36

The Grammar Translation Method: (1800s-

dominant up to 1940s)

The teacher presents grammar rules by explaining them using the

sentences both from and into the target language. Learners are
expected to learn lists of words in the target language with their
mother tongue equivalents. Speaking practice is not very important.

Advantages:
Leaners master grammar
Students develop reading and writing skills
Students acquire a large number of lexis via memorization

Limitations:
Oral communication is neglected
Students memorize everything
Classes are teacher-centered
Teacher should be fluent in both languages
All students should have the same mother tongue

Techniques:
Reading comprehension
Deductive application of rules
Fill-in the blanks
Memorization
 37

The Direct Method: (1900s)

Background:
19 century- economic development- need of communication- direct
method

Principles of the Direct Method:

Demonstration instead of explanation and translation.

Reading in the target language should be taught from the beginning of

language instruction.

Reading will be developed through practice with speaking.

Grammar is taught inductively

Speaking is taught before writing

Students should speak at least 80% of the time during the lesson

Think in the target language

Student role is less passive than in GTM.

T/S are partners.

Techniques:
Reading aloud

Dialogues

Role-plays
 38

Dictation

Self-correction

Paragraph writing

Fill-in the blanks

Some tips in teaching the Direct Method

Never translate: demonstrate,

Never explain: act,

Never make a speech: ask questions

Never imitate mistakes: correct,

Never speak with single words: use sentences,

Never speak too much: make students speak much,

Never use the book: use your lesson plan,

Never jump around: follow your plan,

Never go too fast: keep the pace of the student,

Never speak too slowly: speak normally,

Never speak too quickly: speak naturally,

Never speak too loudly: speak naturally,

Never be impatient: take it easy.

Advantages:
Fluency
 39

Makes learning enjoyable to students

Limitations:
1-fluency over accuracy
2-focuses on speaking and listening and neglects other skills.
3-demanding on teachers; they are supposed to have native-like
accent and be fluent

References:
Diane Larsen-Freeman. Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching, 2000.Oxford University Press

Berlitz, M. D.1987.Method Berlitz. New York: Berlitz

De Sauzé, Emil B. 1929. Cleveland Plan for the Teaching of

Modern Languages with Special Reference to French. (rev.edn)
1959.Philadelphia: Winston.

Gouin, François. 1980. The Art of Teaching and Studying

languages. Translated by Swan, H and V. Betts. 1982. London:
philip
 40

The Audiolingual Method: (popular through 1940s

until 1970s)

Background:

During WWWII US army- need to speak other languages as quickly

as possible

Principals:
1-Language is speech, not writing.

Listening and speaking should be taught before writing and

reading.

Language teaching should be realistic and situational

2-Language is a set of habits.

Language should be taught in terms of patterns.

3-Teach the language not about the language

Less focus on grammar

Stress on meaningful and effective practice

4-Language is what its native speakers say

Advantages:

intellectual effort or an abstract reasoning what make it

accessible to large groups of ordinary learners
oral use of language is emphasized.
 41

the skill of listening is developed.

all students are engaged in the process of learning.

Limitations:
mechanical drills are counterproductive (drill and kill exercises)
meaning is neglected (blind repetition of words or sentences)
writing is not given its due attention

Techniques:
Expansion drill : student expands on a model given by the
teacher

Example:

Teacher : Mathematics

Students : We study mathematics

Teacher : every day

Students : We study mathematics every day.

Repetition drills

substitution drills : teacher says a line from a dialogue , then he

mentions a cue the student is going to substitute or replace the
target vocabulary or phrase by the cue previously given

Example:

T: I bought a book ( cue = a pencil)

 42

S: I bought a pencil

Transformation drill: the teacher gives a sentence and asks

students to transform it into negative or interrogative form or to
change the voice.
 43

The Silent Way: (1950s)

Principles:
Learning is falicitated by discovering and creating

Learning is falicitated by accompanying physical objects.

Learning is falicitated by problem solving involving the material

to be learned.

Teacher roles:

Teacher silence is a very important aspect of the SW. Teacher

The teacher uses nonverbal clues to present an item once by

using gestures ,charts and manipulates in order to elicit and
shape students responses.

The teacher in the SW remains a Neutral observer, neither

encourage nor discourage his students.

Advantages:
Students become responsible, active, and creative

Students are motivated to learn

This method can be used with different levels

 44

Limitations:
Students are prevented from hearing many active models of
correct usage that they may find useful.

The used materials can sometimes be so complicated and hard

to derive the meaning from.

Nonverbal language is not understandable as the clearly spoken

one .

Needs a lot of time and a little number of learners in the

classroom.

teacher to evaluate students.

Techniques:

Peer-correction

Self-correction

Fidel charts(for spelling)

Word charts (for vocabulary)

 45

Suggestopedia: (1970s)

The goal of the method is to accelerate the process by which students

learn to use a foreign language for everyday communication. This is to
be done by breaking down the psychological barriers learners bring
with them to the learning situation.

The principles of Suggestopedia:

- the teacher is the authority in the classroom, who must be trusted
and respected by the students

once the students trust the teacher, they feel secure, they can be
more spontaneous and less inhibited;

- all types of interactions are to be found in case of the method,

however first it is the teacher that initiates interactions with the whole
group of students and with individuals right from the beginning of a
course; in the beginning of the course the students can only respond
nonverbally, later the students have more control of the target
language and can respond more appropriately, and even initiate
interaction themselves. Students interact with each other from the
beginning in various activities directed by the teacher;

- native language translation is used to make the meaning of the

dialogue clear, the teacher uses the mother tongue in lesson when
necessary; as the course proceeds, the teacher uses the native language
less and less;
 46

- vocabulary is emphasized, the success of the method can be put

down to the large number of words that can be acquired;

- grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally, students will learn

best if their conscious attention is focused not on the language forms
but on using the language;

- pronunciation is developed by reading out loud;

- the culture which students learn concerns the everyday life of people
who speak the language. The use of the fine arts is also common in
Suggestopedia;

- speaking communicatively is emphasized, students also read the

target language and write, for example compositions;

- -class performance
and not through formal tests;

- at the beginning levels, errors are not corrected immediately since

the emphasis is on students communicating their intended meaning;
when errors occur the teacher uses delayed correction;

- the syllabus used in the method is functional.

Activities characteristic of the method:

- peripheral learning (This activity is based on the idea that we

perceive much more in our environment than that to which we
consciously attend. By putting posters on the classroom walls students
will absorb the necessary facts effortlessly. Posters are changed from
 47

time to time to provide grammatical information that is appropriate to

what the learners are studying.)

- choose a new identity (Learners choose a target language name and a

less inhibited while using the target language.)

- role play. (from applied ling for BA sts)

Advantages:
1-creates favorable climate for the learning to occur.

2-students feel at ease.

3-students increase their abilities.

Limitations:
1-lacks flexibility (not applicable to all classes)

2-lacks tests

3-negligence of grammar

Techniques:
Music, fine arts , visual aids, relaxation
 48

Communicative Language Teaching:

This represented a move away from the traditional grammar syllabus,

replacing it with a syllabus organized according to 'notions' (e.g.
shopping) and associated 'functions' (e.g. complaining about a
purchase).
Principles:
As an approach to teaching a second language, CLT can be
summarized in terms of three key principles:
1. Learning is promoted by activities, which involve real
communication.
2. Learning is promoted by activities, which require learners to
perform meaningful tasks.
3. Learning is promoted by activities, which require learners to use
meaningful language.
Any teaching that engages learners in meaningful and authentic
language use can therefore be said to be based on CLT principles.

In practical terms, this greater emphasis on fluency is familiar to

generations of teachers as the final 'P' in the PPP model. Whereas
Audiolingualism had concentrated on the first two stages of the model
presentation and practice CLT prioritized the third production. In
so-called 'weak' (or 'shallow-end') CLT, which viewed language as
something to be learned before it is put to use for communication, the
production stage allowed learners to apply the language they had
already learned and practiced in order to complete a less rigorously
controlled communicative task. (from didactics)
 49

Advantages:
Students develop communicative skills.

Students practice language in real-like life situations.

Limitations:
-Only everyday language is taught, while other forms of language are
not taught

Grammar is not systematically taught

Techniques:
esentation, controlled practice, free
interactive activities, group work , WH questions.
 50

Humanistic Approach:

Humanism is originally a psychological term. It emphasizes the

importance of the inner world of the human being and places the
ghts, feelings and emotions at the forefront of all
human developments.

The humanistic approach is a language teaching approach which

emphasizes humanism as the most significant element in the teaching
process.

Advantages:
It improves cooperativeness, creativity and independence.

It increases positive attitudes towards teacher and school.

It develops a stress-free environment.

It reflects a holistic affective and student-centered view of

language learning.

It promotes self confidence.

Teachers can use music, art and action to make the class
interesting and lively.

Limitations:
Humanistic teachers aim at good things but these are not clearly
defined.

The humanistic approach is highly dependent upon the

capabilities of the teacher; Teachers should be proficient in the
 51

foreign/second language and they should be viewed as

facilitators and counselors.

It requires carefull preparation of materials.

Some members dominate; others are ignored.

Techniques:
Cooperation teacher-students
Cooperation sts-sts
Mine
 52

Content-based Approach:

A method that integrates language instruction with subject matter

instruction in the target language.

Principles:
1) A second language is learned more successfully when the
language is used as a means of acquiring information rather than
an end in itself.

2)
acquire and use the target language with a real purpose

Advantages:
Language skills improvement

Communicative interactions

Opportunities to use the L2 are maximazed.

More interesting and motivating.

Wider knowledge of the world.

Developing valuable and critical thinking skills.

Developing collaborative skills.

Limitations:
Objectives are determined by course

goals or curriculum.

Priority given to content.

 53

Language learning is in the background.

Integration of language and content

A lack of training in content-based instruction.

Collaboration between the language teacher and the subject

matter teacher is imperative

Language proficiency of the subject matter teacher and the

language teacher

Students' limited time to achieve adequate academic level

Little material available on the market.

Assessment: How to assess subject matter and language skills

within the educational system.
 54

Blended Learning:

The thoughtful integration of classroom face-to-face learning

experiences with online learning experiences.

Types of Blended Learning:

1. Station Rotation Blended Learning:

In the Rotation model of blended learning: within a given course, a

student rotates on a fixed schedule between learning online in a one-
to-one, self-paced environment and sitting in a classroom with a
traditional face-to-face teacher.

2. Lab Rotation Blended Learning:

The Lab Rotation model, like a Station Rotation, allows students

to rotate through stations on a fixed schedule. However, in this
case, online learning occurs in a dedicated computer lab. This
model allows for flexible scheduling arrangements with teachers
 55

and other paraprofessionals, and enables schools to make use of

existing computer labs.

3. Remote Blended Learning:

completing online coursework while only meeting with the

teacher intermittently/as-needed.

This approach differs from the Flipped Classroom model in the

balance of online to face-to-face instructional time. In an
 56

see/work with/learning from a teacher on a daily basis face-to-

4. Flex Blended Learning:

Flex model of blended learning features an online platform that

learning is done online and the face-to-face model exists to

provide on-site support for a flexible and adaptive, as required
basis through in-person tutoring sessions and small group
sessions.

The Flipped Classroom model flips the traditional relationship

between class time and homework. Students learn at home via
online coursework and lectures, and teachers use class time for
teacher-guided practice or projects. This model enables teachers
to use class time for more than delivering traditional lectures.
 57

6. Individual Rotation Blended Learning:

The Individual Rotation model allows students to rotate through

stations, but on individual schedules set by a teacher or software
algorithm. Unlike other rotation models, students do not
necessarily rotate to every station; they rotate only to the
activities scheduled on their playlists.
 58

Advantages:

Cost- Effectiveness

Learners in Control

Greater Retention

Provides personalized training experience

Data Tracking is more Quick and Convenient.

 59

Limitations:
The technology challenge. Infrastructure

The technology challenge. Mentality

Pace of advancement

Negative impact on teachers. Overwork

Negative impact on students. Cognitive load

The plagiarism and credibility problem

 60

Virtual Learning:

Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) is a platform with the

aim of supporting learning and teaching activities across the
internet.

Typically Web-based, VLEs provide an integrated set of internet

tools, enable easy upload of materials and offer a consistent look
and feel that can be customized by the user.

Advantages:
Diminishes problems related to in-classroom teaching of
audiences.

Learning times reduced, an average of 40 to 60 percent.

Access by learners to teachers and resources, worldwide.

Encourages students to take personal responsibility for their

own learning.

Self-pacing

Users learn at their own pace; Learner can control What to

learn, When, Where, and How.

It reduces stress and increases satisfaction.

You can revise a topic as many times, fast or slow, as you

like, until you understand it.

Flexibility
 61

Virtual learning has the advantage of taking class anytime

anywhere.

Virtual learning delivers teaching materials and learning

activities in a flexible format.

Limitations:
Technology issues of the learners

Unavailability of required technologies.

Limited access to a computer as well as the Internet.

Required computer skills especially for beginners.

Feeling isolated and missing social contact.

Feeling that they communicate largely with a machine rather

than other human beings.

Possible inadequate opportunities to discuss and interact with

teachers.
 62

The Eclectic Approach:

It is the practice or principle of choosing or involving objects,

ideas and beliefs from many different sources .

The eclectic approach is the label given to a teacher's use of

techniques and activities from a range of language teaching
approaches and methods.

The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use

depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners in the
group.

Principles:
Eclecticism is not the mere mixture of approaches regardless of any
pattern or design.

There must be a clear delineation representing the theoretical

framework, philosophical background, and systematic reasoning
behind the techniques and activities incorporated.

Advantages:
It is learner centered.

It is flexible.

It responds to the needs of learners of diverse characteristics.

It blends listening, speaking, reading and writing.

It helps the teacher to teach effectively by drawing on the

strength of various methods and avoiding their weaknesses.
 63

In the eclectic approach, learning is easy due to the use of

realistic situations in the classroom.

Limitations:
Mixing methods and approaches may result in conflict.

It discourages teachers to reflect upon their teaching.

Well-experienced teachers desired.

Teachers heavily burdened in selecting and preparing

meaningful presentatations.