l i n du s tr y wi ll d r a w wo r k e r s i n t o t h e
t own s t hu s r e ducin g hun ge r for l a n d
, .

6 . Food a n d h e al t h w i l l i m p r o v e a n d on e m i l li on we l l fed c hi l d r en
,
‘
-

wi l l m e a n on e mi ll i on h e a lt hy a n d s p i r i te d s o l di e r s for t h e d efen ce
o f t h e cou n tr y a n d on e mi ll i o n Vi o r ous wo r k e r s for a gr i cult ur e
, g
a n d i n du s t r y
’
.

F or I n d us tr y and Tr a de
1 . Th e l a n d own e r s p u r c h a s in g p owe r wi l l n ot fa l l ; t h e li qui d mon e y
’

w hi c h t he y wi ll h a v e a t t h ei r d is p os a l or e l s e im p r o v e d cu lt i v a t ion
, ,

w i l l h e l p tr a d e a n d i n dus tr y .

Th e p ea sa n t s pu r c h a s i n g p owe r wi l l i n c r e a s e gr e a tl y Tr a de rs
’ ‘
2 . .

a n d m a n u fa c t u r e r s h a v e a gr e a t e r i n t e r es t t h a n a n y o t h e r c l a ss

i n t h e a pp l i ca t io n o f a n a gr a r i a n r e fo r m
’
.

F or th e P ea s a n t
1 . He wi l l n o l o n ge r h a v e t o p a y r en t .

2 . He wi l l a pp l y h i s l a b ou r m o r e e con o m ica l l y a n d ,

3 . a l so t h a t o f h i s a n i m a l s .

4 . He wi l l be m o r e i n d e p e n d e n t a n d wi l l be a b l e t o t ill t h e l a n d a t t h e
,

p r o p e r t im e t hus o b t a i n i n g l a rge r a n d b e tt e r c r op s
,
.

5 . He wi l l be a b l e t o i n tr o duce a gr ea t e r v a r i e t y i n h i s c r o p s w h i c h w i ll ,

m a k e h i m m o r e s e cu r e a ga i n s t ba d h a r v e s t s a n d ba d p r i ce s .

Genera l
1 . N a t io n a l we a lt h wi l l i n c re a s e wi t h t h e a l l r oun d i mp r o v e me n t i n ~

fa r mi n g .

2 . A gr i cult u r e w i l l i m p r o v e b e ca us e o n l y s m a l l cul t i v a t o r s ca n gi v e
,

l a b ou r m a n u r e & c fo r i n t e n si v e fa r mi n g Th e go l d t h a t com e s
, , .
,
.
 CONCLUSION 5 71
i n to t h e land at p r ese n t s h ou l d n ot m i s l e a d us . It r ep r es en ts in
p a r t th e d ra i n i ng of th e r i ch n ess of our s oi l TO d i rect agr i culture
.

towa r d s s ma ll i n tens i ve fa r mi ng would b e a meas ur e o

ffor es igh t a n d
n a ti on a l econ om y
’

p r ogr es s for our wh ole .

3 . All t i s wou l h d str en gt h en t h e fi n a n ci a l p osi t ion of the S ta te .

M a ny of the good res ul ts pre di cted by M Bratia nu were self .

evi dent Th a t n a tion a l we a lth would g a in from the development

.

of the country s chief industry w a s cle a r ; a n d there could b e no

’

doubt th a t tra de an d m a nufa ctur e stood to ben efi t from a n

increa se in the purch a sing power of four fift h s of the popul a tion -
.

I t M Brati a nu w a s less successful in tellin g the fortune of the

.

l a ndowners it is bec a use he a n d his P a rty intended t a king less

l a nd a n d p a yi ng more for it th a n they were a ble to do through
letting things w a it till 1 9 1 7 Oi speci a l in terest for our study is
.

M Brati a nu s unh esit a ting forec a st th at production wo uld

.
’

improve for in r ea h t y it h a s to some extent fa llen off a n d thi s

, ,

h a s been m a de the c hi ef pl a n k in a ll criticisms of the reform .

His vi ew w a s b a sed on the un deni a ble f a ct th a t nothi ng co ul d b e

worse th a n the system of l a rge se a le a griculture pr a ctised in -

Rum a ni a b efore the reform ; a n d on the a ssum ption now ,

genera lly held th a t o nl y the sm a llholder can pr ofi t a bly a pply

,

himself to highly intensive fa rmin g In Rum a ni a the p a ssi n g .

of yeom a n f a rmin g w a s not brought a bout by the pr e ssu1 e of

economi c requirements a n d the result w a s not a n economic
,

a dv a nce On the contr a ry b oth the methods a n d the results of

.
,

fa rming ste a d ily deteriora ted with the incre a se in the size of
fa rms Export s were the outgrowth of extreme Ra ubwi rtschaft
.
,

inflicted upon the people a s well a s upon the soil It is doubtful .

whether th a t system coul d h a ve sur vived even a sli ght redress in

the soci a l b a l a nce of power which w a s inevi t a ble a fter the Wa r
, ,

or the fresh crisis into whi ch Europe a n growers h a ve b een plunged

by the fa b ul ous development of corn growing in North Americ a -
.

Professor Gust a v C a ssel h a s st a ted in a n interview th a t wi th

the new m a chines which cut a n d thr esh a t the s a me time
America n f a rmers can perform these opera tions a t a cost of
forty cents a n a cre a n d th a t under fa ir con di tions the cost of
,

the whole process of cultiva tion from ploughing to threshing , ,

a mounts to eighty four cents per a cre -

The cost of corn produc .
5 72 CONCLUSION
tion h a s therefore fa llen to one fourth withi n the l a st thr ee ye a rs 1
-
.

The l a rge Rum a ni a n owners a n d ten a nts who h a d no equipment

a n d little c a pit a l of their ow n could not h a ve kept p a ce with

these ch a nges .

Professor C a ssel further pointed out th a t rel a tively the con

sumption of corn is decre a sing bec a use ( a ) mech a ni c a l tra ns ,

port is repl a cing a ni m a l tra ction ( b) m a ny countries a re reducing

,

the m a nufa ct ure a n d consum ption of spir its ( 0) hum a n diet is ,

sho w ing a m a rked ch a nge Cere a ls a n d me a t a r e b ein g i n cre a s

.

i n gly repl a ced by d a iry produce veget a bles a n d fruit But these
, , .

a re j ust the a rticles in the production of w hi ch the pe a s a nt

sm a llholder e a sily outstrips the l a rger f a rmer In a gricult ure .

production on a l a rge sc a le is not a lw a ys pra ctic a ble or pr ofit able .

The sm a ll fa rmer a n d esp eci a lly the pe a s a nt o w ni ng hi s holding

, ,

a n d worki n it himsel f w ith the a id of hi s f a mily is usu a lly the

g ,

more successful producer of those crops a n d foo d stuffs whi ch

require in tensive h a nd l a b our a n d const a nt c a re For th a t .

re a son a gricultur e u n like i ndustry h as not seen a continuous

, ,

concentra tion of the uni ts of production but ra ther a v a ri a tion ,

in the size of fa rms rel a ted to the n a ture of the crops grown on
them Sp e a king of the slow ch a nge in the distribution of l a nd
.

property in F r a nce H Pa ssy in a b ook publishe d a bout the

, .
,

middle of l a st century suggested th a t it is the n a tur e of a gri

,
‘

cultur a l work itself conditioned a s it is by loc a l circum st a nces

, ,

a t one time to further the bre a k up of l a nd prop erties a n d a t -

a nother time to a rrest it a n d to provoke a movement of con

centra tion Wh en Europe needed bre a d for its ra pidly exp a ndi ng
industri a l cities the w a y w a s opened to l a rge sc a le f a rmin g through -

the em a ncip a tion of the pea s a nts a n d other me a sures Now th a t .

the overse a s cou n tries supply more c om th a n is dem a nded ,

Europe a n a griculture is tending to concentra te on the produc

tion of a nim a l a n d d a iry products a n d on m a rket g a rdeni ng -

a n d in every country l a rge f a rms a r e b eing broken up in to

sm a llholdings .

The Rum a ni a n l a nd reform merely let loose with a rush ,

1 r
A gus , O ct b r
o e 25 , 1 9 28 Ou t h e. th e r h a n d a wr ite r i n t h e Revue d Eco nomie
o
’

P oli tiq ue , J a n — F e b 1 929 , a g e

. . ar u d th t t h U n ite d S ta tes w e re lik e ly t o b e come
e

i p rt r
m o e s of mea t .
 CONCLUSION 5 73

t h rough the brea ch the Wa r m a de in the w a ll of soci a l an d politic a l

restrictions a c urrent whi ch w a s a lrea dy coursi n g throughout
,

rur a l Europe The ch a ng e w a s e a sy in Rum a ni a bec a use the

.

l a rge f a rms were genera lly cultiva ted by the pe a s a nts with their
own a ni m a ls an d implements the system bei n g like the dome s tic ,

piece we a ving a t the beginn ing of the L a nc a shi r e cotton i n dustry

r a ther th a n like the modern c a pit a list production on a l a rge sc a le ;
a n d the ch a n ge w a s urgent not only to meet the a ltered require

ments of the m a rket but a lso tech ni c a lly in order to introduce a

, ,

more ra tion a l crop rot a tion which should S p a re the strength of

-

the soil Fin a lly the opin ion h a s been expressed tha t the reform
.
,

h a s f a cilit a ted the t a sk of reconstruction In his report to the .

Intern a tion a l Agric ul tura l Congre s s which met in Ro m e in J une ,

1 9 27 M Ionescu Sise s ti decl a red th a t it is a gener a l opinion in

‘
-
.
,

our co untry th a t lea vin g a side its soci a l import a n ce the a gra ri a n
, ,

reform h a s helped to m a ke good in a gric ul ture the d a m a ge c a u s ed

by the Wa r Without the intervention of the reform the r e sum p
.

tion of cultiv a tion on the l a rge la t ifun di a r y est a tes a n d the

renew a l of live stock woul d h a ve been much more difficult
-

’
a n d gre a tly del a yed Th e reform must indeed h a ve been fully
.

s been co m mended even

j u s t ifi e d economic a lly seeing th a t it h a

by M S Tim ov the spokesm a n of the Interna tion a l Agra ri a n

. .
,

Institute in Moscow He wrote to M Ionescu Sise s ti s a ying . .

-

‘
I a gree with you th a t the a gra ri a n reform h a s done no h a rm
wh a tever a n d th a t on the contra ry it h a s contributed to the
, , ,
’
progress of rura l economy a n d even of n a tion a l economy 1 .

These predi ctions a n d expect a tions h a ve not b een re a liz ed so

fa r Production h a s b een una ble to keep either a b solutely or
.

rel a tively even to the low pre w a r level The a rgum en t tha t -
.

wi thout the reform things would h a ve been still worse though ,

a dv a nced with undi s put a ble a uthority is hypothetic a l a n d does ,

not tell us how th a t fa ll in output is to b e expl a ined The .

retrogression is the more puzz ling a s with the huge tra nsfer of
property went o nl y a very li mited ch a nge in the a gents a n d
methods a n d me a ns of production Hence the i nevit a ble fa lling .

off— to b e expected wh i le the industry a d a pted itself to the new

1
L etter t o M I on es cu S i sesti d a te d J une
.
-
20, 1 9 27 , ki dly comm u n ic ate d by
n the
re cipi en t .
5 74 CONCLUSION
i
cond tions —
sho uld h a ve been sli ght an d of short dur a tion More .

serious w a s the d a m a ge c a used by the Wa r The renewa l of .

live stock in the re a ring of w hi ch the pe a s a nts excel m a y h a ve

, ,

b een exception a lly r a pid ; but ten ye a rs shoul d h a ve s ufii e e d to

m a ke good the d a m a ge suffered by corn gro wing -

We wi ll not here repe a t even in summ a ry the det a iled

, ,

discussion of this problem cont a ined in Ch a pters V III— XI One .

need merely st a te the releva nt conclusion th a t the reform f a iled

to m a ke good economic a lly bec a use during a period of double
reconstruction a griculture did not di spose of the cre di ts a n d
other f a cilities requi red to th a t end An d still more bec a use .

a griculture wh i le b eing st a rved of support w a s bur dened with

, ,

one sided restriction s a n d impositions in the sh a p e of export

-

t a xes controll ed prices a n d so e m The psychologic a l effect of

, .

th a t policy must h a ve b een a t le a st a s deterrin g a s its m a teri a l

consequen ces A m a nufa cturer or a c a pit a list f a rmer h a s to keep
.

his undert a king goin g even in the f a ce of a dverse con di tions i n ,

o 1 der to cover a s fa r a s possible his overhea d run ni ng expenses .

But a n unfriendly poli cy m a y brin g the fruga l an d a lmost

self sufficin g pea s a nt to the point of troublin g no longer to
-

grow supplies for the m a rket a s h a ppened in Russi a a fter the

,

Bolshevik revolution In Rum an i a the hostile interference

.

of the St a te did not go fa r enough to dry up production but ,

it cert a inly took a w a y a ll stim ulus from it After h a vin g .

been given very che a ply the l a nd they coveted the p ea s a n ts ,

were m a de to pa y its re a l v a lue severa l tim es over by me a ns of

indirect contributions They esc a ped the s elfi sh exploit a tion of
.

the l a rge owners only to fa ll under the stepmotherly tutel a ge of

a merc a ntilist St a te The inj ustice of such a policy w a s offi ci ally
.

recog n ized in theory The exp os e d e motifs to the fi scal law of

.

1 923 emph a tic a lly decl a red th a t A St a te c a nnot b e democra tic

1

i i a t the moment when a l a rge rur a l property dis a ppe a rs it

, ,

permits a few people to a ccumul a te fortun es from tra de a n d

industry while le a ving the m a ss in the st a te of the serfs of
,

yesterd a y who were un a ble to sha re in the ben efit s of our

,

genera l prosperity In pra ctice however thi s w a s the very

’
.
, ,

thing th a t h a ppe n ed The income t a x returns for the period

.
-

M i t ul Ofi i l J u ry 1 6 1 9 23 p 27 8
1
on or c a , an a , , . .
 CONCLUS ION 5 75

1 923— 7 showed tha t 6 per cent of the priva te tra ders a n d .

m a nufa cturers secured 47 per cent of the tot a l priva te revenue . .

‘
The situ a tion which b efore the Wa r existed on the l a nd s a ys ’
,

Dr Cre a nga where a num ber of la t ifun d ia r y owners ret a i n ed

.
,
‘

the gre a ter p a rt of the a gric ul tur a l revenue h a s now p a ssed into ,
’
n i
the dom a in of tra de a d ndustry 1
As a p ea s a nt tersely summed .

‘ ’ ’
up the result : He s pushed the bowl ne a rer but he s given me ,

a shorter spoon .

The l a test l a nd reform h a s thus given the ruling cl a ss merely

a nother opportunity to prove their l a ck of in terest i n the f a te of

the pea s a ntry Cir cum st a nces h a d forced them to h a nd the l a nd

.

over But instea d of tur ni ng th a t necessity to n a tio n a l a dva nt a ge

.
,

by endowing the new owners with the me a ns of m a kin g the best

of their v a lu a ble possessio n a ll the resources of the St a te were ,

thrown i nto the service of a policy of i n dustri a l exp a nsion To .

a chieve this a i m re a son a bly one of two pos s ible w a ys might h a ve

been followed The in terested cl a ss might h a ve t a ken a long

.

V iew of it a n d gr a du a lly prep a red the requi red condi tions

c a pit a l l a bour a n d a m a rket— by developin g to the utmost the

, ,

existing productive orga ni z a tio n th a t is a griculture Or it might , .

h a ve a ppe a led for speedy a chievement to the help of foreign

c a pit a l a n d en terprise B eing a privileged ruling cl a ss they .

would not a llow the fir st a n d b ein g a n a tion a list cl a ss they could,

not a d mit the second The a mbition to cre a te a n a tion a l industry

.

w a s coupled with a policy of m a king a gric ul tur e pa y for i t .

The result w a s tha t inste a d of enla rging economic life w ith the
help of foreign c a pit a l it choked e conomi c life by extra cting ,

tribute for the crea tion of a n a tion a l c a pit a l On the occ a sion .

of a priva te Visit to Rum a ni a Professor Werner S om ba r t exposed ,

in a n inter view the ob vious fo lly of th a t cour se In the present .

ph a se of Rum a ni a s econo mi c evolution he is reported to h a ve

’ ’
,
‘
s a id the export of a gricultura l products forms the princip a l
,

element of c a pit a list progress The a mbition to m a ke the country .

economic a lly self s uffi cie n t by cre a ting a ll the me a ns of produc

-

tion needed for modern soci a l life is a ltogether f a lla cious The , .

possibili ty of re a chi n g economic a utonomy is determined by

n a tur a l condi tions a n d not by the will of the rulers to org a ni ze
,

V i t u il si A v il R m a i i M ri i t h B ut I t E R m J ry 1 9 27
1 ‘ ’
en r e er e o n e a , n e . ns . c
. o .
, a nna .
5 76 CONCLUSION
it
’
1
. In fa ct the neglect of a gricultur e h a s m a de the ro a d of
,

Rum a ni a n industry more di ffic ult It h a s del a yed the growth .

of the home m a rket wh ile exports a re out of question ; a n d it

,

h a s prevented the im provement of the supply of food needed for

the m a inten a nce of a n industri a l popula tion .

The question whether th a t a ttempt to foster a n a tion a l

industry w a s right or wrong a n d of the motives which in spired ,

i t is however not di rectly relev a nt to our a rgum ent The poin t

, .

is th a t in the m a nner a n d circum st a nces in whi ch it w a s m a de

th a t a ttempt a cted a s a serious deterre n t to a gricul tur e He n ce .

the issue resolved itself not into a tech ni c a l problem whi ch ,

a gric ulture might h a ve solved for itself but into a poli tic a l issue ,

which a gricult ure h a d to figh t out a ga inst the forces of merc a n

t ili s m S ome ye a rs a go a Lib era l Mi ni ster s a id in the Ch a mb er
.

th a t u nl ike industry a griculture deserved no speci a l encour a ge

, ,

ment a s its progress depended on n a tur a l elemen ts such a s soil

, ,

a n d r a in The opposite point of View w a s put in P a rli a men t

.

by M I uli u M a niu the present Prime Mi n ister in a sp eech

.
, ,

delivered on 4t h August 1 9 27 He insisted th a t a s Rum a ni a w a s .

a n a gr a ri a n coun try a ll the other br a nches of econo m ic a cti vity

,

dep ended on a griculture After dec a des of a n unn a tur a l econom ic

.

poli cy directed t ow a rds a forced i n dustri a lism w hi ch dem a nded

, ,

enormous sa cr ifi ce s from St a te a n d consum ers the time h a s come ,

to in a ugur a te a n a gr a ri a n policy Such a new orien t a tion of .

our economic policy is the more necess a ry a s the reform h a s put

’
four fi ft h s of the country s soil in the h a nds of sm all c ul tiv a tors
-
’
.

No other line co uld in deed b e pursued a fter such a reform a dded ,

M Mih a la ch e It is not possible to contempl a te a system a tic

. .

org a niz a tion of production c a rried out aga i n st the interested ‘

cl a s s— the pe a s a nts ; it c a n b e done only w ith i ts p a rti ci pa ti on

a n d un d er i ts con tr ol both in devising legisl a tion a n d in a pplyi ng
,

it
’
Leni n a dmitted a s much when he put forw a rd his new
.
2

economic policy in 1 9 21 : We must now ende a vour to develop ‘

a n a tion a l economy b a sed upo n the re a l psychology of the

well to do pe a s a nt whose motives a n d sent iments we h a ve

- -

,
’
b een un a ble to ch a nge during these thr ee ye a rs Th a t w a s .

equ a lly true of Rum a ni a The economic a n d fi n an cia l policy of .

A d vé ul J u ry 4 1 9 29
1
e r , an N ul B gi m A g
a ,
1 9 25 p 5
.
2
o e ra r , , . .
 CONCLUSION 5 77

the p a st ten yea r s h a s o nl y succeeded in Viti a ting the n a tion a l

effect of the reform Inste a d of setting free a new spirit of pro
.

fes si on a l hope a n d emul a tion it h a s cre a ted a n a tmosphere of ,

bitter politic a l con flict In a neg a tive w a y a t a n y ra te there is

.
, ,

i n this further proof th a t the chief ob st a cle to the succe s sful

m a tur ing of the reform h a s been politic a l ra ther th a n techn ica l .

The tech n ic a l problem indeed w a s h a rdly put a t a ll It woul d, , .

b e n a i ve to believe s a id M Mih a la ch e th a t the reform is fi n i sh e d

,
.
, ,

a n d th a t a ll th a t rem a in s is to re vise a buses in its a pplic a tion .

The revision of a buses is merely a mora l necessity so a s to restore ,

‘
confiden ce in la w a n d governme n t But everyt hi ng is still to .

b e done so far a s the work of a gra ri a n development is concerned

The techni c a l im provement of fa rming a n d the system a tic ,

org a niz a tion of a gricultura l economics is of vit a l import an ce ,

for Rum a n i a bec a u s e a h n ost every thi n g in the progress of St a te

,

a n d n a tion depends on th a t Without it the popul a tion problem .

must b efore lo n g become a cute Hitherto a gra ri a n unr est h a s .

been p eriodic a lly pl a c a ted by gra n ts of l a nd But when in .

’ ‘
twenty ye a rs time the problem crop s up a ga in in a more ,

threa ten in g m a nn er w rites a Professor a t the Cluj Agricultura l

’
,

College h a vi ng no longer a t our dispo s a l the la t ifun d i a r y est a tes

, ,

we sha ll then be un a ble to h a ve recour se to the f a cile solution

a pplied a t present The a gra ri a n soci a l crisis which simmers
.
-

to d a y but which to morrow will boil over h a s its roots in the

-

,
-

tech ni que of a griculture to which until now we h a ve give n little ,

thought or none a t a ll The ra n dom distribution of l a nd a t the

.
2

l a st reform h a s rendered the technic a l problem st ill more d i ffi cul t .

When a fter two or thr ee genera tion s the holding of 5 h a h a s been .

reduced to 2— 3 h a pe a s a nt f a rmin g will con tribute little tow a rds

.
,

the n eeds of the tow n s u nl ess in the me a ntime a gricul ture is

brought technica lly a n d comm erci a lly to a high degree of
e fficiency And a s industri a l exp a nsio n is impossible without
.

fi r st ra i s ing the purch a si n g power of the pe a s a nts consider a bly ,

fa ilur e to develop fa rming inten s ively would me a n th a t a gri

culture will be left to m a i n t a i n a n incre a sing rura l pop ul a tion
on it s pre s ent poor output I n s uch condi tions the popula tion .

1
N oul B egi m A gr a r , 1 9 25 p 27 . .

2
Dr . M Chi r i te s cu—Ar on
.
, a rticle i n S oci eta tea de M d in e , vol
. 1, No 6 , 1 924
. .

P P
5 78 CONCLUSION
problem wo ul d soon b ecome serious on the l a nd To f a vour l a rge .

sc a le fa rmin g a n d corn growing a s some exp erts who regret the

-

former exports a dvoc a te wo ul d o nl y render the problem more

,

a cute For if they a r e to comp ete wi th overse a corn Rum ani a n

.
,

growers woul d h a ve to rely incre a singly upon m a chi nes a n d th a t ,

wo ul d le a ve correspondi ngly less room for a gricultur a l l a bour .

The pressure of popula tion is not a s strong in Rum a ni a a s it is

in the West a n d it wo ul d not b e felt a t a ll if f a rming were more
,

productive Ult im a tely however the issue will resolve itself for
.
, , ,

the Rum a ni a n st a tesm a n a lso into a pop ul a tion problem but , ,

a s fa r a s one c a n fore s ee i nto a rur a l a n d not an urb a n problem .

The genera l tendency tow a rds a ret urn to sm a llhol di ngs r e

fleets something more sign ifi ca n t th a n a mere ch ang e in the di et
of the civilized coun tries The hot house growth of industry
.
-

during the Wa r a n d in the fi r st ye a rs a fter it h a s in m a ny p a rts

gone too fa r a n d a s a consequence the need is now felt to r e di st r i
,

bute economic a ctivity This fi n d s expression a bove a ll in pro

.

gra ms a n d p olicies supporting a re turn to the l a nd A centur y a go .

,

when the new industries were dr a w ing a l a rge number of workers

from the Vill a ge th a t flight from the l a nd fa vour ed a concentra
,

tion of fa rmin g a n d the l a ying do w n of the l a nd under corn a n d

gra ss Now th a t industri a l centres suffer from a n over supply of
.
-

l a bour the process is b ei n g reversed : the tendency is to bre a k up

est a tes a n d l a rge f a rms i n to sm a llhol d in gs a n d to repl a ce corn ,

growing w ith fa rmi n g a cti vities th a t will a ll ow a gricul ture to

a bsorb a s l a rge a proportion a s possible of the surplus popul a tion .

Th a t revers a l of policy m a de necess a ry by the a r t ifi cia l growth of

,

industry un der the stimulus of t a riffs & c is rendered possible by , .

,

the f a ct th a t we a r e a s yet fa r from h a vin g e x h a usted the possibili

ties of a gricultura l production The rel a tion b etween a gric ul tur a l
.

production a n d the problem of popula tion w a s di scussed in a

va lu a ble p a per which Professor F r i e dr ich A er eboe rea d b efore
the V iennese Ges ellsch aft fitr S ozi a lp oli tik i n '
Br i efl y hi s ,

a rgument w a s th a t through the improvement of a gricultur a l

technique a n eve r sm a ller extent of the origin a l a re a s uffi c es for

the feedi ng of a community Production in fa ct wo ul d b e . , ,

D i e 1Va e h s t um Moglic h k e i te n d e r L a n d be volk e r un g S u mma ri z e d i n t h e

‘ ’
1 - .

B uleti n ul A gr i cultur i i , O
ctob e r— D e c e mb e r 1 9 26 .
 CONCLUS ION 5 79

excessive but for cert a in obst a cles The m a in obst a cles a r e l a ck .

of c a pit a l a n d inst a bili ty of prices One could sa y th a t a n increa se

.

in popul a tion never c a uses a crisis in food suppli es if such -

obst a cles do not prevent the best use being m a de of a n a re a or ,

its extension for the production of food stuffs The rel a tive
,
-

overcrow di ng of Chi n a e g is due not to the density of the

, . .
,

p opul a tion but to its in a bih t y to use to the full the possibili ties of
,

a ricult ur a l production Spe a king gener a lly the a v a il a ble a re a s

g .
,

suffice for the existence of a n incre a s ing pop ula tion But in the .

West the dr a wb a ck res ul ting from a w rong distribution of l a n d

will h a ve to b e removed The institution of property c a nnot
.

rem a in b ound in iron hoop s if it cra mps the forces of production .

The m a in ten a nce of extensive l a nd property c a uses a n excessive

fa ll in a gricul t ur a l w a ges a n d this results in a flight from the
,

l a nd w ith a ll the a ttending soci a l evil s The institution of

, .

ent a il b ecomes a n obst a cle to economic development it the

la t ifun di ar y o w ner ca n no longer insure the full a n d r a tion a l
exploit a tion of the l a n d A dm ittin g therefore th a t the soil
.
, ,

offers a n in d efin it e prospect for the incre a se of production the ,

remova l of the obst a cles which impede th a t progress— ba d

distribution of property l a ck of c a pit a l inst a bility of prices
, ,

woul d bring with it the pos s ibility of p a ying better w a ges which ,

in its turn would cur t a i l the flight from the l a nd S o th a t a n y .

improvement of economic conditions in a gricul ture would a b sorb

some of the un employed industri a l workers a n d result in a ,

p a rallel im provement of urb a n conditions .

If we survey the Rum a ni a n l a nd reform in the li ght of this

a rgument we see th a t it h a s c a rried thr ough the most difficult
,

of the ch a n ges which Professor Ae r eboe l a id down a s esse n ti a l

if the pop ula tion problem is to b e solved through a gricult ure .

The burthen of most criticism is th a t the me a sur e went too fa r

in the right di rection propelled a s it w a s by the momentum of a
,

revolution a ry w a ve But th a t is a dra wb a ck which co ul d b e

.

remedied by le a vi ng a cert a in l a titude to n a tura l selection 1 a n d

it is outweighed by the a dva n t ages derived from th a t poh t i cal
1
Th e Na tion a l Pe as a n t G o ve rn me t h as o pen e d t h e wa y
-
n for such a proc e ss
thr o ug h t h e law pa sse d i n 1 9 29 which r e mo v e s t h e prohibiti on
, , t o s e ll a n d t o m o rt
ga ge h o ldin gs dis tribute d un de r t h e l a n d r e form .

P p 2
5 80 CONCLUS ION
unrest Th a t a lone m a de it possible to c a rry through the reform
.

w ithout a n y serious opposition or distur b a nce a n d without a n

y ,

cost t o the St a te In th a t respect therefore Rum a ni a st a rts

.
, ,

with a considera ble a dva nt a ge over the Western count 1i es in

the reform of the a gra ri a n system But everythi ng else a s .
,

M Mih a la ch e s a id rem a ins to be done includi ng the educ a tion

.
, ,

of the p e a s a nts into c a p a ble f a rmers The hopes b a sed on the .

economi c a chievement of the reform ca n h a ve no f ai r ch a nce of

b ein g fulfille d except in the me a sur e in whi ch the reform is
economic a lly a n d tech ni c a lly completed Yet even under the .

present conditions the resul ts c a nnot be rel a tively a nything but

good For the ch a nge let it b e repe a ted w a s not fr om r a tion a l
.
, ,

fa rmin g on a l a rge sc a le to sm a ll a n d therefore inevit a bly less

ra tion a l fa rming but from la t ifun di a r y Ra ubwi rts ehaft to pea s a nt
,

cultiva tion a lw a ys more c a reful in the use of the soil The

, .

supreme proof which the w ife of a J e r se y sm a llholder offered ,

in tel ling me of the m a ny qu a li ties of her husb a nd w a s th a t h e ,

‘

m a nures his l a nd a s well a s a n y m a n on t h e isl a nd ’

.

With a reform like the Rum ani a n moreover whi ch w a s the , ,

outcome of a soci a l cl a im a n y j udgement on results must la y a s

,

much or more weight on distributio n a s on productio n Even if .

the present drop in production coul d be l a id wi thout doubt to the

door of the reform the fa ll ing a w a y of export s sho ul d weigh
,

lightly in the b a l a nce a g a i n st the li fti ng of severa l m illi on p eople

out of grievous mis e ry The S ociah st critic is a pt to think with
.

the orthodox economist th a t the l a rge fa rmer produces m a inly

for the m a rket a n d the pe a s a nt m a inl y for him self Thi s View .
,

once held a s a n a xiom h a s b een disproved by the tr a di n g

,

a ctivities of well org a ni zed pe a s a nt commun ities hke those of

-

Denm a rk Switzerl a nd a n d others But in a n y c a se it w a s a

, .

n a rrow View inspired by the a nxiety of people concerned m a inly

,

with industri a l problems for the needs of the urb a n consumers .

How the ch a n ge from p e a s a nt to c a pit a list f a rming rea cted on

t h e rura l poor w a s ignored Yet a hn ost without exception the .
, ,

exp a nsion of l a rge sc a le f a rming org a nized for supplying th e

-

m a rket left those whose l a bour cre a ted the produce without
,

a n a dequ a te sh a re of i t Mr a n d Mrs H a mmond h a ve described

. . .

in Th e Vi llage L a boum how a fter the enclosures the poor

~
 CONCLUSION 5 81

Villa gers could get neither butter nor unskimm ed m ilk for their
food whi le m a ny f a rmers g a ve the sur plu s mi lk to their pigs
, .

In Rum a ni a a s we h a ve seen a fter the development of corn

, ,

growi n g on a l a rge sc a le Vill a ge children grew up without know

,
’
ing how cow s milk t a sted The soci a l reformer c a nnot therefore
.
, ,

a ppra ise economi c org a ni z a tion solely for its mech a n ic a l e ffi

cien c
y or,
for the im petus it gives to the flow of tr a de The de .

ci si ve test for his verdi ct lies in the me a s ure in which e a ch s ystem

fa vours a fa ir a ll roun d di stribution of the produce of l a bour

-
.

In Rum a ni a a t a n y r a te it w a s ge n era lly true th a t where there

, ,

is l a rge property there is a lso gre a t poverty a n d grea t ignora nce

a s M Mih a la ch e a ffi r m e d ; the poorest Vill a ges I h a ve met with
‘
.

in our country were on the l a rge dom a in s I foun d in them .

neither school nor church nor Vi ll a ge h a ll And M M a ni u . .

c on fir m e d th a t in Tr a nsylv a ni a too one co u l d ob s erve a m a rked

, ,

difference in well being between the regions of l a rge a n d sm a ll

-

property In a gra ri a n coun tries hke Rum a ni a where eighty fi ve

.
,
-

per cent of the inh a bit a nts live on the l a nd the di s a pp e a ra nce
.
,

of corn exports a n d even a decre a se in the supplies which re a ch

,

the towns m a y nevertheless m a rk a soci a l improve ment if th a t re

,

sult me a ns th a t the r ur a l pOpula t ion no longer suffers from chro ni c

st a rva tion From gener a l eviden ce th a t would seem to b e one
.

of the m a i n c a uses for the ch a nge in the supply of Rum a ni a n

corn Hence the e s senti a l effect of these l a nd l a ws a dopted for
.
,

the purpose of b etterin g the existen ce of the people c a nn ot b e ,

described otherwise th a n a s a grea t soci a l a dva nce .

Rum a ni a s poli tic a l rulers could cl a im gre a t legisl a tive merit

’

for the s e l a ws And the w illingness with which so m a ny l a nd

.

o wners resigned themselves to the tra nsfer of their l a nd to the

pea s a nts deserves recogni tion The event might h a ve rem a ined .

a mo n ument to wise a n d generous st a tesm a nship h a d it m a rked ,

a resolute bre a k with a n inglorious p a st Unfortun a tely wh a t .

,

followed a fterw a rds st a mped it ra ther a s a n in terlude The .

policy a dopted during the ten ye a rs w hi ch followed the reform

cre a ted a feeling th a t the rulers were less repent a nt for their
erstwhile selfish n ess th a n for the ir w a r time libera lity Perh a ps -
.

no soci a l cl a ss ca n b e expected to p a rt lightly with the power

1
S p ee ch i n t h e Ch a mb e r , 1 921 , p 36
. .
5 82 CONCLUSION
an d pri vileges it h a s b een a ccustomed to enj oy ; or to bre a k
suddenl y wi th the methods through whi ch th a t f a voured position
w a s secur ed But in th a t c a se the m a kers of the reform b uil ded
.

’
b etter th a n they knew or willed Li ke Goethe s S orcerer s
.
‘ ’

’
Apprentice they h a ve conj ured up a force which they ca n no
,

longer sub due or control The a ttempt h a vin g b een m a de —only

.

to give rise to bitter politic a l confi i ct — perh a ps a wiser outlook

will prevent its renew a l It is not too l a te to m a ke of thi s reform
.
,

so gre a t in spirit a n d in scope the st a rtin g point of a new era of

,
-

soci a l pe a ce a n d co oper a tion for the good of a people whose

-

m a ny tri a ls in truth entitle it to a h a ppier future.

 A P P E NDI X I

T R A D I T I O NA L FO R MS or J O I N T L AN DHOLD I NG I N R U MANI A
RU M A N I A s til l um b e r o f Vi ll a ges w h ose in h a b i t an t s h a v e
t
con a in s a n

a co mm on t i tl e t o t h e l a n d i n a cco r d a n ce w i t h o ld e s t a b l i s h e d i f v a r y i n g
,
-

rul e s .

Th e t yp ic a l old R u m a n ia n v i lla ge r es t e d o n a t h r e e fo l d un i t y : ( a ) A
un i t y o f b l o o d r e l a t ion s h ip t h e Vi ll a ge h a v in g b e en ge n e r a ll y e s t a b l is h ed
-

by a n a n ces t o r o f t h e a ctua l in h a b i t a n t s c a ll e d mosn em i n Mun t e n ia a n d ,

'

r d ze si i n Mo l d a v i a
1 It ca rr ie d h is n a m e wi t h t h e s uffi x esti o r ea t ( O l an
.
,

e t i Top o lo v e n i b A u n i t y o f p r o p e rt y t h e t i tl e t o t h e l a n d
s , ( ) -

, ,

b ein g h e l d i n co mm on Th e a r a b l e s tr i p s we r e i n p r i v a t e p os se ss io n a n d
.

r e m a i n e d by i n h e r i t a n ce i n t h e s a m e fa mi l y B ut t h e p osse s s o r s p r i v a t e .
’

r igh t s we r e n ot a b s o l ut e He cou l d se l l on l y w it h t h e co n sen t of h is .

r e l a t i v es a n d n e ighb ou r s w h o h a d t h e fi rs t r e fus a l A d ee d o f s a l e a l wa y s
, .

s tate d th a t Th is s a l e h a s b e en m a d e wit h t h e kn owl e d ge o f m y k in s m en

‘

a n d n e i ghb ou r s o t h e r w i se t h e s a l e cou l d be a tt a ck e d ( c) A fi s ca l .

un i t y Th e m a in t a x t h e bi r w a s p a i d o n t h e 018 15 s y s t e m ( S e r b ci s lo
.
, , .
,

n um b e r ) Th e t a x w a s i m p os e d u p on t h e Vil l a ge a s a w h o l e a n d t h e
.
,

v il l a ge e l d e r s t h e n a pp o rt ion e d i t a m on g t h e v i ll a ge r s a c co r d in g t o e a c h ,

fa m i l y s c a p a ci t y t o pa y
’
.

Th e u n fr e e v i ll a ge s i n h a b i t e d by r uma n i o r veci m h a d onl y t h e fi s ca l

‘ ’

, ,

un i t y bu t n o un i t y o f e i t h e r b l oo d r ela t ion s h i p o r of own e r s h ip Th e r e

,
-

fo r e su c h Vi ll a ge s h a d a l es s s t a b l e e x is t en ce M R a d u R o s e tt i e s t im a t e s . .

that v ill a ge s h a v e d is a pp e a r e d i n Mo l d a v i a a lon e fr om t h e t im e

o f t h e fou n d a t i on o f t h e P r in c i p a l i t i e s t i l l t h e co m in g o f t h e O r ga n i c

S t a tu t e s .

I n t h e y e om a n v ill a ge s gr a z in g ( i s laz ) a n d woo d l a n d ( b r a n i ste ) w e r e

co m m o n l a n d ; e a c h v i l l a ge r h a d a r i gh t o f use n o t d e t e r m i n e d an d , ,

w h e n a s tr a n ge r w a s a d m i tt e d t o s h a r e i n t h a t r igh t t h e w h o l e Vi ll a ge ,

t oo k p a rt i n t h e a ct ion A r a b l e l a n d ( ta ri n d ) w a s i n t h e p r i v a t e pos
.

s e s s i o n o f e a c h fa m i l y B ut t h e v i ll a ge c o mmun i t y h a d a t i tl e t o it i n s o
.

fa r a s t h e l a n d of a fa m i l y wh i c h d i e d o ut r e turn e d t o t h e co m m on
p a tr im on y a n d a s t h e h o l d in gs cou l d be s o l d on l y t o m e m b e r s o f t h e
,

v i ll a ge c l a n I n s p i t e o f t h a t r e s tr ic t io n y e o m a n l a n d i n c r ea s i n gl y p a s se d
.
,

i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e bo i a rs W h o l e Vi l l a ge s s o l d t h e i r fr e e d o m a wa y t o
.

t h e l o c a l b o i a r wh e n t h e y w e r e i n d i s tr ess a n d t h e b o i a r fo un d m e a n s t o
, ,

p en e tr a t e e v en in t o t h e o t h e r y e om a n Vi ll a ge s Th e y cou l d n ot b u y .

r d zes l a n d b u t t h e i r w a y w a s t o ge t on e o f t h e vill a e r s t o m a k e t h e m a
, g
gift o f h i s h o l d in g t h u s p r e v en t i n g t h e d on o r s fa m i l y fr o m m a k in g
’
,

us e o f t h e i r r igh t of p r oti mes zs 2 ; a n d h a v i n g t hu s b e co m e t h e m s e l v e s

'

1
M sh efr m m §=
ea n t ; d s fr m t h M gy r é
o o =p t
a n ces or r ze o e a a r szes ar ner .

2
te rm i s f Byz n tin e ori gi n a n d is c omm nl y u se d by R u ma i a n writers t o
Th e o a o n

i n di c a te this tra di tion l r striction on a n i n dividu a l s ri ght t o di s p ose of h is l an d but

a e
’

M Fotin o e g di s pute s th a t thi s R u m n i an cu stom i s of By a ti n e o ri gi n

.
, . .
, a z n .
5 84 APPENDIX
m emb e rs of th e Vi ll a ge t h e y we r e
, af et rwa r d s en t itl e d to pu r ch a s e l a n d
fr o m t h e t h e r v i ll a ge r s
o .

I n a n a tt e m p t t o s t o p su c h a bu s es Al Ma vr ocor d a t d e c r ee d in O ct o b e r .

1 7 8 5 t h a t gi ft s o f l a n d we r e p e rm iss i b l e o n l y b e twe en r e l a t i on s a n d p eop l e

o f t h e s a m e s t a n d in g or by t h e we a lt hy if t h e y s o l i k e d t o t h e p oo r
, , , ,

a n d by a n y o n e t o t h e h o l y m on a s t e r i es bu t n ot by t h e p oo r t o t h e r i ch .

Th e d e c r e e w a s t o h a v e r e tr o a c t i v e fo r c e ( P on i S ta ti s ti cal R d zesi lor p .

, , .

L a t e r Mi h a iu S t ur d z a so in t er p re t e d t h e d e c re e a s v i rtually t o ca n ce l
it b e i n g h im se l f i n t e r e s t e d i n a t r a n s a c t i on of t h a t k i n d
, .

D e c l a r a t i on s m a d e b e fo r e t h e P o pu l a r A ss em b l y o f 1 8 1 7 s h ow t h a t
t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o w n i n g l a n d c ou l d n ot p r o du ce
d o cu m e n t s t o p r o v e t h a t t h e y h a d r e ce i v e d l a n d t h r ough gift s fr om t h e
P rin c es a n d t h e s e we r e p r e cis e l y t h e s m a ll ow n e rs t h e r az e si ( P h ilip
, , .

p i d e I n cercd m a sup ra s td rei s oci a le

,
’

pp 5 3 E v e n i n t h e b oi a r .

v i ll a ge s a s m a l l c l a s s o f m e n w a s foun d w h o by goo d l u ck or o b s t in a t e
r es i s t a n ce h a d b e en a b l e t o ke e p t h e i r y e om a n l a n d Th e y we r e ca ll e d .

cd lci ra si ( ca l = h o r se ) b ec a u s e i n r e t u r n fo r b e i n g e x e m p t e d fr o m t a x a t i on
‘

t h e y s e r v e d i n t i m e of w a r a s ca v a l r y m e n w i t h t h e i r ow n h o r s e s , .

C a n t em i r i n h is H i s tory s p e a k s o f t h e m but h e d e a l s on l y w i t h Mo l d a v i a
, , , ,

a n d i t i s d iffi c ult t o kn o w w h e t h e r t h e y a l s o e x i s t e d i n Mu n t e n i a ( Phi lip .

p i d e op ci t p
, . .
, Th e p e r s is t a n c e o f s u c h y e o m e n i n t h e m i d s t of
.

b oia r Vi lla ge s m us t be t a k e n a s a p r oof t h a t t h e o t h e r v i ll a ge r s h a d on ce

e n j oy e d t h e s a m e s t a tus ( Th e t r a d it ion h a s con t i n u e d t o t h e p r e s e n t
.

d a y i n t h e r egim e n t s o f c al ar a si ; t h e y a r e r e c r u i t e d fr o m m en w h o b r in g
t h e i r o w n h o r s es a n d s upp l y fo dd e r for t h em a t s h o rt p e r io d s of tr a in in g ,

o v e r a n u m b e r o f y e a r s a n d i n r e t u r n a re e x e m p t e d fr om t h e con t in u ou s
,

c o m p u l s o r y m i li t a r y s e r v i c e w h i c h i n t h e ca v a lr y l a s t s t h r ee y e a r s )
, .

Th e d i s p o s s ess i o n o f t h e r d zesi r e a c h e d i t s c l im a x b e t w e e n 1 8 3 0 a n d
1 8 5 0 a ft e r t h e P r i n c i p a l i t i e s h a d r e ga i n e d n a t i on a l a u t on om y
,
A rt i c l e .

3 9 1 Ch v i i i o f t h e O r ga n i c S t a t u t e s w a s m e a n t t o c h e c k t h a t a b us e b u t
, .
, ,

i t r e m a i n e d a d ea d l e tt e r I n 1 8 5 7 t h e r d zesi d e pu t ie s in t h e Mo l d a vi a n
.

d i v a n a d h oc sub m i tt e d a p r o p o s a l t h a t t h e d i v a n s h oul d a pp oin t fr om

a m o n g i t s r u r a l m e m b e r s a c o mm i s s i o n o f e i gh t e e n w h i c h s h ou l d in qu i r e ,

i n t o t h e w h o l e qu e s t io n wi t h p owe r t o ca n c e l a rr a n ge m e n t s m a d e i n
,

v io la t i on o f t h e O r ga n ic S t a tu t e a n d o t h e r o r d in a n ces B ut t h e m a j o r i t y .

o f t h e d i v a n r e j e c t e d t h e p r o p os a l : ( P o n i op ci t p , .
, .

I n t h e y e o m a n v i ll a ge s w h ic h h a v e c o n t i n ue d t o e x i s t t h e s y s t em of
l a n d t e nu r e is e s sen t ia ll y t h e s a m e a s o f o ld I n m os t o f t h e m l a n d i s h e l d .

un d e r t w o fo r ms : co mm on own e r s h i p ( d evd lmci si e ) i n t h e ca s e of woo d ,

l a n d a n d g ra z i n g a n d r ei z d si e wh ic h i s m e r e l y a co m m on t i tl e in t h e
, , ,

ca se o f a r a b l e l a n d c l ea r i n gs ga r d e n s Vi n e y a r d s a n d fa r m y a r d s t h a t i s
-

, , , , ,

a ll t h e l a n d w h i c h h u m a n l a b ou r h a s i m p r o v e d a n d k e p t i n con d i t i o n .

Th e b a s is o f t h e fi r s t i s a l wa y s t h e s a m e t h a t o f t h e s e con d v a r i es i n ,

d e t a i l s fr om p l a ce t o p l a ce Th e tr a n s i t ion fr o m d evd lmri si e t o r d zci si e m a y

.

h a pp en i n a num b e r o f w a y s I n d i v idua l Vi l l a ge r s m a y c l ea r a p ie c e of
.
 APPENDIX 5 85
fo r es t or of wa s t e Or s e c o n d l y t h e v i ll a ge r s m a y d e l i b e r a t e l y d i v i d e
.
, ,

a m on g t h e m se l v e s t h e g r a z i n g l a n d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s w a s d o n e w i t h,

a r a b l e l a n d ; t h i s i s u s u a l w h e n p a s t u r e i s c h a n ge d i n t o m e a d o w Al l th e .

t a xp a y e r s a r e en t i tl e d t o a s h a r e A ft e r h a y m a k i n g t h e l a n d i s o p e n e d
.

i n d i s c r im in a t e l y t o a ll t h e Vi ll a ge ca ttl e s o t h a t in fa c t t h e r e i s a s e a s on a l
,

r e tu r n t o co m m on own e r s h i p a n d use F in a lly t h e tr a n s i t ion m a y t a k e .

,

p l a ce a s a r e su lt o f a gift of a n i n d i v i du a l h o l d i n g fr o m t h e c om m on l a n d , ,

t o a v ill a ge r w h o h a s r e n d e r e d t h e Vi ll a ge s om e s p e c i a l s e r v i ce o w h o i s r

p oo r .

R d zci si e i s a fo r m o f l a n dh o l d in g h a l f w a y b e t w e e n com m on a n d i n d i
‘
-

v i dua l p r op e rt y Th e v i ll a ge r s fo r m t oge t h e r a cea té i e a g r ou p o r c l a n

.
, . .
,

a n d e v e r y ceta s ( a l so ob ste a n o r r d zes) h o l d s a d i s t in c t s tr i p o f l a n d ca l l e d ,

d elm te ( a l so op ci n e or obsti n e ) Th e t i t l e o f own e r s h i p i s v e s t e d i n t h e

’

fa m il y n ot in on e o f i t s i n d i v i du a l m e m b e r s a n d t h e p r o of o f b l oo d
,
1
,

r e l a t i on s h ip i s v a l i d i n la w i n su pp o rt o f a c l a i m t o a s h a r e of t h e v i ll a ge
l a n d Th e e x t en t of t h e s h a r e i s m e a s u r e d a ft e r t h e n um b e r of d e s e e n
.

d a n t s O r igin a l l y a group o f r d zesi i n h a b i t e d t h e s a m e v i ll a ge a n d t h e

.
,

t itl e o f co o w n e r s h i p r es t e d o n t h e p o s s e s s ion o f h ou se a n d y a r d w i t h in
-

t h e v i ll a ge b oun d a r i e s i n t h e va i m s a tului ( t h e Vi ll a ge h e a rt h ) I n B u co
, .

v in a a n d Ma r a m u r e s t h e r e a r e s t i ll d is tr ic t s w h e r e t h e s a l e o f h ous e a n d
y a r d en t a i l s t h e s a l e of t h e t i tl e t o t h e v i ll a ge e s t a t e .

M Ga r ofl i d e s t im a t e d i n 1 9 08 t h e a r e a c o v e r e d by wi zes p r o p e rt y a t
.

h a i e 3 7 per c e n t . f t h e p r o p e rt i e s b e l o w 1 00 11 a
. . o B ut t h e .

bu l k o f r ei zes l a n d i s fo r e s t a n d m ou n t a in p a s tu r es n ot a r a b l e Th e p oo r
‘

, .

m oun t a in s l o p e s s o d i ffi cult o f a cce s s d id n ot e x e r c i s e t h e s a m e a ttr a e

, ,

t ion up on t h e boi a r s ; a n d p e r h a p s t h e p o p u l a t ion s con ce r n e d a l s o r e

c e i v e d m o r e p r o t e ct i on b e c a u s e t h e y i n h a b i t e d f r o n t i e r r e ion s At a n y
g .

r a t e t h e y h a v e r e m a in e d s o l e o w n e r s o f t h e m o u n t a i n s
, .

Thi s i s t h e c a s e e g i n t h e h igh l a n d d i s tr i ct o f V r a n ce a Th e fo r e s t
, . .
, .
2

i s j o in t p r o p e rt y a n d e v e r y v i ll a ge r h a s a n e qu a l r igh t t o t h e t i m b e r
, ,

( t h ough on r a r e o cca s ion s t h e r e a r e Vi ll a ge r s w i t h s e v e r a l bu t

e xp l o i t a t io n i s i n d i v i d u a l Thi s a pp l ie s a l s o t o gr a z in g A s n e i t h e r d e
. .

m a n d a n y p r e l i m i n a r y i n d i v i du a l e ffo rt a n d c a r e t h e r e i s n o i n d uc e m e n t ,

for p r i v a t e p os s e s s ion I n t h e se c a s e s t h e r e i s n o r igh t o f fa m i l y i n h e r i

.

t a n ce n or mu c h w e igh t l a i d o n b l o o d r e l a t ion s h i p Th e s a l e o f a n y p a rt
, .

o f t h e c o m m o n fo r e s t r e qu i r e s t h e d e c i s ion o f t h e Vi l l a e m e e t i n
g g wh ic h ,

a pp o i n t s s p e c i a l d e l e a t es w i t h p owe r t o con c l u d e t h e tr a n sa c t i o n Ta xes

g .

we r e d i s t ibut e d a m on g t h e v i ll a ge r s by t h e s a m e m e t h o d of p r o p o rt ion a l
a s s e ss m e n t a s o f o ld ; a n d i n 1 8 08 w h e n so m e of t h e m oun t a i n s h a d t o b
, e

1
G orges Fotin o p o in ts out th a t i n R u ma ni a this fa m ily pr op erty m y be
M . e a

i nh rite d by w o m en ls o ; this is essen ti ll y diffe re n t from t h e S l v i s tituti o fr m

e a a a n n, o

whi ch t h e R u m n i a n is gen ra lly a ss u m d t o de riv e ( Con tr i buti on d l Etud e p

a e e .
’ ’
.

Th i nf r m a ti on r e l a tin g t o V ra n c i s from n otes pr p re d by M H e ri S t a hl

2
e o ea e a . n

dur i g a s oci ologic a l in qu iry i n t h e s u mme r of 1 9 27 u d e r t h e guid a c e of Pr ofe ssor

n
, n n

Di mitri e Gus ti w h o ki n dly a ll owe d me t o see t h e MS

, .
5 86 APPENDIX
b ough t b a ck fr om t h e b o i a r R o zn o v an u t h e mon e y w a s c o ll e ct e d on t h e
,

ci s ld s y s t e m t h e m oun t a in s b e i n g a ft e r wa r d s p a r t i t i on e d a m o n
,
g th e
s e v e r a l Vi ll a ge s i n p r o p o rt i on t o t h e i r c on tr i b u t i on .

U n t i l 1 8 1 8 t h a t s y s t e m of com m on o w n e r s h i p e x t en d e d i n V r a n ce a t o
a w h o l e d i s tr i c t t h e v i ll a e s fo rm i n
, g g a u n i o n F r om t h a t d a t e t h e v i ll a ge s
.

p r oce e d e d t o a vo l un t a r y d ivis ion of t h e i r j oi n t p r op e rt y a n d on l y ,

t h e comm on p r o p e rt i es of i n d i v i du a l v i l l a ge s su r v i v e .

O n e r e m n a n t o f t h a t d is tr i ct comm on a lt y i s t h e j o i n t own e r s hi p o f t h e
s a lt m i n e s w h i c h a r e t o be fou n d a ll o v e r V r a n c e a a n d fr o m w h i c h s a lt
,

m a y be e x tr a c t e d by a n y i n h a b i t a n t of t h e d i s tr i c t wi t h ou t a n y p a y m e n t
w h a t e v e r W h e n a d e ci sion of s om e i m p o rt a n ce i s t o be t a k en e a c h
.
,

v i ll a ge a ss em b l y e l e c t s o n e d e l e ga t e ; t h e d e l ega t es m e e t a n d d eci d e t h e
i s su e t h e d e ci s ion b e i n g t h e n su b m i tt e d by e a c h d e l e ga t e t o h is o w n Vill a ge
, .

Ne w Vi ll a ge s gr ow i n t i m e r oun d t h e o ld s e ttl e m en t s t h e s u r p l u s ,

p o pu l a t ion e m igr a t in g i n s e a r c h o f a r a b l e l a n d or s e tt in g u p n e w com

,

m un i t i e s on t h e e d ge o f t h e co mm on fo r e s t a n d in t h e m i d s t o f t h e p a s
t u r e s S om e t im e s n e ighb ou r in g villa ge s s tr e t c h out un t il t h e y t ouc h
.

e a c h o t h e r i n w h i c h ca se t h e y co ll e c t t h e t a x e s t o ge t h e r a n d h o l d t h e
,

m ou n t a in s j o i n tl y .

I f t h e h igh l a n d r d zesi e s ca p e d t h e co v e t ou sn es s of t h e bo i a r s t h e y h a v e ,

i n o ur t im e t o w i t h s t a n d t h e i n tr us ion o f ca p i t a l i s t com p a n i e s in t e r e s t e d
i n t h e e xp l o i t a t ion o f t im b e r Th e we ll t o d o p e a s an t s ca n n o t r es i s t t h e
.
- -

t em p t a t ion offe r e d by t h e se com p a n i e s a n d s in ce t h e b eginn in g o f t h e

,

ce n t u r y t h e r e fo r e t h e p r oce s s w h i c h le d t o t h e d i v i s i on b e t we en Villa ge s
, ,

o f t h e i r j o in t p r o p er t y h a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o a t e n d en c y t o d ivi d e u p t h e

p r o p e rt y of a Vi ll a ge a m on g it s in d i v i du a l m em b e r s wi t h t h e m o r e ,

a s t u t e v il l a ge r s s e cu r i n g t h e l i o n s s h a r e
’
Mos t V i l l a ge co m m on s h a v e i n
.

t h a t w a y b e en s p l i t up It wou l d s e e m t h a t t h i s w a s d on e un d e r t h e
.

i m pu l s e o f s om e m om e n t a r y tr en d a s m a n y Vi lla ge s h a v e s in ce en d ea
,

v o ur e d a s w e l l a s t h e y c ou l d t o r e c r e a t e a com m on g r a z in g B ut in t h e s e
-
.

ca se s e a c h p e a s a n t s con tr i b u t i on i n l a n d r e m a i n s n o m in a ll y h i s p r i v a t e
’

p r o p e rt y w i t h a t a n y t im e a t h eo r e t ica l r igh t t o en c l os e it It is a c om mon

,
.

fo r m e d by m u t u a l a gr e e me n t n ot i n h e r it e d a s su c h by t h e Vill a ge a s a
,

w h ol e .

Th r ough ou t t h e p r o ces s of e n cl os ur e t h e r d zesi h a v e fough t for t h e i r

,

r igh t s w i t h a n o b s t in a c y wh i c h h a s b e come le gen d a r y I n e a rli e r t im e s . ,

d is pu t e s w i t h in t h e v i l l a ge gr ou p we r e r a r e a n d we r e s e ttl e d by t h e
vi l l a ge m e e t i n g o r e l d e r s ; t h e Vi ll a ge r s w e r e un i t e d by a se n se o f k i n s h i p

a n d by t h e fa c t t h a t e a c h u se d o n l y w h a t h e n e e d e d B ut w h e n ou t s i d e r s
.

b ega n t o i n tru d e a n d d e p r i v e t h e r é zesi of t h ei r a n ci en t r igh t s t h e r e ,

b ega n a l m os t e v e r ywh e r e t h e l on g s e r ie s of wi zesi l awsuit s w h ic h i n

‘
,

m a n y p a rt s fo r m t h e h is t o r y o f l a r ge p r o p e rt y R d u l e scu V i
’
( a .
t
a a ,

J ur i d i cd S o m e o f t h e l a wsu i t s l a s t e d t en s of y e a r s i m p o v e r i s h i n g
p . . ,

t h e v i ll a ge r s b u t t h e y r e fu s e d t o gi v e i h
,
O n e cou l d s ee gr ou p s o f v i ll a ge r s
. ,

w i t h t h e i r fo o d i n a ba g s p en d i n g we e k s 0 11 t h e r oa d a n d a b ou t t h e C ou rt s
,
 APPE ND IX 5 87
in t h e d e fen ce of t h e i r p r o p e rt y t h e r d zesi wi t h a s c r a p of l a n d a n d a
s a c k fu l l o f d o cu m e n t s a s t h e p o p u l a r s a y i n g goe s ; a n d m a n y o f t h e
’
-

l a wsui t s a re n ot en d e d .

Th a t t h e o b l it e r a t ion of r d zes r igh t s wen t h a n d in h a n d wi t h t h e

d e v e l o pm e n t o f co r n gr owin g in R um a n i a a pp e a r s c l e a rl y fr o m t h e fa c t
,

t h a t t h e p r o ce s s w a s m os t a ct i v e a ft e r t h e o p en i n g of t h e B l a c k S e a t o
i n t e r n a t i on a l s h i pp in g a s w e l l a s f r om t h e d i s tr i b u t i o n o f t h e

p r es e n t 7 a zesi A cco r d in g t o t h e cen sus o f 1 9 1 2 t h e r e w e r e

.
,

fa m i l i e s in t h e r u r a l co m m u n e s o f t h e O l d K i n gd o m ( D o b r o ge a e x c l u d e d )
o f t h e h e a d s o f fa m i l i e s , o r 26 2 p e r c e n t we r e r d zesi
. . A b ou t
o f t h e m n o l on ge r h a d a n y l a n d a t a ll . Th e r d ze si we r e d is
tr i bu t e d a s fo l l ows : 1 9 3 3 pe r c e n t i n t h e h igh l a n d d is tr i ct s 6 3 3 4 pe r ce n t
-
.
,
-
.

i n t h e h i ll s a n d 1 7 3 3 p e r c e n t i n t h e p l a i n t h e i r p r o p o rt i on d e c r e a s i n g
.
,

w i t h t h e a lt i tu d e of t h e l a n d a l m o s t n on e b e i n g l e ft i n t h e c o r n l a n d s
,
-

a l on g t h e D a n u b e .
( P on i op ci t p
, .
, .
 A PP E N D I X 11
‘
MET A Y A GE I N R U MA N I AN A GR I C U LTUR E
THE d e v e l o p m e n t o f co r n gr owin g ca n be d a t e d in R um a n ia fr om t h e
-

O p e n in g o f t h e B l a c k S e a t o fo r e ign s h i pp in g i n 1 8 29 t h ough it s m a in , ,

i m p e tu s c a m e f r o m t h e c i r cu m s t a n c e s c on n e c t e d wi t h t h e C r im e a n W a r .

T i l l t h e m i dd l e of t h e l a s t ce n tu r y R um a n i a n a gr icu ltu r e w a s p r e d om in an tl y
p a s t o r a l a n d c a ttl e r ea r in g w a s a hn os t com p l e t e l y in t h e h a n d s of t h e
,
-

p e a s a n t s I n t h e s e co n d p l a c e t h e b e gin n in gs of e con om i c d e v e l o p m en t
.
,

c o i n c i d e d wi t h t h e b e gi n n i n gs o f p o l i t i ca l i n d e p e n d e n ce ; t h e s m a l l l a n d e d

u pp e r c l a s s w a s a b so r b e d in pub l ic l ife a n d coul d d e v o t e n ei t h e r t im e n or

-

m on e y t o a gr i cu ltu r a l p u r su it s Th e y wi s h e d m e r e l y t o d e r i v e fr om t h e ir
.

e s t a t e s a r e v e n u e w i t h a s l i ttl e p e r s o n a l t r ou b l e a s p o s s i b l e a n d t h is , ,

t o ge t h e r w i t h t h e fa c t t h a t t h e p ea s a n t s p os s e s s e d m o s t of t h e wo r k in g
a n im a l s a n d i m p l e m e n t s c a us e d t h e e xp a n s i on in co r n
g r o w in g t o be
-

b a s e d l a r ge l y o n t h e m ét a y a ge s y s t em Th e r e w a s in t h a t r es p e ct h ow
.
,

e v er a m a r k e d d iffe r e n ce b e t we e n R u m a n i a s se v e r a l p r o v i n ce s
’

,
In .

Mo l d a v ia fo r h i s t o r i ca l r e a s on s t h e p e a sa n t s we r e p o o r e r a n d l e s s w e l l
, ,

p r o v i d e d wi t h a n im a l s a n d i m p l em en t s a n d t h e s a m e r e a son s h a d ,

a ttr a c t e d t o t h a t p r o v i n ce a m o r e n u m e r ou s m o n e y e d e l e m e n t of fo r e i gn

o r igi n Th e r e fo r e co r n gr owin g w a s ge n e r a ll y c a r r i e d on in Mo l d a v ia by
.
-

t e n a n t s o f v e r y l a r ge e s t a t e s on t h e i r o w n a ccoun t t h e p e a s a n t s w a ges ,
’

a s we ll a s t h e r e n t o w e d by t h e m b e i n g ca l cula t e d o n a m o n e y b a s i s In .

Mun t en i a a n d Olt en i a t h e p e a sa n t s h a d a b e tt e r s upp l y o f l i v e a n d d e a d

s t o c k a n d i n t h o se t w o p r o v i n c e s m é t a y a ge w a s i n con s e qu e n c e wi d e s p r e a d
,

b efo r e t h e Wa r .

Mét a y a ge ( d ij md ) w a s p r a c t i s e d i n R u m a n ia u n d e r t w o fo r m s On e of .

t h e m w a s t h e cus t om a r y fo r m o f a s h a r in g of t h e p r o duce ( dij mci d ea

‘

va lm a ) t h e l a n d l o r d gi v i n g t h e l a n d a n d t h e p e a sa n t r a i si n g t h e c r o p ;
,

a s e co n d m o r e p e cul ia r fo r m r e s t e d o n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e su r fa ce t o b e

cu lt i v t e d ( d zj m é la ta r la ) t h e p e a sa n t r e c e vi n g a p i ece o f l a n d for h i s
a ,

o w n us e i n r e t u r n for a n o b l iga t i on t o c u lt i v a t e a n o t h e r p i e ce of l a n d for

t h e o wn e r L e ss fre que n t w a s a com b in a t ion of t h e se t w o fo rm s a

. ,

d i v is ion o f t h e p r o du ce a n d i n a dd it ion c e rt a in l a b ou r o b liga t ion s for

, ,

t h e p e a s a n t ( r usfet ) I n ge n e r a l m é t a y a ge w a s r e s o rt e d t o by t h e l a n d
.
,

l o r d s o n l y on t h e p o r e r s o i l a n d for t h e r a is in g o f t h e l e s s v a l ua b l e ce r ea l
o

c rop s, e s p e c ia l l y m a i ze wh i c h r e qui r e d m o r e l a b ou r a n d c l e a n e d t h e
,

r o u n d i n p r e p a r a t ion fo r w h e a t E v e n i n Mo l d a v i a t h a t p a rt o f t h e
g .

e s t a t e w h i c h w a s y e a rl y r e n t e d by t h e p e a sa n t s h a d t o be l a i d u n d e r

m a iz e D u r i n g t h e la s t t we n t y y e a r s l a r ge s ca lc fa r min g h a d s p r e a d i n
.
-

Mu n t e n i a a n d Olt e n ia a l so b u t i t n e v e r co v er e d a s m u c h a s h a l f o f t h e
,

e sta te .
L a rge p ro p e rt y o ccup ie d h a l f of t h e a r a b l e l a n d but i t own e d ,

m e r e l y o n e t e n t h o f t h e l i v e a n d d ea d s t o ck
-
.
 APPENDIX 5 89
M Ga r o fl i d w r o t e i n 1 9 08 t h a t s in ce 1 8 8 0 t h e l a n d l o r d s s h a r e h a d
’
.

r isen in m os t d is tr ic t s bu t e s p ecia ll y in t h e r i c h co r n l a n d s fr om
,
to ,

1 2 ; t h e r e we r e o cca s i on a l v a r i a t ion s e i t h e r i n t h e s h a r e of t h e l a n d l o r d
,

or o f t h e p e a sa n t i n a cco r d a n c e wi t h t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t ion a n d
,

t h e l o c a l d e m a n d for la n d B ut t h e m ét a y a ge a gr e e m e n t s d id n o t r e s t
.

o n a s im p l e s h a r in g o f t h e l a n d o r o f t h e h a r v e s t ; t h e y a l w a y s c o n t a i n e d

m a n y o t h e r p o in t s r e l a t i n g t o m on e y l o a n s a n d t h e i r r e p a y m e n t t o ,

g r a z in g t o p a ym e n t s i n ki n d w i t h p r o du c e o t h e r t h a n t h a t r a i s e d in
,

m é t a y a ge & c & c
, . Th e m o r e com p l i c a t e d t h e c o n tr a c t t h e w i d e r w a s
, .
,

t h e p o s s i b ili t y of a bu se e s p e ci a ll y a s fe w l a n d l o r d s k e p t p r o p e r b oo k s
, .

F r e quen tl y t h e d i v is ion of t h e h a r v e s t w a s d e l a ye d a n d d id n o t t a k e
p l a ce un t i l t h e p ea sa n t s h a d e n t e r e d i n t o a n a gr ee m e n t for t h e fo ll owi g n

yea r .

Th e l e gis l a t ion o f 1 9 08 e n d e a v ou r e d t o c h e c k s uc h a bu se s by m e a n s
o f v a r iou s p r o v i s i on s co n ce r n i n g t h e m e a su r e m e n t o f t h e l a n d a n d t h e

d i v is ion of t h e h a r v e s t t h e n a tu r e of t h e con t r a ct s a n d t h e m a n n e r o f
,

t h e i r r e gis tr a t ion & c A b o v e a ll it p r o h ib it e d a lt oge t h e r m é t a ya ge o n

, .
,

t h e ta r la s y s t e m t h a t i s o n t h e b a s i s o f a d i v i s i on of t h e l a n d Th e l a n d
, .

l o r d s we r e a c cuse d of k e e p i n g fo r t h e m s e l v e s t h e b e s t a n d gi v in g t o t h e
p ea s a n t s t h e wo r s t l a n d a n d a l so of fo r cin g t h e p ea s a n t s t o wo r k du r in g
,

t h e m os t p r o p i t i ou s t im e o n t h e l a n d l o r d s p a rt Th e r e i s n o d oub t t h a t ’
.

t h is p r o h ib i t ion w a s oft en ci r cum v e n t e d by m e a n s of a d oub l e co n t r a ct ,

o n e p r o v i d i n g fo r t h e l e tt in g of l a n d t o t h e p e a s a n t s a n d t h e o t h e r fo r

t h e t i ll in g o f t h e l a n d l o r d s s h a r e Th e s y s t e m t hu s a pp r o a c h e d c l ose l y
’
.

t o t h a t cus t o m a r y i n Mo l d a v i a w h e r e t h e p e a s a n t s we r e le t a p o rt i on o f
,

l a n d i n r e tu rn fo r a n o b l iga t ion t o l a b ou r o n t h e e s t a t e .

M Ga r o flid ( Ch es ti a A gr a n t pp 1 00 1 8 ) con s i d e r e d t h a t t h e ta r la
‘

. .
—
,

s y s t e m r e a l l y fa v o u r e d t h e p e a s a n t Th e l a n d l o r d w a s fo r ce d t o le t h i m
.

l a b ou r wh e t h e r t h e c r o p m a d e it wo rt h wh i l e o r n ot a n d a t t h e e n d o f ,

t h e y e a r t h e p e a s a n t w a s t hu s i n a n y c i r cum s t a n c e s a c qu i tt e d o f h i s
o b l iga t i on s .U n d e r t h e d ea va lma s y s t e m t h e l a n d l o r d o r t e n a n t w a s un
a b l e t o i n tr o du ce a s ou n d c r o p r o t a t i o n t o us e e xp e n s i v e s e e d or m a n ur e s
-

a n d i f t h e h a r v es t fa i l e d t h e p e a s a n t r i s k e d b e i n
, g l e ft i n t h e en d wi t h a
d e b t for s ee d & c Th e m o r e gen e r a l v iew h owe v e r w a s t h a t i n t h e
, .
, ,

se con d s y s t e m t h e c h a n c e s a n d r i s k s we r e s h a r e d e qua l l y by b o t h p a rt i e s ,

a n d t h a t i t t e n d e d t o m a k e t h e l a n d l o r d s t a k e s o m e i n t e r e s t i n t h e ki n d

of s e e d t h e p e a s a n t s u s e d a n d i n t h e w a y t h e y t i ll e d t h e so il .

M Ga r o fl id s c o n c lu s i on w a s t h a t t h e r es tr i ct ion s o f t h e 1 9 08 la w wou l d
.
’

h a v e t h e e ffe c t m e r e l y o f ca us in g on l y t h e lea s t fe rt i l e soi l t o be cu l t i

va t e d i n m ét a y a ge a n d on l y t h os e c r o p s wh i c h e i t h e r d e m a n d e d m u c h
,

l a b ou r or fe t c h e d a lo w p r i ce in t h e m a r ke t O t h e rwi se l a n d l o r d s a n d .

t en a n t s wou l d fi n d it m o r e profi t a ble t o en t e r in t o m o n e y c on tr a c t s wit h

t h e p e a s a n t s Th e m a i n a d v a n t a ge wh i c h l a n d own e r s a n d t h e i r t e n a n t s
.

h a d d e r i v e d fr o m t h e m e t a y a ge s y s t e m b e s i d es t h e fa c t t h a t i t r e qu i r e d
'

n o c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t s a n d n o p e r son a l e ffo rt s w a s t h a t u n d e r i t a ll t h e
,
5 90 APPEND IX
l oss r e su lt i n g from fa r m ing a t a gr e a t di s t a n ce fe ll up on t h e p ea s a n t s .

Ma n y l a n d own e r s t h e r e fo r e we r e w i ll in g t o s e e t h e s y s t em e x t e n d e d
, , ,

by m ea n s o f l ega l p r o v i s ion s a n d t h e r e by s ecu r e t h e i r r e v en ue wh i l e

,

c a n a l i z i n g t h e p e a s a n t s l a n d h un e r Aft e r t h e r is in g of 1 9 07 a n um b e r
’

g .

o f s c h e m e s w e r e p u t fo r wa r d by i n fl ue n t i a l l a n d o w n e r s a i m i n
g i n e ssen ce ,

a t t h e s a m e r e su lt Th e y p r op os e d t h a t a l im i t s h ou l d be s et by la w
.

s o m e o f t h e m p u t i t a t 25 0 h a b e y on d wh i c h t h e la n d of e v e r y e s t a t e
.
—

s h ou l d h a v e t o b e le t t o t h e p e a s a n t s i n m é t a y a e
g ( Ga r oflid op ci t .
, .
,

pp 42
.
, I n e ffe ct t h a t wou l d h a v e s ign ifi e d a r e t u r n t o t h e feu d a l
t i t h e s y s t e m wit h t h e d iffe r en ce t h a t t h e p ea s an t s woul d h a v e h a d t o
-

gi v e on e h a lf o r m o r e of t h e p r o d u ce i n s t e a d of on e t en t h
- -

Th e p o s t w a r r e fo r m s h a v e i n s t e a d p a rt i t i on e d t h e gr ea t e s t a t e s i n
-

a l a r ge m e a su r e a m on
g t h e p e a s a n t s B ut m é t a y a ge h a s n ot d i sa pp e a r e d ;
.

on t h e con tr a r y i t i s n o w fo u n d e v en i n t h e p r o v i n ces in w h i c h i t h a d
,

b e en a l m os t u n kn o w n B ot h t h e l a n d ow n e r s a n d t h e p ea s a n t s h a v e a n
.

i n t e r es t i n i t s c on t i n u a t io n I n m a n y c a s e s w h a t i s l e ft o f a n e s t a t e ca n
.

11 0 l o n ge r su pp o rt a fa m i l y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s o r o f r en ti ers ; t h e y foll ow o t h e r

o c cu p a t i on s a n d t h e r e fo r e t en d t o le t t h e i r l a n d be wo r k e d i n m ét a y a e
g .

Th e u n c e rt a i n t y o f t h e l a b ou r su pp l y h a s s t r e n gt h e n e d t h a t t en d e n cy
-
.

E v e n s o m e o f t h e h o l d in gs d i s tr i bu t e d a t t h e r e fo r m t o ofii ci a ls & c a r e , , .
,

wo r ke d i n t h a t w a y On t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e r e fo rm h a s b een un a b l e t o
.
,

gi v e l a n d t o a ll t h e p e a s a n t s S o m e of t h e m h a v e r e ce i v e d n on e a t a ll
.
,

w h i l e o t h e r s n o t s u ffi c i en t t o e m p l o y a ll t h e i r l a b ou r a n d t h ese m e n a re ,

s o a n x i ou s t o cu lt i v a t e a s m u c h l a n d a s t h e y p oss i b l y ca n t h a t t h e y a r e

g r e a tl y d i ss a t i s fi e d if a n e s t a t e w h i c h fo r m e rl y h a d b e en wo r k e d in
m ét a y a ge i s n o w fa r m e d by t h e o w n e r h im s e lf F urt h e r t h e d e p r e c ia t ion .
,

a n d fl uc t ua t i o n s o f t h e cu rr en c y h a v e ca u s e d t h e p e a sa n t s o ft e n t o p r e fe r

a m ét a y a ge a rr a n ge m e n t t o m on e y co n tr a c t s .

A s a con se qu en ce m é t a y a ge h a s s p r e a d t o Mo l d a v i a a n d e v en t o ,

T r a n s y l v a n ia w h e r e b efo r e it w a s r a r e l y m et w i t h A s e con d c h a n ge i s
, .

t h a t m é t a y a ge a rr an ge m en t s a re n ow m a d e n ot onl y b e t w e en l a r ge
o w n e r s a n d p e a sa n t s b u t a l s o b e twe e n t h e p ea s a n t s t h e m se l v es ( G
,
. .

I o n e s cu S i se st i S tr ucture Agr a i re e t P r od ucti on Agr i cole pp 22

-

,
As , .

l a n d w a s d is tr i bu t e d o n t h e b a s is of soci a l con s i d e r a t ion s s om e ,

p ea s a n t s h a v e r e ce i v e d m o r e t h a n t h e y h a v e m ea n s t o cu lt i v a t e wh i l e ,

o t h e r s h a v e b e en l e ft w i t h m o r e d e a d a n d l i v e s t o c k t h a n t h e y ca n

e m p l o y on t h e i r o w n h o l d i n gs Not b e i n g a b l e t o r e n t a dd i t io n a l
.

l a n d fr o m t h e r e duce d l a r ge e s t a t es t h e y a r e wi ll in g t o w o r k in m é t a y a ge
,

t h e h o l d in gs o f s m a ll own e r s w h o fo r on e r e a son or a n o t h e r ca nn o t fa r m
, ,

t he m se l v es .

Th e Mi n i s tr y o f A gr icu ltu r e ca rr ie d out i n 1 9 22 a n i n qu i r y w h i c h

e s t a b l is h e d t h a t i n t h e O l d K in gd o m m ét a y a ge w a s t o be fou n d e v e r y

w h e r e ; i n T r a n s y l v a n ia i t w a s a lt o ge t h e r a b s en t fr om on l y on e coun t y ,

a n d i n B es sa r a b i a a n d B u co v i n a fr o m o n l y t w o c ou n t i es Th e fo ll owin g .

fi gu r e s w e r e ob t a in e d i n a s o m ew h a t r ough a n d r e a dy fa s h i on a n d we r e ,
 APPENDIX 5 91

c on s i de r e d by M I on e scu S is e st i ( op -
. ci t , p 24 ) t o be
. b e l ow the ac tu a l
s t a t e o f t h i n gs

Perce n t ge of tot l
a a

cultiv te d a rea a

pe r c e n t .

5 9 -

20 6
6 0
4 7 -

35 -

16 4-

T ot l
a 110

In Mo l d a v i a m ét a y a ge w a s h a r d l y e v e r r e so rt e d t o b efo r e t h e r efo rm .

In D ob r o ge a m e d iu m s i z e d p r o p e rt y p r e d om in a t e s I n Olt e n i a t h e r e
-
.

h a s b e e n a g r e a t d e c r e a s e a ft e r t h e r e fo r m p e a s a n t s a n d l a r ge o wn e r s
,

h a v i n g i n t h a t p r o v in ce b ee n m o r e a c t i v e i n a d a p t in g t h e i r fa r m in g t o
t h e n e w con d i t i on s Th e h igh p e r ce n t a ge s i n B u co v i n a a n d T r a s y l v a n i a
. n

we r e n o d oub t d ue t o t h e fa c t t h a t t h e a pp l ica t io n o f t h e r e fo r m w a s n ot
y e t t e r m i n a t e d I n B e s s a r a b i a t h e r e fo r m h a d b ee n m o r e r a d i ca l s o t h a t
.
,

e a c h l a n d o wn e r k n ew fr o m t h e ou t s e t t h a t h e wo u l d n o t be a l l owe d t o

r e t a i n m o r e t h a n 1 00 h a M S is e st i con s i d e r e d t h a t i n 1 9 22 a n a r e a e qu a l
. .

t o a b ou t o n e h a l f o f t h e a b o v e t o t a l w a s w o r k e d o n t h e b a s is o f m on e y
-

co n tr a c t s w i t h t h e e qu i p m e n t o f t h e p e a sa n t s w h i c h we r e c l ose l y a ll i e d
, ,

t o m ét a y a ge Th e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e l a n d c o v e r e d m a in l y by s m a l l a n d
.
,

m e d ium s i e d h o l d i n gs w a s wo r k e d by i t s o w n e r s t h e m s e l v e s
-
z , .

Mos t o f t h e m ét a y a ge a rr a n ge m e n t s i n v o l ve d i n t h e a b o v e t a b l e we r e
b a s e d on a p a rt i t i on of t h e h a r v e s t I n t en d e p a rt m en t s t h e in qui r y foun d
.

a r e v i v a l o f t h e ta r la s y s t e m wh i c h cou l d n o t be p r o h i b i t e d t h e 1 9 08
, ,

l aws h a v in g b e co m e i n o p e r a t i v e a ft e r t h e r e fo r m ; M I on es cu S i se st i .
-

e s t i m a t e d t h a t i t d i d n ot r e p r es en t m o r e t h a n o f t h e a r e a wo r k e d

i n m ét a y a ge .

I n t h e d ea va lma m ét a y a ge a gr e e m e n t s a r e m a d e y e a rl y o n e t o t h r e e ,

m on t h s b e fo r e t h e b e gin n i n g o f t h e wo r k Th e s u r fa ce cu lt i v a t e d i n.

m é t a y a ge c h a n ge s fr o m y e a r t o y e a r t o su i t t h e c r o p r o t a t ion o f t h e
,

l a rge own e r o r t e n a n t Th e h a r v e s t is u sua ll y d i v i d e d o n a h a l f—a n d h a l f

.
-

b a s is t h e s e e d b e i n g r e t a in e d by t h e p a rt y wh ic h su pp l i e d it C o n d it ion s
, .

v a r y wit h p opu l a t ion ; a n d i n p a rt s wh i c h h a v e suffe r e d m u ch t h r ough

t h e Wa r t h e a gr e e m en t i s m o r e fa v ou r a b l e t o t h e p e a sa n t
, I n D ob r oge a .

t h e r e w e r e p a rt s wh e r e t h e l a n d o w n e r r ece i v e d o n l y on e t h i r d o r e v e n o n e -

fou rt h of t h e h a r v e s t t h e m é ta y er b e i n g o b l ige d t o c l e a r t h e l a n d w h i c h
,

h a d r e m a i n e d un cu lt i v a t e d du r in g t h e W a r ; t h e l a n d o w n e r r e ce i v e d o n e
h a l f on l y if h e su pp l ie d t h e wo r ki n g a n i m a l s a n d i m p l e m e n t s Li k ewi s e .

i n B u co v i n a t h e l a n d own e r t a k e s o n e t h i r d o r on e h a l f i f h e fi r s t h a s t h e
- -

l a n d p l ough e d a n d c l e a r e d on h is o wn a ccoun t I n t h e o t h e r p r o v i n ces .

5 92 APPENDIX
t h e l a n d o w n e r t a k es on e t h i r d t w o fif t h s o r on e h a lf of t h e h a r v e s t i f h e
-

,
- -

g i v e s m e r e l y t h e l a n d ; b u t on e h a l f t h r e e fift h s or t w o t h i r d s i f h e gi v e s
- - -

t h e l a n d a l r e a dy p l ou gh e d or p l ough e d a n d sown C a ses h a v e b e e n .

r e co r d e d h owe v e r w h en t h e l a n d own e r ga v e m e r e l y t h e l a n d a n d
, ,

r e c e i v e d t h r e e fift h s of t h e h a r v e s t or t w o t h i r d s wh e r e t h e d e m a n d for
- -

l a n d w a s gr e a t Th e co n d i t io n s of s h a r in g v a r y als o wi t h t h e n a tu r e o f
.

t h e c r O p a n d t h e a m oun t o f l a b ou r i t r e qu i r e s .

G e n e r a l l y t h e v a l u e o f t h os e l a b ou r s r e p r e s en ts t h e r e n t a l v a l ue o f
t h e a r e a wo r k e d i n m ét a y a ge ; b u t fr e que n tl y t h e l a b our s a r e wo rt h m o r e
t h a n t h e m on e y r e n t a l ( I on e s cu S ise st i op ci t p -
Mé t a y a ge t h e r e
, .
, .
,

fo r e i s i n fa v ou r of t h e l a n d o w n e r w h en h e ge t s on e h a l f o f t h e h a r v e s t
,
-

a n d e v e n m o r e s o i f h e ge t s a l a r ge r s h a r e ; w h i c h e xp l a i n s w hy t h e s y s t e m

i s s t i l l i n s u c h gr e a t fa v ou r I n ce rt a i n p a rt s m o s t o f t h e m é t a y a ge a gr e e
.

m en t s we r e b e t w e e n s m a l l h o l d e r s on e p a rt y b e in g un a b l e t o w o r k t h e
,

h o l d in g i t h a d r e ce i v e d Th e p e a sa n t s on l y s e l l t h e i r l a n d in e x tr e me
.

c i r cu m s t a n ce s .

B e fo r e t h e r e fo r m t h e b ul k o f t h e p ea sa n t s d e p en d e d on t h e l a r ge
o wn e r s a n d t e n a n t s for l a n d a n d t h e y h a d t o a cce p t s u c h co n d i t i on s a s
,

we r e o ffe r e d t h e m S ocia l l y m ét a y a ge r e p r es e n t e d t h e t r a n s i t ion fr om

.
,

s e r fd o m t o y e o m an fa r m i n g ; a n d t e c h n i ca l l y i t w a s a h a l f w a y h ou s e ,
-

t o fa r m in g o n a l a rge s c a l e by t h e o w n e r or a n en tr e p r en eu r Th e l a r ge .

o w n e r or t e n a n t h a d a n i n t e r es t i n s e e i n g t h a t cu lt i v a t i on w a s c a rr i e d o n

un d e r t h e b e s t p os s ib l e con d it ion s t h a t cou l d be o b t a in e d wi t h out

c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t s a n d e xp e rt d i r e c t io n A ft e r t h e r efo r m t h e p ea sa n t s .
,

h a v e ge n e r a l l y b e e n i n a b e tt e r p o si t ion for b a rga in in g a n d t h e t e n d e n cy ,

a m o n g t h e m i s t o d e v e l o p i n t e n s i v e m e t h o d s a n d c r o p s w h i c h w i ll l e a v e ,

l e ss s co p e fo r m ét a y a ge Th a t i s a l so t h e l in e w h i ch l a rge cu lt i v a t ion i s
.

l ike l y t o fo l l o w t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a r e a s l e ft t o t h e fo rm e r l a r ge o w n e r s
n o l o n ge r l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o h a ph a z a r d e x t e ns i v e cul t i v a t i o n O nl y .

i n t e n s i v e fa r m i n g w i t h p a i d l a b ou r e r s u n d e r t h e a c t i v e d i r ec t i on o f t h e
, ,

own e r or t e n a n t i s l i k e l y t o be p r o fi t a b
,
le on w h a t i s l e ft o f t h e l a r ge e s t a t e s .

AP P E ND IX I II
F I NANC I A L A CC O UN TS OF THE R E FO RM ON J ANUAR Y 1 4 1 9 29 ,

A E .
I AT E E TAT
XP ROP R W IC PA NT E E N CL A E
D S ES F OR H H Y ME HA S B IM D

vi
T ot a l p y m a en ts
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.

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2
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.

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8
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Mor t ga ges w thi Ru i ss an B a nk s
 APPE NDIX 5 93
B . BO ND S I SS U E D U N T IL J U NE 28 , 1 9 29

L ei
5% R e d ee mable bond s
5% P er p e t ua lb on d s

T ot a l

C . AM OU NT S D E B IT E D TO TH E P E ASANTS

vi
N umb
01
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xp
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P ro n ce
r e01 p .

1e 11 t s
e e n ses
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F i rs t e
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S econ
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d bi 8 79
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.

98 5
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4
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T ot a l

D . PA Y M E N T S M AD E BY THE P EA S A N T S DU R NGI 1 9 22— 8

E st i ma t es
dv
B u ge t a r
(o er 18
y mR v
e e n ue 1
on t h s )
S ur p l us
R eve n ue 2
To ta l

T ot a l
1
P y men t of a m oun ts a ctu lly de bite d t o t h e p e a a ts
a a s n .

P ym en ts in a dv a ce b e yo d t h e a m o u ts d e bite d till th e n This s ur plu s w a s

2
a n n n

h an d e d o v e r t o t h e Na tion l B an k for a cc o u t of t h e Treas ur y ; it is n ow b e in g

, .

a , n

d e pos ite d with t h e S vin gs O th ( Ca s d e D ep u e i 5 2E con omti )

a ee a, n r 1 .

R e c e ipt s fro m J n
2
ry 1 1 9 28 t o A pril 30 1 9 29
a na , , .

R e c e ipts fr om J n u r y 1 1 9 29 t o A pril 30 1 9 29
1
‘
a a , , .

Th e fi r s t thr ee ta bl s are c om pil d fr om fi gur e s s uppli e d by t h e D i r e ctora te of

e e

L an d Mortga ge in t h e Mi n i stry of Agricultur e No e xpl a a ti on w as giv en for t h e . n

r e l a tiv e ly high c om p ens a ti on a pp re n tly p id t o l a n d ow ers in Buc o vin n or for t h e

a a n a,

f ct th a t t h e Tr ans ylv a n i a n p e s n t s
a cco rdi n g t o th ese fi gur es w e re m d e t o pa y
a a , a , a

for t h e l an d th e y r e c e iv e d t w ic e a s m uch a s t h e S t a t e p a id t o t h e xpr opri a t e d o wn e r s e .

In B essa r a bi a it s ee m s t h e p ea n ts b ea r ea rly t h e wh ol e c o t of c om p ns a ti on
, , sa n s e .

Th e fo ur th t a bl e w a s o bta in e d from t h e M i ni s try of Fi n a c e Th e p e a s n ts h v e n . a a

p a id 0 11 from th e ir d e bt four hu n dr e d mi lli on s mor th a n t h e S ta te e xp e cte d an d i n e ,

a dditi on h a v e m d e a dv an c e p a ym en ts of o v e r h lf a mi lli a rd le i ; a lto e th e r th e y h a v

a a
g e
- -

pa id n ea rly on e m illi a rd lei more th an w as bud ge te d P a ym en ts fe ll off s h a rply afte r .

1 9 24 a s c on diti ons in a gricultur e b e c a m e w ors e

, .
 B IB LI O GRA PH Y
B I BL I O G R AP H Y T O P AR T I
AL E XA N D R E S CO , M CEA IR . La pr pri é té p y
o r um i a s an n e o a n e et l éga lité
’
du p a rt age
s uccessora l pp 204 ( Th es i s ) Pa ris 1 9 1 3 . . .
, .

AMI AB L E L L a Qu e s ti on d es P a y sans en R oum a ni e ( E xt r Jour n a l d e s Econ o

, . . .
‘

Pa ris 1 8 6 1 , .

A NG E L E S CU I N O ri gi n a r azesilor si m osn en ilor pp 1 1 6 Buc a re st 1 909

, . . . .

A N TI M S T Ch e s t i a Té ré n ea sca p p 4 5
. .
,

, . Cra i o v a 1 9 1 9 , . .
, .

L a Que s ti on S oci a l e en R oum ani e P a ris 1 9 1 2 .

, .

AR GE TOY AN U I C Ma re a n oas t ra p ropr i e t a t e si e x pr opr i erea

, . .Con t r i buti uni la .

S t ud i ul R efor m e lor a gr r e Buc a res t 1 9 1 3 a .

, .

AR I O N C L a S itu a ti on Ec o n om iqu e e t S o ci a l e d u P a y san e n R oum ani e Pa ris 1 8 9 5

, . .
, .

AR I O N DI NO U C L e N om os Ge orgik os e t le r egi me d e la t e rr e d a ns l a n ci en dr o it
’
, .

r o u ma i n j us qu a la ré forme d e C ons tan tin Ma vr ocor d a t pp 21 0 Pa ris 1 9 29

’
. . .
, .

S CAR L A T C S t a rea I ar an ului R om an Buc a res t 1 9 14

.
r ‘
.
, .

AR I CE S CU C D Ch e s t i un e a P r op r i e t atii Des bat ut a d e Pr oprie ta ri s i Pluga ri 1a 1 8 48

, . .
, .

Buc a res t 1 8 6 2 , .

ARS A K E S P L a Qu e sti on d e la Pr o pr 1e t é d e v a n t les As se m bl é es Ié gi s la t ives pp 5 6

, . . . .

Buc a re s t 1 8 60 , .

B IB I CE S CU I G I n Ces t i une a Agr a ré pp 1 3 7 Buc a re s t 1 907

, . . . . .
, .

B O G D AN B OI CA G V i a ta si O p era I n t ai ul ui Taré ni s t R o m a n I on I ones cu d e l a Bra d

, .
,

( 18 18 pp 1 4 9 Cra i o v a 1 9 22 . .
, .

B O G D A N I Des pre cnej ii r oman i Ann a ls of t h e R uma n i a n A ca d e my Buc a res t

, . .
,
.

1 1 s eri e s XX VI 1 903 , , .

B R AE S K O C L e P a y s a n R o u m a in e t la Qu es ti on Pa ys a nn e e n R ouma ni e pp 36 4
, . . . .

( Th e s i s ) P a ris 1 906 , .

B U S U I OCE S CU DR D S i s t e m e le d e Ar e n d a r e Ap li ca t e p e Mosiil e A ca d e mi e i S tudi a

, . . .

E c on o mi c Buc a rest 1 9 1 1 , .

C AR A G I A L E I L 1 907 d in pr i mé va ré pin a n t oa mn at pp 32 Buca re st 1 907

.

’ '

, . . : . . . .
, .

C AR P P P Ausw ar t i ge Politik u Agr a rr e for m ( R e de n un d Ze itun gsa rt i k e l ) p p 7 8

, . . . . . . .

Buc a rest 1 9 1 7 , .

CHE B A P GR GH R egim ul L egii Agr a r e d e l a 1 8 6 4 i n Efe ct ele lui A s up ra E c on omi e1

, . .

R ur l e si S t é ii G en e r a l e a Ti ra n ului pp 7 9 Buc a res t 1 902

a r . . .
, .

Colecti e d e T e a te I ns t r uc tii le si Deslegar ile cc s a u d a t i n A plica tia N ou e i L egi

’

R ura l e pp 6 9 Buc a res t 1 8 6 4

. . .
,
.

Cole c tie d e A sez amin t e F ac ut e I n a in t e a R egula me n t ul ui O rga ni c pen t r u ,

S t a t or n i cir e a Dre p t ur ilor si I n d a t or i r ilor R eci pro ee a le P rop r i et a rilor d e Mosii si

a le L oc ui t or ilor S é t e n i d in o ld o v a M .

CO R N A I ZE A NO , VI S OR I E I Du a x im u m e t d u i n i mum c omme Prin cip e d e la L oi

'‘
. M M
é
Agra ir e d u 23 D c 1 9 07 e t d e l Opp or t un i t é d u n e C a i s se R ur a l e e n R o um a ni e
.
’ ’
.

p p 1 42 . .
( Th e s i s ) P a ri s , 1 908 .

COS ACE S CU , N D a te si Obs er va tii i n Ch es t ia R ur a l a pp 30 Buc a res t 1 9 07 . . .

, .

NGA
.

CR E A , DR G D P r op r i e t a t e a R ura l a i n R omani a
. . Buc a rest, 1 906
.
. .

Gr un d bes i t z ve r t e il un g un d B a u e r n fra ge i n R um ani en B e rli n , 1 9 14 . .

Der B a u e r n s ta n d i n R uman i e n Br un n 1 901 . . .

Cr est e re a Ar e nz ii P é man t ului i n B a ni si i n Di j ma, a P as un a t ului si a P r e

r ilor Munc ilor Agric ol e d e l a 1 8 7 0— 1 9 06 x iv xv 1 02 ( Mi n I n te r n e )
t u pp . . .
, , . .

Buc a res t , 1 908 .

 B IBLIOGRAPHY 5 95
Decre te le Guve rn ul ui P rovi z ori u si Ma ni fes te R oman ii
‘ ’

Tara n ul . Vo l . .

No 44—5 0 . . Buc rest a , 1 8 63 .

DOB R OGE ANU GHE R E A C pp 498 Ne oi obé gi a

-
Buc a res t, 1 908 . . .
‘
.
’

D GU
.
,

R A , T La P o litique R o u ma in e a pres les Trouble s Agra ir es d e 1 9 07 L Afi a i re

. .
’ ’

K ogé ln i ce a n u Pa ris 1 9 08 .
, .

D UC A, I N I on C B ri t ia n u si Ch est ia Agrara pp 24 Buc a res t 1 921

. . . . . .
, .

F IL I TTI , I C Cla s ele S o ci a l e i n Tr e cut ul R om an ese pp 23 Buc a re s t , 1 9 25

. . . . .

FO T N O
.

I D R G E OR G E S C o tribution a I Et ud e ( les O rigi es d e l A ncie n Droit

, . . n
’
n
’

C o utu m ie r R o u m in Um Ch a pitre d e l His t oi re d e l Pr oprié té a u M oyen Age a .

’
a .

pp 460 Pa ri s 1 9 25
. .
, .

GAR OF LI D C Ch e s t i Agr a rét i R oman i a p p 428 Buc a r es t 1 9 20 ( 2n d e diti on ) a n . . .

, . .

G EOR G E S CU C O N STANT C R ul t at ele R fo me lor Ag e d in 1 907 Buc re t 1 9 1 3

.
,

, . ez e r ra r . a s , .

C L a R é for me Agr a i r e e R o uma ni e ( Th es i s ) P a ris 1 908

. n .
, .

GI UR E S CU C Vech i mea r uman ie i i n Ta ra R oma a s ca si l gatur lui Mi h a iu V itea ul

, . ne e a z .

A nn a ls of t h e R u m n i an A c a d e m y Buc a r e s t II s ri s xxxvii 1 9 1 4 p p 47 9 a , . e e , , , .

5 43 .

Des pr e ru man i
i a n A ca d my 1 1 se ri es xxxviii 1 9 1 5 . An n a ls of t h e R ma n u e .
, , .

Or ga ni z a r ea S oci a la i n Ta ra R oma e a sca ( L ctur s d e live r d 1 9 1 5 16 ; n . e e e —

s t e cill e d MS i n t h e Libr ry of t h e R u ma ni a n A c a d e m y ) pp 213

n . a . . .

Despr e boi er i pp 1 28 Buc a r es t 1 9 20 . . .

, .

GOL E S CO A G De l A boli t ion d u S rva ge d a ns l s Pr i n cip a uté s Dan ubi enn es

’

, . . e e .

pp 1 5 6 . P r is 1 8 5 6 . a , .

G RAM A E FTI MI E Ch est iun ea Agra ré si Ch estiu ea Ta an e sca d in M unteni a si

, . . n r a

M ldova pp 5 0
o . . .

GRI G OR E S CO C S ur l a P olitiqu e Agra ir e en R ouma ni

, .
pp 21 3 ( Th es is ) P a ris 1 9 1 2 e . . .
, .

HARE T S PI RU C Ch es t i Ta a s a pp 8 0 Buc a r es t 1 9 05
, . a r nea c . . .
, .

I OANI TE S CU D R I s t or i cul L egis la tie i M un cii i n R omani a

, . Buc a res t 1 9 19
. .
, .

IO N E S CU DR D B Die Agra rve rfass un g R um an iens ihr e G es chichte un d i h re R efor m

, . . .
, .

pp 1 32 L e ip ig 1 909
. . z , .

D E L A BR A D Agricul tur a R o man a i n j ud e tul D or o h o i Buc a res t 1 8 6 6

. .
, .

Agric ultur a R oman a in j ud e tul M e h e din ti Buc a res t 1 8 6 8 .

, .

Agricul tur R om an a i n j ud etul Put a Buc a r es t 1 8 7 0 a n .

, .

Taran ul R oman ( Pe ri odi c a l 1 8 6 0

‘ ’
I ON .
pp 8 6 1 3 .
, , .
— .

IO N E S CU S IS E sTI G Poli tic a Agr ara cu P r i vir e S p e ci a la la R oman i a pp 206

-

, . . . .

Buc a r st 1 9 1 0 e , .

IOR G A N Cons t a t é r i i s t or i ce cu p i vire Ia vi a ta a gr ara a R oman ilor pp 9 1 Buc a

, . r . . .

rest 1 9 08 , .

S i t ua tia Agr ara E c on omi c a l si S oe i a lat a Olt e i e i i n E p oc a lui Tud or

'

, n

Vl adi mi r es cu D ocum e nte Con t impo an e Buc a r s t 1 9 1 5 . r . e , .

D é v e l opp em en t d e la questi on rura le n R ouman i e pp 5 8 Jass y 1 9 1 7 e . . .

, .

Evo luti on d e la qu esti on rur a l e en R o um a ni e j us qu ala r é forrn e a gr a ir e ( P a p e r ’

.

rea d b efore t h e I n te rn ati ona l Agricultur a l Congres s Buca rest pp 24

K O GAL NI C E ANU MI E AI L A ut obi ogr a fi e pp 8 4 Buc a res t 1 9 1 6
, . .

, . . . .
, .

I mbun at atir ea S oar t ei Ti r a n ilor Cuvan t u R os t i t i n A du n a rea Ge n e ra lé .

a R oman ici se di n ta d i n 25 M i n 1 8 62 Buca res t 1 8 6 2

pp 8 8 , a . . .
, .

V M Ch es t i un a Taran e ascé pp 1 09 Buc a r es t 1 9 06

. . e . . .
, .

V M I mp r opr i et ar ir ile Taran esti pp 32 Buc a rest 1 906

. . . . .

L EO N N G EOR G E I s tori a E con omiei Pub lic e la R omani pp 1 42 Buc a res t 1 924
.
,

, . . . . .
, .

LEONE S CU N V A n ul 1 907 Ras c oa l a Ti ra nilor pp 5 2 I a si 1 9 24

, . . . . .
, .

Qq 2
5 96 B IBLIOGRAPHY
L ov Cr i t i ce : I I stori a Misczi rii S e mé n at or ul ui
E pp 208 Buc a r est, 1 925
‘ ’
‘

S CU , . . . . . .

I stori a Ci vili z a tiei R oman e 3rd vol Buc a res t, 1 9 24—5

U U JU T N
. . .

L P S , S I Mari a Moart é si R ascum pararea Averilor ei Buca res t 1 9 1 1

. .

T
.
, .

MAL TE ZI ANU , DR C O S Di e R um anis eh e A gr a rb e w egun g B e rli n , 1 9 1 3

. N . . .

MAND R E A , R P oli tic a Agr ar é Cons er va t oa r e pp 1 7 Buc a res t, 1 906

. . . . . .

MAN OL E S CO MLAD I AN , S L Evolut i on d e la Cl as s e Moy enn e eh R oum a ni e ( Th es is )

’
-
. .

P a ris , 1 9 09 .

MI TR AN Y D R um ani a ( In Th e
, . O xf o r d 1 9 1 5 .
‘
, .

MOR U ZI S E B A STIA N C at e va v e d e ri in ch es t i a ti r ane as ca pp 30 Faltic eni 1 907

, .
-
. . .
, ,

MOTE AN U C Cons i d er a ti un i a s upra p ulver iz é r i i propr i e t é tii taran esti

, . An a lele .
‘

S t a t i s t i ce s i E con om i ce No 5 1 9 1 8
’
, .
, .

NE GU L E s co P Etud e s ur le p r ot irms d a ns l a n ci en dr oit r oum a in

’
Nouvelle R evu e
'
‘
.
, .

H i s toriqu e x xiii 1 8 9 9 p p 21 3—24 ’

, , , . .

OP R E S CU A N T O N Din Tr ecut ul Agr i cult ur ei Noas t r e V i ata Agric o la Jan u a ry ‘ ’

.
, .
,

A u gus t 1 9 21 .

PA NG A L L EO N L a Qu esti on Agr a ir e pp 30—7 P a ris 1 9 14

, . . . .
, .

PA NU G HE OR G HE Ce cet ar i As upra S tare i Tara nilor i n Vea eur ile Tr ee ut e Buc a res t
, . r .
,

1 9 10 . 1 vo l .
( 2 p t s ) pp 6 5 2 . . .

P AU C E S CU , GR . I mbun é t é tir ea S oa rt e i Té r a nil or ( Poli tic a l Fr agmen ts ) .

pp 6 9 . .

P HIL I P P m E A S I n ce r cz i r i A supra S t é r e i S o ci a l e a P op orul ui R oman i n Tr e cut

, . . .

( P t II P r opr i e t a t e a Dup a A ct ele Publi c e ) p p 8 3 I asi , 1 8 9 6

. . . . . .

CU
P OPE S , DR CONS TA NTD I De ce Tr ebue I mbun at é ti t a S t area S é t emlor pp 1 38
. .
’

. . .

Buc a r es t 1 9 1 4 , .

P roect e d e L egi R ur a l e P e r z e nt a t e Corp ur ilor L egi ui t oar e i n S es i un ea 1 907— 8 .

B uc a r est 1 9 07 8 ,
— .

P r ogr a mul D e m ocra t R a d ic a l -

.
pp 49 . . Buc a rest 1 8 90 .

R A C OV S K Y , C Ch es t i a a gr a r é ticl Vi i t or ul S o ci a l , Buc a r es t, A ug —S e pt ,
. . Ar es i n
‘ ’
. .

1 907
A U CU N
.

R D L E S , A D REI Dr e ptul d e prot im i s la a r en d a re Dre ptul , xv i No 40, 1 9 07

‘
. .
’
xx . . .

RA UL CU M T U
D ES O R , C C ul tur a R oman é si P oli t ici a ni smul pp 25 4 B uc a res t
-
. . . . .

( wi th out d a te ) .

R AsCAN U D R T EO D OR Pr obl e m a P ama t ului i n R omani a pp 28 2 Buc a r es t 19 22

, . . n . . .
,
.

R ATE s S T E F A N V i a ta Agrar a a R omanilor di n A rd ea l D oc um e n te Con t im p oran e

, . . .

Vol i 1 5 08 —1 8 20 pp 3021 Buc a res t 1 9 22

. . . . .
, .

R egula m e n t P i vi t or la modul d e i n t rebuin ta r e a I sla ur ilor C omm un a l e ( Min is te r ul

r z .

A gr si Dom e ni ilor ) pp 1 4 B uc a re s t 1 9 1 0 . .
, .

R O S E TTI C A Dis cur s ul As upra Toc melelor Agric ol e R os t i t i n $ e din ta Ca merei d e l a

. .

. .
,

1 2 F e b 1 8 8 2 pp 44 Buc a res t 1 8 8 2
. . . .
,
.

R A D U A cte si Legiuir i P r ivit oare la Ch es t ia Taran e ascé ( 2n d S eries )

.
. .

Pl oes ti —Buc re st 1 9 07 —8 a ,
.

P i m an t ul Taran ii si S t ap an ii i n Mold ova pp 5 5 5 Buc a res t 1 905

,
. . .
,
.

P e n t r u cc s a u R ascul t Ti ra n ii pp 6 9 9 Buc a r est 1 9 08 ’

a . . . ,
.

R O S E TTI GE N E R A L R L i nfl ue n ce d u r égi me d e la propri é té fon c re s ur l organis a

’
’
.
ie
,

ti on l t a ctiqu e e t la s tr tegic d es a rmé es rouma i n es a u XV s i ecl e ( Pa p r r ea d

, a a
e . e

b efore t h e s ixth H i storic l C on gr es s O s l o pp 8 Buc a rest a ,

. . .

S A NI E L E VI CI H P op or a is mul R e ac ti on a r pp 440 Buc a r es t 1 9 21

, . n . . .
,
.

op i t a t ea Mosn e n eas cé i n I n d i vi i un e S t udi u E c onomic o

§ A R B E S CU L OP ATA RI D P-

, . r c z .

S o ci a l pp 7 5 Bu za u 1 906
. . .
, .
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 5 97

8 11 1111 417
1 , Ag ra rp oliti s ch e S tudi en ub e r R umétni en .
pp 6 8 . .
( Th es is ) . Ha lle
Witten b erg , 1913 .

S IM U , S mI E ON . I nd i vi d ua li s mul si P é mfin t ul 1a R omani si a a i B rb ru D a cici sa u

P r oc es ul d e I n di vi d ua lizare S oci a lé a B ar bar ilor Da c i e i i n P r i me le o pt V e a cur i .

pp 4 3 Lu g j , 1 9 24
. . o .

8 1 111 4 1917 , I ON S I obé gi a RU U .

CT
.

S L AVE S CU , VI OR Di e Agra rfr a ge in R uma n i e n . .

pp 1 6 9. .
( Th es is ) H a ll e Witte n -

b e rg 1 9 14
S T EB E C
.
,

rticles i n t h e Vi ta R oman e a sca 1 905 & J y

A
‘
a
’
, , c . a ss .

S TUR D ZA D IMI TR I E A Me m o i u As pur a L egilo Agrare d i n R o mani a

, .

, p p 1 48 , . r r . . .

Buc res t 1 9 1 4 a ,
.

S TUR D ZA S CHE IA N U D C A cte si L egi uir i Buc a res t 1 906 & c

‘

-
.
, . . , .

TA NOVI CE AN U I F or ma e a p rop i e t é te i fu ci are in M o ld o v a ( I Prin os lui D A ‘

. r r n . n . .
,

pp 4 13 33 Buc a re s t 1 9 03
— .
. .
,

TA sCA G , L es N ouv e ll es R é for me s Agra ir e s en R o um a ni e

.
pp 21 2 ( Th es is ) . . . .

P ris 1 9 1 0
a ,
.

VL AD E S CU OL T M I mpropr ie t é r ir ile di n D o brogea pp 1 07 Buc a r es t 1 905

-

, . . . .
, .

L e M o uv e m n t Ec on o m iqu e Buc a ‘ ’
X E NOP OL A D I s t or i cul ch es t i un i a gr are
, . . e . e .

r es t Ju 1 9 1 0
, ne .

P r op i et a t ea m re si cea m ic a r Vi ata R oman easca I a s viii 1 9 1 3 a .

‘
.
’
1, , .

P op r ie t a t e a m a r e s i ce Mic a in Tr e cut ul Ta il or R o m a e I a i 1 9 1 3
r
r a r n . s , .

F a e t or ul No u ( Ta ani mea ) Colectie d e Ar t i cole s e ris e in a i n te si dup a

‘ ’
Zi ris t
a . r .

R é scoa la di n 1 9 07 .

B I BL I O G RAP H Y T O PAR T II
Agra ri an R e for m i n E aste rn E ur op e Th e E c o omi s t .
‘
n
’
, London , 1 9 —26 Aug .

1 9 22 .

Ag ra rreform S ibiu , 1921 .

pp 4 8 . . .

A L E XAN D R E S CU , TR AI AN Dre p t ur ile P r opr i e t ar ilor si Cre d i t or ilor I p ote c a ri i n ra p ort .

cu L egis la tiun e a Agrara S t ud i u Teoret ic si Pra ctic rma t d e I ns t r uctiunile si .

, U
F or m ul ar e le n ecesare P e n t r u I nea sa r ea Ti t lur ilor d e R en t a p p 6 4 Buc a r est , . . .

1 9 23 .

A LVA E Z A L E J AN D RO & c Agr ri a n R eform in R ouma ni a a n d t h e c as e of t h e Hun

R , , . a

ga ri an opt n t s in Tr ans ylv a n i a b e fore t h e L a gu e f N a ti ons ( O pini ons by l ega l

a e o .

a uth oriti es ) pp 3 20 Pa ri 1 9 27 . . . s, .

AN T O N E S CU MI H AI L Al II l a Me m or i u A p roba t d e A du n a r ea G en e ra l a Pr opri e
, .
-
e a

t ar ilor si Ar en d a silor ( U n i unea G en e r a l a a S in d ic t e lor Agric o l e ) pp 8 Buc a . a . . .

re s t 1 9 1 8 , .

R egim ul Agr a r R om an si Ch es t i un ea Op t a til or Buc a res t 1 9 28 n .

, .

AR ON E S CU G Ce Tre buie sé $ t i e si S 5 Fa c a un P pi e t a r F a tz
, . i d e N o u a Le ge a . ro

E x pr p i erei pp 35 C am pulu g 1 9 21
o . . . n , .

AB S E NE S CU VAL E B I U Con d iti J u i d i ca a S ubs olul ui F a ta cu R efor ma Agra r a d in

, . a r

V chi ul R g t pp 39
e Buc a rest 1 925 e a . . .
, .

AVE RE S CU AL s ar bat o ir ea R efor m e i Agr are pp 1 6 Buc a res t 1 9 21

, . r . . .
, .

B a lk a n is ation of Agricul ture Bud p es t 1 9 21 . a , .

BA N E S CU , E U GE NI U P F ix ar e a P r e tul ui P aman t ului E x prop i a t P en t ru Ca uz é d e . .

U t ili t at e Na ti on a lé in V R ega t p p 5 4 Cra i o v a , 1 9 21 . . . . . .

B A S I LE S CO , N L a R fo r me Agra i re e n R oum a n i e pp 26 0 Pa r is , 1 9 1 9 é . . . .
5 98 BIB L I O G R APHY
B ER GHE ANU , V . Pare ri As upra . R efo rm e i Agr ar e . E xp r opr i er ea .
pp 7 0 Tighi n ea ,
. .

1 9 19 .

B OG D AN , De sn a tion a liz area R om é nilor Ar d elem, sau P olitic a A rar é

F I . .

g n u
g
'

.
U
r e a scé pp 6 4 Buc a rest, 1 9 1 6
. . . .

B ON J U G AL I B E I CHI OI , N I F é té rni ci a P a rt i d ului N a ti on a l Lib era l F a é de Im r o

t
-

p
-
. . . ,

p r i e t é r i r ea Té ra m l or dela 1 8 5 8—1 9 1 8
pp 1 9 Tulc ea , 1 9 22
.
'

. .

OR D
. . .

B CHAR D , E D W IN M pini on on t h e R oum a n i an H un ga ri a n is pu t e pp 6 7. O -

G rr
. . .

B OS IA N O, 0 La P oli tiqu e P a y s a nn e en R oum a n i a d e puis la

. ue e pp 9 6 . . . .

( Th es is ) P a ris, 1 9 20 . .

B ONTE S CU , VI OR CT
e o ma Agr ar é din Ar d ea l sub R apor t ul F inanci e ‘ Voin a ’
. Rf r . , r .
t .

Cluj , A pril 1 5 , 1 9 21 .

B R AI L E A NU , CONS T . Ch e s t i a Agr aré . cu m Tr ebue P r i vi t é , cu m Tre bue Des lega t é .

pp 48 . . Buc r a es t , 1919 .

BB ATAsAN U , PAV E L . I mpr opr ie t é r ir ea ,

Ti r a n ilor §i R eform ele D mo c rat ic
e a .
pp . v
+ 33 . B uc a r es t, 1 9 1 9 .

BRAE S CO, J E T S E S CI OR E A N O , G La r for m e a gr a ire en R ouman i e . . é .

‘
Bq e t in de la .

éé
S o ci t d e s L é gi s l a ti on s c o m p a r es , P is
’
uly S e pt , 1 9 25 é ar . J . .

B U E S CU , VA S IL P E Fatal cu E xp ro
Te re n ur ile din Zon a d e I n un d a ti e a Dun é r ei . .

p r ierea Cons t i t utia Mod ifi ca t é de L e gea A gr a r i

.
pp 44 Buc a r es t 1 9 21 . .

B UR B UR W E D E Despre R e f o r ma Agr ar é Vi at a Agr icol i Buc a res t 1 Aug

.
, .

‘ ’
, . . . . . . .
, .

1 9 22 .

CA NTA CU ZI N O , I HAJL iseu s M . D r r os t i t la Ca merei

. .
pp 33 . . Buca res t 1 9 1 9 , .

CAP ATI N E A N U , D G B i sonr s la . . . R e f o rm Agr a r é s). .

pp 5 2 . . Buca res t 1 921 ,

D R AG C O L A R forma
.

C AR D A S , . RI . e . Agr a ré in B a sar a bi a . . Mold ova Agric ol a? Jan

‘
.

1 922 . An 1 , . Nos . 6—7 .

CA R P, P . i R eform ele Con s t i t uti on a le

P a r t id e le P olit i ce § .
pp 9 2 . . I aei , 1 9 1 7 .

CE CR OP I D , N La Loi Agrai r e en
. . R oum a ni e et ses C ons equen c es Ec o n o mi q u es .
pp .

111 .
( Thesis ) Pa r is 1 9 24 .
, .

CE I B I TA P AR A S CHI V B P ré d ar ea Mogn enilor pp 6 9 R é mn i cu V alcea 1 9 21 , . , . . .

-
. .

CHI yorU D G I n a pé rare a r efor m e i a gra r e d in R o m a ni a Vi ata Agri colé a n x i v

'
‘ ’
. . . .
, , .
,

No 20 1 9 23 .
, .

R eform a agraré din Ro mania B ulet in ul Agr icult ur ii an V No 1 0—1 2 1 924

. . .
‘
,
’
.
, .
, .

Comi t e t ul A gr a r Dir ecti un ea I sla zur il or I ns t r ucti un i r e l a tiv e la A p li car e a L egi i

. , , . .

p en t r u I nfi in tar ea P i g un elor C o m unal e pp 45 M on Ofi ci a l 24 S ep t 1 9 20

‘ ’
. . .
, . .

CO NA CHE R H M A gr a ri an R e for m in E a ste rn E u r op e In te rn ati on a l R evi e w of ‘

. . .
,

Agricultur a l E cono mics R ome J an M a r ch 1 9 23

’
.
— . .
.
,

Con fi s ca r ea P ad ur ilor P a rticul a re d i n B a s a m bi a pp 1 6 Buc a r es t 1 9 22 . . .

, .

CONN E R T FR I T Z Zur Fr a ge de r Agra rrefor m in S i e b en bur gen Na ti on und St aa t ‘

. . .
,

V o l i N o 4 V i enn a 19 28 .

CONS TA NTI N E S CU A L E X Declara ti ile cu P r i vi r e la Dis cu ti a R efor me i Agr a re la

. . .
, ,

. ,
,

S ena t pp 8 9 Buca res t 1 9 21

. . .
, .

MI TI TA L Evolut i on d e l a Pr o pr 1e t é R ur a l e et la R éfor me Agra ir e eu

.
’

R oum m e pp 47 9 Buca r es t 1 9 25
’

a , .

COR U mU P E T RE R efo r ma Agr aré S t ud i u P a r ti a l as upr a c e lui de a ] d o il e a pr oect

. . .

'
. . , .
,

Voi n ta C lu j a n I N o 1 1 0—5 3
’
d lui Ga rofl id
‘
. . . .
, , ,

CRE TU T Cuvf mt are As upr L egii Agrar e pp 5 1 Buc ar es t 1 9 21 a . . .

, .

CR I S TO D O R E S CU C O N S T and STE F ANE S CU P RI B OI DE M C Cod ul L egis la ti unei de

, .

-
. .
, .
, ,

E xp r op i e r e P en t r u U t i h t t o N a ti on a l a P en t r u U ul Orga nelor de A plic a r a § i e ,

z

Pa i r tilor I n t e r esa t e la E x pr op ier e pp 28 5 Buc ar est 1 9 22 . . . .

, .
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 5 99
Cr iz a ‘
Comuni t é tu d e A v e re
’
cu um Mei n uchi d e Dove z i gi Mun cé D e pu se I n tr a
‘ '
. 0 .

Apé r a rea I n t ere selor Gr a ni te i , .

pp 6 4 . . Carans ebe§
, 1 9 22 .

C U RE MU E L
R Y, RI . Th e Hun garo -
R um anian Di put pp 34 s e . . . London 1 9 29 , .

DA NI E L OP O L G D , & c La Loi Agra ir e uj ets Etran gers

’
, . . . . L E x pr opr i a t ion d e s S en

R ouma ni e pp 30 Buc a res t, 1 9 21 . . . .

R efor m a Agr ar é §i Poli t ica p p 7 I aei 1 9 1 7 . . . .

, .

DA §COVI CI N La r forme a gra ire e n R oum a n ie e t les

, . é o ptan ts h on groi s d e Tra n s y l
v e n i e d e va n t la S oci t d es Na t ions P is , 1 924 éé . ar .

DE AR F R A ,
NCI S The Hunga i an R um n i an Land D isp u t
. r -
a e .
pp . ix + 27 2 . Ne w Y or k ,

1 9 28 .

D e c e t L ege
t Re l a tiv
1a R efo ma Agr aré Vot a t é d e S fa t ul Té r i i di n r . .
-
B e sa rabia .

Monj t or ul Ofici a l, Nr 220 pp 1 6

‘ ’
a es , 1 9 1 8 . . . . Buc r t .

DI A CON E S CU, I L I E S Ch es t i un ea Té ré n ea s cz
i in ma p p 36 6 , R o ni a . . . Buca r t es , 1 9 28
D OB O S FI L AR E T oN
. .

R efo ma Agr a r é
,
. r . ec e s i t a t e E con o mi cé , S oc i a lé . §i Na ti on a lé .

pp 1 6 Cern é uti , 1 9 21 .

O RE U U E L R e fo r
. .

D B SC , A R m Agr a ré . a . .
pp 36 a . . Buc rest , 1 9 21 .

DE M I . Cuvé n t a r e 1a S e n a t .
pp 1 12 1 921 . . .

RAGU TOMA
.

D Buc r t 1 9 21 . R eform a Agraré pp 22 . . . a es , .

RON P C
,

D , Rfr
R . r a ri Par ri §i R fl iu i dup é V t r
. L egea p en t r u e o m a A g . . e e ex n . o a e .

Vi a t a R m é
‘
é I i M ay 1922 . o n ea s c .
’
as .

D I G I on C B i t i u §
U CA , i Ch t i Ag . é pp 24 Buc r t 1 921 . r an es a ra r . . . a es , .

DU G A L E M
.

D E D GA Th H g , Ru ma ian Di put pp 78 L d 1 928

RS . R . e un a ro -
n s e . . . on on , .

DU M ITR E S CU B UMB E 8TI , G -

. I m propr i et é r ir ea ,
Té ra nilor . Dis e ur s Ia . S ena t .
pp 45 . .

1 921 .

E M A ND I , TE O D O R G nu Té ra nilor pp 1 6 Buc a rest 1 9 19

P é mfin t Obet fil or ,
. . . .
, .

E V A N S I L Th e r ri
. v luti . R um an ia pp 1 9 7 C m bridge 1 9 24
Ag a a n R e o on i n . . . a , .

F E NN ER GERHA R D
,

L OE S C H Die Ne u en Agr a rges e tze d er O s t und S li d os t . r

e uropais ch e n S t aa t e V o l i pp 25 8 Be rlin 1 9 23 n . .
, . .
, .

FI LI P CI U C D R V AS I L E Pro bl e ma Ma ra mur eean é pp 1 2

, . . , . . .

R e f o rm a Agr ré in Mara mur eg pp 1 6 Tur da . a . . . . .

F I LI TTI I C Pre tul P i m en t ul ui E xpr op i a t pp 1 5 Buc a res t 1 9 20

, . . . . .
, .

F L O RE SC U C O N S T Di s e ur s Ia S e t pp 1 5
, Buc a res t 1 9 21
. na . . .
, .

F L O RE SC U M P I m propr ie t é r i re a gi s a crifici ul n ti on a l a ] ma re i pr opie t é ti

, . . , a .

F a gini A gra t e § i S oci a l e Buca r e s t a n II No 6 7 1 9 25

‘ ’
. . .
—
, . . .

R A D U A P en t r u Dre ptul R om a es e in Ca uza Té ré n ea scé pp 5 0 Bé rla d

. n . . . .

19 19 .

CONS T M a r i cu
'

GAR OF LI D , . Me mor iu1 Agr i cult or ilor P r i vir e 1a E x pr opiere .

pp 45 . .

Buc re st 1 9 20 a , .

G EOR G E S CU GHI N AR U L EO NI D A I dr umé ri Noi Té ré ni mei pp 24 Cra io va 1 922

, . n . . . .

C O N S T P é mé n t P en t r u Té ré ni me §i Vot Ob§t esc Dis e ur s Ia Ge me rei pp 1 9

,

. . . . . .

1919 .

Dis e urs Ia S ena t pp 6 2 1 921

GR . , . . . .

GE IL E ZA N D R LI VI U T Ch es t i un e a B an cii Agr are di n C lu j pp 1 5 Buc a r es t 1 921

, . . . . . .
, .

Con t r ibuti uni la No n a R eform! Agr ar é P en t r u T r a nsil v a nia p p 1 32 1 9 21 . . s, .

GHI CA G Ch e st iun ea P ropr ie t é tii i n D ob ro gea Buc a res t 1 8 8 04

. . . .

, . .
, .

GONNAR D R E N E La R é form e Agr a i r e d ans l s P a ys d e I E ur op e C e tra l e R e vu e

’ ‘
, . e n .

Po litiqu et Pa rl eme ta i re 1 0 Jun e 1 9 21 e n , .

GRI G O RE S CU P E TRE Me mo i u Asupra E x pr opr ier ilor in D o b r o gea pp 1 5

, .
Con r . . .

s t an a , t 1 9 21 .
 6 00 BIBLIOGRAPHY
I OACHI MOVI CI , E MI L . B olge vi s mul sau At en t a t ul con t r a . P r opri e t é tii .
pp . 1 35 .

Buca res t 1 9 22 , .

I O AN NI C O L A E R e form ele Agrat e §

, i Admi nis tra tiv e pp 26 Cé lé r agi 1 920
.
. . .
, .

IA R C A DE M C Pre tul P é mz mt ului E x prop i a t pp 1 6 Buc a r es t 1 921

‘

, . . . . .
, .

I n s t r ucti un i As upra C ons titui r e i Ob§ t ij lor P r in C a re S é te mi In t r é di n P ri miw a ra

'

. ,

A ul ui 1 9 1 9 in F olos i n ta Te en ur ilor e xpropri a te d i n M a ril e P r o r i et é i Ci r cu

p p t . r .

l a ra 6 25 pp 1 6 C a r acal 1 9 1 9 . . .
, .

IO N E S CU S I S E 8TI G R efo rm at Agra ré in d ife ri te Tin ut ur i a le R omé niei Arhi va

-

, . -
.
‘
.

p S s R . J an 1 9 20
. . . . .

Th e Agr a ri an R efor m in R u m ani a Man ch este r G ua rdi an R e cons truction .

,
’

S uppl m e n ts V ol vi 1 9 23
e . . . .

E voluti a prop i e t é tilor rur ale Ar gus a n XV No 325 5 1 9 24

. .
‘
,
’
.
, .

I OR GA ND A GE O R G E S E L egé t ur a d e B r a d a E x pr op ierea E mba t i cului

, .

,
pp 7 0 . , z . . . .

R S é r a t , 1 9 22
.
-
.

I SV O R ANU , I T D is e ur s As upr a R efor me i Agra t e l S e n a t pp 21

. . a . . . 1 921 .

JO N S C
R E U, .r Buc r t 1 921
C I m pr opr i e t é rir ea Té r a njl or pp 24 Dis cur s la C a me a . . . . a es

J O U SS E P ERRE L T d c d R éf r m Agr ir d
.
, .

l E u p C tr l
’
, I . es en en es es o es a es e ns ro e en a e,

l E u p O ri t l t l E u p M é ridi l ( 19 18 p p viii + 238 Pa r i 1 925

’ ’
ro e en a e e ro e on a e s,
K OS ITC H D R M R K O Ag
. . .

R f r m u R um um j i ( S rbi N vi d '
‘
) L t pi
’
, . I . ra r n e e o e e an e o s , o sa .

N o v e mb er 1 9 24 pp 36 —4 6 . . .

La R éfor me Agra ir e e n R oum a m e e t les O ptan ts H on gr ois d e Trans y lvani e d e va n t

.
'

Ia S o ci é t é d e s N e ti ons M a rs —J uill e t 1 923 Pa r is 1 9 24

.
, .
,

L AH O VA R Y E M N Ch es t i a R eform elor pp 36 Buc a res t 1 9 1 9

.

, . . . . .
, .

LAT E A G I As up a P r oble mei Agr a re Vi a ta Agr icolé Buc a res t 1 5 Feb 1 921
, . . r .
‘
.
’
, . .

L A ZAR L La M i se en ( Euvr e d e la R é for m e Agr a ire en B ouma me pp 1 27 ( Th es is )

'

. .
, . . . .

Pa ris 1 9 24 , .

L egife ré r ile P a rt id ul ui P opor ul ui I mpr opr i e t é r ir ea . . si t en ilor . L egea Agr aré S cris é . . .

p e I n teles ul T ut ur or p p 1 05 Buc r t
a es , 1 9 21 . . . .

L E O N D R G EOR G E Dre ptul d e E x propr i er e pp 45

, . I a§i 1 9 1 8 . . . .
, .

L E ON AR D E S CU GR C ate va Obs er va ti um As up ra un or A t i cole di n L egea d e R efo r mé

’

, .
-
r .

P e n t r u B e sa r abia pp 1 4 Chj § in 5 u 1 922 . . . .

, .

Li gu e p o ur l a Pr ote cti on d e s Min orité s Nati on a les d e la R ouma ni e Mé moir e e u S uj et . .

d e l a R é for m Agra ire d e R ouxn a m e Bud a p es t 1 9 21

’

e .
, .

L i m p or t a n c e Ec o omi qu e e t S oci a l e d e la R é for me Agra ir e e u R oum a m e

’ ’
L E ur ope
'

n . .

Nouv ell e P ris 1 9 25 .

’
a , .

L UP U D R N P ixt u a Con d ucé t o re F a te? d e Té ré ni me Dis cur s Ia C a m e ra p p 6 1

, . r a . . . .

I a si 1 9 1 7 , .

MAGU R A I Di eurs l S e n t pp 36 Buc a r es t 1 9 21

, . s at e . . .
, .

MA N T OU G EOR G E S L E x propri t i n d e la Gra n de Propr té R ur a le e t la Qu es tion

, .
’
a o . 1e .

Agm i e e m R um ni J our nal d es Eco omi st es Pa r is 1 9 20

r o a e .
‘
n .
’
, .

MA R GHI L OM A N A L Cri a E c on o m ic al §i S oluti u i pp 38 Buc a r es t 1 921

, . z n . . .
, .

MA SL O V SER G EJ S P r inc i p S o uk r om é h o Vl t n ict vi v P oze mk o vyc h R efor mé c h

, . as

P o vé l é n é E vr opy ( C e c h ) pp 45
e Pr gue 1 9 27 . z . . a , .

Me m o i u Agr i cult or i lor s m d p e s te 25 h P é mé n t d in B e s a ra bia pp 35 Ch i § in 5 u

'

r a .
'
. . . .
,

1 9 21 .

Me m or i u in t i din F os t ul Di s trict
Ch es t i un e a E x p ropr i er ii P é d ur ilor Gré ni c er e§ .

Na s zi ud ului pp 20 c es t, 1 9 23 . . . Bu a r .

Me mor i ul Me i l Propri eta ri Agri cult or i d in r or

ld va As upra R efor me i Ag at e Mo o . . r .

pp 24 . . I a ei , 1 9 20 .
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘

6 01
MI HAI L MA R GAR E T A D La
, . . R ouma ni e Ag ricole a pr é s la Gu e rre M ondi ale
. .
p p 1 02 . .

( Th e s is ) Pa r is 1 9 21 .
, .

MI HA L A CHE , I ON . P r oect ul Legci d e I mpropr iet é rir ea Té ran ilor , .

pp 6 3 . . Buc a res t ,

1 9 20 .

Dre ptul Ti r amlor 1a P é mzm t Pa d ur i pp 1 7 6 Buca res t 1 9 22 '

,
‘

, Is laz ur i $ 1 . . .
, .

Mi n is t é re d e l Agr icult ur e e t d es D o m aines L a R éfor m e Agr a i r e u R o u ma ni a

’
. . e

( An ci en R oya um e e t Bess a r bi e ) pp 7 6 Buc a rest 1 9 1 9 a . . .

, .

MI R ONE S CU C M D is eur s la S e a t pp 39 Buc a r s t 1 9 21 , n . . . e , .

MI TR A NY D Th e Tr a ns ylva ni an Land D ispu t e

.
, .

, . F ore ign Afi a irs London A pril .

‘
.
’
,

1 9 28
M O L D O VA N L EO N T E R f o rma
.

, . e . Agr a rz i . Pare ri As upra An t ep oect ul ui P a t id ului . r r

Na ti o n al Li b e ra l §i As upra . D e cr et ul ui L ege d e E xpropr iere pp 3 1 B ré ila 1 9 1 9 . . .

, .

MOTE ANU C L egea a r en d é r ilor o bli ga t or i i §

i r ezolva r e a proble me i a gr a r e An a le le
‘
. .
,

St § i Ec . No 9 1 9 1 8 .
’
.
, .

Mun cile Agric ol e i n 1 9 1 7 R efe ra te D e cre te R egul a men te I ns t r ucti un i . , , , .

pp 204 . .

I a§i , 1 9 1 8
NA S T A
.

,
La réfor me agr ire e n R oume ni e ( R p ort s ub mi tte d t o t h e I te r ti on l
AI . . a . e n na a

Agricultura l C on gr ess Buc a res t pp 30 , , . .

NE D E L CE A N U I L egi § i R egula m e n t e P i vi t oa e La P r op r i e t t ea I m obih ré d in

'

, . r r . a , a .

D ob r ogea Buca rest 1 9 1 9 .

, .

Ne w Agr ri n Legis l ti on in C en tra l E u r ope In te rn a ti on a l L a b o ur R e vi e w G e n e v a

a a a . .
,

S e pt 1 9 22 . .

N I CUL E S CU I O AN L U C A P R i va e cé t re s é t eni pp 8 9 Buc a res t 1 922

, . . . .
, .

OD OB E $TI AN U R La Pro pri é t é Agra i r e e R ouma m e pp 1 20 ( Th es is ) M on tp e lli e r

’

, . . n . . . .
,

1 9 25 .

OP RI §
AN U , G EORG E . E xp r op r i erea R ur a lé . .
pp 4 6 . B ar lad 1 9 24
.
, .

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, B ana t Crig na §i Mara mur e

, a , e .
pp 6 0 . .

1 9 21 .

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pp . vu+ 45 .

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un ile
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, .

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, . nr . .

P O P E S CU L A ZAR and R AD UL E SC U T O MA L eg a P e t u In fii n tarea P i su e lor

,

, . e , n r . n

C omu n a l c u Dis cu s ur ile la S en a t a Dl or

e
pp 6 3 1 9 20 r . . .

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.

. an n ,

A gra i r e e n R oum a m e Buc a r es t 1 9 27

’

.
, .

P OP OVI CI L UP A N O P etujr ea P i me t ului E xpropr ia t V i a ta Agr icol a Buca res t

-

, . . r n .
‘
.
,

l s t M a rch 1 9 21 .

P OPOVI CI 1 MA X Ch es t iu ea Coloni zé r ilor ce s e f ac Tot od a t é cu R e for ma Agr af é

, . . n , , . .

8 and 23 F e bru a ry 1 9 21
‘
Vi i t r ul o . .

P OR U TI U P E T RE R e for m a Agra r é S tudi a P a rti a l As up ra c e lui d e a l D oile a P roec t

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a l D lui G fl id Voin ta C l u j Jan ua ry M rch 1 9 21

aro .
‘
, .
— a .

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1 9 21 .

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. . . . , .

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’
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~

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'

. a . . s .
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P fid ur ilor
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Buc a res t 1 9 22
V AS I L E
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LC N
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G orj t
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B AI COI A NU C I E xp op i e e § ,
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BR AN COVI CI E M I mp r t a ta Agr i cult ur i i §, i in S p e ci a l 3 Cerea le lor d m R oman i a

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M a re ( F a té d e I ndus t r ie ) Lupta E con o mi cé 1 0 Je m 1 9 22 Buca r es t

, .
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B RATI A NU V I N TI L A I B ur gh ezi a d e E r i §i d e Main e D emo cra ti e Jan —F eb

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‘ ’
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B uc a res t pp 1 8 , . .
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. , . . .
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Ch iein é u, 1 9 24 .

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.
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’
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'
’
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'

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‘
a. ,
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, .

6 4 Buc a r es t 1 9 28
.
,
.

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r r a a . .
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. z e ,
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. . .
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1 9 28
D U$ AN
.

I , I . Ch e s t i un ea Agrar z
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Dr ep t a t ea S oci a lé , ,
’
Buc a res t an , I,
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, I I . . Ar e , n ,
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pp 25 4 Buc a res t 1 9 20
E NG LI S C H R Di e Agr a rr f r m i m Nos e rga u ( I n Di e S c h s i sch e L a n d w ir ts ch aft i m
. . .
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, . e o n . e

Pa rt I I pp 5 6 9 Bis tri ta 1 924 , .

— .
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n
’
n ,
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.

Buc a r es t 1 9 23
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.
,
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—
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, . . , . a . . .
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1 920
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GLI CS MAN , R L [ I ON F D
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G G CT V N
. . .
,

O A , O A I A Cogbuc pp 5 2 Buc a res t, 1 9 23 . . . .

G D
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R A F, R O S A R Die I n du stri e p olitik Al t R umi me ns und d ie Gru n dl a gen d er

C . .
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'

Gr
In du stri a li s i e run g oss R um ani ens pp 1 98 Buca re s t 1 9 27 -
. . .
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G G CU R
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pp 25 . . C ons tan ta ,

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Ec ol es d Agri cult ur e d e R o uman i e p p 5 8 Buc a r es t 1 9 25
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'

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IO R G A N La R é forme Agr a ir e e n R oum m e L I nforma t i on R oum afme N08 4—7

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L A TI EV E , H l a R oumam e pp 20 E x t r d u B ull etin Mens u e l

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M a rch 1 9 03 I mprimeri e Na ti on a le 1 9 03 .
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MA GNI E T L EOPO L D L e s S y s teme s d e Cultur e en R ouma ni e et c L e M on iteur

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Ec on omiqu e F e bru a ry—S e pte m b e r 1 9 1 1 Buca r e s t

’
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MAGU RA IO A N P r oble m a Ag a é s e Pu n e I a r é e P en t r u R i di carea Clase i Té ré n e fi i

,

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MA NO I L E S CU M R egi mul I mp o it elor Fe t a cu P r od uctia N a tion a l e! §i in S p eci a l

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»c u P r od ucti a I n d us t r i a lé §
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M A N T U G EO R G E P roprie t at ea M ica §i E xpropr ierea Fe ta d e P r od uctie pp 37

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M E T E S S T E F AN V i a ta Agr a ri E conomj cé a R omé n ilor d in A rdea l §i U nga r i e
.
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MI HA E S C U N I Mi ca I mpr opr i e t é r ire sa u Mi ni mum d e E x is t en té P e nt ru Mun ci tori i

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M C
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Marx v Th e Peas an t ( I n L n don E ssays in E cono mics in H on o ur o f E dwi n

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pp 3 1 9 7 6 London 1 9 27
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MOG HI LIA N S CHI I Th e Producti on and Di s tributi on o f C e rea ls in Bessa r abia ( In

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R uss i an ) C hisin a u 1 9 1 6 .
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NAS T A AL S a tul Mo del ( Ar hi va p S s R

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R efor ma Agr ar é § i P r oble m le Agric ol e a le Vi i tor ului pp 1 7 Buc a r e s t 1 9 26

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I m bun é t é tir ile F un ci are in Nona F a z é a Orga ni zé re i Agr a re ( Ar h i va . . . . .

p S s R. . July O cto b e r 1 9 1 9 B u ca res t

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N EGR U TI V AS IL E L ot nl d e 5 Ha V ia t a Agr icol a Buc a res t 1 Apr il 1 9 22

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NI pE s cv D R C O N S T A N T Mon ogra fi a R egi un i i S ud es t i ce a J ud e tului V la §

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Buca res t 1 928 , .

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Nati onal a Buc a res t A ugu st 1 927 .

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P AM FI L E TU D OR P é m é n t ul Dup e Cr ed m tele P opd ul ui Ro m a n p p 5 9 Buc a r est

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P OPOVI CI MA XI MI LI AN Um Testa men t d e Po litics?»A gr ar é (Ar h i va p S s R

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VAS I LI U
.
, .

, EM D B . . . S i t ua ti a De m ogra fi cé a. R omé n i e i pp 1 1 2 . . . C lu j , 1 9 23 .

V O L K W AR T , DR
Ty p e : . und B a u e rn s ch a ft
H . Wi rts ch a ftlich e n Gr os s gr un d be s i t z .

S i b bi gi ch D uts ch es T ge bl a tt 1 M a rch 1 9 22 S i b i u
‘ ’
e en lr s -
e a , . .

ZAB I R A NI C M F o d ul Cr i e i F ur ni c a Ch iei é u D e c e mb er 1 921

, . n z .
‘
.
’
n , .

ZA HAR E A N U D R M Con s i d e a ti un i as up r a I m p oz i t elor ce vor fi Apli c t e P r od ucti u e i

, . . r . a n

Agr i co l e A g a ul Buc a r e s t 9 1 1 1 2 1 3 a nd 21 M a y 1 9 21
‘ ’
. r r , , , , , .

ZAHAR E S C U L P S pre R e f o r m a Scol ii S é t ean ului p p 4 0 Buc a res t 19 1 6 . . .

ZE L E T I N D R S T E F A N
. . .
, ,

, R v luti B u gh e é i n R o mani a ( A r h iva

. . e o a r z .

vol iii Nos 2 3 vol iv Nos 1 2 July O ctob e r 1 921

.
, .
—
, .
, .
, .
— .

F urt J ur i d i §i F ur t econo mic I n d e p en d e ta E cono mi ci c Buc a r st .

‘
n . . e ,

D c e mb r 1 9 22
e e ,
.

B u gh e i R omé é O r i gi na §
r i R olul ci I s t o r i o pp 25 6 Buc a r es t 19 25
z a n . . . . .
, .

N lib a lis mul p p 278 Buc r est 1 9 27

eo er . . . a , .

B I BL I O G R AP H Y T O PAR T I I I ( CO O P E RAT I O N) -

An uar ul Coop e a ti e i Agric ol e p e 1 9 25 pp 1 02 Buc a r e s t 1 9 26

r . . .
, .

A gricul tur a l As s o ci a ti ons in R u m ania B ull o f E 0 S o c I ns tituti ns R o m e V o l i . . . . o . . .

,

No 2 O cto b er—No v e mb e r 1 9 1 0 pp 1 9 7 21 5
.
, . .
— .

A a lele B an cilor
n A u gu t—S e pte mb e r vol i x Nos 8 —9 pp .38 2—9 Buc a res t s , .
, . . . . ,

1 927
NI C O L A E D in
.

A R G HI R , . I s t or i cul Coopera ti ei S é t eet i §i R olul C a se o l r N t i ona l e a

Alé t ur i d e Coop era ti e Ed 1 1 , pp 32 . Buc r es t 1 9 21 a

EN T E TUS
. . .
, .

AX , TI . Le M uv o e me n oo a f de t C p é r ti Credit emR ouma n ie e . la fin d e l ann é e

.
’

1 9 25 Buca rest 1 9 26
.
, .

L a s tructur e et la s itua ti on d a
. . m ouv e men t coop é ra tif e n R uma ni e o .

( P a p e r rea d b efor th e I n tern a ti on a l e Agricultur a l C on gress Buc a r est , ,

pp 1 2 . .

B ul e t in ul S ectie i d e S t ud ii oo e a e I ns t i t ut ul C p r tiv . S ocial R o mai n N o . . 1 , 1 9 27 .

Cen t ra lé a Coop era tie i ei I mpr opr i e t é r ir e i S i t e ni lor

. . Mi eca r ea Cooper a t ivé , . 1a .

Sa et in R o nia
ma pp 3 2 B c r t
u a es , 1 921 . . . .

Ca i s e C e ntra le d e la Cooperati on C e tr l e d es B an qu es Popul a ir es R ura l es

s . n a et de
l eurs Fé d é ra l es d am s l An ci en T errito ire d e la R oume n i e p our l ann é e ’
. ,
’
1 9 19 .

pp x vi + 27 2 Buc a res t
. . .
610 BIB LI O G R APHY
C en tra l e d es B an qu es Po pula ires e t S ome tes C oop era tives en R oumani e pp 1 40 . . .

B uc a re s t 1 9 24 , .

C E N TR AL E D E S C OOP ER ATI V E S Le M ouv emen t C oop é r atif d e Pr oducti on e t d e .

C ons omm a ti on en R oum an i e pp 49 Buc a res t 1 9 25 . . .

, .

C O D RE A NU E MJL G Fe utr a R idi care a Cla s e i Taran e gt i S in di ca t ele Agr ic o l e pp

, . : . .

pl G a l a ti 1 9 22 .
, .

C O FF E Y DI AR MD ) Agricultur a l Co op er a ti on in J u gosl a vi a R u m ani a and It aly

, . -

, .

p p 95
. O xf o r d 1 922
.
, .

Coop era ti a d e P es te P r u t F ur nica Ch i§in é u 2 O c t 1 921 ‘ ’

. . .
, . .

C oop era tiv e Mov emen t in Ru m ani a I n te rn a ti o a l R e vi e w of Agricultur a l E con o .

‘
n

m ics R ome O cto b e r D e c em b e r 1 9 24

’
5 6 9 —9 4 —
pp . . .
, .

D AMI A N C L es B an qu es P opul ir es en R oumame pp 1 1 2 ( Thes i s ) Par is 1 9 22

, . a
'

. . . .
, .

Decr e t L ege r e l a tiv l a in fi i n tar ea C a se i C e n tra l e a Coop era ti e i §i Im pr opr i et é ir ii

. . . r

S é t eni lor Moni t or a l Ofi c i a l N o 225 3 Jan u a ry 1 9 1 9 Buc a r es t 1 9 1 9

‘ ’
.
, .
, .
, .

D E ME TR E S CU E UG E N S en s ul N o u e i r e for me a coop er a ti e i R om é n eet i

‘
, I n d ep en
. , .

d en ta E con omi cé vol x i i No 1 1 929

.
’
, .
, . . .

D RO N P R C Tové ré i ile Té ré n e t i B ot oeam 1 921

, . . e g .
'

, .

S i t u ti a A ct ua lé a Coop era ti e i i n Ro ma nia I n t r egi t é

a . V iat a R omé nea sci
. . .
‘
. .
’

A nn ul X III No 7 . I asi 1 9 21 , . .
, .

E N E S CU I Coop er a t i vele S é t eet i S ibiu 1 9 1 2

, . .
, .

E R E MI E N L es As so ci a ti ons P a ys a nn es d e Pr oducti on en R oum a n i e pp 1 1 9

,
. . . .

( Thesis ) Pa r is 1 9 1 2 .
, .

FI LI PE S CU C B ila n tul E c o no mi c a l Obs t iilor d e Ar en d ar e pp 9 Buc a r es t

, . . . . .

G A L A N A G D é ve lopp emen t et ca ra ctere d u mouvemen t coop ératif em R oum a ie

,
. . n .

( Pa p e r r ea d b efor e t he In t ern a ti on a l Agricultur a l Con gr ess Buc a r est , ,

pp 36 . .

GH E N ZUL , V Cin ciz eci d e An i ai Coop era tiei d e Cr e dit d in B es a r abia Chj §in é u 1 9 24
. .
,
.

GHIU L E A N As oci a ti ile g

, r a mm e pp 208 Buc a r es t 1 9 27 . . .
,
.

La C oop er ati on en R ouma m e R e vu e d es Etud es C oop era tiv es Par is 1 923 ’

.
‘
.
, .

J UV AR A D L e Probleme d a Credit Agricol e en R oumani e pp 28 0 Par is 1 9 28

, . . . .
,
.

La C oop era z i on e R ur ale R iv In t d e lle Ins t E c S oc I n t Ins titute Agricultur e

. . . . . . . . ,

N o 4 R ome 1 923
. .
, .

La S itu a ti on d e s C oop era tive s d e Cr é dit d e V ill age d e ns I An ci en R oya u m e e u ’

3 D é c e mbr e 1 9 20 B ul e t i n ul d e S t ud i i s i Inf or mati un i E con omi ce F in an ci a r e

‘ ’
-
. ,

v o l i ii Jan u a ry—A u gu st N o 1 Buc res t 1 9 22

.
, , . . a ,
.

L ege p on tru U n i fi care a Coopera tie i Mon i t or ul Ofi cial 20 Fe bru a ry 1 923 No 26 9 , .

‘ ’

,
. . .

L es B a n qu e s P opul ir es e t les A sso ci a ti ons C oop era tiv es d e Paysans e n 1 909

‘
a Le .

Mon ite ur Econ oq ue A u gu s t —S e ptem b e r 1 9 1 1 Buc a r es t

’
. .
,

MA CA VE I M Le Cr é dit Agric ol e e t Ie Cr é dit F on ci e r en R oum ani e pp 1 99 ( Th es is )

, . . . . .

Pa r is 1 9 1 2
MA D G E AR U VI R G I L and ML AD E NA TZ GR R efor ma Cooper a ti e i Buc a r es t 1 9 23
.
,

.
, , ,
. .
,

MIRA E S CU N I Vi i t or ul Coop er a ti ei i n R o ma ni a N o u s! Cur i er ul Coop era tie i

‘
. . . .
,

S é t cgt i d in Ro m ani a O ctob e r—N o v e m b e r 1 9 21 Buca res t ’

. .
, ,

Min i s te r ul A gri cult ur i i R egula m e nt p en tr u p unerea in a ph car e a L egii Cas e i C en tra l e

. .

a Coop era ti e i gi I mpr opr i e t é r ir e i S é t en i lor

. Mon i t or a l Ofi ci al 1 2 M ay 1 9 22 .
‘
,
.

Min is te r ul Agricult ur e i Coop era tia in R o ma nia In t regi t i Bucar es t 1 920 . . . z .

, .

ML AD E NATZ GR Di e Geon os s e n s ch afts be w egun g in R um anian Buc a res t 1 9 29

,
. .
,
.

MOI S I L I P r im a Pagin é d in Ist ori cul Banmlor P opular e din Ve ch i ul R ega t pp 29

, . . . . . .

Buc ares t 1 9 22 , .
 BIB L I O G RAPHY 611
P AR THE NIU , C E SAR L e dr o it e t la c oo p ra ti on ( Pa p e r re a d b efor e t h e I n ter n a ti on a l
. . é .

Agricultur a l C on gre ss , Buc a res t, p p 22 . .

CU
P O P E S , D E M G L e o uv e men t C oopé ra tif e n R ouma ni e B ule t in ul Agr i cult ur i i
. . M . .

Buca res t, ctob e r— D e ce m b er 1 925 O .

P OPO VI CI , D . Des pre Co op era ti a B a s a ra bean é . .

‘
F ur nica .
’
Ch i e in é u, 9 — 1 6 O ct b r o e

1 9 21
RA D UC A NU
.

Coopera ti n R u l
DR I L e M o ite ur Econ oq ue R o um an i e
‘ ’
, . . La . o r a e en . n .

Buc rest D e ce m b e r 1 9 1 0
a .

RAD U L E S CU LI V E ZI G11 GH Con tr i butiun i pen t r u R efa er ea Agr icult u ei S ta tul §i

,

,
. . c . r .

Coop era ti a Lamur a Agr icol a Buca re s t Ap i l 1921

.
‘
. .
’
, r .

$ ER B AN M L e r 6 1e d e l c oop é ra ti on d e ns l org i s t i on d e la p etit pr pri é té e t

’

, . a an a . e o

d ans l a ugme t t ion d e sa producti on ( Pa per rea d b for t h e In tern a ti o a l

’
n a . . e e n

Agricultur a l C on gres s Buc a res t pp 1 1 , . .

S L AV E S CU VI C T O R I s t or i cul gi De volt ar e B an cil or P o p ul at e

,

, . B u] I ns t E c z a. . . . .

Ma rch 1 925 .

TUR N E A N U G Coop er a ti a in A r deal E c o no mi a N ti on a l a An n] X I II No 1 1

‘ ’
, . . . a , , . .

Buca rest No v em b e r 1 921 .

V AS I LI U AM I L C AR Ch est i a S i n d i ca t elor Té r é n e§t i Coope tia N ou é Buc a res t

,
‘ ’
, . . . ra . .
,

1 5 F eb r ua r y 1 9 22 .

S ta ti s ti cs
Mini s t é r e ’
d e l Agr i cul t ur e . L Agr i cult ur e d e la R o uman i e : Al
’
. bum S ta tistiqu e .
pp .

90 Buc a res t 1 9 29
.
, .

Min i s try of Agricultur e Y a rly S tatis tica l Bull eti n s on E xten t of Cultiva ti on Produc , e ,

ti on a nd A ni m als .

S I G E R US FR E D Wi rt s ch a ft s S ta ti s ti s ch es Ja hr buch R um a m ens S ibiu 1 928

'

, . .
, .

P U BL I CA T I O N S AND J OUR NALS

P E R I ODI CAL
‘
Moni t or ul Ofi c i al ( F or l egi s l a ti on an d Pa rli men ta ry D e b a tes )
.
’
a .

L I d é pe d an ce R ou m a i n e F or t h e e v en ts of t h e p e ri o d 1 9 1 6 1 8
‘ ’ ’
n n .
— .

Nea mul R ome esc F or t h e e v en ts of t h e p e ri o d 19 1 6 —1 8

‘ ’
n . .

( S i x i ss u es y ea rly publi s h ed by t h e Mi ni s try of Agricultur e )

’
B ulet i n ul Agr i cul t ur ii .
, .

B ulet in ul S ta ti s tic a l R om sl ni e i ( Qu a rte rly pub li s h ed by t h e Ins titute of G e ne r a l

‘ ’
.
,

P u blic S ta ti stics ) .

i E con omi ce ( S ix i ss u es yea r ly )

‘
An a lele S t a t is t i ce § .
’
.

B ule t in ul Ins t i t ut ului E cono mi c R om é n e sc ( M o thly )

‘ ’
. n .

i R e fo rm at S oc i a lé ( Publi s h ed by t h e R u m ani an S ocial

‘
Ar h i v pen t r u S t iin ta §
a . .
’

Ins titute ) .

L Econ omi s t e Ro umain ( Week ly publi s h ed by t h e Mi ni s try of I n du s try a n d

‘ ’ ’
.
,

C o mm e r ce ) .

Ar gus ( D ai ly for e c o omi c in f o rm a t i o n )

‘ ’
.
, n

( D aily for p o li tic a l inf o rm a t i o n )

.

‘
Ad e vé r ul .
, .
 INDEX
Ab t l d w r d fi it i i r f r m Agr a ri a n pr bl m i t c mi c p ct i
s e n ee an o ne s , e n on n e o o e : s e on o as e a
l aw s 1 7 6—8 ; tr tm t a t xpr pri ti
, uffi i t ly c ons i d e r e d 1 8 5
ea en e o a on , s c en , .

1 —
Agr a ri a pr gr m of N ti l P t
A b t m 70 5 5 2
.
n o a : a on a e a sa n
s e n ee i s Pa rty 45 7 of th e P t P rt y 45 6
A c k rm C v ti f 22 26
easa n a

A r f rm pp l t o Agr a ri a n m
, , .
, , .

e a nn
gr rion en on o
A d m S m ith 25 2 , , , . a an e o s: a ea s co
a , m it t 200 ;
. ppr xi m t tu of ee , a o a e na re
‘
Ad é ul
ev r on agr a ri a n r efo rm s 1 02
’
t ti tic i 1 8 5 ; c h g di tributi 11 s a s s o
A dm i i t r tiv L w , , .
, an e 11 1 s on
n s a 5 61 of l an d i B ess a ra bi a 204 ; c h g i
e a n n
A dri a nop l e Tr ty f 25 26 ; fr d m of l d di t ibuti i Buc o vin a 206 ; n
.
, an es

, ea o , , ee o an s r on n ,

tr d i a irtu i 339
e n V c h g i l a n d di tri buti i T r
e o an e n
A d ult duc t i d fi i t rg i ti , . s on n an
e a sy l va ni a 21 0 1 1 c hi f b t cl p h t i l
on : e c en o an za on , — e o s a
5 22 3 i Al ex a n d ri a
, es o ca ,

m 5 7 7 c m pl i t g i t t h e ppli c ti
— T 1
n 5 21 , co . e e or an , o a n s a a ns a a on
2 pr vid d fo r i o t h e l w of 1 9 24 5 20
e i 1 9 9 ; c i tici m of t h i r ppli c ti
n a , . o , r s e a a on ,
Pr of F 5 7 9 ; Di W c h tum 1 9 4 200; a n d E c ono m i c a n d Fi an c i a l
\

Ae b
‘
re oe , . r .
, e a s , n
Md gh h k i t d c B lk u g 5 7 8
e p o li c y 4 1 4 ; ff ct i B essa ra b i a 200;
en er e vo er n
’
e e s n
Agra ri an B nk d c mp ti of l d , .
, ,

a fi t 1n
: a
°
i Buc ovi n a 204—6 ; ff ct i
o ensa on an e ec s n e e s n
w r i Tr a nsy l va ni a 1 5 4
,

o ne s n Tr a n y l v a ni a 206—l l ff ct f 200—1 9 ; s e e s o
Agra r an c pit li m pp d by P t , .
, ,

i a ff ct up
a s
g icultur 1 9 9 ; ff c t up
: o ose e asan e e s on a r e, e e s on
m v m t 5 64
o e en
gricultu l i du t ri 37 1 3 ; ff ct a ra n s es, — e e s
Agra ria n C m mitt ttitud t o l d — , .

o up p r tiv m v m t 37 3 ff ct
ee : a e an re on c o o -
e a e o e en , e e s
fo rm s 1 1 3 1 35 ; i t pr c du 1 9 8 9 ;
, , up p t y um m i d 4 8 0 1 ; ff ct
s o e r e, on ea se n r s ar ze ,
— e e s
u m b r of pp l t o 200
n e a up pr ducti 306 ; ff ct up p ic
ea s on o on , e e s on r es
Agr a ri an Cul tu l A ci ti 45 7 , .

a n d xp t 338 —5 6 ; ff ct up p r o
ra s so a on , e or s , e e s on
Agrari a n c mi t c gr f 1 1 6
.

e on o ducti i T a ns yl vani a 325 8 ; fi t

s s: on ess o on n r — e ec s
Agra ria n L gu 45 7 ; tt m pt a t ci l up rur a l e c onom y 35 7 ; fi t up
.
, ,

ea e, a e s so a on , e ec s on
c lid ti i t h e vi ll ages 5 34 ; i t
on s o a on rura l i du tri 36 5 ; xc iv h t
n , s n s es , e e ss e as e ,
ttitud t o lf h lp a n d S t t id 45 8 ;
a e 1 95 i fl u
se -
on cul tiv t d a re a 308 1 2 ;
e a e a , n e n ce a e ,
-

co m b i i ng p t a n d l d w r 46 2 ;
n l v ll i g fi t on p
e a s an s t ry 5 33 ; an o n e s, e e n e ec s ea san
i t c mpr h
s o iv c h r ct r 4 5 8 ; r lu
e Ma r i a n vi w of th i ff ct t j u ti
e ns e a a e , es o x e e r e e s no
,

s
ti a t i n a u gur a l m ti g 45 8
on fi d 5 39 ; no gr o un d fo r p ee i mi m a s t o n e s ess s
28 3 ; o rga
, .
,

Agr a r i a n l gi l ti pplic t i of p ff ct
'

e s a on : f 1 97 8 ; p l ti l
a a on ex ro e e s, ns o ,
— o 1 ca

p i ti r a t o i n d i vi d u a l t t 1 06 ; B
on fi t 5 37 ; p u b 1i c ttitud t o 1 98 ; e s a es , es s e ec s, a e ,

a ra b i a 1 6 7 ; Buc ovi n a 1 6 8 ; d cr of
, r ducti i l 244 ; s u veyi g di ffi , e ee e on n ea s e s , r n
1 6 / 11 /1 9 1 8 1 1 1 ; c d m d by G
x fl id ult i 1 95 —6 on e ne aro c e s,
,

Agrari a n t ti tic c h g i di tributi

.

a s u i t fi 1 07 d cr of 22
n sc e n 1 c, e ees s a s s: an es n s on
1 1 2 ; d fi it i of r bl 1 t h e l w of
e n of l nd ft r 1 907 1 8 7 ; c h g i t h e
on a a e 11 a a a e , an es n

1 7 / /1 9 21 1 3 1 fr q u
v11 cy f 9 5 ; f i l ur di tributi of l an d ft r t h e pr p i
, e en o , a e s on a e ex o r a

of 1 9 07 l gi l ti 8 9 ; f r t righ t of e ti 1 8 9 ; di tributi of l a n d i 1 905

s a on , o es s on , s on n ,

p t ig r d i 1 9 1 9 a n d 1 9 21 1 45 ;
ea sa n s 1 8 6 ; fo r B ess a r a b i a 201 4 ; r ul t
no e n of , ,
— es s

fl id l w of 1 7 / ii /1 9 21 1 1 6 ; G a r o fi t xpr pri ti 1 8 8 r ult of

’
G a ro s a v , rs e o a on es s

fl id pr gr mm of r efo r m 1 09 ; i d fi i t c d xp r pri ti 18 8 ;
’
s o a e , n e n e se on e o a on 111 1

of l aw s 1 06 ; K ng F rdi d p
n ess ti f ct ry t t f 1 9 4 i e na n
’
s ro sa s a o s a e o n
A gr a r i a i s m i d P t m v m t
.
, ,

cl m ti a 1 1 1 ; l w of 1 7 / ii /1 9 21 a n d
a on , a v n , v e easa n o e en .

mm u l g i g 1 31 ; l w i 1 7
na Ag ra z n Pr bl m 239 s, a o
‘
ra r n a, o e e
’

A gricultu l Ch mb r r t ricti of m m
co , .

an d f r ig r t t 1 30 1 m m r
o e ne s
’
e s a es, — e o an ra a e s: es on e

d um of M o l d a v i a n cultiv t r w i g b h i p 5 34 a o s o n n ers

Agricultur l c tr ct c tr v ti of
.
,

m r th o e 25 h 16 8 ; o r igi a l dr ft of
an a .
, n a s a on a s: on a en on

l d l aw s 1 04 ; p
an ti t ttitud 1 1 3 l w f 82 ; f rc m t by mi lit ry
e a sa n s s a
’
e, a o , n . en o e en a

a b o l i s h e d 7 7 ; f d fo r w rk r 8 7 ;
,

Prof B il u vi w of dr ft l a w s 105
es e sc
’
s e a , , oo o e s,

7 7 ; i n q ui ry by I
.

p r ov i si on of th e l w of l 7 / i i /l 9 21 c on Gh r a y Di t rict v e e a oh a ss s

C o un c i l
,

c r i g xpr pri ti 1 29 30; r cti

e n n e o 78 ; j i t r p
a on , ibi li t y by — ea on o n es ons

u d r M gh i l m m 1 08 ; r f rm l w
n e ar l w of 1 8 7 2 7 5 ; j uri dicti
o z u 77 ; e o a s a , s on o ,

l w of M rc h 1 8 6 6 7 3 ;
,

rc enact d 1 1 0; Tr a nsy l va n ia 1 6 6 ;
-
e ,
f rc m t f , a a , en o e en o ,

v ri ti i t h e v r l l a w s 1 6 8 ff by l w of 1 8 7 2 74 ; l w of 1 8 8 2 7 3 ; a a

l w of M a y 1 8 8 2 7 5 ; l w of 23 D ec
a a on s n se e a

A gr a r i a n m v m t i C c h l v k i
,
. , ,

o e en : n ze os o a a, a ,
a .

5 64 1 9 07 8 7 l w of 1 9 07 f a i l s t o ur t h e a ens e

Agra r a n p ol ic y d of fi t iv ft r t he q u lity of f d fo r l a b o ure rs 48 7 ; tli w of

. , ,

i : n ee e ec e, a e a oo ,
a

w 415
ar, . 1 9 07 on l a b o ur l 240 ; 1 gi l of ea se s, e s a on
 IND EX 613
B ar b u S ti b y r e 77 ; e a Lib r l p o l c y
i on , 79 ; 87 ; i q i
on , n u ry by Mi n i t ry of H s o me
Moruzi on m a l
,

d
a mi n s a oni tr ti of p
81 en a A a rs
ff i , 8 2; t ti ry ( 1 8 6 2 s a on a

liz i ngcl u a ses ih , 8 2— 3 ; Ra d u

R os e tti on 82 .

ct of t h e
e ff e s la w of
1 8 8 2, 8 2 ; S ena t e Ag ricultu
re : af e t r Cu r f rm 6 5 ; a n d za s
’
e o ,

re luti of
so on 1 8 65 , 7 3 ; t e ms r of l a b o ur t h e gr ri r f rm 1 99 ; bu d
a a an f e o s, r e ns o ,

co tr ct 74
n a 4 27—44 ; c h g i m g m t 69 ; an es n ana e en

Agricultur l p r ti ,
.
,

a C p r tive
co o -
e a on : see o o -
e a ch g i m an eof pr duc t in 25 2 ; ea ns o on ,

m v m to e en c h g in c l of f a r m ing 232 ; m
an es s a e co

Agricultu l cr di t ttitud of N ti l ,
.

ra e : a e a on a pric a n d xt i of a ra b l e 25 ; ff ct
es e en s on , e e s

B n k t o 4 24 ;
a ff ct of G v
,
m t e e s o e rn en of gr ri r f rm u 228 ; xc ive
a a an e o s o , e e ss

p o li c y u p on 423 ; fo r l rg w r 424 ; , a e o n e s, c c tr ti of f rmi ng uni t 233—4 ;

on en a on a s, ex
fo r p t 425 —6 ; l w of 1 9 29
ea s a n s , 426 ; a on , t t of f rmi g by w r 235 ; i d t ifi d
en a n o n e s, en e

l w fo r 1 9 29 45 5 ; s u pp l y i 4 21 6
a o — wi t h p t f a rm ing 4 7 7 ; l b u r ih
e a sa n a o re s
Agricultu l Cr di t I tituti L w t b , .
, ,

c l f a r mi g
,

ra e ns on : a es a 236 l rg tt a d l rg e es a es a n a e s a e
-
n ,

li s h in g t h e , 4 26 232 l 234 ; t ub t
ease s, ti lly lt r d no s s an a a e e

A by t h e p t w r f rm 25 0—1 r c v y
.

gricul t ur l duc t i ab c of t c h
e a on : a s en e ea os -
ar e o s, e o er

in g m t ri l in s c h oo l s 5 19 budg t of
a e a , , e aft r ri i g of 1 9 07 9 1 ; r
e s n urc i , eso es o ,

gricultur l c h l i n 1 9 23 5 1 9 ; l w
a a s oo s , a s 4 1 6 —26 ; s igns of r rg i ti f 29 4 ; eo a n za on o ,

u 45 5 ;
o o r l ti t o d of t h e
n e a on n ee s St t id t o 45 2
a e a

Agr mic l R rc h I tit ut f 45 3 , .

,

gricultur l in du try 5 1 7 on c h ic of
a a s , o e on o a ese a , ns e o , .

c r r by th
a ee s duc t d i gricultur l os e e a e n a a A l b a I ul i r v luti ry d m d fo r la d
a : e o o na e an n
s c h oo l s 5 1 8 ; pr ctic l t d cy of t h e a a en en r form 1 D e c 1 9 1 8 1 6 6 ; N ti l
e a on a
A gricultu l S c h ls L w of 1 929 5 20 A sse mb l y of 1 8 48 i 207
.
, ,

ra oo a n,
Agricultur l q ui pm t i mp rts i 279 ; ,

A l bi a B a nk 37 6
. .

‘ ’
a e en : o o n

Al c h l t ti tic of pr ductio a n d c n
,
, , .

Ru ma ni a n pr ducti of 279 o on o o : s a s s o n o
Ag icultur l i mpl m ts h igh pric f , .

r a e en : es o ,
um pti 4 9 1 2
s on , — .

4 35 A lc o h o li s m 4 9 0—4 ; ff ct on cr im es 4 9 4 ; e e

Ag ic ,
.
,

r ltur l in du tri
u a s es : e ff e ct of r
s e o f rm s c u g d m g m in r 494 ; ti
en o r a e a on e s, es

u p on 37 1 , . m t of v r g c o u mpti
a es 49 3—4 ;
a e a e ns on ,
Agn c ul t ur a l i m uran ce : i ou, 4 5 5 b ll M i i t r of L a b ou i nqu i ry i 1 9 29 49 3 ;
n s e r n
A
.
,

gr icu tu l l a b o u
l ra r : em o m en r , pl y t bu e au growi g c u m pti of a lc o h o l 4 9 1 ;
n on s on ,

88 t i t
r e s r c 1 on by l w of 1 9 24 49 1 ; u m b r a n e
A
.
,

ic ltur l l b u r
gr u a cr
a o r e s : in e as e i h , 236 ; of p u b l i c h u r trict d i 1 9 07 4 90; o ses es e n ,

th i r ti c tr ll d by
e r a ons onon ri
o e la w ag origin in Ru m a ni a 49 0 gr v p r o b l e m
s , a e ,

c tr ct of
c a t ur a l on a s 1 907 , 4 8 7 49 3 ; a s a c u of sui c i d es 5 01 a se
A icu t r l c h y cu t p o l cy A li m t ti w r ft r p t m i
.
, .

gr l u a m a in e r : s om s i in en a on : o se a e ea sa n e an e
r p ct
es e oi , 45 1—2 . p ti 48 7 ; dv r ff ct of th e w
e on , a e se e e s ar ,
Agricu tu l p r
l ra l hi h t d rd
e sonn e : g s a n a s of, 4 8 7 ; fi t of l a n d r f rm
e ec 48 8 —9 ; l w e o on , a
45 4 of 1 9 07 f il s t o im pr v I b ur r di t a o e a o e s
’
e
A
.
,

gr icultur l p o c y
a li : in m i , 45 4 ; Ru an a of 4 8 7 ; of p t 4 8 6 —9 0 ea sa n s ,
Alli d vi cto y in fl u on r f rm 1 07
.

the N P
a t i on a l ea sa n o e n me n t , 4 5 5 ; tG vr e r e n ce e o
r of A ricu t ri t
: , .

pl d by t h e C
a nn e on g es s g l u s s A m ric e p t mi gr
a : t t o an d r f rm
e asan e an s , e o ,

i n 1 9 20, 45 6 1 7 6 ; p e ll a gr a a m on g Ru m a ni a n i mmi
A
. .

gr icultur l p r c es
a i , a r t ifi c i a lly e t w , k p do n gr t 5 03 an s,

oa A
.

r c
44 8 ; l c l di ffe en e s i n , d ue t ans to r An a s t a s i u, O . 36 8 , 36 9 , 370 430,
p r c d ti
o t on i o n s , 44 2 ; m o e m en of, 34 8 fi , v t 5 15 n
A
.

45 0 n dr ws e Mi i t r t o Ru ma ni a 1 00
U S n s e
A A
.

D r C on il lit r cy b f r t h e
, . .

t r th e
, .

g ricultur l pr ducti
a o cl on : d e i n e a f e n g l
e e se n , . : e a e o e
c of h ti p o l c y
.

r r
e fo m s , 5 7 3 ; e ffe t s os l e i , wa r, e o 5 1 0; r p rt on s c h oo l s 5 1 3—1 4
of r r A , .

5 74 ; i n fl ue n c e e fo m s o n , 3 1 2—37 n t i m, S t , 1 3 n
A ricu tu l r c tructi l c k of duc
. . .

g l r a e ons on : a in e An t i pa , Gr , 308 n ; 011 pr t cti of

o e on
to
. .

ments , 45 1 d mes tic i n dus tri e s 3 6 6 ; on u mpl y

A icu tur l ci ty ilur
. o , ne o

gr l a So e : fa e of, 45 7 me n t a m on g a gr on om s 5 1 8
A ric ltu l t ti ic l r a n d ll A o
.
, .

g u ra s a st s: a ge s ma ra bl e : di s tributi on m n g l a rge a an d sm a ll
cultiv ti Ru a n an
a on i n Ru an an
m i , 27 0 m i , prop rti 222 ; i s
e e s, d tributi on o f, 1 8 7 ; pe r
228 —9 c t of l ea s e , 24 8 d
A ricu tu
.
en .

l y ct C r
.

g l r a S n di a e s : on g e ss in 1 9 23, A rgen t oia n u, C , 5 5 2 ; . i t a ga n s ag a r ri an

45 6 r r
e fo m , 1 04 ; on x h u ti of la nd
A ricu tu e a s on re
.

g l ra e n l t c h iqu
e : in fl ue nce ag a an of r ri rv
se e , 223
r r vi l c ity of Ar m y r cruits r l ti
.

e fo m s o u, 28 0; ta n e ess e : e a on of h oldi n gs to h lth ea

i mpr v m t 5 77 o e en of, 5 03— 5
Agricultu l w g s Di trict C ommis sions A
, . .

ra a e : s ss o ci i a t ons of R ese ttl e men t : a dmi ni tr s a

614 INDEX
ti o n of, 1 5 9 , 39 8 ; s y te m dr o p pe d
s , 1 5 9, B r é n covean u, on s an t in : 011 a C t bu s es of t ax
4 09 c l ct r
o le o s, 1 6
A tr 5 0 1
.
.

‘ ’
s a 2 —
B m mlste, 5 8 3
A u li P S e arl y , .

at
.

re an , . . : a tt e mpts co B r é t i an u, Ion C , 45 6 . .

p r tiv rg i ti
o e a e o an z a on , 375 I l on
B r é t i an u, on e : i r f rm 9 7 ;
A ur or a Ban k 3 6 a gr a r a n e o
.

b a rga i n with T k I ones cu 1 03 ; h ty

,
‘ ’
7
A v r cu G r l 8 6
.
, .
a e as
il t o cr t
,

e es , en e a , n .
; fa s ea e e x cut i of gr ri r f rm by 1 9 5 ;
e on a a an e o
rv tiv gr o u p 5 5 6 ; c o mi ng t o
,

ne w C on s e a e , on l d r f rm 9 1 an e o
p w r 1 1 5 ; pr m i s t o p
, .

o e , t 1 18 o se e a san s , , Brati u Vi t ilé 45 6 ;

an , dv t g of n , 011 a an a es
45 6 ; pr te t g i t p oh t i l i n ffi i o
y s a a ns ca e c enc , e xpr pri ti o 5 7 0; t p fr im p rt of
o a n, s o s ee o
1 10 . a gricul tur l m c hin 45 2 ; ti lc oh li c
a a es , an -
a o
p o li c y 49 1 ; d m ds li mi t d p pri
, e an e ex ro
B a b e ! Prof on fi t
s, of a rm y r ecrui t . V . : ne ss s, a ti o n97 d u c xpr pri ti e no n es e o a on
5 03 ; on xt i of p e ll agr a 5 02 ; on e e n s on , of m rt m in e t t o 97 ; ina s a es 0 11
p t l gth of li fe 5 05
ea sa n s
’
en suffi i y of p w
c enc
gr ri r f rm re -
ar a a an e o s,
D r on b a d qu h ty of food giv
, .

B l i
a as an, .
, a en 8 6 ; on d lib r t fl ut i g of 1 907 l a w s e e a e o n
t o l a b o u e rs 48 7
,

r , . 89 ; p t l c k of mil c h c w 48 7 ;
01 1 e a sa n s
’
a -
o s,
B l k w rs fi t on agra ri p o li c y
a an a : e ec an , 0 11 en c u g m t of lc h li m in c t h e
o ra e en a o o s s e
91 . w 49 0—1
ar , up ri or pr duct i of 0 11 s e o on
B lt Lim a n Tr ty f 35
a a. : ea o , . s m llh ld r a 27 7 o e s, .

B k rs p sa t t g n is m t o 5 47 8
an e : ea n an a o — Buc r t P c of
a es 92 ea e

B an u D r G 49 8
, .
, .

, 5 06 ; on b. c .
, n . a sen e B u vieo c h g in t h e di tributi of l a n d
na : an es s on
of t ry p o li c y d org ni ti 5 09 ;
s an i a an a za on , i h 206 ; di t ributi
, of l d d pr p rt y s on an e o e
i n q u i ry i p t d t ft r t h e r for m b ef r r f rm 204 ; ff ct of r f r m on
’
n e a sa n s i e a e e s, o e e o , e e s e o

4 8 9 ; on ti l c h r ct ri tic of h m na on a a a e s s o e pr ducti i 329—30; xpr pri t i ih

o on n, e o a on ,

st d 48 2ea s, n . 205 .

B arb t Pr of V a , S pir u H r t s educ . .

, 011 a e
’
a Buildin g t ti tic of g icultu l 269
s: s a s s a r ra , .

ti l p o l i c y 5 25
on a , . Bulg ri h lt h of r cruit 5 04 ; S t
a a : ea e s, at e
B a rl e y pr ducti 320; an d xp ort 1 9 21 5
: o on e ,
—
, as i st c t o f r m i g i 45 3
s an e a n n, .

in v u c u t rie 338 B ute ni v Ki s l v l tte r t o 34

’
eno s o n s, . e : se e s e , .

B ilas u Pr of N
ese on r f rm l aw s 1 03 ;
, . e o , Bu d ugan I 1 00
z , on : .

0 l ct r l sy tem 5 5 0 ; d m d fo r
11 e e o a s , n . e an
wid r xpr pri ti o 1 9 0; 0 t h e ev lu
e e o a n, 11 r o C d ts Ru ssi a n
a e , : sim il rity b tw ( 1 9 1 7 ) a e een
ti on a r
y t ur of t h e gr ri l aw s 1 8 5
na e a a an , .
gr ri
a pr g a an o ra m a n d Ru mani a n r f r m e o ,

B r bi l ifi t i of l a n d pr p t i
es s a a a : c a ss ca on o er e s, 1 21 .

201 ; d 1 t i but i of l d d pr p rty b

3 r on an e o e e Cd ld mgi 5 8 4 , .

f r r for m 202 ; ft r r f r m 203—4 ;

o e e , a e e o , Ca lim ae h , a r ( P i ma e G v il r t of M ld i
o av a )

e ff ct of r f r m on produc t i
e s i 328 ; e o on h , d ema n s
g ea t e d
a o r r r l b u
se rvitud
es

fe tur a of l nd r f rm 1 1 3 1 4 1 26 ;
es a e o ,
—
, re 19 .

un i with Ru ma ni a 1 1 1 ; r v oluti ry
on , e on a Ca m a r é ee s cu, e a n : i ma e e ge t a J on cl t a n d v
o rigi of l an d r f r m 1 65 1 6 7 8 ; Z m tvo
n e o — e s tion , 3 1 3 n ; efo m i n s o e n . an d r r uth r
D o b roge a
, ,

s t ti tic a of lit r cy 5 1 0
s s e a , 11 . , 1 79 .

B i bes cu G rg ( 1 8 43 , r stricts p eo e e ea Ca n t a cuz i n o , G ig r hi s C s rv tiv

r o e: on e a e

t fr d m of m v m t 33
sa n s
’
ee o o e en , . G vr o e n me n t on e xpropri ti o of m rt a n o

B i bi u I G on ttitud of upp r cl s
c es e , . .
, a e e -
as a
m in , 9 6 .

t o gr ri r f rm 9 5 470 5 05
a a an e o , , , Ca n t ac uz in o, M cc pt c of xpr pri . : a e an e e o a .

fi gu of c h i ld m rt lity 49 9 ; 0 p
r es o a , 11 ea ti p ri n c i p l e 9 7 ; i fl u c of t h e l w
on ,
n en e a

t rvic t o t h e S t t 47 0; on bu s
se n s se
’
es a e, a se r g rd in g ilfi ld 1 05
e a o e s, .

of l an d ttl m t 6 7 se e en , 11 . C t m ir Prin c D Hi t ry 5 8 4
an e , e . :
‘
s o
’

, .

Bir 5 8 3 , . Cé p i t é u N B n e anon i of l rg t te , . : s ze a e es a s,

Birth 49 7 s : . 70 i n q ui ry c o c r ing xt t of l rg
11 n e n e en a e

Biv l ri r p rt on di turb c
o a : e o s an e s ( 1 907 ) at, t t i 1 9 05 1 8 6 ; on r t 25 8
e s a es n , en s, .

85 . C pi ta l in v t d i l rg i du tri 424
a , es e n a e n s es , .

B oerescu, B . : 0 11 p ea san s t ’
s a t tu b s e fo e r C pit l ti l c
a a , nat b e cre t d by o on a : a nn o a e c

cip ti 47 8 11
e ma n a on, — . op r ti 408 ; m u t xtr ct tribute fr m
e a on , s e a o

o r n 1 2 ; c h r ct r 21 ; p i
B oia rs , i gi , a a e , n . os t h e p opl 5 45 —6 e e, .

ti 27 ; j udg d by Ki l v 34
on , e sse e , . C pit l i gricultur 264—7 s fi t d
a a n a e, a a ec e

B l h vi k 9 9—101 S ls Ru ssi a n R v
o s e s, . ee a o e o by r f r m 4 1 6 —21e o s, .

lut i o n C pit li m fl t of F c h d Ru ssi

a a s : e ec ren an an
Ru mani a n
.

B or d ei e, 48 4 Re v luti o 5 39—40 ; i on s on , n

B o rne ann D r F lix on l a b our r q uir

.

m , . e : e e ag ricultur 5 2—4 69 8 0 23 9 25 5 25
e,7 , , , , , ,

t of p
me n s t f a r ms 28 6 easa n , . 26 2—3, 28 2, 4 7 4 .
 I NDEX 615
C pit li t f rm d cr
a a i s um b r f C l e rgy ttitud t o p
a t 1 9 ; u ti
s: e ease n n e o , , a e ea sa n s ns a s
with i cr i r 26 2 n f ct y p r
e as e l d c di ti 5 30
n a ea , a or e son n e an on ons ,
C luj A gr ri B k f 1 33
. .

C ara d c d i 20 a : o e o a an an o

l d w r l osses 46 3 C luj U i v r i t y xt i w o r k 5 21 m m
, . , , .

fi l Dr G
’
Caran : on an o ne s , . n e s : e e n s on e

C a r o l Ki g 6 3 9 0; gl ct f p
, . .
,

, t qu
n b r of on p
: t p iti 5 48
, ne e o ea s a n es e s e a sa n s
’
os on , .

ti 9 7 ; r f r m m if t
on , 86nG i 5 ; r l ti w it h Pri c
e o 1 0—1 1 an es o . n az , n . e a o ns n es , .

C ar p M
.

xt t f l h ld f a r m s 234 C d é G r l T r iti l G v r m t
: on e en o e a se o , . oa n , ene a : a ns on a o e n en

C a r p P t r tt mpt t
, .

,
rg i l d
e e of 1 10
: a e o o an z e an .

o wn e s , r 45 7 on the s id f l rg pr p rty
e o a e o e , Coconae 5 32 , .

1 07 ; on R m a ni a n u pr f r c f offi i l
e e en e or c a Cod a!, 28 .

j obs , 5 32 . Co fi e y , D a m i r id on t h e r l ti of t t : e a on s s a e

C rre a, 25 . an d co o -
p r tive m v m t i Ru ma ni a
e a o e en n ,

C as a , t bli h d 1 9 07 38
R ura ld , es a s e . 407 .

C a sse l Gu t v Pr of o ff ct of w
,

s a : n e e s ne Goj ac 36 9
Dr
, , . , .

gric ultur l m c h in y in
a 5 71 ; a a er Coles c u, .
, 237 on l e a ses , 248 ; on v lu a e

r l tiv d cr
on i c r c
e a u m pti e e ea se n o n ons on , of c r xport 348 o n e s, n .

5 72 . C l ni fl u i h i g c o d iti of f r ig
o o es : o r s n n on o e n

Ca z i ot : on mi n i mum s z e ofi h ldin go s, 1 94 . p t 27 5

e a sa n , .

Cea td , 5 8 5 . C l i ti
o on z a i B essa ra b ia 1 48 ; l w of
on : n , a

C r l f C p r tiv S ci t i f P r o
en t a
o o o -
e a e o e es or 1 9 21 i n t h e O l d K i ngd o m 1 47
C mm rci l C o d e 1 8 8 7 on
, .

ducti d D i tributi 39 3 39 5
on a n s on , , . o e a p r ti , : co o -
e a on ,
C tr l f t h P pul r B a nk s s e C
en a o e o a e o 37 8
p r tiv B a n ks
.
,

o e a e . C o mme rci a l po l ic y : in fa v ur of c r
o o n
C tr l R ttl m t Offi 1 32 1 34 1 35 ;
en a es e e en ce, , , g r wio n g, 64 .

c l i i g wor k f 1 47
o on z n o , . C om on L d Refo r m 9 8
mi ss i o n an , .

C ul d S tud i i E
er c mi i cr d e cono ce : on n ea s e C fo r t h e i m pr v m t of gri
o mmi tte e s o e en a
c u m pti f w h t ft r r f rm 300
on s on o ea a e e o , , cul tu l pr ducti 4 5 5 ra o on , .

48 8 . C m mu i t m ni f t 25 3
o n s a es o , .

C r l i t l c um pti
e ea s : n e rn a ons on o i , 29 8 —300, C mmu i t pr p g d by 1 00; m i r d
o n s s : o a an a , s ea

48 8 d m i i hi g pr p rti i n s n o o on of , cr o p s gr wt h of o p r t iv l dh ldi g co o -
e a e an o n

29 2—3 . oci ti
s 401 ; on gr wt h of p
e es , t n . o e a s an

Cer n é uti , R e g i on a lB k an oi , 133 . f r mi g in Ru m a n i a

a 239 ;
n ppr v , a o e

Cele ; ( o b§°
t ea 11 , az e e) , 5 8 5 r R um i r f r m 5 7 3 ; on di ff r ti
an an e o e en a
A ,
.

Ch b r
a m e s of g re : t ne nto a ricultu ur d i p rty ti m gp
on a t a s r ult of r efo r m
on ea s a n s es ,

i tru
ns m e n s , 45 4 t . 5 33—4 11 .

p ri d p
Ch e ba p , Gr Gh on t h e e o s of ea san s .t ’
. C o m pe n s a ti on : cc rdi g t o t h e C t it u a o n o ns

h t ry
i s o , 47 2 n ; on t h e p ol c y xt d
i of e en . ti 1 48 ; b a s i s oi 1 5 0 P ; d fi
on , s ,
"

I 1 e r e n ce

ing t h e p t so c a l ri h
ea san s
’
i g t s a n d re b tw e th e v r l l aw s 1 73 4 ; i
ee n se e a ,
-
n

h ir ri h t
d uc in g t e l an d
g s to , 4 73 . B ess a ra b i a 1 5 3 ; in Buc vi 1 5 3 ; V , o na, .

C hi d rt ity c u
l mo a l : a se s o f, 4 99 . B i ti r u pl in 1 9 1 4 1 48 ; b l w v lu
an
’
s an , e o a e
C h ildr pl y t
en : e m o m en oi , 8 7 . of xpr pri t d l a n d 4 1 6 ; di cu i
e o f a e , s s s on o ,

C h i r l tiv v rcr w i d n g, 5 7 9 1 48 —5 1 ; T k I u p l a n 1 9 1 4 1 48 ;
’
na : e a e o e o . a e on esc s , ,

Ch ir c ul e s c u, N : onc h ic b tw C ti
o e e een on s . I u
on e sc pp l t o l d w r i 1 9 1 7
’
s a ea an o ne s n

v luti
t ut i on o r R e o on r p rt
1 02 n ; e o on , . u 15 1 m m r
o , dum of M ld vi l d e o an o a a n an
new C tituti
on s on , 5 6 5 n w r
o 1 5 1 ; m d ifi d by l w of 1 9 21
n e s on , o e a
A r Dr
.
,

Ch iri te s cu on , u ur
M : on f t e p opul a
-
. . 1 5 4—6 ; an d t h e t a x on c pi t l 1 5 0; i n a a ,

ti pr bl
on o l an d
e m on t h e , 5 77 . Tr a ns y l va ni a 1 5 4 ; pr p l of P t , o os a e a sa n
Ch up r o v, Pr of A I , 4 8 1 11 . . . . P rty l 5 2 ; r l v lu f 4 l 6 —1 7 ; b d
a , n . ea a e o , on s
C h urc h d : h v r p
e ma n d s ea i e t vi ea s an se r is s u e d 4 1 9 20 5 9 2—3 ; pri vil g d tr t
,
—
, e e ea
tud c t bi h t
es , 1 9 e ffe t of e s a l s me n on , 5 30 ; m t of F r c h a n d Briti h l d w r
en en s an o n e s,
c h r ct r
a a e andp iti os titud
on 5 29 ; a t e to , 1 7 8 —9 , 4 1 9 n .

r li i u ct
e g o s se ti l
s , 5 30; a n d n a on a i s m, 5 29 ; C omp ul so ry cultiva ti on : d l fi e r en t i a t i on be
h k by r r
s a en w
e fo m , 5 30; a n d om en i n tw een l d an ow n e s r a nd p easan s in 1 9 1 7 , t
c h ld bi th
i r , 5 00
-
. 99 .

Ci ocoi u, 5 48 .
C o m p ul so ry l a b o ur : re viva l a fte r e ma n cipa
Ci or i ce a n u,Dr r pl c
L : on e a e me n of . t t i on , 73 fi .

fo e gnr i cu r cir en ti
e s , 4 1 8 n ; e s m a t e of . Con a ch e r , H on di ff r t gr ri . M : e en a a an
xpr pri ti b on d s
.

a v lu
e of e o a on , 4 1 9 11 . id ea s of p t a n d t w p pl 46 0
e a sa n s o ns eo e, .

yt t x ti
Ci s li ( s s e m of a a on ) , 5 8 3, 5 8 6 . C c on e n tr ti aof f a r ming 25 7 ; t d cy
on : , en en
Cla cci , 1 8 , 3 7 5 of f a rmin g t w rd 26 2 o a s,
of A griculturi t i 1 9 20 45 6
.
.

Cld cagxi , 6 n , 5 1 . . C gron ess s s n

C l ass c
, .

on s o s n e ss : a mon g ci uea san s , 5 32 p t . Conn er t F rit

, on bu in ppli c ti of z: a ses a a on
6 16 INDEX
Tr ylv ni n ref rm 21 7
ans a a o 11 p r ti d r ttl m t 38 0; g v m
Agr ri L gue 45 8 a an ea , .
, o e a
en on
on an
m t c tr l f t h 38 1 h lp d by p o li c y o o
ese
e,
e en

e
,

e
o e

Co rv tiv P rt y s ci l b si s d str y d
ns e a e a : o a a e o e f Mini s te r of E duc ti
o 1 900—2 3 7 8 ; a on ,
by xpropri ti 5 5 6e a on , . his t y of t h 37 3—8 ; l w f 28 /iii /1 9 03
or e, a o
,

C v tiv
on s e r d l rg t t 9 5 ; ttitud e
a es : a n a e e s a es , a 37 8 ; b t cl t o i t d v l pme t in t h
o s a es s e e o n e
,

n o gr ri r form 49 79 9 5 ; ttitud e
a a
an e a p st 374 ; S t t e tute l g f 406 1 3 ;
a a a e o
l B an k 407 ; d
, , , ,
-

e xpr p i ti
,
o 9 6 —7 1 04—5 1 08 gl ct by N ti
n o r a on , , , . ne e a on a an
Co li d ti in B r bi 1 6 1 ; G ro
,

n so a on : e ss a a a, a C pit lis m 408 —9 d N t io lis m 408 ;

a a , an a na ,

fli d 1 6 1 ; Mih a la ch e P as t is t i d e a ] 37 4 409
’
s L aw 0 11 , ou, 1 6 0; e an ,

t h l
,

p ttitud
.

of ea s a n o d i ngs , 45 5 ; a e of Co op r tiv pr ducti

-
e a s Co p r tiv
e o on , ee -
o e a e
Tr ylv i ans p a t 1 6 0; i n
an a n ea s n s on , m ov m t e en .

Tr ylv ni ( ft r
ans 207 a a a e . Co p r tiv S oci ti
-
o e a l g l t t u 37 8 —8 1
e e es : e a s a s,
C t ti cu A L h i l w of 1 /i v /14 o
ons an n es , : s a n fo cr di t 3 8 1 93 ; f
r e c um pti o d — or ons n an
e xpr opri ti i D o b roge a 1 79 ; n
a on n , o pr ductio 39 3 6 ; fo pr ducti 3 96
o
,

n, — r o on ,
n on R u m n i ns r ttl d i T yl a a ese e n r a ns 8 ; fo l in g d purc h in g l an d 39 9
r e as an as
402 Ag ricul tur l 402—3
-

v a ni a 21 8 ; r stricti f ri gh t s f Hu
,

, e on o o n a , .

g ri a pt t by 1 7 8 ; r turn t o p ow r
an o an s , e e Cor s u plu c h g s i n R um ni 34 1 ;
n r s: an e a an,
i n Lib r l G v r m t 1 8 0 e a o e n en B r bi 34 1
e ssa a an,
Co stitu t A sse m b l y f 1 9 1 3 9 8 ; of 1 9 1 7
, . .

n en o , , C r t e u AL r cti o ry a ti o lis m f
o an , : ea na n na o
1 02 ; di s olv d by M gh il m s 108 e ar o a n, . Lib r ls 5 45 e a , .

C titutio of 1 8 6 6
on s in li bili t y f
n : on a en a o Co t f livi ng in Ru m ani a 46 3
s o , .

h ldin g 7 6 ; dr ft d d p d in o
o s, a e an a sse ne C té h
os u I Mini st r of E duc ti
c es c 5 23
, . : e a on ,
d a y 5 3 m k l m t ry duc ati fr
.

, a es e e en a e on ee Cos t a for u, AL , 1 01
d c o m p ul so r y 5 1 0
.

an , . Cot r us, A , 5 48 n . .

Co tituti
ns w itt c tituti in om on : r en ons on , c Crean gé , Dr G D , 422 n ; on tra ns fe r
of. . . .

p tibl with s rfd m 5 0

a e e o , . w lth r l d
ea r tr d cl
f om a n ow n e s t o a i ng as se s ,
Co tituti l G ov r m t p
ns on a t d e n en : ea san s
’
e t t tic
5 7 5 s a is l d d pr p r y
s of an e o e t , 186 .

pr i u d r 5 6 8
es s o n n e , . Cr di
e ricu tu
t s for a g l r e , 424 —5 .

C u m r S ci ti s
on s e s e Co op era tiv e
’
o e e , se -
Cr i h t Dr Ch rl
e g on ci l c u
a e s : on s o a
, a s es of .

m v m t o e en . pl r
e la
g a , 5 01 11 .

Co u mpti
ns f c e r l i n Ru m a ni a 29 8 ;
on : o ea s , Crim e a n d confli ct , 5 25 —8 .

d clin s with i cre

e ef l rg s c l f rm n a se o a e -
a e a Cri ti l t c r r
me a n Wa r : s m u a es o n g owi n g i n -

in g 4 8 6 —7 ; ft r r f r m 48 8 ; f ani m l
, a e e o , o a Ru ma ni a 25 339 5 8 8 , , , .

pr duct 48 6 48 9
o s, , . C im
r d cr
es : th l d i c th
e ea se on e an s n e e
C ti g t ti
on n y t m 436
en a on s s e , . r f rm 5 26 ; di tributi o f crim in l
e o , s n o a s
C op r ti
o -
e a c hi v m t f p on , ts a e e en o ea s a n on cc rd i g t ccup ti & 5 26 —7 ; d u
a o n o o a on , c .
, e

B rd iu V rd st t 27 6 ; pi rit d
o e e e e a e, s an t d ri n k 5 26
o , .

t r di ti
a of mo g R u m ni
on pe sa ts, a n a an a n , Cr p a re a f c r l cr o p s 1 9 20—7 336 ;
o s: . o e ea , ,

374 5 -
. v r g pr ducti of t h c hi f c r ls i
a e a e o on e e e ea n

Co -
o p r ti
e a on a n d e duc t i a on , 5 25 . 1 9 20—7 337 ; ff ct f r f rm
, th e e o e o on e

Co o pe ra t w e a sso ci ti a ons : for e x cutio

e n of di tributi
s f 28 4 —9 5 ; di tributi on f o s on o
l d r f r m vid A oci ti ns f R
-

an e o e ss a o o e c hi f c re l c r o p s 1 9 1 0 1 5 332 ; di s t i bu
e e a ,
—
, r

se ttl m t e en . ti o of c hi f c r l crop in 1 920—7 333

n e e ea s ,

Co p r tiv l d h ldi g C mmun i t vi w

-
o e a e an o n : o s e 334 v ri ti l rg d m ll f a rm s
a a on on a e an s a ,

of ff ct vi ll age 401
e e 0 11 , 11 . 28 7 i cr in gr a ss 3 1 9 ; i t
n iv
e as e , n e ns e

Co o p r tiv B k c h g in c pit l
-
e a e an s : an es a a cr p in l rge d s m a ll f a r m s 28 8 ;
o s a an ,

di tributi
s 38 6 ; critici m c c rn in gon, s s on e r l tive d cli in c r l 29 2—3 ; v ri
e a e ne e ea , a a

p t p rticip ti i 3 8 5 ; di t i bu
ea s a n s
’
a a on n, s r ti o in y ie l d 27 1 ; t t l pr ducti of
ns , o a o on

ti f c pit l h r i 3 8 5 ; di tributi
on o a a s a es h, s on c r l cr ps i 1 9 20—7 335 ; y i ld m
e ea o n , e co ~

o f d p it 3 8 6 ; di tribut
e os fl s, i s i on o oa n s n, p r d w ith oth r c un tri 3 1 7 ; yi e l d
a e e o e s, on

38 7—8 ; l w f l 5 /i i i /1 9 05 f d r ti o
a o on e e a ns l rg d p
a e an t f a r m s 27 1—2 e a s an , .

oi 38 3—4 ; l r i d by 38 8 ; typ f o a ns a se es o C k ni s C ou t h i s
s o c t t i Jim b li n : es a e n o a,

p pul r b a n k s 3 7 9 ; w k
, , ,

o a of cr di t , ea nes s e 3 26 .

co o p r ti 39 2
-
e a on , . Cultiv ti o c h g in proporti of l d
a n : an es on an

Co o p m t i v c od
-
e f 1 9 29 ( s u mm a ry of
e e o u d r 29 0; d i tribu t io f a re a b twe
n e , s n o . e en

pr vi i ) 409 —1 1
o s on s , . l rg d m ll f a r ms 3 1 0; r c ov ry i n
a e an s e , e e

Co p r tiv
-
o m v m t i
e a B r bi e o e en n e ssa a a, th r u d r 310
e a ea n e , .

4 03—4 ; i Buc vi 405 —6 ; i T n yl o na, n ra n s Curr cy r pid d pr ci ti o oi 46 6 ; e fi t

en : a e e a n , ec

v a n ia 3 7 6 404 5 ; ff ct f l d r f rm
, ,
— e e s o an e o of f ll f curr cy
a gr icul tu l pric
o en on a ra es

up t h 37 3 ; t ti tic f 1 9 21—8 4 1 2
on e, s a s s or , d e xp rt 35 2 448 5 9 0;
an d o vfli g s, , , an on a e

13 ; C p m tiv C d of 1 2/vii /19 28

o o -
e e o e , i du tri 37 1
n s es , .

38 1 ; D cr e I w f e o o e -
e o n c Custom duti ff ct o
s gricul tu l es e e n a ra
 INDEX 617
export a n d pric 35 2 360 36 3—4 ;
s es, Drin k p r o b l e m s ee Alc o h ol i sm s
D uc a Pri c C t tin r i t l v
, , , .

eff ct on vil l g i du tri

e r c ipt a e n s es , e e s , n e on s a n : es s s en s a e

f r o m 438 ; c h g i r c ipts fr o m 440 an e n e e m t of p

en t 16 easan s ,
C u a Pri c A l x a d r i m p
.

D uc a I r f rm d cr
, , .

z ,
l d
n e e n e : ose s an re , . : 1 00 1 1 2
e o e ee , ,

fo r m 48 ; f rc d bdi c ti
,
49 103 ; o e a a on , , 197 upp rt r of s p r tiv m v m t o e co o -
e a e o e en ,

educ ti l r f rm i 5 10; i tr duc s

a on a e o s o , n o e 407 .

u iv rs l ufi g 5 49
n e a s ra e, on pr p rty xxi v
Dugui t , o e
p r tiv b a n k
.
, .

C c h l v ki S t t p o li c y fo r griculture
ze os o a a: a e a Dum itr a. c o o -
e a e , 37 7 .

i n , 45 4 .

Ec ic p ct of l d r f rm 231
on o m as e s an e o , .

‘
D ci F lix 3
a a e
’
, . Ec m ic d ctri
on o of t i li t o ne na on a s s, 408 ,
D ub l w fo r th e im pr v m t of t h e
an e : a o e en 5 44 —6 ; of P n t P rty 1 20— 1 4 5 7 ea sa a , , , 559
D ub r gi an li bl t o fl di g 45 5e e on s a e oo n , 6 0, 5 7 6 7 -
.

E u p C mmi i 6 4 ; op i g d lta
ro ean o s s on , en n e . Ec on omi c mo tiv b t at p t e, a se n easa n
t o vig ti 44 6 4
na a on , , . e m cip ti
an 5 3—5 6 1—2 ; a b
a ti p t
on , , se n n os

D s vi i N 5 23
a co c , n . w ar r f rm 18 5 228 e o , , .

Da sz in s k a Golin s k a , G -
.
, 307 11 . E c mic p o li c y p t w m rc ti li s t
on o : os -
ar e an

Dav d Dr
i , E , . . xxv . bi a s 230 44 4 5 44—6 ; i t c t p id by
, , s os a
D th r t
ea -
a e, h i gh d t h r t ea -
a e o ff se s t hi gh a gric ul t ur 448 e, .

birth r t -
a e, 49 7 . E duc ti 5 09 d v l pm t ft r th e
a on : e e o en a e

D ea va lma : y t m of h ar cultiv ti o
s s e s e a n, 5 91 w a r, 5 09 ; gricul tur l c h l 5 1 6 —20 ;
a a s oo s ,

c
om a e p r d with t l y t m by G ar a s s e ar ofli d , l m t ry 5 1 0
e e en a l A d ult duc , s ee a s o e a

5 89 ti E l m t ry duc ti Pr f i l
on , e en a e a on , o e s s on a

a n d Agricultur l duc ti ; pr p rti

.

De fl a t i oni s t i , 420 pol cy . a e a on o o on

Deln i ie ( op i ne , obsti n e ) 5 8 5 c . of illit r t 5 09 ; xc iv trivin g ft r

e a es, e ess e s a e
D cr tic U i t P rty
e mo a n o ni s a , 168 . d gr 5 23
e ees , .

D pr ci ti
e eof cu r cy fi t w rkin g
a on : r en a ec s o E l ct r l y t m P f B il u on cr k d
e o a s s e ro . as esc oo e

an d l ri d cl 46 6 ; p rtly d u t o
sa a e a ss es , a e w r ki g i 5 5 0 ; t m p r d with by
o n o , n . a e e
d clin in gricul tur l pr ducti 46 6
e e a a o on , . Lib r l 5 5 3
e a s, .

D es cd leca r e , 9 . E l m t ry educ ti
e en a i t d by p e a a on a ss s e .

D ttw il r on l a b o ur
e e e , no r m on fa rm s s , 28 6 . sa n st w c tributi ’
o 5 1 4— 1 5 ; m d
n on on s , a e

D evd lma si e, 5 8 4
’

. fr ee an d c o m p ulso ry by C tituti of on s on

De v luti 5 6 1
o on , . 1 8 6 6 5 1 0; p iti o
, i 19 12 13 5 1 1 ; os n n —
,

Dict t r hi p ppo d by P
a o s , o se ea s an t m o ve t ti tic 5 1 1 1 2
s a s s, -

m t 5 65 en , . E m cip ti of th e p
an a t b c kgr u d
on ea sa n s : a o n
D ij md ( méta ya ge ) , 5 8 8
’

. of Ou r f r m 5 2 ; c t r l m m i
za s
’
e o , en a co r s s on ,
Di s s es cu, S e na o C , 1 03 tr . . 47 ; c m pe ti of l dl rd 5 0; A l
o n sa on an o s, .

Dis tributi n o of l a n d , 1 8 6 —7 . Cu za sp o li c y 49 d cr of l 4 / 1 1/1 8 6 4

’

, e ee V 1 ,

Di trict Ag
s r on o ms , a cc rdi n g t o
o la w of 50 ff ct on gricultur 5 3 ; M ld vi
e e s a e, o a an

23 /x ii /1 9 07 , 8 7 , 8 8 . d iv an( 1 8 5 7 ) a n d gr ri q u ti 4 6 ; a a an es on ,

Di trict C
s o mmi s s i on s la w , of se rvitud in c i t t with c tituti es on s s e n on s on ,
87 . 5 0; m tiv f 6 1 ; pr ctic l ff c t
o es f o , a a e e s o ,

Div a n s, e e l cti of rul r by 26

on e s , . 5 7 ; r l ti t o p h t i l r f rm 5 3 ;
e a on o ca e o ,

D i va ns ad h c v d in 1 8 5 7
oc : on ene , 4 6 ; di s na ti li t l m t h mp r i t 48 —9 ;
on a s e e en s a e ,

c us s i on of gr ri q u ti a a an es on i n M01 c rri d by up d ét t 4 9 ; ttl m t of

a e co
’
a , se e en
d a vi a n , 46 —7 , 1 1 5 l dl p
an e ss t on S t t d o m a i ns 5 2 ;
ea s a n s a e

T ll yr d s po li c y 47 l a c k of c mic
.
,

Div rc
o es , n i cr
ea s e i n , 4 9 6—7 ; i n Vi a ge s ll an d a e an
’

, e on o
t ow n s , 49 7 m tiv 5 3—4 ; i mp
o e, d by Gr t Pow r ose ea e s
Av r
.

D br
o o gea : e es e fo m la w ( 19 21 ) , cu r r fo r ( T r ty eaof P ri 45 —6 a s, .

c l
1 7 9 ; o oni za on 111 21 2—1 3 ; a n a s ti , l dl w E m igr ti 46 5 —6 49 5
a on , n .
, .

and uR ma ni an e fo ms 1 7 9 — 8 0 r r , . E mi n cu Mi h il 22 24 ; on gr d of th e
es , a , n .
, ee
Do br ogee n u e ea, G : 66 n ; -
Gh r
o se . . on c u Lib r l bourg oi i 5 47 ; S i i P lit i e
e a e s e, cr e r o c

que n ce s of r r
1 8 6 4 efo m, 6 2 . 5 42 n .

Dom e stic i du tri th ir i p rt c

n s es : e m o a n e , 366 ; E n é se s c u, a d mi ss i on °
of fr uds in t h e ppli c
a a a
e fi ec t sof r r r l
e fo m s on , 36 5 ;
gene a e on t i on of r r e fo m , 1 9 1

E cl r ih n l an d ) fi t on p
.

s id r ti c c r
e a on s tu a n d
on e ni n , 37 1 ; n a
g re n os u es ( E g t , e ec e a s an s
’

d t ibuti
is r tt i d r c
on , 3 6 8 —7 0; S a e n i ffe e n e foo d , 5 8 1 .

t o ward T ylv
s , 36 5 6 ; t ti tic
r a ns a ni a n s a s s -
E d wm t Buc r t of civili h
n o en s : a es , an os
of, 368 .
p i t l 4
a s,6 8 —9 ff ct of xpr pri ti e e s e o a on
Domm , 5 up cultu l a n d c h rit bl 46 6 —9 ; S t
’

on ra a a e,
an d A lm
.
.

Dr ugh t i m l G ofl i d on c o t of t m
a an a s: ar s ea s, S pi id r (I y ) H pit l
on a ss os a s s
26 1 ; on l rg a n d p t f a r m s 26 0 a e eas a n , . h u s 46 7—8
o se , .
618 I NDEX
E cu on m di c l rvic i Tr ylv i
nes , e a se e n ans an a , ver l pro vin c
se a es , 1 6 8 —72, 1 7 5 —8 2 ; in
5 09 .
out h r
s D o b r o ge a
e n 1 79 8 0 -

E cu F ti r l i pr p ri g dr ft of , .

n es , o n, o e n e a n a E xpr pri ti b on d s
o a on a m oun t an d v lu a e of,
d cr of 1 6 / ii /1 9 1 8 1 1 1
,

e ee x , . 4 1 7 , 4 19 — 20,
E gli ch M on S x l
n s , i T yl .
, a on osses n rans
v a ni a 21 8 , .
Fa ll o w prop ortion of l a n d un de r
, 28 9 9 0
E t t l rg ld m cultiv t d by w r
-

F a mi l y Wi rts chaft 4 6 1
, .

s a es , a e , se o a e o ne s, , .

28 2 .
F mi
a ne u i ( 1 8 33 ) stimul te
in R ss a, a s
E xp rt d uti pr t t by C tr l U i
o e s, o es en a n on R um i c r gr wi ng 25 ; of 1 928 i
a n an
of A gricultur l S y di c t 436
o n -
o , n
a n a e s, .
B r bi 300; in Ru si a i n cr s wi th
e ss a a a, s e a se
E xp r t t x 432 435 ; b r main l y
.

o a es , , o ne c r xp t 8 3
o n e or s ,
by gricultur
.

a e, 4 38 —9 ; on c fi e ct a gr i Fa 1 m bui ldin g i m pro ve d in c e t h e r f rm

s, s e o
cultur 44 1 ; ff ct of fr q u t c h
,
e, e e e en an
ge s 48 5 .

i n , 4 39 ; e fi e ct on p ts 440; r t
e a san , a e s oi , F rm qui pm t di t ributi b tw
a e en : s on e ee n
r ducti f 440 e on o , . l rg a n d p
a e t f a ms 26 0; di t ibue asa n r s r o

E xp rt utgrowt h of R ubw irt c h ft

,

ti B r bi b t t r on
‘ ’
o s o a s a , i 26 8 ; i
on o , n es sa a a, e e
5 71 ; p t w m 340; pr h ibiti
os -
of a r co , o on p t fa rm s 26 9 ; diffi ulty of r pl c
e a sa n , c e a e
w h t 300 q u titi 1 9 1 9 26 35 6 l rg
ea , an es —
, a e m t ft r w
en 27 8 —9
a e a r,
urplu fo r 3 39 ; v lu i 1 9 1 9 26 35 5
.

s s , a e o ,
—
, . F rmi g c pit l w r h ip f 26 7 on
a n a a : o ne s o
E xpr pri ti
,

o b t a w r tt
on : a s en e e o ne s
’
es a es , l rg t t 26 4—5 ; on p
a e e s a es, t f a rm s eas an
1 7 6 ; a n d h ou i n g i n T r ylv ni 1 28 ;
,

s ans a a, 26 6 .

a n d tr f r of l an d 1 7 2 ; tt tud of
an s e , a i e F rmi g t u t i Ru mani a 26 3
a n r s s : n
P rt i t o 1 1 7 ; uth riti c h rg d with
, .

a es , a o es a e , F rm l ifi t i by i 24 1 ; pr p r
a s : c a ss ca on s z e, o o
1 73 ; b i xt d d i 1 9 21 1 30; B
as s e en e n , es s ti of fr h ld t o l h ld 242
on ee o e a se o
a ra b i a 1 22 ; in Buc vin 1 22 204—5 ;
, .

, o a, , F rdi d Ki ng 9 2 ; pr cl im r f rm
e nan , , o a s e o
c mp ti fo r 1 48 1 7 3 4 1 6 l 7 ; c t
,

o ensa on , , ,
~
os 1 00 1 ; cl i m i i ti tiv of r f m 101 ;
— a s n a e e or
of xpr pri t d l a n d 4 1 9 ; d cr l ws
,

e o a e , e ee a sec d pr cl m ti 1 1 0—1 1 ; ttitud t o

on o a a on , a e
c c r i g 1 22 ; d is ti f cti with
on e n n , sa s a on re P ea sa n t P rty
1 15 , 5 5 7
a , .

s ul t f 1 8 9 ; di tributi
s o of xpr pri t d s on e o a e F e ud a h s m , i n ge n n e fo m nk n o n in ui r u w
l an d 220; M a x W b r
,

, of Fr c h e e 0 11 e a s e en , o l d Ru a n am i , 6 —7 , 1 1 , 21 n , 4 74 .

y i Ru m a n i a b c u l dl rd
.

28 2 ; eas n . e a se an o s Fi c of
n a n e s , e fi ect s n a on a s i ,
ti li t p o l c y u p on
no t f rm r a 28 2 ; c m ic c t ri in
e s, e on o ri e a 447 .

se c d 1 29 ; c mic c id r ti
on , e on o on s e a on s F i ci l p ol c y u v u bl t o ri
n an a i , nfa o r a e ag
t k i t cc o u t 1 23 ; xt t of p
a en n o a n , e en ro cultu r e , 45 1 .

p ose d 1 04 ; xt i , by l w of e e n s on a F ir t ur l Cr d t ci ty
s R a e i S o e , 4 24 .

1 7 / i /1 9 21 1 1 6 ; x m pti
V1 li m it 1 25 , e e on s, ,
Fi c l
s a L aw of xp 1 9 23, et os é d e m o ifs , 5 7 4 .

1 7 1 2 ; f tur
— f in T r ylv ni 1 26
ea es o , an s a a,
‘
Fis h days-
'
, 48 6 .

7 ; fi t 1 22 ; g r a d u a l a n d
rs , cc rdi n g t o , a o F li ht of p
g t i h t th c tury
e a sa n s in e g e en en ,

th e l w of 1 9 21 1 3 1 ; l d ubj ct t o
a , an s e , t r O r ic t tut
16 ;af e ga n S a d tic lly e s , 38 ; r a s a
1 24 ; l rg w r a ttitud t o 1 1 4 ;
e o ne s
’
a e ,
pu h d
ni s e , 4 1 .

le a ses of u xpr pri t d a re a 1 74 ; l v l ne o a e , e e F r i c pit l

o e gn a ti l t ttitud t o
a : n a on a i s a e
l g t d cy in B
in en bi 1 26 ; m c h
en e ss a r a a, e an w rda s , 408 , 44 7— 8 , 5 4 5 .

i m f 1 3 1—6 ;
s o ti
, l t t d ci i na on a i s en en es h , F r i r xpr pri ti of
o e gn e s : e o a on 1 30, 1 7 8 .

1 75 ; of f r t by l w of 1 9 24 1 7 3 ; of o es s a , Fr t c
o es s : u lw d d
o mm n a oo l an s i n Tr ans y l

l d b l gi g t o f r i g r 1 30 1 7 8 ;
an e on n o e ne s, ,
van a i , 1 46 ;c u l rhp
om m n a ow n e s i re

of l d l a n d 1 7 0—1 of m u icip l l an d s
ease ,
n a ,
by
s t ric t e d Mor uz i i n 1 7 9 2, 1 44 ; com
4 6 6 ; O l d K i ngd o m 1 22 ; O l d K i gd m , n o fo r xpr pri t d
p en s a t i on e E
o i
a e , 15 6 ; ma n e
a n d Buc vi 1 25 6 ; m c h i m f i n o na , — e an s o ,
of
p a t i on L a w xpr pri ti
18 64 e o a on

B r bi 1 32 ; m c h i m i i B u
e ss a a a, e an s o , n eo in B r bi
essa a a,xpr pri t
1 45 ; e by o a i on

vin a 1 32 3 ; m c h i m i i t h e O l d — e an s o n c t tuti of
on s i on xpr pri ti
1 9 23, 1 4 6 —7 e o a on

F r t y C o de
, ,

K i n gd o m 1 32 ; m c h i m i i T r , e an s o , n an in T r ylv i
a ns a n a , 1 45 ; o es r , 1 45 ;

sy l v an ia 1 33 ; pric i 1 5 1 6 ; of Hu
, e o ,
— n in t h e M ld vi O r ic t tu
o a an ga n S a t e , 1 44 ;
g ri a pt t 1 77 pr vi i fo r b fi t
an o a n s, o s on s ene in th e M u t i O r c t tut
n e n an ga ni S a e , 1 44 ;

of pr ducti o 1 23—4 ; pr vi i on, o s on s c on la w of B a r b u tirb y S e , 1 8 5 1 , 1 45 ; la w

c r i g xi ti g t
e n n t a n d cr o p s 1 5 6 ;
e s n enan s ,
of O r ic
M1h a i u S t ur d za , 1 8 44 , 1 45 ; ga n
s c op i 1 6 8 e o c d ( G fl id L w
,
se on a ro
’
s a ,
t tut of
S a es P t
1 8 29 c m, 1 44 ; e as a n

1 29 ; t ti tic fo r B r bi 202 s a s s essa a a, P rty a n d c

a u l w dl d
omm na oo an s , 1 4 ;
5

3 ; critici m of pplic ti 1 9 4—200;

s a a on , ri ht of p
g s t i r d l w of
eas a n s gn o e in a s 19 19
an d t l m i riti 21 1 1 9 ; t t l
n a i on a no es , — o a and l of p
1 9 21 , 1 45 ; oss t ri h t e a s an g s,
a r ea xpr pri t d 220; f il t o lv
e o a e , a s so e e fi e ct onh ui o s n g, 4 8 4 .

a g r ria p r o b l e
anm 222 —6
; i T yl n ra ns Ft G r
o ino , eo ge s , 5 8 3, 5 8 5 n .

F r c h i C tituti of
,

van i 1 22 3 209 —1 0; v ri i n t h
a, —
,
a es o an se : on s on h ty1 9 23, 5 5 2 ; as
 INDEX 6 19
r e fo rm i n 1 9 1 7, 5 5 1 a f t r I dep d c
e n en en e, Ghi bu, Oni s ifor , on ch a n ge s in p ea s a n t out
wid
5 49— 5 0; in 1 8 8 4 5 5 0; e ni n g oi , l oo k 5 29
G hic A x d r
, , .

p t d id
e a sa n s en e , 5 5 0 . a, r l ti
le b twe an e , on e a on s e en

Fr c h R v luti
en c m p ri with e o on : o a s on p t d l d w r 40
ea sa n s a n an o ne s, .

R um i r f rm 1 8 5 28 2 5 39—4 0; With
a n an e o s, G h ic G ig i 1 9 35
a, r or e ,
G h ic I on p
, , , .

Ru i R voluti
ss a nxxviii f e on . a, t 470 ; cl ergy 5 30
, on ea s a n s , on ,

Fr ti r r gim t j i t pr p rti i 1 7 0
on e e en s : o n o e es o Ghi ul N A i tii l Té é st i 39 6
ea,
‘
s oc a e r ne
’
n

G i p s es
, ,

21 5 —1 7 1 l v 5 0 ; r tt l d 225
: as s a es , n e se e

Dr L S m j ul i A rd l si
.
.
, .

Gi b
‘
F r un ta s , 28 . r a ce a , .
, o a n ea

E mi gr a re a , 4 6 6 11
’
.

Ga r ofl i d C , 1 6 6 1 8 6 233 n 234 5 90; Giu r ge a E , 201 n ; on fa m e m e n in r q uip t

A ci ti
, .
, , .
, , , . .

and d i tr i
a m ni s a t on of s s o a on s of B e s sa a r bi
a , 26 9 11

t r A ri
.

ttl t
R e s e e m e n , 1 5 9 ; a s Mi ni s e of g Gl v
a a n , on m se of i ry
e a s a n s i n 1 9 1 9 , 48 7 p t
Dr
.

cultur 1 1 5 ; ttitud t o gr ri
e, a e a a an re Gli c s m a n , on , a se s of a . l c u rur l c hi d
fo r m s 1 1 3 ; ttitud t I y r f rm
, a e o ass e o s mo a rt lity , 4 99 — 5 00; on a me i a rur l dc l
c h g d 1 1 5 —1 6 ; ttitud t t h S x
an e a e o e a on se rvic e 5 08
G o a Oc i
, , .

Un iv r ity 21 6 —1 7 ; Ch t i Ag a
e s ,
‘
es a ra r
’

, g , t a v a n : on a n ge s i n e g o s ch r li i u
25 7 47 4 , ; c d m ti f I tif u di
n . on e na on o a n a o utl k oo , 5 30 ; on n a o n a i s s o e of r e ti l t c p
by 26 7 ; critici m f r ttl m t by 1 9 2 ; s o e se e en fo r m, 1 8 1 ; on n ew s a m on
g t he pirit
t bli h m t f t h I titut f A gr
, ,

es a s en o e ns e o o p e a s a n t s 5 31 , .

no m ic R rc h 45 3 ; ti m t of d es
ese a , es a e r z ,
u br
Gole s c o AL : n m e of scuteln i ci , 3 1 ; o n
,

pr p rty 5 8 5 ; x mpti f gricultur l

o e , e e on o a a ext t en of tic pr p rty
m on a s o e , 5 2 11
m c h i ry fr m i m p rt duti
a ne by 45 1 ; o o es ,
u br
on n m e p sy l v
of gi s a es 5 0 11 1 ; o n , .

hi ti m t f p
s es t ui ti 4 7 6 ;
a e o e a sa n s
’
a nn es , u br
n m e p
of se rfs , 5 0 n t 2 ; on ea sa n .

h ti m t f p
i s es t i c m bfr
a e o easa n s
’
n o es e o e i r ti
e m g a on 3 8 , .

an d ft r t h r f rm 477 8 ; h i
a e
p e e o ,
— s ex ro G vr t dv c d r
o e n m en : a an e ith
fo ms co nfl i c t w
p i ti
r a l w 1 29 ; h i vi w
on f mét y
a , s e o a b c kw rd c
a a ic r i ti
e on o m o ga n z a on , 5 6 7 .

ag y t m 5 8 9 ; mi t k vi w f
e s s e s, s a en e Gr i v r w i h t
a n : a e a e
g e g i puriti
s o i , 3 22 m es
ih
s o
l rg a l f rm i g 29 5 ; M m r du m
e s oa e
-
a n ,
‘
e o an , 3 21 .

of L rg Cultiv t r 25 6 309 ;
a e a o s
’
, , on Gr i xp rt
a n e och s, 6 4 ; ur
a n ge i n t h e n a t e oi ,

agr ri a d e mo cra c y 5 6 3—4 ;

an , on c on 345 ; ch v ri u c u tri
a n ge s i n a o s o n e s 1 909 ,

c tr ti
en f f rmi g 25 7 ; 0 d v l p
a on o a n , 11 e e o br i
1 3, 1 9 21 — 5 , 34 3—4 ; e fi e c t s o f t h e ea k ng

m t f c ttl br di g 36 5 ; o f ud li m
en o a e -
ee n , n e a s l r tt
up of a ge e s a e s o u 34 7 ; e fl e c t s of ,

an d fr tr d 6 4 ; c t i f w h t
ee a e, on essa on o ea r r
e fo m ou r ric iv
338 ; e fi e ct s of e s t , t e
exp rt 303 ; i t iv l rg f rm i
o s, on n en s e a e a s n po y pol cy
bo , 344 ; in fl ue n c e of x i and t a a

Tr ylv i 325 ;
ans l dl rd h r
an a, on an o
’
s s a e ti Pr of I r
o n o u, 35 2 ; xp rt
o ga on e o s at .

i n mét y g 5 89 ; a l d w r di
a e, on an o ne s
’
s the exp p t
e n se of tea san s di e 4 7 1— 2
’

, .

s ti f cti
a s a w it h xpr pri ti on 189 ; o e o a on , n 7 n .

l rg f rm i g 25 5 ; d cripti
a e a f l ti n , es on o a Gr i cr
ass, i grn cro p s 3 1 9
ea se n a ss , .

fu di y f r m i g 25 7
n ar li g rc h y
a n , on o a ,
Gr i g c mm u l gr i g l d 8 7 ;
az n : o na az n an s, ex
ag i t m iddi cl
a ns 79 ; mi n i m u m e a ss , on t i by l w f 27 /vi /1 9 21 1 43 ; xt
ens on a o 1 e en
-

h ldi g 7 2 ; p
o n t
s, r i g ft r on ea sa n s
’
ea n n s a e i
s on f t ifi i l 29 2 ; G
o fl id
ar l w f c a , a ro
’
s a o
t h r f rm 4 7 8 ;
e e o r f rm f 1 8 6 4 5 5 ; , 0 11 e o o , 1 4 2 ; in B r b 1 43 ; i n e ss a a ia,
on s o ci l r v luti ff ct d by r f rm
a e o on e e e e o ,
Tr ylv ni ans d Buc vi 1 4 3—4 ; l
a d a an o na, an
18 1 ; o t h r tricti n f gricultur l e es on o a a xpr pri t d f c o mm u n a l 1 3 1 ; l w f
e o a e or , a o
pric 448 es, w h t pric 35 2—3 t h on ea es , on e 27 / /1 9 20 critici d by M h l h
1x 1 43 ; ze L a ac e,
w ti g f t h il 26 3 ; p g of h m itt d i d cr l w f D e c 1 9 1 8 1 4 1 ;
‘ ’
s ea n o e so , a ssa e 1s o e n e ee a o .
,

l w a f 1 7 /vii /1 9 21 1 1 7 ; Pr id t
o f es en o r pid d cr
a i i t t h c tury 26 ;
e e a se n n ne een en
Agr ri L gu 45 8 ; Hu g ri
a an ea e,
,

re n a an di tributi
s m g l rg a d
on m ll a on a e n
,

s a
o pt t 1 7 7an s, . ow r 35 9 ; h rt g f 5 9
n e s, s o a e o , .

G d rm ri r p rt f t h Dir ct r t of
en a e e, e o s o e e o a e Gr t W l
ea u ff r d by gricultur
ar : oss e s s e e a e,
G d rm ri 5 26 —7
en a e e, 277 8 0; p li tic l
— fi t in E tr o a e ec s as e n

G r l A ci ti f T ch r 5 23
.

ene a sso a on o ea e s, . E ur o p e 5 37 , .

G r l S i t y D ir ct r t 5 07
e ne a an ar e o a e, . G i t
r n u Dr E r t o
e sc
gricultur l duc
, . ns , n a a e a
G rgi
eo I I v lu
a nn , f R um i produc a e o an an ti 5 1 8 —1 9
on ,
Grou d b oo k bill c c rn in g u v y a n d
. .
, .

ti cc rd ing t 348
on a o o, 11 . n , on e s r e ,

G rm c ll t r v luti 9 8
e an a o e o on , 45 5
G r t Dr
. .

e o a, tim t f co su mpti of .
, es a e o n on Gu t i Pr of
s , . D .
, 220 n .
, 5 06 , 5 8 5 n .

a lc h l 49 3
o o , .

G es ell ha ft fu S i lp li ti k ( Vi
sc ) 5 78 r oz a o enna , . Ha ge me i s t e r , J ul d e es , on c r pric
o n es

G h rgh iu D n c h g i n w h t prices
eo o an e ea 25
M rs
, .
, , .

45 0 . H mm on d Mr
a , . a nd . : on cl a ss m on o
620 INDEX
po l y of pow r 23 e , , 5 41 ; on E gli h p
n s ea I du try c pit l in ve te d 44 5 ; c t of
n s : a a s , os
s ts b f r t h
an e o e e en cl o u s r es, 5 46 ; Th e in du tri li ti b s by gricultur
a za on o rn e a e,
Vi lla ge La bour er 5 8 0 , . 448 c ou g m t f 44 3 44 5 —6 fi
en ra e en o n an
cr t c h l p fo r
, ,

H a n di af s oo s : ea san t p titi e on , c i l p o li c y f v ou
a bl t 447 ; gr wt h of a ra e o, o
5 1 5 ; i vill g 5 15 n a es , . li mi te d c m p i 44 6 ; in fl u o f a n es , e n ce o
H sV V
a ne , . . , 553 11 .
gr ri
a r f rm o 44 5 6 ; l w f
a an e o n, -
a or
H r t S piru
a e , : on p as t n S t te l ds e an s o a an , c ou g m t f 3 72 446 ; l
en ra e oi en o , , os s e s
p r ti 37 8
,

8 2; a n d co o -
e a on , . 447 ; m te ri l s u d 44 5 ; prop
a dr m a se , ose e e
B a s n a s, Dr . N .
,o Dobr g l d que ti n
n o ea an s o , d i s g in st u mpl oym t 447
e a a tt it ud ne en , a e
180 . f P o t P rt y t w rds 45 7 5 5 9—6 0
eas a n a o a
Pr of
, ,

in q uiry in to tub r
,

Ha tie ga n , . I uli u, e 5 76 .

ul i
c mo g c h l c h ldr
os s a 5 03 n s oo i en , . Inf t m orta li ty 498
an , .

H lth ff ct f t h r f rm up h lth
ea : e e s o e e o on ea Inh it c e f b i r ta te 24 ; f pe sa t
er an , o o a es s, o a n
n d vit l
a t ti tic 495 —5 09 ; r l ti of
a s a s s, e a on h ldi n g 1 6 1
o s, .

h ldi g t 5 03—5
o n s o, . I te iv cultiv ti
n ns d in cr e
e in a on an a se
Heta i r i a 24, 42 m u l l a b o ur 28 5 —6
an a
Dr In t r ti l A gricultur l In titute i
, .
, .

Hi lfe rdi ng xxi i i f e na on a a s n

M os c ow 239
, .
, .

H ldi n g c
o id ti oi 1 60; bill c
s : ons ol a on on

In te r ti l Ins titute f A gricultu

, , .

c rn in g c
e oli d ti 45 5 c om ic i ons a on , e on s ze, na on a o re
1 9 3—4 ; f wly m rri d c o u p l es 6 6 or ne -
a e , , ( Rom e ) th gricultu l c ris i 307
, on e a ra s, .

6 7 ; i f ri r q u li ty f p t 27 2 ; I on cu, Teofil , Cr e di t u] in B a sa r a bi a 426 n

’
n e o a o ea san s , .

, I
in h rit c i 1 6 1 ; i n j u i u e ff ct f
e an e o , r o s e s o I on e s cu on
, 5 7 n ricultu l duc
; on a g ra e a .

c tt ri g 3 14 ; l w of F e b ru a ry 1 8 8 7
s a e n , a , ti on , 5 24 ; on b tt r q u p t
e e e i men of p ea
6 7 ; m in im fi x d by P t P rty 19 4 ; a e ea sa n a , t
s a n s , 26 8 ; on e fi e ct s of e mancip ti a on ,

pulv ri ti f 1 9 3 r l ti f h lth t
e za on o , e a on o ea o, l ct r l y t p
5 7 ; on e e o a s s e m , 5 49 ; on e as a n t
5 03—5 ; l d m rt g g oi 1 6 2 5 7 9 ;
s a e an o a e , , n . h ui o s n g, i p v ih t
4 8 4 ; on m o e r s m en of
si ze fi d w ith ut r g rd t xe f rm i g o e a o a n p t r l ti
ea s an s , 6 1 ; on b tw
e a on s e een p e a

y 5 6 9 ; i s 1 9 3 ; i s of t l d rd p ’
e ffi i c e nc , s ze , s ze te sa n s a nd an lo s , 5 9 ; on ea sa n t s

se ttl m t ll tm t 1 7 3 ; plittin g up
e en a o en s, s -
h ty
on es b c p
, 5 25 ; o n t h e a t
s e n e of eas a n s

oi , 60 . P ri t ci l
in t h e fi r st a l a m en , 5 5 0; on t h e so a
H r o ses : R ma n u i an h r e br din g
o s -
ee in t h e pr d i c
e om n a n e o f pr p r y o e t , 5 4 9 ; on t h e

p t as , 35 7 . q u ity l d l tt d p
al of a n al o e t
t o ea san s , 27 2 .

Hota r 7 I cu
on e s ti
S is e s , G , 308 D r ct r i e o of t h e
A
-

, . .

H ou in g s i t d by t h C tr l R e
: a ss s e e en a I t tut
ns i e of c
gr on omi rch R e se a , 28 1 ;
ttl m t Ofii
se e 4 8 5 —6 ; f pen t ‘
ce , o e a sa n s , onc t w h t cultiv ti
os s of ea a on , 303 ; on

48 1 —6 ; f p t i t h O ld Ki gd m o easa n s n e n o , r r
e fi ec t s of e fo m , 306 ; on e xp duti ort es ,

4 8 3 ; i q ui y f 1 9 06 48 4 ; q u h t y
n i r o , a o , u
4 32 ; on ma n r es , 324 ; on rl i e a t o n of

4 8 4—5 ; d h n wit h l s f ti m b r righ t ec e os o e s, y r t

m on e l b u c t
en s t o a o r os , 5 9 2 ; on
4 8 4 ; fl t f r f rm u 48 3 48 5
e ec o e o o , , . t t tic
s a is pp ic
s o f m éta yag e 5 9 1 ; o n a l a ,

ti o n of t h e l d r r an e fo m , 1 9 4 ; on t h e

I a c o b I oa n , : on a bu ses with r efo r m i n d uti

i m in c r xp
on i n o n e or t s 344 ; on t h e ,

T r ylv i 21 8 ;
ans an a, on str gth ing fen en o yi ld e l d
of t h e a n r p rt
t a x , 4 30—1 ; e o to
m i r ti t h r ou gh t h
no i es e l d r f r m 218
an e o , the I t r ti l A ricultu l C r
n e na on a g ra on g e s s

19 . i n 1 9 27 , 5 7 3 ; S tr uc ture A gr a i r e et P r od uc
pr cl ti by t h Ki g 9 2 ; tr ty
I a s sy : o a ma on e n , ea ti on A g i cola, 29 0 n , 5 90 r . .

B l h vi k git ti i 1 00
o i , 22 ; o s e a a on n, . I cu T k
on e s , a e: e o a on o f fo e gn xpr pri ti ri
r
l h e D A I R , 5 07
, . . 11 . pr p rti
o e e s, 1 78 ; on e o a on , 9 7 ; xpr pri ti
h i h pr p rti 5 09 10; m g
I lh t c ra cy : g o o on , — a on opp itios on t o co mm un a l gr a z in g a n s , 8 7 l d
v ri u ti liti i n B r bi 5 10
a o s na on a es e ss a a a, I cu Dr
on e s T , 5 09 11 .

I g ,
.
, . .

I mp rt duti 4 33 ;
o gricultur l i mpl es, on a a e o r a Pr of N , 7 n , 1 02 n ; o n n s e
. . . . i j u tic
m t 43 3—4en s , . r ri y t
of t h e o ld a g a a n s s e m 4 7 1 on a se , bu
I d mm t i ( f
n e m cip ti ) ff ct i 6 1 es or e an a on , e e o , . of C t tuti
on s i o n , 5 5 3 ; o n t h e o g n of t h e ri i
I d p d c pr cl m ti oi 6 6 ; fi t
n e en en e, o a a on , e ec R oya l Pr cl ti
o a m a o n , 1 00 .

io ci l p o l ic y 49
, on s o a , . I s la z, 5 8 3 .

I d x u m b r f r t il p ric
n e n t i di e s : o e a es no n I s tr a t i, Dr
C , 37 8 . . .

c tiv f c diti
a 46 4 ; R u m
e o i 45 0 on o ns , an an, .

I du tri l xp i
n s t tha xp ef th a n s on , a e e ens e o e J a sny 315 ;
, N .
, on pr ductio o n i n Tra n sy l
p t 5 75
ea sa n s , . v i
a n a a nd Buc vi o na , 329 — 30 .

I du tri li ti
n s critici m by S mb t
a za on , s o ar , J i r ea bi e, 7 .

5 75 J i t l d h ldi g ld fo rm s 7—8 5 8 3
o n an o n : o , ,

p r tiv 1 5 8 —9 39 9—400; i T r
.

I u tri
nd s es, dp d c e en en e 0 11 ag ricultu r e, 130 o -
e a e, ,
n an

3 7 2—3 .
sy l va ni a 21 5 —1 6 , .
 INDEX 621
J ph II
os e , meas ur es t o mitigate s er f o d m, 47 4 ; Ga r ofli dvi w f th ir r l 1 1 3 ; ’
s e o e o e,

206 .
l ossesti m te d by D r C fil 46 3 ;es a . ara n ,

J ud eg, 5 ; il eges oi , 5 —6 ; priv righ t s to l an d , o pp iti t o r f rms by 1 1 4 ; r tur t o

os on e o , e n

10 th l d f 28 1 ; w ip d ut
e an cl o , e o as a as s ,

fS y d i t s f M ld vi
.

J ud egi e, 5 .
46 1—2 Un i on s o n ca e o o a an ,

J uga r, me a n n g of e m, 1 27 i tr 11 . 1 14 .

J a s va la chor um, 7 . L rga r r f rm in O ld Ki n g

e es a te s : t b e fo e e o ,

J uzi , 5 n . d m 186 ; i B
o r bi 202 i B u
, n essa a a, , n eo
vin 204 ; in Tr ylv ni 208 —9 ; xt t
a, a ns a a, e en

Ki l v C u t Pa ul
ss e e , o n , 26 , 30, 33, 34 n ; . xpropr i t d 220; in O ld Ki gd m 1 8 8 ;
e a e , n o ,

on i s ze of h ldi ngs
o , 28 n ; on 1a o 1 . b u °
in B r bi 202 ; in Buc vi
es s a a 205 ; a, o n a,

se rvitud es , 29 ; on tyr ann of n a t e y iv in Tr ylv ni 209 ; xte t ft

ans a a, e n a er re

boi a rs 34 , . fo rm 221—2 227 , , .

K oga ni u Mih i l c rr i s t hr ugh p

l c ea n , a : a e o ea L rg f rm r xi t d by xpl iti g p
a e a e s, e s e e o n ea

t em
sa n cip ti o 7 8 —9 ; l v llin g up
an a n, on e e t 265
san s, .

s ci tyo 55 ; e i mm bi lity f l d
, on o o an L rg f rm in g c diti
a e af i R um ni : on on s o , n a a,

pr p rty 5 6 ; pl a f p
o e t 49 , e or ea san s , . 25 7—8 ; o durin g s up ri rity 25 6 ; p r
n en e o , oo

K s in ky Pr of V A 48 1
os s , . . .
, n . q ui pm t f 26 5
e en o , .

Kr fi t e u mb r f pl ughi n g te m 25 8
, on n e o o a s, . L rg l d w r
a e d xpr pri ti
an o1 14 ; ne s : an e o a on ,

Kuts h u k K in d j i tr ty f 22 a ar , ea o , . r duc d t o in ignifi

e e5 64 s can ce , .

L rg v ma ll f rmi g 25 2—4 5 8 0
a e . s a n , , .

L a b o ur c omp ulsory : re in troduce d t hr ough

,
L tif u di c d m ti oi by C rv
a n a : on e na on , on s e a

ag ricultu l co tr ct ra n a s, 76 —7 ; duri ng the t iv d R di c l 26 7 ; di fi r fr m big

es a n a a s, e ‘ o

War , 1 08 . i n du try 26 2 ; f rm in g
s R um , i a on an an ,

L a b o ur proport i on , to e xte nt of f rm a 26 5
s, . 25 7 6 0; ori gi -
oi i n R u m i 26 1 ns , an a, .

L b u Ch
a o r a m b ers , an d m ll r p s a e e asa nts, L a ur Pr of E
, t pr ducti f m ll
. rn e s , on o on o s a

5 34 . f a rm s 25 4 , .

L b u c o tr cts nforc m t f 76
a o r n a : e e en o L w j u v l k um 7 1 38 ; fi t w itt
a : s a ac or , rs r en ,
f V a s 1e Lupu
, ,

l w u 7 3 11 9 ; P m ml d M t iu
'

a s o e o 1 an a e
L b u G r o u p rigi i 1 03
, .

b 9 ; C d f G r d 20; u b i u
‘
B
’
a o r , o n o , . a ss a r a , o e o a a a, r ar

L a b o urs gric ultu l i n I t ifu di y cul t i

, a ra : a n ar of C li m h 21 ; a l C tituti ae , s ee a so on s on ,
v ti 25 8
a c h r ct r i n R um ni
on , a a e a a, O rg ic S t tut an a es .

27 3 ; fi t f r f r m u p on 28 0—1 28 3
e ec o e o , , . Law uit th ir c u 5 27 ; p
s s: t and e a ses , eas a n s ,

La i f i e
ss ez t h l an d 5 6 3
a r , on e , . 5 28 .

L an d di tributi, cc ordi g t u 29 0—1

s on a n o se , . L a z a r Li viu s , 204 n , 209 11 , . .

La nd b und c rv tive gr ri i m in on se a a a an s
‘
Lea g e u
for t h e a ni on of a ll Cultur l U
G e rm a ny 5 6 4
,

, . u
R ma ni a n s , 5 21
’
.

L d di s put
an c u of cri m s d es , as a se s e an L e a ses : e en of, 234 ; ext t en o i , i n 1 9 07 , xt t
vi l c 5 26
o en e , . q iyxt t
24 8 ; e e n of, i n 1 9 27 , 249 ; i n u r of
L d di tributi pri cipl i 5 6 9
an s on , n e o , . c t
1 9 1 1 , 237— 8 ; p er e n r bl l d of a a e e a se .

L d h u g r ttitud f rulin g cl
an n 67 e : a e o ass , cc rd
a o i pr p r i
i n g t o s z es of o e t e s , 24 8 ; r e
b gin w ith r tur t ti l ut omy
e s e n o na on a a on tricti
s r by titru t
o n of a e a an s la w , 8 9 ;
33 ; l w f A p ril 1 8 8 9 7 0
,

a o , . tr r r
S y n a di n o on , a f e t h e e fo m , 249 — 5 0;
L d d Lib rty in p r bl f
an an tr e se a a e or e a s e n cc rdi
va 1 1 a t i on s a
°
o ng t o loc a h t y , 243 ;
p t 5 37 ; m tto f R u i n v lu
ea s a n s , o o ss a re o r wh
g o t of mone y , 239 .

t i on a ri e s, 8 1 . L tr
e ni n : o n s h p en gt t dd cl
of e a sa n mi l e a s s ,
L d p licy ft r 1 8 6 4 fi r t p ri od 6 6—9
an o a e : s e , c c r l
5 48 ; on t h e e on omi du o e of m e i m
c d p ri d 6 9—72
s e on e o , . i dp
s ze ty ea san r , 5 7 6 .

L d pric
an d p d c e n d ity of es : e en en o ens L N
eon , G c p ti
6 n , 21 n ; on om en sa on
p pul ti 48 0; ri ih 8 3
. . .

o a on , se , . l d r
of a n o w ne s , 1 49 n .

L d r rv b d d t l dl rd 5 2
an e se e, a an on e o an o s, , L r y B ul u
e o ea u i xxvii
i e , on R ss a ,
-
i .

66 . Lv u ricultu l t ti tic
e a s s e r , on a
g ra s a s s , 228 .

L d an tax : asses s men ts in cr e a se d in 1 9 27, Lib r l c h r ct ri tic

e a i s m, 4 3 ; a a u e s s in R m a ni a ,
44 0 low y i ld i 428 e o , . 5 0, 5 3 .

La d te ur rigin l f r m i 7—8 9—1 0

n n e: o a o s o , , , Lib r l P r y pu h d
e a a t xtr
: ri h t
s e to e e me g ,
21 ; tr iti t l dl rd i m 1 3 22—3
a ns on o an o s , , , upr cy
556; s e maC urt upp rt
d ue t o o s o ,

28 , 36 t bli h m t f priv t , es a s en o a e 557l d p o l cy

an i , 68 .

pr p rty 5 6 ; Hu g u d By ti
o e , n an a an za n ne Lib r l i t xpr pri ti
e a s : a ga n s e o a o n , 9 6 ; m a ni
i nfl u 10; j i t
e n ce , ld y t m f 7—8 o n o s s e o t i r r ri p ro b l e
fe s o of 1 8 8 8 gn o es a g a a n m,
o pe r a ti ve 1 5 8
, , ,

5 83 —4 00
co -

, . rc il t t d cy
9 6 : me a n t i s e n en oi , 9 6 , 444
L d w r
an o ttitud of P ne s : ti ts t o a e easan s , pp d
5 44—5 , 5 75 —6 ; o ll ose t o s ma e ult i va
1 1 3 ; c h r ct r of R u m ni a l dl rdi sm
a a e a n an o , ti pi u H r t
on , 27 7 ; S i tP
r t
a e a ga n s ea s a n
622 INDEX
propri tor hi p 9 6 ; s e o s on s , udd c v r i t M xi en n e o ar s m : ag a r ri
r volt g in s t 5 5 5 ; u
an e a a n
l d r f rm 9 7
,

an e o n cc pt bl e t o p
a e a t 5 63 eas a n s ,

Al x d r g ins t p o
, .
.

Li t o cri m 5 25
sz , n e, . M ghil m
ar o an , e an e : a a ex r
Liv t c k c h g i t h q u tity oi 362
e s o : an es n e an , p i t io
r a 9 7 ; a d c mp
n, ti 1 5 7 in n o e n sa on ,
e fi t of r for m
ec s u 35 7—6 5 ; xp t f e s o , e or s o f v ua f l rg
o r t te 1 07 ; r f rm p
o a e s a s, e o ro
345 —6 36 3—5 ; d cli n i h 1 8 6 0—1 9 1 1 35 8
, e e , , p osa ls 1 08 .

in R u m ni c m p r d wit h ot h r c u
a a o a e e o n Ma t hi e z , A , i . xx x .

tri 35 8 ; m ur f t h i m pr v m t
es , ea s es or e o e en Ma vr ocor d a t , AL : on g f s of , 5 84 ; it l an d
of 3 6 3 ; p
, ts p iti i mpr v d by e a s an os on o e pr p i cip ti
e ar n g ema n a on , 47 3 .

th r f rm 35 9 ; d i tributi b tw
e e o s, s on e een M dic l tt d c b c
e a a e n an e , a se n e oi , 5 00 .

sm ll d l rg f r m
a an 26 9 35 9 ; t t l a e a s, , o a M di c l s rvic in d qu cy i
e a e e, a e a n r u l re
ra a as ,
n u mb r f 36 1 w l o in 36 1 ye a rl y
e so , ar sses , 5 08 —9 .

i crn i 36 1e a se n, . M m r dum
e o an of B essa a r bi an Cultiv tors a ,

L ri
o rvi l l a b o ur 8 1
a , o n se e , . 168 .

Lo i du tri l in ve tm t 447 46 3
ss e s , on n s a s e n s, M m r dum
e o an of L rg Cultiv tor
a e a s, 28 6 ,
L u p as D r 48 2
.
,

, .
, n . 309 .

L u p u Dr N 1 02 ; i q ui ry in t p
, . t n . n o easa n s
’
M m r dum
e o an of u
R m a ni a n s in Tr ans y l
d i t 48 9 ;
e c o di ti
, in M r m u s on n on s a a re v a ni a 207 .

c u ty 331
o n c hi e v me t of p
, t on a e n s easa n M emor a nd um on th e B a la n ce of E xter na l
co op r ti 27 5 —6
-
e a on , . L u N ti
Tra d e, e a g e of a on s , on R ma ni an u
Lupu K t ki M N os a St t v gri on a e a a gr icul ur l p rt
t a e x o s , 34 6—7
Ar i
-

, . .

cultu 5 6 1 re, . Merca n t ih s m v g a r a ni s m , 444 . 5 44

5 , 5 47—8 , 5 5 5 , 5 5 8 —9 , 5 7 6 —7
M
.

M ck
a e nsen , Mrh l a s a , 98 . d cr xt
é ta ya ge, 5 8 8 —9 2 ; e ease in , 244 ; e e n
Ma d ge a r u V , .
, on co o -
p r ti e a on b twe e en i pl
s on d by l d w r
ann e an o n e s , 5 90; e x
p e a sa n s a n d t 558 w rk r o e s, i p t i q u y by
t e ns on a m on g ea s an s , 5 9 0; n ir
A ricu tu
.

Ma d ge a r u a n d Ml a d e n a t z a , R efo m Co r i tr
t h e M ni s e of g l re
o p e r a tie i , 38 5 403 — l d r r ri
5 9 0 1 ; i n t h e a n ow n e s a g a a n pr o
’

M i r Dr
.

a o , d cli
: 0 11 ewh t y el d
n e in . ea i , 27 4 ra r iv l t r r r
g m , 474 ; s u v a a f e e fo m , 5 9 0;

on w r ki c ti
o n g on di l t u d
ons on a i f n i a , 260 . r t icti
la w of 23 /x 11 /1 9 07 ou, 8 7 ; e s r ons i n
T tu
Ma i or e s e u, i , 9 7 n . pr d M ld vi
la w of 1 9 08 , 5 8 9 ; s ea t o o a a a n d
M i c d ti
a ze : on i cu tiv ti
o ns of l a on , 303 ; d e T r ylv
an s a ni a , 5 9 0 .

cr c u pti by p
ea se i n on s m on t e a s a n s , 29 9 Pr of q y i p
Me z in ce s cu, , i n ui r . nto e a sa nt s
’

300; di r pric
a g a m of i cr
es , 3 5 1 ; n e a se t
di e , 4 8 8 —9 .

tr r r
af e e fo m , i p r c
29 4 ; m o t a n e oi , in ch l
Mi ae , L , A gr i cultur a l S ur vey of E ur op e,
.

p t t ’
ri i cultiv
e a s a n s di e , 304 ; o g n s of i t s a 340 11
A
.

ti u p ll r
on i n R m a ni a , 3 04 ; e a g a d ue t o idd
M l e ge s : fo n a t on of u d i n a i es , Pri cip l ti
c u pti
on s m on pr ducti
oi , 305 ; o on an d l dt r
8 ; an e n u e , 7— 8 ; s e of e as s , ri upp r cl
exp rto , 1 9 21
v ri u c u tri
— 5 in
, a o s o n e s , 33 9 ; r l r
1 1— 1 3 ; u e s , 5 ; s o a o ga ni za on , 5 ; ci l r ti
v ri d
a e us e of, 304 . t tu p
s a s of ea sa n t s , 6 .

p l t
M d md li ga ( o e n a ) , 300, 304, 4 8 8 . Md
i dl e cl pr d by r r i t
a ss : e ss e e fo m n o

d d l r r
Ma n d re a , R , efe n s a ge fa m in g, 25 6 c
e on o mi c cti iti a v cr t d by
es , 5 44 ; ea e

M ndr A ric l
. .

a a , T , Co ope ra t i ve le g. o e 406 n . i i d r c r w tr
n a t on a l s m , 5 4 2 i ffe en e f om e s e n ,
M iu
an ,
p ol cy
I uli u : 0 11 a gra r i a n i s t i , 5 76 ; bu ucr tic c h r ct r
5 3, 5 41— 2 ; r ea a a a e oi , 5 4 1

r l ti
o n e a o n of p v rty o e pr p r y
t o s iz e of o e t , p i tic
m on o ol s d ci ru l
t e n e n es oi , 5 4 4 ; ra

581 . i tr t b t
n e e s s of, 5 42— 3 ; a s en u in R ma ni a
Ma n ole s c u, AL, 49 1 n Dr . . at p l tic l
o i a cip ti
e ma n a on , 5 4 , 5 40 ; n o t

Ma n o i le sc u, a : es M ih il
m a e of ea sa n s
’
ti t p t cl rly d vid d r l d d i t r
ea i e f om a n e n e e s t s , 5 43
i c
n o m e s , 4 7 8 ; on ea a ges a n d s a a e s , r lw l ri l w r wh
s o g o u
t i n R m a ni a , 5 40—1 .

46 4 . M h i cu C ru
i a le s , yi ld p t cr p
m , on e of ea s a n o s,

M an ur
e : d ofi i c i c n t us e , 3 23 ; use of a r t i fi ci a l, 318 .

323—4 . Br v
M1 h a i u t h e a e , 1 5 ; fi rs t t o o e eas a n l w rp t
M an tu
, G ,
238 . . s a t tus , 47 2, 5 6 7 .

M a ari Th r e es a , e n a m e n s on t h e ea ct t tr t r ri u
Mih a la c h e , I , 1 1 4 , 1 6 5 ; a g a an meas r e s
.

t
m e n of s e rfs , 206 . in D br
o ti t l dl t
oge a , 1 8 0; e s m a e of a n ef

M ri l
a a n , E mi , 29 6 . l r w r r bl
t o a ge o n ers , 1 8 9 ; efo m i l, 1 1 2 ;
Ma r mo ro se h , a n Co , n s a geBl k . i du try l r ly c i i
om m ss on on r cl ti e a m a o n , 3 12 ; p ro

c tr ll d
on o e by , 424 . p l
os a for e xpr pri tio ad ct i
on , 1 1 3 o r n e of

M rri
a i cr
a ge s : u br
n e as e i n , 4 9 6 ; n m e s p r o l d pr p rty
an o e , r c iv
1 20—l ; m o e e ffe t e
p rti l
o ricultur l utput
on a t o ag a o , 49 6 . ag ricultu l p licy u d r
ra o n e , 45 5 ; on

Mri
a t a n , D , 235 . .
r ri d e a o y
ag a a n pr
m g g , 1 1 7 ; on co o e a -

M rx
‘
a P
v the t eas a n
.
’
, 5 5 5
11 . ti
on , p r iv tru l
374 ; on co o e a t e s gg e -
 INDE X 623
a ga ns i t c pit l d cr f
a a 409 ; on e ees o M ogi 36 8 , .

Dec 1 9 1 8 1 1 2 ; Mu t u Dr L 5 06
,

. duc ti g p t , on e a n easa n n ea n , . .
, .

f rm r
a 5 8 0; phil th r pic e d w
e s, on an o n o Mu t i R v luti ry G v r
n en a n e o on a o e n me n t , 43 .

m t en s l dl rd 46 9 ; as h i t ric l an o s, on s o a

gr u d fo b li ti
n f l rg f rm g
s or a o on o a e a in , N a r t 1 9 29 32
, , , .

26 8 ; r f rm f 1 9 1 7 1 04 ; o Lib r l
on e o o , n e a N a sp uken 305 , .

a gr ri l gi l ti
a 45 2 ;
an gr d f e s a on , on ee o N t Pr of A on c t of xpr pri t d
as a, . .
, os e o a e
ti li t mi d di cl 5 42 ; P e a ss, on ea l an d 4 1 9
N ti l Agricul tur l S ci ty
na o na s -
, .

san t i t id l 1 13 ; n p
s t c tr l ea s, o e a sa n s
’
on o a on a d l ct a o e , se e -
se e

f pr ducti 5 76 ; o p t p v rty n easan o e i g t ti

n 323s a on s ,

N ti l A mbly ( 1 9 1 8 A l b a I uli a ) 1 6 6
o o on , .

on l rg d m i 5 8 1 ; p
a e t rf o a ns , on e a sa n s
’
se a on a sse
N t i l C lu b s 5 21
, , .

d m t
o b ki g 5 47 gr ri p o o an n a a an r a on a , .

N ti l M ld vi P rt y ( B r bi )
,

gr m m a f P t P rt y 45 7
e o easan a , on a on a o a an a es s a a a ,

R u m ni ldi r 5 05
a w an s o d th e s, on a r an e 1 67 .

p t utl k 5 48 ; o fu d m ta l
easan s
’
o oo , n n a en N ti l P
a on a e as a n t G vr
t gr ri o e n me n : a a an

r l fp
o e t ry 5 5 6 ;
o pri cipl f e a sa n , on n e o p o l i c y 223 , n 45 5 ;
.
, p r tiv p o li c y co o -
e a e ,

l d di tributi 5 6 9 ; r d t 43 1
an s on , on oa a x, 4 09 in o p w r 45 7 ; upp rt d by e s o e

N ul R gi m Agra r 5 47 ;
,
‘
o e c pe f ’
,
n . on s o o ci li t
So a s s, 5 5 8 .

r f rm 5 36
e o , . N ti l P
a on a e asa n t P rty f rm ti a : o a on

M ij locas 28 , . 45 7 ; c e on o m ic pr gr m 45 7 o a , , 5 5 9 — 60,
Mi ll o A V h ldi ng 5 5 on o s, 5 7 6 —7
Agricultur budg t i 45 2—3
. .
, . .
,

Mi ni s try of e, e o , . N ti
a l R d ic l P rty
o na a a a

Mi ni s r t y f H lth bu d g t d cti vity

o ea , e an a ,
N ti
a l ( Tr ylv i ) P rt y 1 6 6 5 5 7
on a a ns an an a , ,

5 07— 8 .
gr ri
a p r o gra m 1 6 6
a an , .

Mi n oriti e s :il lit r cy m g B r bi e a a on e ssa a an, N ti li m gr ri p licy i D br g

a on a s : a a an o n o o ea ,

5 1 0 ; c h urc h ff ct d by r f r m 169 ; es a e e e o s, 21 2 1 3 ; gr ri
— p licy Tr ylv ia a an o 1n ans an a,

di tributi s f l d i Tr ylv ni on o an n ans a a 213 1 9 ; a n d p

— t ppr i 47 1 eas a n o e s s on , ,

among 21 4 ; critici m f r f rm by , s o e o 5 45 5 6 8 5 8 4 ; a n d
, ci l r f rm 1 8 1
, so a e o s, ,

ti l 1 6 6 21 2 21 6
na ona 327 ; tr gt h
, , , s en 5 68 ; d i mi ti i t h e pplic ti
1 s cr of na on n a a on
e d by r f rm 21 8 —1 9 ; r ttl d p
ne e o , e se e ea r f rm 21 2 c mpl in t by mi riti i
e o , o a s no es n

t b l gi g t in B r bi 203 ;
sa n s e on n o, e ss a a a, Tr ylv ni 21 7 ; c t of c mic
ans a a, os s e on o ,

in Buc vi 205 ; i Tr ylv i 21 0

o n a, n an s an a , ,
447 i gr ri nr f rm xxv 1 75 1 8 0
a a an e o , , ,

21 9 ; tr t m t f R um i in T r
ea en o an an, an 1 ; li m i t d i fl u on l d r f rm 1 8 2 ;
e n e n ce an e o ,

ylv ni 207 21 4 1 5 ; tr tm t oi by
s a a, ,
-
ea en , m i r iti no pr bl m a n d gr ri r f rm
es o e a a an e o ,

l d r f rm 1 75 —8 2 327 ; critici m f
an e o , , s o co 21 1 ; of R um i Lib r l 5 4 1 2 5 44 an an e a s, —
,

p r tiv é gim 407 ; w lc m w o

o e a e r e, e o e ne c 5 ; tu r v l d by R u m ni
na re v lu e ea e a an e o
p r tiv c d 4 1 1
o e a e o e, . ti 5 6 7 a n d Ch urc h 5 29 r f rm duri g
on , , e o n

Mi n riti pr bl m d l d r form 21 1 fi
o es o e an an e , p t w w v oi 21 9
os -
ar a e , .

p rtly r m v d by r f rm 21 9
a e o e e o N t i li t c h r ct r of r form in vi t bl
a on a s a a e e e a e,

y D a vi d 5 5 2
, .

Mti r an 555 n 11 21 4
Agr ri R f rm in
, , . .

Mix d c mm i i
e o s s on , on a an e o , N ti li ti
a on a of mi r l w lth 5 45 ;
za on : ne a ea ,

Mu t ni n 43 e a . of in du try 447 8 5 45 ; i nfl u s up o ,
-
, e nc e n
M ld vi cultiv t r m mor dum oi
o a an a o s, e an St t fi a e 44 7 n a n ce s ,

N gu a M on t h e w r k of t h e A gr ri
.
,

168 . e r , .
, o a an
M t rion a s e es , e xpl it ti o a on of p ea s a n s t by 1 8 , , C m mi tt 200
o ee , .

24 39 , . Ne moia n u P , .
, 5 32 .

M tic ona s e st a e s : t i crn ea s e in e en rv u e, 33 ; Ne n i te scu S , .

, es ti m t a es of pr e
-
w ar mort
cul ri ti
se f 51 a za on o n 5 29 ; s a e l f o 67 ga ges , 422 n
M one y h rt g of 426 , .
, , . .

, s o a e , . Ne ni tescu, D , . on i n t e es r t c h rg d on l a e oa n s
M a or u St n S t te
r es c d p r tive
, an . o a an co o -
e a to p 84
ea sa n t s, .

m v m t 408 o e en , .
‘
-
rd
Ne o se f o m , 6 6 , 8 0, 4 6 2
’

M rt lity m g rur l p pul ti 49 8 ; Dr

.

o a : a on a o a on , N tt
e a, X e n ofon , 418 n . .

i n cid c f v ri ou d i s 5 00; c hi ld
en e or a s sea e s , , Ni s t or , M I , 1 6 8 . . .

c u a f 49 9 5 00
ses o ,
— .

M rtg g
o w h ldin g
a 1 6 2 ; wip d
es : on ne o s, e O t pr ducti
a s, o on an d e xp rt o 1 9 21—5 , i n
d fo r 5 9 2
,

ut 4 28 —9 ; b
o on s v ri u c
a o s o un r es , ti 3 39
M u i A l x d r r t icti
, , . .

f p ea t Ob bsti n e, 5 8 5
’
or z , e an e , es r on o san s ci ne , o

gr i g ri gh t Dr
.

az n 22 4 7 1 s , . O b r ej a , .
, on c on s um pti on of a lc h l o o , 49 4 .

M u i S b ti
or z pp l , l b ur o
e as an , a ea on a o c n Obstea n , 5 8 5 .

tr ct f pe a ts 8 1—2 5 36
s or a san , , . Obsti i , 1 5 8 .

M a gi c 5 43 , . illit r cy wor t 5 1 0
Olt eni a , e a s , .

M osn em 6
’

, n .
, 5 83 . O pt t t r tm t f Hu g ri
a n s, ea en o n a an , 1 77 8 -
.
6 24 INDEX
O rg ic S t tut
an r ducti o f h old
a e s, 25 —4 ; e n o u d rf di ng a mong 48 6
n e ee , c tr l
on o
in g th r ugh s tte mpt t pr t ct
o , 4 73 ; a o o e R u m ni f rmin g 28 2 ; fin
a an a , a n ci a l ex
d zesi 5 8 4 ; fi t
r c ditio f p
, e ec on on ns o ea ploi t a t i on , 5 47 difi eren ce i n p itios on
t 29 30; M ld vi 27 ; M ld vi
sa n s , — o a a, o a a af etrr r e fo ms of 1 8 6 4 a n d 1 9 1 7—21 , 4 7 6 ;
l b u du 29 ; Mun t ni 3 1 M u t ni
a o r es , e a, n e a c c r
e ffe t of r i
o n g ow n g on an
-
l dr h i g t s oi ,
l b ur du 32 ; Mu t ni righ t t l a n d
a o es , n e a o , 25 —6 ; e fl ect s of efo m r r u p on 4 8 0—l ;
3 1 2 ; r p ort of E ur p
,
— C mmi i
e o ean o s s on , e ma n cip ti a on in B r bi es s a a a , 45 ; e m a n
44 ; r vi i o 34 ; t x ti
e i M ld vi
s n, a a on n o a a, c i p a t i on in Buc i cip ti
ov n a , 45 ; e ma n a on
30; v t i g bi both l d d
es n on o a rs an an u
in R m a ni an pr v c o i n e s , 4 5 —6 2 ; e man c i
p w r 5 49 ;
o lu t ry
e , v t in ‘
Vo n a se r an s
’
v t
p a t i on m o e m en , 44 ; e man cip ti a on in
M ld vi 30; fi t m d r ti l l w
o a a, rs o e n na on a a s, T ylv
ran s a ni a , 4 5 cip ti r r
e m an a on e fo m of
26 —7 34 ; i m p iti
, mi tig t d by os on s a e 1 8 6 4, 4 7 fi ; e m a n. cip ti b i i bya on e g nn n g
Ki l v 33—4 ; pr ctic l ff ct um m d
s se e , a a e e s s e C t ti
on s an n Ma vr ocor d a t , 1 6 ; E cu mi n e s
up by R tti 33 os e , . on o ppr i ti t
es s on oi , 78 n ; e s m a e s of.

O m lu
ro oth cr di t p licy of t h
on e e o e th ir i c
e n om e s b r tr
efo e an d a f e r r e fo m,
N ti l B an k 4 24
,

a ona , . xt i
47 7—8 ; e ens on of lib cc p d
e r ty a om a ni e
‘
O ur Offi ( C N t é ) 1 32 1 34 1 35
ce
’
a sa oa s r , , , . by r tricti
es i h t l an d
on of r g to l , 47 3 ; fa l

in a gr icu t r l utput
l ua o Gh r 31 4 ; e e a on

P ri T r ty oi 44
a s, ea , . th ir p i i
e os t on , 8 0; Gri r
,

A ct
go e Ghi ca
’
s s
P ri C g s
a s don ti o l ut m y 44
r e s, an na na a on o , . in Mold a vi a , 35 ; Gri gor ie Ghi ca s e ee d cr ’

P rli m t ry c mm i i
a a en a 103 o s s on s , . on s e rvic d c t t i h c tr l
es, 1 9 ; i s on e n w t en a

Pa ssy H c l f f rmi g 5 7 2
, .
, on s a e o a n , .
g ov e rn m t e n , 5 3 5 ;xpl it ti by
—6 fi sca l e o a on

P t s
a ra u D p
ca n t c di ti ns i n
, .
, on ea s a n on o rc tili t p o c y
m e an s h ui
li , 5 74 ; o s n g, 48 2—3
R um i pr vi c 47 1
an an o n e s, . h ldi
o tr
n gs a f e cip ti
e man a o n , 5 1 n ; in .

P t B k ( in B s r bi ) 200
ea sa n an es a a a , . cr e a se i n s erv tud i i h rit c
e s , 1 7—20; n e an e

P t m v m t 5 5 3 ; ttr ct int l
easa n o e en , a a s e of h l i q u y i t h ir t
o di n gs , 1 6 1 ; n ir n o t e di e ,
l tu l 5 5 7 ; b
ec fi t w rk r
a s, d l w r ene s o e s an o e i t r t ch r d
48 8 ; n e e s s a ge l for oans t o, 8 4 ;
m iddl cl s 5 6 2 ; h til ity t o S oci li m
e -
a s, os a s c i b tw cultu
o nn e x on e een r
r e a n d fa mi n g oi ,

d C mm un i m 5 63 ; cru di g pir it
an o s , sa n s 28 1 ; k pt e d u ti
i n serf om n l t h e Gr t ea

f 5 6 5 ; l ft l
o , i ng i 5 6 4 5 ; pr sp ct
e ea n s o ,
-
o e s l b u r itud
Wa r , 5 38 ; a o r s e v l d
e s , 39 ; an

i 5 61 ; r i t
o ,
bu 5 6 1 ; pp d to es s s a ses , o ose hu r l d
n ge , 38 ; a n la w of Gri gori e Ca lim a eh
di ct t r hi p 5 6 5 pp iti t gr ri n
a o s , o os on o a a a on p t h t l an d
e a s a n s li g
’
to l , 21rd a n dl o s
’

c a pit li m 5 6 4 ; rigi a s d d ctri , o n an o n e, p y tyi p

obo of ng t v ll
ea sa n s t o t h e i age ,
5 5 5 —6 ; P pul i t d P op
‘
ni t o s s
’
an
‘
ora s s
’
, l t ti
47 4 ; i mi a on of ri h t l an d
g s t o , 2 1 —2
;
5 5 3—4 ; t bili i g ff ct in p litic
s a 5 65 z n e e s o s, . t ri l c iti t rr r
ma e a on d on s a f e efo m , 4 8 1— 90;
P t P rty gr ri i m of 1 1 3 5 60;
e a s an a : a a an s , ,
i r ti
m g a on t o B r bi essa a a an d Tr an s y l

f v ur i t
a o ti l s p r ti 5 6 0;
n ern a on a co o -
e a on , v a ni a , 38 ; a n d r li i e g on , 5 29 ; n ot r e v olu

c rdi l i m i 5 5 9 ; bl d Lib r li m
a na a o , en s e a s p ri d t tu
t i on a ry , 5 35 ; e o s in s a s oi , 4 72 ;
with S ci l m 5 60; vi w o priv t a is , e s on a e p l tic l p r i
o i a a t e s an dru l dd cl ra mi l e a ss ,
pr p rty 1 20—1 5 5 9 ; attitud t pr t
o e , , e o o eo ri h t
7 9 ; p oh t i ca l g s oi , 3 7 , 5 5 0, 5 8 4 ; p os i
ti 5 5 9 ; cl ctic pr gr m 5 5 8 ; d
on , e e o a , an ti tr
on a f e c p rd
1 8 6 4 a n d 1 9 1 8 om a e , 5 47 ;
xpr pri ti f l an d 1 04 ; in B r bi
e o a on o , e ss a a a, p iti b tt r
os on e e ub j ct d pr v c
in s e e o in e s ,

557 p iti r l ti
47 1 ; os on on S t a t e la n d s , 8 2 ; e a on s
p v ty r l t d
.

P ea sa n t pr p rty l w l i 45 5
o e , a on s a e o , . w ith t w o ns , 5 34 5 ; -
o er e a e to
P e a sa n t q u ti i E t rn E ur p 4 6 0
es on n as e o e, . l r pr p r y
a ge r tricti
o e t , 5 8 1 ; es ri h ton of g s
P e a sa n t r viv l 5 46 e a , . l d by I i
t o an on ta S t ur d z a 22 ;p iti, os on

P e a sa n ti m pr gr m oi 5 5 6 5 5 9 ; p
s : o a , , re re u drl w
n e a ric ltur l c r ct
s on a g u a on t a s , 76 ;

sen a t t iv g v r m t d e op r tiv o e n en an co -
e a e pr t ctiv l w
o e e a ri h t
s n ot a pph e d , 8 1 2
—
g to
fa rm i g ti l t 5 5 6 ; ci l id l i
n e s se n a o, so a ea o ,
l d u d r O r c t tut
an n e ga ni S a M ld v e in o a i a,

5 60 27 8 ; i n q u ry i t w
i n o ri
a ge s oi , 8 2 ; s in gs

t A l x d r M u i d cr
-

i cit d by e r an y G m ,
.

P e a sa n s : e an e or z
’
s e ee on 24 , 3 8 , 4 9 , 6 9 , 8 5 —6 ; n e

g r i g righ t 22 ; A l x
az n d r Y p il ti s, e an e s an
’
s 9 8 ; R os e tti ppr i
on o e s s on oi , 7 8 ; s afe
d cr e rv c i Mu t i 20; r
ee o n se i e n n en a, a ea
gu rd th i pr p rty
a i ng e r o e , 1 ri
6 0 —4 ; S e n g
f l
o d r c iv d b ugh t 7 2 ; v r g
an e e e or o , a e a e on e xt i e n s on ofp t w r h ip
ea sa n o ne s , 25 1 ;

l gth f lif 5 05 ; d i du tri l w rk r

en o e, an n s a o e s,
’
ti t
S t ur d z a s es m a e of se rvic d a ys e , 20;
5 5 8 ; B rbu S t i b y l w i Mu t i
a r e
’
s a s n n en a , x ti
t a a on oi , 1 6 , 8 4, 427—9 , 4 31—2 ; ur e n sb d
3 5 —7 ; c u f t h ir d biliti 4 7 5 ;
a se s o e i sa es, oi 8 1 ;
,
d i k a on
r n h
m g, 4 9 2—3 ; on es ty oi ,

c h r ic p v rty ft r 1 8 6 4 4 76 ; C d of
on o e a e o e p lit c l p w r
5 25 —6 ; o i a o e pr t
oi , 5 4 9 ; e sen
vic
,

C d
a ra l b ur du 20; c mpl i t f
a on a o es , o a n s o c
e on o m ic itu ti s a o n , 47 5 —8 1 ; s e r es t o

ppr i
o 40 1 ; c
e s s on , diti th — on on on e tt c ti u d d
S a e , 47 0 ; on n e d ema nl an d for ,

ve fe ti l i d p d c 38 —4 1 ;
o na o na n e en en e, p iti u d r
222—4 ; os on n e y
ur b a r i a l s s te m,

fl i t wit h b urg i i
c on c 5 6 1 ; c h r ic o e o s e, on w t r c tr ct
1 6 ; in e on a s 40
, .
 INDEX 6 25
P t ri ing R u i in fl u
ea s a n 85 s s, ss an en ce o n , . Public h lth xp di tur fo r 5 07 l g l
ea : e en e , e a
P ll gr pr ctic l di pp r c ft r
e a a : a a sa ea a n e a e te pr vi i i ff ctiv 5 08
o s on s ne e e, .

fo rm 4 8 8 ; c u 48 6 ;
,
c u of a ses , as a a se Public h u um b r f 4 9 3 ; i cr
o se s : n e s o , n e a se
uicid 5 01 ;
s s ci l m a l a dy
e s, 5 01 ; a o a , c ur g d ft r W 49 1 ; t cl
en o a e a e ar, o ose on
pp r c
a d xt i in R um i
ea an e an e e ns on an a , Su d y d h li d y
n a 494 ; k pt
s an o a s e

5 02 .
by l dl rd 49 0 an o s, .

P en cov , on e xpr pri ti i D brog o a on n o ea , 21 2 . Public l d l i 89 fi

an s, sa e o , .

P pleo e s
’
P rty gr ri p oli c y 45 6
a , a a an , . Pulv ri ti f h ldi g 1 93—4
e za on o o n s, .

P hi lli p i d e , M , 1 5 , 5 8 4 . .

P hi li ppovi c h , E V Pr of . . .
, on s ma ll v . l rg a e

r i
fa m n g 25 3 Rad s i h ch v
e R s s a n e a sa n s 7 9
on u i p t
I , 409 n 4 94
, . , , .

Ph y i cr t on l rga e v s m a ll fa r mi n g R é d uca n u on
dul cu A d i
s o a s, . , , .
, .

25 2 Ra es , n r e , 5 27 n , 5 28 , 5 8 6 . .

dul cu M tr Pr of
.

P oi n s a r d , L é on , 89 11 . Ra es o u,
-
C , 5 24 n ; on . . .

P litic l p rt i ttitud t o r f rm 1 18
o a a es a e e o s, . p t t ti
e a sa n s a gn a on , 5 3 1 on e a sa n con p t
P lit ic l right C tit uti f 1 8 6 6 5 49
o a s, ons on o , . s e r va t i s m, 5 6 3 .

P li tic l itu ti i fl u of g gr p hi c l a on , n en c e eo a a iw y ricu tur

R a l a s a n d ag l e , 44 2—4

Rak o sky
o a s .

p iti 5 38
os on , . w , C , 10 0 . .

P litici
o d m g gy in vil l g 5 36
a ns , e a o a e s, . t t x i cr d by r
B a e s a n d a es , n ea se e fo m , 4 6 6 r .

P i P 5 84 5 87
on , .
, , . R an , 25 3 .

P op or a n is t, 5 5 3 n . Ra ubw i r ts ch afl 5 8 0; a n d e , o s , 5 7 1 ; on xp rt
P o p vici Lup V O 41 6
o a, 11 It
a ifun di
a , 27 4

pul r A m bly f 1 8 1 7 5 8 4
-
. .
.
, .

P o a s se o
'

R a zesz, 6 n 5 8 3
'
i s ossess on oi , 23, 5 8 4d p i
pul r B nk s s C op r tiv B an k s
. .
,

P o a a , ee o -
e a e . R d zd si e, 5 8 4 .

P o pul ti ff ct
a f r f rm
on : in cr e e s o e o on ea se i i
R e l g on : r viv l
e a t w
in o ns , p5 29 ; a ga n

o i 49 5 ; pr bl m di cu
,
d by A b o e s ss e ere oe , c h r ct r
a a e a m on g p t
easa n s , 5 29 n on

5 78 . c r ity pr
o nf o m s e a di n g, 5 30 .

P pul ti p bl m d l d t ur 5 77—8
o a on ro e , an an en e, . l i u ct pr d t r r r
R e i g o s se s , s e a a f e e fo m , 5 30 .

Populi m Mi h l h vi w i 5 5 6 ; S t r
s : a ac e s
’
e o , e e s
’
t
R en s : fi xe d by i trict C
Ds i
om mi s s ons 8 7 ; ,

xp iti of prin cipl 5 5 5

e os on es, . n i qu y i
ir n t o, 7 0; n atu icu r l
r e o f a gr lt u a ,
Populi t p r ll l w ith W t r L b ur
s s: a a e es e n a o l r
26 3 on a ge a n d s m a ll pr p rti o e es , 25 8 ;

m v m t 554; l
o P p
e ni t 554 en , a so o ora s s, . ri
s e in p t
ea s a n 8 3—4 , .

P t i k v A S 48 1
os n o , . .
, n . pr t tiv
R e e se n a vr t
e go e n m en , in P ea san t i s t

P r dj i n i , 32 . pr r
og a m , 5 5 6 .

P re e m -
pti
on , S a e s
’

g oi , 1 6 3, 1 74, tt ri h t q u iti
R e i s on s , of c o rn , 449 .

223 n , 224 . . ttl t ci ti

R ese e me n : a ss o a on s of, 1 5 8 9 ; i n -

P r etor , 327 . B r bi
essa a a , 1 3 6—7 ;Buc vi o n a , 1 37 ; c om
Pric ct r r
es , e ff e s of e fo m ou, 338 . r i
m un a l g a z n gs a n d w d d oo l a n s , 1 4 1 ; i n
Pri tu
mogeni r e 24 , . T ylv i
rans an a, 1 5 7 critici x cuti
s m of e e on ,
‘
P i c C r l Cu tu l E d w t
r n e a o l ra n o me n , 5 21
’
. 1 92 ; cultiv tia on of n e w h ldi o n gs 1 6 0; ,

c t l
P r i s oa s e, os of ea s in g, 5 8 . d p l bu di
i s os a of i tribu i
il n gs , 1 40; d s t on of
Pr ducti v lu
o on : aricultur l
e of a g a , 34 8 349 ; , h ld
o i ngs , r up h vi
1 36 —4 0 ; g o s a n g pr e

c p r d ith
om a e w p r e w a r, 3 1 5 — 1 6 ; d e c Iin e -
cl i ch
fe re n t i a l a m s , 1 9 1 ; me a ni s m oi , 1 40
, l r ll r
in 3 1 2 ; of a ge a n d s ma fa ms , 28 1— 2 . u b r r i t r d cl i t
1 ; n m e of e g s e e a man s, 1 9 1 ;

Pr h k
o a s a I , 4 26 , . . in O ld Ki dn g om , 1 38 —40 p t p ay
easan s
’

Pr p r y ri h t
o e t : g r ricti l r
oi , 33 ; e s t on of a ge , t B r bi p
me n s i n e s s a a a , 1 5 6 ; e a s a n s t p ay ’

ch
1 64 ; public ttitud
a n ge i n a e t o, 1 48 —9 ; me n s i nt Buc i p
ov n , 1 5 7 ;
a t p ay
a
e s a n s
’

vi w u i Cdt
P e a sa n t i s t e of, 1 20—1 R s s a n a e s t
men s in t h e O ld Ki d pric
n g om, 1 5 7 ; es
pr r og a m me , 1 21 ; a fii n i t y of n e w of h ld p y t
o i n gs , 1 5 6—8 ; a m e n of a nn u iti es,
a nd c c pti
old on e pr p rty
on of o e in i h ldi t ti ic
5 9 3 ; s z es of o n gs , 1 7 3, 1 92 ; s a s t s
u ch
R ma ni a , 1 21 ; d c c pti a n ge on e on oi , u
oi , 1 9 7 ; s mm a ry r ult es s on l / i x /1 9 27 ,
xx v Gr C tituti
i , 1 20; e man on s on ou, 1 20; 221 ; in T r ylv
an s a ni a , c t
1 3 7— 8 ; os to
t ti tic d ribu i
s a s s i st t on of 227 tt
S a e, 4 18 .

ct r r
e ffe di tributi
of e fo m on s on oi , 220—7 Re o v luti d cult
on , i ffi u i
i n R ma n a , 5 38 —9 .

u
s mma r y ch di tribu i
a n ges in s t on oi , 221 Re o v luti ry t d ci
on a en e n p
es a m o n g easa n t s ,
d u i d pr p rty b i
me i m s z e o e r-
at a s s of a
g a 5 35
ri d e o cra c y
.

an m vi w
, 5 6 3 ; pe a sa n t i s t e of, i
R s in gs , s ee e a s a n P s n gs t ri i .

5 39 , 5 5 9 . d
R oa t a x , 4 3 1 .

Pr o e t ction , P e a s a n t is t a e t o, 5 5 9 ttitud . d c
R oa s , o m so pul ry l b u
a o r for ee , 43 1 up k p .

P r oti mi s ( p r oti mes i s ) , 1 6 4, 5 8 3 . R o an

m , Vi s a ri on 37 6
Pr ud h xx v
, .

o on , i . R osc h er , W , on e on o m s z e of o in gs ,
. c ic i h ld
P ych l ic l c h
s o og a an es , 5 28 —37
g . 194 .
6 26 INDEX
R ose tti R a d u 1 3, , n .
, 33, 8 2, 5 83; on S im i on e scu, I , 5 26 Prof . . .

o ppr i fp t
e s s on o ea s a n s, 78 . Sl a ve ry c
, o n di on s s e s s, 6 2 ti of ucc .

R o se tti R du ( G r l )
, a e n e a , on o
g n s of se f ri i r S lobozi i , 1 3 .

d o m , 1 4 —1 5 . ll r di tributi
S ma fa m s , s o n , 240 .

R oz n o va n u, 5 8 6 . S ma ll h ldi
o n gs :
-
d d fo r
e ma n , ; l w
71 n . a s
u ir
R gg e o , on e on o mi a on a i s m , 6 2 c c r ti l . c c i g 6 7 6 8 70 7 1
on ern n , , , , .

R um d n i , 6 n 5 8 3 S oci l c h g
a c u d by r f rm 46 2
an es , a se e o
A c ade
.
, .
, .

u
R ma n a n i m , e fl e c t s of e fo m on , y r r S ci l ff ct of r f r m on t h l d 4 7 0;
o a e e s e o s : e -
an ,

4 6 7 , 46 9 — 7 0 . on u b li f a n d i tituti
r an 4 6 3—7 0 e ns ons , .

ur l e c ono y
R a m , e ffe s of e fo m s oh , 35 7 ct r r . S ci l P s y c h o l ogy c h r c t ri tic t bili ty
o a , a a e s s a ,

ur l iddl cl
R a m e a s s , use of, 5 6 3 . 5 31 .

R ur la o ffi ce 8 8 —90 ; e e en e of r e
, xp ri c So ci li m gr ri pr gr m r vis d 5 5 5
a s , a a an o a e e , .

ttl
se t
eme n , 1 5 8 . So ci li t 9 5 ; j oin Lib r l P rty 5 38 p
a s s, e a a , o
ur l p oo r
R a and ans on t o , a a is tr iti c pit l t p d to P
os e t is t p o li c y 1 1 3 ; upp rtea sa n , s o
r i
fa m n g 5 8 0 , . P t g v r m t 558
e a sa n o e n en , .

R asj ei , 6 0, 5 8 8 . omb t Prof W r on R um i

ar , . e rn e : an a n

u i i i cr W th c
R s s a n fa m n e s , n ea s e i orn e x in du tri li ti s 5 75 ; on gr t a oci l
za on , ea s a

p rt 8 3
o s, . r f rm 1 01
e o s, .

Ru i Pr t ct r t 22
s s an o e o a e, . S ou h c on mi ni mu m i e of h ldin g 1 9 4
on , s z o s, .

Ru i O ccup ti 26 if
ss a n a on , . S ut
o N 23
z o, .

Ru i R v luti c mp r d with Fr ch
ss an e o on : o a e en S p cul tiv l
e 80a e e a ses ,

C c h l va k Mi is t r of A gri
.

R v luti e xxvi i i 5 39 ; i fl u
o on , n e n c e on S di k
r n o, ze os o n e

r f rm 9 2 9 9 4 01 1 02 1 8 1 5 6 8 9
e o , , , n .
, ,
-
. cultu 45 3 re, .

Ru i ri i g in fl u
ss a n R u m ni s n s, e n ce on a an S t h l H ri 225 5 34 5 8 5
a , en , , , n .

p t 85
e a sa n s , . S t d rdi ti
an of c r l 45 2
a za on , e e a s, .

Rye pr ducti
, d xport 1 9 21—5 i n
o on an e s, , S td p ci n , 1 3 .

v ri u c ou tri 338
a o s n es, . tt i t
S a e n erfe en e w
, e on omi r c
fe , 5 4 5 ith c c li .

tt d
S a e oma in s , s a e oi 6 7 11 l , .

Sa a l ri e s of S tt a e e mpl oy e es 4 6 5 , . tt r
S a e fa m s , o e s for s o a di a s utl t on e n , ci l s
c t t
S d md n ta , 323 . 5 34 .

S a te d omn esti , 1 1 . t ti tic l d d tribu i

S a s s : an is t on , 227 ; fa m n g r i
S a onx n e s , eU iv r ity xpr pri ti
o a on oi , 21 6 . an d pr ductio xp rt
on , 332—4 e o s , 35 5 —6 ;

S ay , I 25 2
. B . p r iv
co o e a t-
v te m o e m e n , 4 1 2—3 .

S c h afi e r , D r 9 1 11 . S tea ua Romd na , 44 7— 8
“

t h e Gr t
.

S cuteln i ci , 3 1 . t
S e fa n ea , 1 4 n , 4 3, 1 07 . .

c d ry c h l
S e on a s oo s , 5 23 4 -
. tr
S e e, t ti on ri
on s a n n , C of r r o gi n s e fo m ,

ct r l i u pr d t rr r
S e s , e i g o s s e a i n g af e e fo m , 5 30 .
97 n l i l ti on
eg s a p r ti
. on co o e a on 37 8 ; -

Se cul ri ti
a za on of tic t t
m on a s e s a es , s ee on cl r l ti
a ss u
e a on s i n R mani a 5 36 —7 ; ,

M t ri
o na s e es . on t rd p d c of l d an d p i ic l
in e e e n e n e an ol t a

ig b
S e n o os , Pr of 011 p
, try xxxh . ea s a n , . r r
e fo m s 5 5 3l d r P pu i t cu r t
ea e of
,
o l s r en ,

t sy t m f l cti o 5 5 2
S ena e, s e o e e n, . r ul t d ctri
5 5 3 ; fo m a e s P ea s a n t i s t o n e, 5 5 5 .

Se rbi
an P t P rty fi l pr gr
e asa n a , sca o a m , S till birth -
s, 49 8 .

561 . t rb y B rbu
S i e , a ( 1 8 34 33, 35 ;
Se rb M
an, 1 93 234 240 ; .
,
n .
, n .
, n . 443 .

p t i q uiry i nto l
ea sa n 23 7—8 ; i n e a se s , n S t oic es cu, C , 425 .

Dr
.

q uiry i t rg ni ti o f l rg f rm
n o o a za n o a e a s, tr t
S a , G , 5 23 . . .

26 3 5 ; f p
— t f rm 26 6 —7 ; ti
o ea sa n a s, es S t ur d z a , m t r e 8 5 , 24 9 ; Di i i ex o a , on pr pri
m t v lu f d d t c k 26 9 ;
a es l b ur
a e o ea s o , on a o tion , 9 1 ; o n lea s es , 24 8 ; e a s an s a s on p t t tu ,

outl y f w h t d m i 28 6 ;
a or ea an a ze , on 95 ; on p ll r
e a g a , 48 2 ; e fo m s , 9 5 on r r .

v lu f buildi g 26 9 ; t h p
a e o t n s, 0 11 e ea s an s
’
M h iu
S t ur d z a , i a , 5 84 .

w rk i g d ay s 27 3 ; t ti tic f l
o n , s a s s o e as e s , S ub i r t t
s o l : t e a me n r ri i n a g a a n a s , 1 05 ; l w
239 . ti l ti
n a on a i z a o n , 4 18 , 5 45 .

r
S e fd o m : t ti Duc r bu k t C ons a n n a s
’
e e o S ubv ti
e n ons ,to riculturag e , 45 1 .

boi a rs , 16 ; C t ti M v uici
’
d t on s a n n a r o c or a s S d es , 5 00 .

d e ee cr of 1 7 46 ; d cl r ti of m ix d e a a on e S unta n , 3 6 7
A
.

c mm i i
o 207 ; l c l di ff r c
s s on o a e en es
S upr e me g a ricultur l C u ci
o n l, 8 8 .

i n ev luti 15 ; rigi i 1 3
o on , o n o
S urv y f b c
1 1 4 1 8 5 —6 pr p o o se d
i g Pr of M a x
, .
e : a s e n e o , , ;
S cr n ,
R um i r f rm .
, on an a n e o s, b ll
i , 45 5 ; o w rk r r
for e fo m , 1 9 5 —7 .

xxvi 25 1 28 3 , , .
S ut z u a ,
Mi h iu an d p t ri v c
e a s a n g e an e s 5 35 , , .

$ ezd tor i , 3 75 .
S y na d i n o P V 203 n , 249 , 3 28 , 34 1 , 4 1 7 11 . .
.

t h e ar y
,

S fa tul T( i r i i , 1 22 . S yph ili s : a m on g e as a n s , 5 06 ; i n m , p t

S h r cultiv ti
a e a o n , s ee Mé t y a a ge . 5 06 .
 INDEX 627
Sz as z, Zs ombor de , 21 8 1 9 -
. V id V v d AL C li t i
a a -
oe o , , oa on G vr o e n me n t ,

1 1 2 ; di mi l f 1 15 s ss a o , .

Ta ba covi ci , o a e 5 03— 5 Nic l , . V d rv ld E an 70 e e e, .

, XX V , .

Ta r la s ys tem, 5 8 9 11 S ee a ls o M éta ya ge
. . . Va ta ma n i , 5 n .

Ta r a R omci n ea s cd , 5 Va tr a s a tului , 5 8 5
'
. . .

Vec i m , 6 , 1 5 —1 6 , 23 , 5 8 3
'

Td m n ul R omd n , 5 25 11 .
.

T ri
a ffs 4 32 ff Vi a pa R omd n es cd , 5 5 3 .
,

Vl c h ttl d br i n D o oge a , 21 2
.

a s , se e
Ta r i n d , 5 8 3
’

lad Dr Au l
.
.

V r e , 222
T x ti
a a on : l w c
a l o a n e s an d rb t
e a es , 429 ,

Vl d r cu u d o r
a i mi e s
. .

, T , 24
a sse s s me n t for v ri u c t ri of
a o s a e o es
g
.

r
fa ms , 4 27 ; om a s onc p ri b tw
e e en ri
ag

cultur a n d i du try
e n s , 4 29
— 30 lo w
; yi ld
e
Wa ges :
'

i q uiry i t gric ultur l

n 8 2; n o a a

of l d
an t a x , 4 28 ; of ricu tur
ag l e , 427—41; l ggi g b hi d r t l pric 46 4 M i i t ry
a n e n e ai es , n s

of p t P t
e a s a n s , s ee e a sa n s .
of L a b o ur d x 4 6 4 ; r f l w , in e , ea s o n s or o ,

T ea h u ff ct on lc h li m 49 4
o se s, e e s a o o s 46 5 .

a s c u of r f r m 9 1 2 5 6 9 fi t
-

Wa r :
, .

T enan t f r mi g r l ti t o i of f rm
a n : e a on s ze a s,
a se e o ,
—
, e ec s

26 3 ; xt t ft r r f r m 246 —7 R um i
0 11 f r mi g 307 8 an an a n —

W b r M a x on xpr pri ti
e en a e e o
.
,
,
duri g
.

T t u a t c h i ld birth 5 00
e an s, e e , e o a on n
F c h R v luti 28 2 ; on l v ry 6 2
-

, .

T xt r Mi L uc y 1 7 9
e o ss n r en e o on , s a e , .

Wh e a t :cul t iv t i i R u m i 29 6—7 ;
, , .

Th i i H von 25 4
n en , a on n an a,

li mit d cultiv ti by p
. .
,

Ti m v S o on gr wt h of c pi t li t f rmi g
: o a a s a n
e t 29 7 ; a on easa n s ,
,

d cli ft r r f r m 309 ; pric

.

i n R u m ni 239 on di ff r ti ti
a a, e en a on
e ne a i e e o ,
es o ,

a m gp on t 401 ; ppr v R um
e a san s , n a o es a 35 0; ii t of p t d t
e ec s urplu ea s a n 1e on s s

i 298 ; ff ct of xp rt pr h ibi t
.

i r f r m 425
n an e o 5 7 3 ; on gr ri n a a an
o , e e e o o i on 0 11 ,

300 1 ; xp i of cul t iv tio 28 9 ;

, .
,

t end ci i R u m ni 5 33 7
en es n a a, -
11
— e a n s on a n,

i m p rt i 298 ; i cr d c u mpt i
.

T qu vfl l d e 5 41
oe e e, o s o , n ea se on s on

f 29 9 b u f cultiv ti 302 ; p t
, .

T w v C u try 5 6 2
o n o n o , on s or a on , os
pr ducti a n d xp rt 338 ; pr
.
, .

Tr a nsp rt c d ti in R u m ni 44 1
o : on i on s a a, w ar o on e o s, os

e ff ct e l c l pric 442
0 11 o a es , p t of xp rt 303 ; q u lity i 321 ;
ec s e o , a o ,

cult v ti a n d i t r l d e m a n d 29 7
.

T ra n s y lv m d cl r t i of i d p d c
a a : e a a on n e en en e
i a on n e na , .

( A lb I uli ) 1 1 1 ; di tributi
a -
of l a n d
a s on W h t xp rt a s t d rd of R u m i
ea e o s, s an a an an

pr p r ty 29 5 —6
, ,

207 8 ff ct of r f r m i
— e 206 325 e s e o s n, os e i , .

hi t ry of p
s o t i 206 ; j i t h ldi ng ea sa n s n, o n
,

o s
W m o c ditien : of l a b o ur 4 1 49 9 ;
on on s , ,

i n, 21 5 —1 6 ; j u t i fi t of r f rm 327 ; s ca 1 on e o s, c diti of c hi ld b ri g 49 9 5 00 5 09 ;
on on s -
ea n ,
—
,

l d t a x i 327 ; u mb r of p
an n, t n e s ea sa n s an d d m k 4 9 4 ; fr c h i i 5 5 1 h rit
r , an se o , in e

en titl d t o l an d 21 8 ; R um ni g i v
e , a an r e anc of l a n d 5 8 5 ; illit r cy a mong
e , n . e a ,

a nce s , 207 ri in g of 1 78 4 206 ; l d s an 5 09 — 10 .

Wright Ha r o l d
,

t en u aft r 1 8 48 207
re e , . , , 303 .

T h j
se ow
a an N 46 1 on b j cts of
, .
, n o e
a
gr ri p o li c y 46 1
a an , . X e n op ol, A D 6 n . .
, .

T ub rcul i xt i f 5 03
e os s , e e n s on o , . X en op ol, 28 9 n N .

Ta i ca , 49 2 .

T u ki h c r m ono p o l y 25
r s o n , . Y i ld of cr p m
e of i m pr ving t h o s, ea n s o e,

T u k i h d m i ti i nfl u
r s o na on , e n ce o f, 14, 5 6 7 323 ; V rj xp ri m t 325 a as e e en , .

Y m f rm i g d cli no t d u e t o
.

eo an a n , e ne e co n o

U mpl ym t 447
ne o en mi c u 5 71
c a se s ,
U i of Agricultura l S y di c t
, . .

n on n a es, M e mo Y m l an d r p i 22 23 5 8 3—4 5 8 6
eo an , a e o , , , , .

ran du m oi , 96 . Y ug l vi p r d xic l ff ct of r f rm i
os a a, a a o a e e s e o n,

U iv r l uffr g 5 49 5 5 1 5 5 2—3
n e sa s a e, 229 — 30
,

Al x
.
, .

Upp r cl origin i 1 1 l 2
e a ss , o ,
~
. Y p l ti
s i an , e an dr e , 20 .

U b i l y t m 1 6 —1 7
r ar a s s e

Dr
, .

U b i u of C li m h 21
r ar a ae Za h a r ean u, , 44 3

Dr
, . .

U r bean u A , . .
, 48 6 — 7 , 48 9 . l ti
Ze e n , $ t efa n , 408 n 5 45 .

Ur i ce, 1 1 .
‘
Ze mli a i V lio a
’
81
s ury , .

U , 8 4, 5 48 .
Z zler i , 207 .
 Se s Co n s équen ce s

Pr G I on e s cu S i s e st i ( D i r e c t o r
o fe s s o r .
-
of th e I n s t i tu t e of

’
A gr o n o m ic R e s e a rc , Buca r e s t ) h .

L A g r ic ult ur e d e la R o um a n i e p e n
“

1 93 0 .

Pr o fe s s or J C a n t a cu z en e ( D i r e ct o r of t h e B a ct e r i o l ogi c a l
I n s t i t ut e B u ca r e s t )
, .

L e s E ffe t s d e la Gu e rr e s u1 la S a n t é P u b l i qu e e n R oum a n i e
'
'
° -
.

IN E D T I N GR EAT ITA N
BR I AT T HE U NI ERS IT Y P RE SS O XF ORD
V
PR
T T
,

B Y J OH N OHN SON
J , PR IN ER. TO T H U N I V ERS I Y
E