12-3 RNA and Protein Synthesis

~uide far Reo,din,g he double helix structure explains how DNA can be rep}i.
~ Key Concepts
T cated or copied, but it does not explain how a gene works
As you wiil see, genes are coded DNA instructions that contro"i
• What are the three main types
of RNA? the production of proteins within the cell. The first step in
• What is transcription? decoding these genetic messages is_to copy ~art _of the nucleotide
• What is translation? sequence from DNA into RNA, or nbonucle1c acid. These RNA
Vocabulary molecules then carry out the process of making proteins.
messenger RNA
ribosomal RNA
transfer RNA The Structure of RNA
transcription RNA, like DNA, consists of a long chain of nucleotides. As :: 1
RNA polymerase
promoter
may recall, each nucleotide is made up of a 5-carbon sugar
intron phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are three 1 , : in
exon differences between RNA and DNA: The sugar in RNA is rjl, ,e
codon instead of deoxyribose, RNA is generally single-stranded, a -,;
translation RNA contains uracil in place of thymine.
anticodon
You can think of an RNA molecule as a disposable copy c.. ,. a
Reading Strategy: segment of DNA. In many cases, an RNA molecule is a worki.i g
Using Visuals Before you ~opy of a single gene. The ability to copy a single DNA sequ ence
read, preview Figure 12-18. As mto RNA makes it possible for a single gene to produce hun-
rou read, notice what happens dreds or even thousands of RNA molecules.
1n each step of translation, or
protein synthesis.
Types of RNA
RNA molecules have many functions, but in the majority of cells
most R~lA molecules are involved in just one job-protein
synthesis. The assembly of amino acid s into proteins is con-
trolled by RNA. ~ There are three mairl types of RNA·
messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA.
structures of these molecules are sho . F"
The
wn 1n 1gure 12-12.

T Figure 12-12 ~ The three main t ypes of

RNA are messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and
transf er RNA. Riboso mal RNA is combined with Ribosome
proteins to form ribosomes.

Uracil

I
.J
•

Messenger RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Transfer RNA
300 Cirnpter 12
 :Most genes contain instructions for assembling amino acids
into proteins. The RNA molecules that carry copies of these

1~ ~1
. Lructions are known as messenger RNA (mRNA) because
theY serve as " messengers " fro~ DNA to the rest of the cell.
111S

Proteins are assembled on nbosomes. Ribosomes are made

up Of several dozen proteins, as well as a form of RNA known as a
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)_.
During the construction of a protein, a third type of RNA
molecule transfers each ami~o acid to the ribosome as it is
specified by coded messages m mRNA. These RNA molecules
are known as transfer RNA (tRNA).

/s.HECKPOI@ What are ribosomes made of?

~

Transcription sp
RNA molecules are produced by copying part of the nucleotide
sequence of DNA into a complementary sequence in RNA, a A Figure 12-13 This computer-
process called transcription. Transcription requires an generated image of an actual
enzyme known as RNA polymerase that is similar to DNA ribosome was made using neutron
polymerase. ~ During transcription, RNA polymerase and X-ray diffraction.
binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands. RNA poly-
merase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from
which nucleotides are assembled into a strand of RNA.
The process of transcription is shown in Figure 12-14.
How does RNA polymerase "know'' where to start and stop
making an RNA copy of DNA? The answer to this question
begins with the observation that RNA polymerase doesn't bind
to DNA just anywhere. The enzyme will bind only to regions of 'Y Figure 12-14 ~ During
DNA known as promoters, which have specific base sequences. transcription, RNA polymerase
uses one strand of DNA as a
In effect, promoters are signals in DNA that indica te to the
template to assemble nucleotides
enzyme where to bind to make RNA. Similar signals in DNA into a strand of RNA.
cause transcription to stop when the new RNA molecule
is completed. ·

Adenine (DNA and RNA)

Cytosine (DNA and RNA)
Guanine (DNA and RNA)
Thymine (DNA only)
Uracil (RNA only)

RNA polymerase / ,I
i

DNA
RNA
~! I
Exon

'@\
DNA
RNA Editing
Like a writer's first draft, m a ny RNA molecules require a bit of
editing before t hey are ready to go into actio_n . A few, including
some of the rRNA molecules that ma ke u p n bosomes, a re pro-
duced from la rger RNA molecules t hat a re cu t a nd trimmed to
their final sizes. Surprisingly, la rge pieces a r e rem oved from th(
pre-mRNA
RNA molecules t ranscribed fro m ma ny e u karyotic genes before
they become functiona l. These pieces, known as introns, or
inter vening sequences, ar e cu t ou t of RNA m olecules while the}
are still in the cell nucleus. The rem aining portions, called exon
or expressed sequences, a re then s pliced back toge ther to form u
mRNA

r
Cap Tail
.A. Figure 12-15 Many RNA
molecules have sections, called
introns, edited out of them before
they become functional. The remain-
ing pieces, called exons, are spliced
together. Then, a cap and tail are
added to form the final RNA molecule.
fi na l mRNA. This process is shown in Figure 12-15.
Why do cells use energy to m a ke a lar ge RN A m olecule and
then t hrow parts of it away? That's a good question , a nd biologbt
still do not have a complete an swer to it. Som e RNA molecules
may be cu t and spliced in differen t ways in differ en t tiss ues,
making it possible fo r a single gene to produce several different
forms of RNA. Other biologists have suggested that introns and
exons may play a role in evolut ion. This would make it possible
for very small changes in DNA sequen ces to have dramatic effects
in gene expression.

i
Predict ing What do you think would
,./'fHECKPOINT) What are intrans and exons? '
happen if the intrans were not removed
from the pre-mRNA?

The Genetic Code

Proteins are made by joining amino acids into long chains called
polypeptides. Each polypeptide contains a combina tion of any or all
of the 20 different amino acids. The properties of proteins ar e
determined by the order in which different amino acids are joined
together to produce polypeptides. How, you might wonder, can a
particular order of nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA molecules be
translated into a particular order of amino acids in a polypeptide?
The "language" of mRNA instructions is called th e genetic code.
As you know, RNA contains four different bases: A, U, C, and G. In
effect, the code is written in a la nguage that has only four ''letters."
How can a code with just four letters carry instructions for 20
different amino acids? The genetic code is read three letters at a

lill 1~1
time, so that each "word" of t he coded message is three bases long.
Each three-letter "word" in mRNA is known as a codon, as shown in
Figure 12-16. A codon consis ts of three consecutive nucleotides
I tha t specify a single amino acid that is to be added to the polypep-
tide. For example, consider the following RNA sequence:
II I
I
Codon
II
I
Codon
I
UCGCACGGU
'I I A Figure 12-16 A codon is a This sequence would be read three bases a t a time as:
g roup of three nucleotides on
I I
m essenger RNA that specify a
particular amino acid. Observing
UCG-CAC-GGU
The codons represent the diffe rent amino acids:
What are the three-letter groups of the
two codons shown here? UCG-CAC-GGU
Serine-Histidine-Glycine
302 Chapter 12
 (!)
◄ Figure 12-17 The genetic
-S
code shows the amino acid to
ff
-.J ~ which each of the 64 possible
~ ?::,(;.'
codons corresponds. To decode a
Q)Cl~Q)-:>,
"0- ,, uC A G uC 0~
codon, start at the middle of the
CA circle and move o utwa rd .
-41q-? . G G. Interpreting Graphics For what
amino acid does the codon UGC code?
1/170
A A

~ U G u
Valine A
1C
A U
G ~G
Cis\e\ne

u Tryptophan

G
G
A u g
A C
Arginine
C A Leucine
·ne
A
5en•· C UG
c
u i. A
GA
C
U·· G
cu GAC ·
~6)

• Qu ick Lab

How does a cell

interpret DNA?

Procedure
1. A certain gene has the following
Because there are four different bases, there are 64 sequence of nucleotides:
possible three-base codons (4 X 4 X 4 = 64). Figure 12-17 GACAAGTCCACAATC
Write this sequence on a sheet
shows all 64 possible codons of the genetic code. As you can
of paper.
see, some amino acids can be specified by more than one
2. From left to right, write the
codon. For example, six different codons specify the amino sequence of the mRNA mole-
acid leucine, and six others specify arginine. cule transcribed from this gene.
There is also one codon, AUG, that can either specify 3. Look at Figure 12-17. Reading
methionine or serve as the initiation, or "start," codon for the mRNA codons from left to
protein synthesis. Notice also that there are three "stop" right, write the amino acid
codons that do not code for any amino a cid. Stop codons act sequence of the polypeptide
like the period at the end of a sentence; they signify the end of translated from th e mRNA.
a polyPeptide. 4. Repeat step 3, reading the
codons from right to left.

Translation Analyze and Conclude

1 . Appying Concepts Why did
The sequence of nucleotide bases in an mRNA molecule
steps 3 and 4 produce different
~rves as instructions for the order in which a mino acids
polypeptides?
s ould be joined together to produce a polypeptide. Howeve r, 2. Drawing Conclusions Do
~nyone who has tried to assemble a complex toy knows that cells usually decode nucleotides
·
lllstru t 10
They need
OO!l)ethi ns generally don't do the job themselves.
c in one direction only or in either
. ng to read them and put them to use. In the cell, that direction?
something" is a tiny factory called the ribosome.

DNA and RNA 303

 , :" l , ,1,1\1,1 thm ,1~' " '' ' ,,, ••e.11,·111 " 111h , •,h 11,,. ,
,·II ' "''' 1111111 nll•tlol\
h \ \\ \\ '"''" « W~ ~N .\ hi 1'h •1i111 ,, p,,,1, 1111, 1IH' , ,,1111\\1 \ ,,11 lhl\'11' l\\1, h 1
'\'- ' ' ' , ..• " ' \ , h t,1 th, p i, \.,,,, ,

N11t l@11e
m~i.,,~,··~"
M~~~*t,~.-. ""' I\
•~N•\ ll< lt,11\,,'111>(•,1111 1111• ll11\' 1111111

. ~ ~lj ,)~ ULUL ~.,c,.,, .__..,.._

mllNA

--
I VtillW
t •1~ -.1\ i, 1t, 11u1111 -....._ rnNI\

t.~·U1"~'""' m 'flnmafor fl NA
1 ho 1111tNA t1 @ 1 ont@rtt tl lll ovtopl11u111 " ' 1
HIIHl'l \1111 hi II tlt llltlllll lll , l 11\fltlllltiOl1 h 1111 11
" ' AU(t tlltl ,un,t l;\l( lOII roch 1mnufn1 Ill
1111!1 1111 111ltll'01ton Wh lltlO bl\tl(l(I Oro
1:0111pl111111into,y to " 00110 11 on tho mnNI\
" " HIid l 110 ilbOtl('llllO pot1lllono tho IIIOrl

i tci 1111, 1101 Ila nntlcodon, which Is p,11 1

1•0\10 11
,11lhO tll NA lhtll binds mothlonlno. Tho
, tbouomo n111u hh1cJ11 tho noxt codon and 110
nt)lif'O(IOII,

f1JUl l[ ·1
S tlltl oodOtl
rnRNA

'l'ht' mH NA 111<•:-1:-1ngl, into II polypoptido chain

d1 1,•,11h11J: 01'11 11
qw,11t•111)1$ k1111w11 11:1 tt·nns lntio n. 'l'nin:-1l nt iun takes pince on
r1h1\:-11nw:- ~ \lur ing h ·nns lntion, tho c o ll uses i.nformn•
tion f\•om m t•~Nt' n t(t••· RNA to µroduco prote ins . Hefor to
I Figure 12 - 18 11:- ym1 1'01\d nbout trnns lnlion.

I f.i1 H11 liH'\1 t rnnslnlion can oc·cur, moRi.on~ r RNA must first be
tnrn:-nilwd from ONA in lt\CI nuclom1 nnd rolonsod into tho
1•~ tnpln:-111

l!J 'l'rn11:-il11t 11111 bti~-in:; whon 1111 mH NA nwloculo in tho cyto-

pla~m ntturlw:-i ton ribosonw. A11 t'm·h codon of I.he mRNA
m o l1 •t·1il1 nwv<•s throug'h tho rihusonw, t lw µroµl'r umino ucid is
1

liniu1,:ht 11\ln th<.• ribosom(.• 1111<1 11tlul'lwd to t lw growi11g polypop-

11d,• dw 111 1'1w, dio:HIIHl' doe1:1 not ''lrnow" which a mino ucid l.o
111111l'l1 to 1.111d1 l't1dlln 'l'hnt '!'I Lill' job uf' t.runsfo r RNA. Ench tRNA
molt•\ 111,• h11i,; 11n 11 11111w ueid ntluclwd tu ono ond u11d u region of
t hl'vo unp1111,·d h11111•1< 11t tho ollll'r. 'l'hl' t-hrot.i botwl'I on t.hu tHNA
11111l1 •1·ult·. rn llc •d tlw u nt it·otlon, u n • complcmontur.v Lo ono of
tlw 111 HN \ , 11do111<

3()4 Citupl,r 12
(j The Polypeptide " Assembly Line"
Growing
The ribosome joins the two amino acids-
polypeptide chain
methionine and phenylalanine-and breaks the
bond between methionine and its tRNA. The
tRNA floats away, allowing the ribosome to bind
to another tRNA. The ribosome moves along the
mRNA, binding new tRNA molecules and amino
acids.
Lysine
tRNA

mRNA

llltl Ii] Completing the Polypeptide

The process continues until the ribosome
reaches one of the three stop codons.
Ribosome The result is a growing polypeptide chain.

In the case of the tRNA molecule for methionine, the anti-

codon bases are UAC, which pair with the methionine codon,
AUG. The ribosome has a second binding site for a tRNA mole-
cule fo r t he next codon. If that next codon is UUC, a tRNA
molecule with an AAG anticodon would fit against the mRNA
molecule held in the ribosome. That second tRNA molecule
would bring the amino acid phenylalanine into the ribosome.
0 Like an assembly line worker who attaches one part to
another, the ribosome forms a peptide bond between the first and
second amino acids, methionine and phenylalanine. At the same
time, the ribosome breaks the bond that had held the first tRNA
molecule to its amfoo acid and releases the tRNA molecule. The
ribosome then moves to the third codon, where a tRNA molecule
brings it the amino acid specified by the third codon.
(!] The polypeptide chain continues to grow until the ribosome
reaches a stop codon on the mRNA molecule. When the ribosome
reaches a stop codon , it releases the newly formed polypeptide
and the mRNA molecule, completing the process of translation.

DNA and RNA 305

1
I I
The Roles of RNA and DNA
You can compare the different roles played by DNA and RNA
n;wlecules in directing protein synthesis to the two types of
plans used by builders. A master plan has all the information
needed to construct a building. But builders never bring the
valuable master plan to the building site, where it might be
damaged or lost. Instead, they prepare inexpensive, disposabl
copies of the master plan called blueprints. The master plan i:
safely stored in an office, and t he blueprints are taken to the j
site. Similarly, the cell uses the vital DNA "master plan" to
I prepare RNA "blueprints." The DNA molecule remains in the
I safety of the nucleus, while RNA molecules go to the protein-
building sites in the cytoplasm-the ribosomes.

Genes and Proteins

Gregor Mendel might have been surprised to learn that most
genes contain nothing more than instructions for assembling
proteins. He might have asked what proteins could possibly
have to do with the color of a flower, the shape of a leaf, a human
blood type, or the sex of a newborn baby.
The answer is that proteins have everything to do with
these things. Remember that many proteins are enzymes, which
catalyze and regulate chemical reactions. A gene that codes for
an enzyme to produce pigment can control the color of a flower.

I~
Another enzyme-specifying gene helps produce a red blood cell
surface antigen. This molecule determines your blood type.
Genes for certain proteins can regulate the rate and pattern of
growth throughout an organism, controlling its size and shape.
I I
In short, proteins are the keys to almost everything that living
cells do.
I

I II
I

1. ~ Key Concept List the 5. Critical Thinking Applying

three main types of RNA.
2. ~ Key Concept What
happens during transcription?
3. ~ Key Concept What
happens during translation?
4. Describe the three main differ-
'I
ences between RNA and DNA.
lI
I Assessment Use iText
,. I I
Ci5i!MMiNtb1iMMm1l
Descriptive Writing .,
Concepts Using the genetic
code, identify the amino acids An R~A molecule is looking
f
that have the following messen- for a JO b 1·n a protein synthesis
a~to'!', and it asks you to
ger RNA strand codes:
UGGCAGUGC. write its resume. This RNA
molecule is · not yet specialized
and could, with some struc-
tural
. chan ges, function . as
~
either
Th , mRNA, tRNA , or rRNA .
to review the important con- fie resume you create should
re ect th e qualifications

I 1 cepts in Section 12-3.

needed for each type of RNA.

l. 306 Chapter 12