Module Title

Concrete Building Design

Module code – ENGM041 (SE1M80)
Level – M. 15 Credits

Dr A Fried
 Objectives
• The module is designed to provide an understanding of
concrete AND the methods of analysis and design of
reinforced concrete building structures in accordance with
BS EN 1992.

• Learning outcomes : Students will :

• have acquired a comprehensive overview of the

behaviour of concrete buildings under load.
• be able to carry out routine conception, analysis and
design of typical buildings and structural elements in
accordance with standard procedures.
 Course outline
Unit Title Study time
1 Background to reinforced concrete design. 20
2 The properties and principles of RC 10
3 The design process – preparatory design and loads 15
4 Analysis of structures 15
5 Reinforced concrete design – Flexure 15
6 Reinforced concrete design – Shear 15
7 Reinforced concrete design – Non slender columns 15
8 Reinforced concrete design – Slender columns 15
9 Reinforced concrete slabs 15
10 Serviceability conditions for reinforced concrete 15
 Important references
• Mosley, B, Bungey, J and Hulse R, Reinforced
concrete Design to Eurocode 2, 6th Edition,
Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. (ISBN-13 978-0-230-
50071-6 and ISBN-10 0-230-50071-6)
• Concise Eurocode for the design of concrete
buildings. Catalogue ID 43.504. Publisher : The
British Cement Association.
• http://www.concrete centre.com. [Free downloads
on design procedures and other aspects of RC
design]
• http://www.eurocode2.info/main.asp?page=0
[Free downloads on EC2 design procedures]
 British and European Standards
• British Standards Institution, BS EN 1992-1-1:2004
Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures. General rules
and rules for buildings.
• British Standards Institution, NA to BS EN 1992-1-
1:2004 UK National Annex to Eurocode 2. Design of
concrete structures. General rules and rules for
buildings.
• British Standards Institution, BS EN 1992-1-2:2004
Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures. General
rules. Structural fire design.
• British Standards Institution, NA to BS EN 1992-1-
2:2004 UK National Annex to Eurocode 2. Design of
concrete structures. General rules. Structural fire design.
 British and European Standards
• British Standards Institution. BS EN 1990:2002
Eurocode. Basis of structural design.
• British Standards Institution. NA to BS EN 1990:2002
UK national annex for Eurocode 0. Basis of structural
design.
• British Standards Institution, BS EN 1991-1-1:2002
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings .
• British Standards Institution. NA to BS EN 1991-1-
1:2002 UK National Annex to Eurocode 1: Actions on
structures. General actions. Densities, self-weight,
imposed loads for buildings.
British and European Standards
• British Standards Institution, BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Actions on structures exposed to fire.
• British Standards Institution. BS EN 1991-1-3:2003
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Snow loads.
• British Standards Institution, BS EN 1991-1-4:2005
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Wind actions.
• British Standards Institution, BS EN 1991-1-6:2005
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Actions during execution.
• British Standards Institution, BS EN 1991-1-7:2006
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Accidental actions
 Recommended reading
• Martin, L and Purkiss, J, Concrete Design to EN
1992, Second edition, 2006. [First edition
inappropriate]. ISBN No. 13: 978-0-75-065059-5
• Anon, Manual for the design of concrete building
structures to Eurocode 2 (2006), ISBN number 0
901297 42 9.
• Irwin AW, Design of Shear Wall Buildings, CIRIA
Report 102, Construction Industry Research and
Information Association, 1984.
 Downloading British and Euroean
Standards
• Go to :
http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=7
34,1004752&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL
• Athens log in is on the right of the screen.
• Follow the directions and click resources.
• British Standards are in the list.
• Enter the site and you can down load any
code. Remember to search for BS EN 1992
 Unit 1.

Background to reinforced
concrete design, RC buildings,
materials, how concrete
structures behave and
innovations in concrete.
 Introduction
1. Principles and aims of the design of reinforced concrete structures
2. To give background to the design of reinforced concrete structures.

3. Although much of the theory used in RC design is fundamental,

adhering to the laws of mechanics, ultimately the design must
conform to the requirements of a code of practice.
4. In this course it is to BS EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of
Concrete Structures published by the British Standards Institution,
and which is henceforth referred to as EC2, Eurocode 2 or simply
the Code.

5. Innovations in concrete are included

 Background to Eurocodes.
Structural design requires access to several codes.

• BS EN 1990:2002 Eurocode 0. Basis of structural design.

– Partial factors for loads
– Ultimate and serviceability load states
– Principles of probability etc
• BS EN 1991-1-1:2002 Eurocode 1. Actions on structures.
General actions. Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for
buildings .
• BS EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures.
• Codes are Europe wide
• But…. To design a building in a specific country requires the
National Annex for that country to be applied in the design.
• The National Annex for the UK for example contains all the
nationally determined parameters which refer specifically to the
UK due to our unique circumstances.
 What is reinforced concrete.

Cement
powder Cement
paste
Water Mortar
Sand Concrete
Gravel
Cheap and very Admixtures Reinforcing
strong glue can be added rods

Reinforced concrete
 Reinforced concrete structures.

Arch bridge in reinforced concrete

Simple domestic dwelling.
Pre-cast concrete beam.

High rise reinforced concrete frame

 Construction of RC buildings
• Reinforcing cages. Reinforcement in beams and
columns consists essentially of straight longitudinal bars
• enclosed by links or stirrups which together form a cage
of reinforcement.
• Concrete is placed around to from the beam

Links Reinforced
concrete beam
Longitudinal bars
Reinforcement cage
(Section)
 Reinforcement cage for a beam
under construction

Reinforcement cage for a column

being craned into position
 Starter bars for next lit of concrete

Reinforcement
cage.

Formwork

Concrete column after

formwork has been
removed
Reinforcement cage being fixed in
position in the formwork
Whole building – Column / slab
interaction

Column reinforcement cage

attached to starter bars
ready for next lift.
lift

Formwork for
casting slab
supported on the
floor below
Typical two-way spanning floor
slab reinforcement.
 Concentration of reinforcement at a
column head in flat slab construction
Pouring concrete

Concrete being
delivered by pump.

Concrete vibration using

a poker vibrator.
 Practical issue.
• A cage of reinforcement is provided along
the entire length of the beam.
• Bars are bigger in the tension zones to
carry tensile flexural loads but needed
elsewhere to enable links to be fixed.
• Links resist shear.
• Links also hold the cage together.
 Reinforced concrete behaviour
• Concrete
– strong in compression
– weak in tension.
– Reinforce with steel reinforcing bars. See next slide
– Shear reinforcement – links/stirrups. See next slide.

Tension Tension
Compression

Tension

Compression Compression
Beam under udl
 A typical reinforcement cage
Main tension reinforcement

Continuity reinforcement

Links to resist shear and / or hold Lap to ensure continuity of

continuity reinforcement in position reinforcement
Reinforcement – good practice –
Purpose of it.
• Well designed reinforcement - concrete is placed easily
• Well designed reinforcement - easy to fix.
• Reinforcement helps the concrete to resists external
applied loads.
• Reinforcement should have adequate cover to protect it
and ensure it acts compositely with the concrete
• The right cover guarantees adequate fire protection.
• Well designed and manufactured reinforcement will form
a strong rigid cage which can be easily placed.
 Aims of Design.
• To achieve an acceptable probability that the
structure will perform satisfactorily during its
intended life.
• With an appropriate degree of safety, the structure
should sustain all the loads and deformations of
normal construction and use, have adequate
durability, and resist the effects of misuse and fire.
• To produce a structure which is economical to
construct, maintain and service throughout its
design life.

– Calculations alone do not produce safe, serviceable and

durable structures. Equally important are the suitability of
the materials, quality control and supervision of
workmanship during construction.
 Design philosophy
• Altered since reinforced concrete was first used
as a structural material.
• Initially design was for strength.
• Next the effects of serviceability were
considered. For example, structures were
designed to have limited deflections so users felt
comfortable when using them.
• Other “loads” such as fire loading or the effect of
blasts on reinforced concrete were considered.
• At present designers consider all these aspects
and the whole life of the structure.
 In summary – designers must
• ……..
• Design economically,
• Ensure the users are happy when occupying the
building,
• Anticipate unforeseen circumstances are
catered for – blast, fire
• Design for the disposal of the building in an
economic manner when its design life is over.
• Capitalise on the embodied energy in structures
to minimise the running costs of the building.
 Load deformation properties of
RC elements.
• A tested beam will be examined.
• Beam is simply supported
• Beam section has an “I profile”
Load
 Stage 1.
• Low load applied - beam deflects slightly.
• Concrete and steel behave as one until :
– Concrete in tension at base of beam
cracks.

• If beam un-reinforced – it would fail

• Reinforced beam has not failed
• Cracks exist - their width must be controlled.
– To satisfy serviceability (appearance) of the beam
– To ensure reinforcement is protected.
 Load
Cracking load
Stage 1
- contd

Deflection

Cracks
 Stage 2.
• Beam load increased steadily.
• Cracks along the lower soffit lengthen upwards and
increase in number.
• Tension effects of concrete negligible in resisting loads
• Concrete in the top part of the beam (Compression) and
reinforcement in the bottom (tension) will still behave
nearly elastically until the strains (deformations) reach a
critical value.
• This stage of a beam’s behaviour actually extends
beyond the normal serviceability conditions expected of
a beam in use

• Ultimate capacity is only reached when the ‘critical’

strains are reached.
 Stage 2
continued

elastic behaviour
Assumed limit of
Load Serviceability
limits

Cracking load

Deflection
 Stage 3.
• Increasing the load further… EITHER
• Steel in tension zone yields and becomes
plastic at the position of maximum bending
moment in the beam.
• OR Concrete in the top of the beam may
develop longitudinal cracks and crush
• OR A combination of both may occur.
 Stage 3.

Post elastic loading

Plastic failure

elastic behaviour
Assumed limit of
Load
Cracking load

Deflection
 Stage 4.
• After plastic failure beam continues to
deform at same load until :-
– It fails by tensile failure of the reinforcement
– Or through concrete crushing.
 Stage 4

Post elastic loading - Plastic failure

Ultimate load
Failure –
Steel
yielding
Failure – Conc

elastic behaviour
Assumed limit to
Load crushing

Cracking load

Deflection
Over and under reinforced concrete
beams.
• Under reinforced beams reach the limit of their
service loading capability and fail when the
reinforcement yields.
• Concrete in compression is stronger than the
tensile strength of the steel at this load.
• Failure is not catastrophic as once it is reached,
the steel yields until it fails.
• In practice this gives occupants time to evacuate
• Strain hardening of the reinforcement occurs so
there may be a temporary strengthening of the
beam.
 Over reinforced beams
• With over reinforced beams failure of the beam
occurs when the concrete in compression
crushes.
• Beam is designed so the reinforcement is
stronger than the concrete.
• Because concrete is brittle, failure is
instantaneous
• Catastrophic failure occurs –
• Avoid
 Post yield loading Plastic failure
Gives time
Over reinforced
Under
reinforced

Load Range of
Cracking load service
loading

Deflection
 Post yield loading Plastic failure

Over reinforced
Under
reinforced

Load Range of
Cracking load service
loading

Deflection
 Crack formation in concrete beams.
Cracks in tested beams indicate the direction of the principal
compressive and tensile stresses in concrete
(Crack direction & location - show where reinf. is needed)

• A concrete element in tension cracks at right

angles to the load.
• A concrete element under compression, cracks
parallel to the load.

Compression cracks
Tension crack
 Web shear UDL Compression cracks
cracks
Consider a
beam under Flex cracks
uniformly Flexural
distributed load shear cracks
Principal tensile stresses
Principal comp stresses
• Compressive stresses take the form of an arch
• Tensile stresses are shaped as a catenary.
• Compressive cracks parallel to arches
• Mid span top – beam is in compression – cracks parallel to top face of beam
• Tensile (Flexural) cracks normal to catenaries.
• Mid span beam base - beam is in tension - cracks are perpendicular to the
span.
• Nearer supports - cracks inclined towards the centre of the span due to the
relationship between the principal stresses at this location .
• Cracks are parallel to compression forces and perpendicular to tensile
forces.
• Flexural shear cracks and
• web shear cracks form
Bridge beam tested under flexure

Web shear Compression

cracks cracks

Flexural
cracks Flexural shear
cracks
Principal tensile stresses
Principal compressive stresses
 Close up of :
1. Compression cracks at beam top
2. Flexural and flexural-shear cracks at bottom
 Limit states.
• Limit states are used in many countries as an aid to
the design procedure.
• In reinforced concrete design we usually consider
ultimate and serviceability limit states

Definition.
• A limit state is defined as that state beyond which the
structure no longer satisfies the performance
requirements of the design.

• If we get the limit state design wrong, the design fails.

 Ultimate Limit states. (ULS).
• Associated with collapse or other
structural damage likely to endanger life.

• Include:
– Strength failure – yielding, rupture, buckling.
– Transformation of structure or any part into
mechanism.
– Fatigue or other time dependant effects.
– Excessive deformation (Tacoma bridge)
How do we apply ULS in design
• ULS should ensure a design which
transmits ultimate dead, imposed and wind
loads safely from the highest support to
the foundations. OK

• ULS should ensure sufficient robustness

to ensure for example, that buildings are
not unreasonably susceptible to the effects
of accidents or explosions. See following
Ronan Point disaster - Robustness
• Gas explosion in the1960’s illustrates the importance of
Robustness and the ULS.
• Explosion occurred on the 20th storey of a block of flats
in London called Ronan Point.
• Instead of merely blowing out the windows and causing
local damage to the flat where the explosion occurred,
the walls were dislodged outwards
• Since the floor above could not act as a cantilever and
so support itself, it collapsed onto the floor below so
overloading it and this in turn collapsed onto the floor
below causing progressive failure downwards.
• In addition, the floors above collapsed as some of their
support had been removed and they were not sufficiently
“robust” to survive.
Ronan Point –
Progressive
collapse
 Robustness.
• Robustness implies, the layout of the structure should be
such that damage to small areas or failure of a single
element will not lead to progressive collapse.
• Further, when local high loads are sustained by part of a
structure, the whole should not fail.
• In the Ronan Point building, the floor above the
explosion should have sustained all existing loads above
it without collapse.
• Again in the Ronan Point disaster, ties in three
dimensions would have prevented the walls from being
dislodged.
• Design must also ensure the removal of certain elements
from the structure will not result in the overall collapse of
the building or significant parts of the building.
 Robustness detail - ties
Continuous internal ties at approx Cont. peripheral
right angles. Anchored to ties at each floor
peripheral ties at each end. and roof level

Cont vertical ties

from found to roof

Ext col and wall ties

anchored or tied
horizontally into the
structure at each floor
and roof level.
 Serviceability Limit state (SLS)
• Under normal use a structure should :
– Ensure comfort for people using it
– Appear safe and not sway or deflect so as to alarm occupants.
– Prevent damage to finishes or non structural members.

• SLS’s include :-
– deformations affecting the appearance, user’s comfort or
effective use of the structure.
– vibrations limiting the effective use of the structure or affecting
user’s comfort.
– cracking of the concrete affecting adversely the appearance,
durability or water tightness of the structure.
Durability – Is it ULS or SLS?

• Unsung requirement of design

• Non-durable buildings will over time result in
failures.
• This is a threat to the ultimate limit state.

• Durability should be associated with the ULS

 Why should concrete elements
be durable.
1. To protect the embedded reinforcement from corrosion
Common problem
2. So they perform in a satisfactory manner in their
environment. Occasionally concrete itself is affected
and degrades. Both these problems are rare
– Ground sulphates (or even pollutants with particular sulphates
in them) can cause expansive reactions in concrete
significantly weakening it.
– Certain alkali’s which are sometimes found in the aggregate
used to manufacture concrete have similar effects.
3. Survive for the design life of the structure.
 Corrosion of Reinforcement.
(The common durability problem)
• With good concrete :-
– Steel reinforcement is surrounded by a highly alkaline
pore solution (pH > 12.5).
– Steel is said to be passivated in this environment.
– i.e. Highly impermeable oxide layer forms on the
surface of the steel which protects it from corrosion.
– Corrosion of steel reinforcement only occurs when
loss of passivity takes place
• Loss of passivity.
– Carbonation
– Chloride ingress.
 Carbonation ingress.
1. CO2 (Carbon dioxide or similar gases) combine
with rain water & form weak solutions of carbonic
acid
2. If carbonic acid washes over concrete surfaces.
1. Concrete surface is de-passivated
2. Concrete turns acidic.
3. Over time acidic front penetrates deeper into concrete
4. If acidity reaches reinforcement corrosion may result if
moisture and oxygen are present.
5. Penetration rate proportional to (time)0.5.
 Carbonation ingress.
Exposed surface Exposed surface
Carbonation
zone
Reinforcement

Concrete

Carbonation – early Carbonation – later stages

stages Reinforcement safe reinforcement vulnerable to
corrosion
 Chloride attack.
• Chloride ingress from the concrete surface
– Chlorides (road salt) diffuse into the concrete from the surface
– Concentration decreases with depth.
– When chlorides reach the steel surface in sufficient concentration,
passive layer is broken down
– Protective alkaline environment is degraded so corrosion can occur if
water and oxygen are present.

• Chloride ingress – during construction.

– In the past calcium chloride was used as an accelerating admixture.
– Concrete gained strength more rapidly so high rise buildings could be
built more quickly as supporting formwork could be removed quickly.
– Unknown at the time was the side effect that if calcium chloride was
included in sufficient quantities and if oxygen and water were present,
reinforcement corrosion commenced. I
– Including calcium chloride in reinforced concrete is now banned.
– Many buildings still exist with calcium chloride included.
Chloride ingress into concrete

Chloride concentration Exposed surface

Corrosion No risk of Concrete
risk corrosion cover

Chloride Chloride
profile. profile. Concentrations in excess of
Chlorides Ingress Can cause corrosion
included from the
at mixing surface
 Comparing effect of Carbonation &
chlorides on concrete corrosion
Require a building
C35 with a 50 year
C30 design life. So
Carbonation
C40 onset of corrosion
C45 C25 acceptable at 50
100
Chlorides years. Using
Age of 90 40N/mm2 concrete
corrosion 80 C50
activation 70 C45
(years) 60 C40 Cover to resist
50 chloride ingress
40 C35 = 100mm
30 Cover to resist C30
Chlorides are 20 carbonation = 15mm
a more 10
severe risk 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
than Minimum cover (mm)
carbonation
 Carbonation and chloride ingress
Design in practice
• AIM is to arrest corrosion for a given period of
time (design life of building) : -
– A relationship between concrete strength, concrete
age and cover to reinforcement has been established
through testing.
– For example and with some loss of accuracy,
stronger concrete and less cover has the same effect
as weaker concrete and more cover.
• Cover affects the effective depth
– Used in the design of concrete elements
– Overall size of elements
 Durability is also affected by
the environment in which concrete exists.
(Includes chemicals included and those surrounding concrete)

• Concrete’s environment - Any chemical or

physical reagents to which the structure as a
whole, individual elements of the structure, or
the concrete itself may be exposed
• Incorrect assumptions concerning environment
at the structural design stage will result in costly
problems requiring :-
– Inspections
– Maintenance
– Repair.
 Environmental problems for
concrete

• Alkali aggregate reaction (AAR).

• Sulphate attack
Alkali aggregate reaction (AAR).
• Three forms of this reaction occur
– Alkali-silica reaction (ASR). Most common
– Alkali-silicate.
– Alkali- carbonate.
• AAR is expansive. Causes cracking and
disruption of the concrete.
 When AAR occurs?
• All three of the following must occur : -
– Sufficient moisture within the concrete
– Concrete must have a high alkali content
• alkali sources can be internal - cement, water,
chemical admixtures, some aggregates
• external - exposure to sea water.
– Aggregate must contain an alkali reactive
constituent.
• Some aggregates containing particular varieties of
silica are susceptible to attack from alkalis.
 AAR in practice
• Alkali aggregate reaction is rare in the UK
• Past experience – If cement / aggregate
combinations indicates no tendency to
AAR, precautions unnecessary.
• Unfamiliar materials – test materials,
access national database on aggregates.
 To minimize Risk of AAR

– Limit the alkali content of the mix.

• Use cement with a low effective alkali content.
• Use aggregate known to be of low risk.
– Prevent moisture accessing concrete.
• Use for example, impermeable membranes.
 Sulphate attack
• Buried concrete may be at risk.
– Sulphates present in ground water can cause degradation to the
concrete.
– Foundations and retaining walls are at risk.

• Airborne sulphates
– Air pollution can contain sulphates.
– Rain washes these over concrete over a long period of time.

• Sulphates in cements and some aggregates.

– Excessive amounts of water-soluble sulphates from these
sources can be deleterious to concrete.
 Sulphate attack
Background and control
• Sulphate attack in concrete is expansive
• Sulphate attack affects the concrete itself.
• Sulphate content is calculated as the total
obtained from all constituents of the mix.
• Water soluble sulphate content (SO3) in
concrete mixes should not exceed 4% by
mass of the cement in the mix.
 Offsetting Sulphate attack
• Sulphate resisting cement. (Even using
this cement which has the ingredients
likely to react with sulphates removed from
it, is not 100% reliable).
• Good compaction and quality control.
• Binary cements – these contain pfa or
ggbs - more sulphate resistant than
Portland cements.
 Durability and design.
Designers must consider

• Intended use of the structure.

– Consider a rock venue and a car park.
– Different needs exist - design will be influenced by these.
• Required performance criteria.
– Nuclear power station vs. garden path. Very high performance
essential in former (failure will be catastrophic) whilst in the
garden path failure will be unlikely to affect anyone’s life.
• Expected environmental conditions.
– Need for concrete protection will vary.
– A sea wall exposed to splash will need greater protection than
say the internal beam in a department store.
• Composition, properties & performance of materials.
– Concrete durability affected by – aggregate, cement type and
sometimes the water used.
 Durability and design.
• Shape of members and structural detailing.
– Thin members more vulnerable. Good detailing reduces
maintenance costs.
• Quality of workmanship and level of supervision.
– Obvious but sometimes difficult to implement.
– Construction phase - pressured but quality control is important.
– Well built structures are more durable than poorly built ones.
• Particular protective measures.
– Targeted protective measures.
– For example, waterproof membranes can be included to prevent
groundwater from saturating concrete.
– Good detailing .
• Lifetime maintenance.
– Clients want the best of both worlds.
– Low build and zero maintenance costs. There is always a cost
implication in the long term if construction costs are cut.
 Cover and durability

• Most important line of defence against

reinforcement corrosion.

• Cover – Least distance between the outer

surface of the reinforcement and the
nearest concrete surface.
Cover and durability.
Cover

Main reinforcing bars

Stirrup Cover
 How much cover
• Depends on external environment
• Strength of concrete
 Cover
Extrapolating from exposure conditions.
• UK NA (National Application ) document
offers much guidance on exposure and
environmental effects, largely based on
UK experience.
• Provides a range of exposure conditions
and associated with these are covers and
designed concrete strengths.
• Tables NA2 (3 No.) summarise these.
Other design aspects associated with cover

• Bond
• Fire

• These will be covered in detail later

 Coming back to the
“Aims of design”
• This has been covered before but is repeated to
show how design aims link to the Limit states

1. To achieve an acceptable probability that the structure will perform

satisfactorily during its intended life. (Ultimate limit state and
durability) (Some would include serviceability as well)
2. With an appropriate degree of safety, the structure should sustain
all the loads and deformations of normal construction and use, have
adequate durability, and resist the effects of misuse and fire. (As
above but include (Robustness - ULS).
3. To produce a structure which is economical to construct, maintain
and service throughout its design life. (Serviceability limit state).

• Whole life &sustainability effects. This will need to balance -

– The initial cost of the building,
– The cost of heating and cooling the building
– The cost of demolition (Likely future criteria)
 Aims are achieved by
• Making a suitable choice of materials,
• Paying proper attention to design and detailing
• Specifying control procedures for all stages of
design and construction.

And as a corollary
• If aims achieved, limit state design is reliable.
 Concrete framed buildings.
• Until the Credit Crunch
• Rises in reinforcement and steel prices have
increased steel frame costs.
• Difference between steel and concrete frame
costs were insignificant.
• Cost on it own should not dictate choice of frame
material.
• Optimum structural solution is desired.
Costs are for the 2nd quarter of
2004

Concrete Steel

3 storey £5,107,845 £5,190,067

7 storey £10,796,986 £10,962,115

 Concrete frames – General
advantages / disadvantages
• Cladding – Lower storey heights
• Partitions – Flat floor soffit
• Air tightness testing – ditto
• Services

• Acoustics
• Fire
• Vibration
• Thermal mass
• Safe working platform

• Programme

• Net lettable area

• Foundations
 Concrete Frames
Whole life value

• Benefits as listed

• Concrete buildings tend to have :

– Lower operating costs
– Lower maintenance requirements.
Concrete frame - 1
Concrete frame - 2
 The need for innovation in
Construction.
• Competition from International Contractors threatens UK providers.

• Recognised by Government reports(1,2) which recommend :

– Construction industry move on from its inherent conservatism.
– Construction Industry modernise
– Construction Industry increase efficiency.

• Response of Concrete :
– Hybrid construction
– Tilt-up construction
– High strength concrete
– Tunnel forms of construction
– Increased use of prefabrication

1. ‘Accelerating Change’ from the Strategic Forum for Construction

2. ‘Rethinking Construction’ by Egan,
 Structural forms –
construction techniques

Self
compacting
Tunnel form of concrete
construction Pre-cast concrete
construction
Tilt up
construction

Hybrid
concrete
construction
Tunnel form of construction

• Tunnel form - Modern method of

construction
• Simplifies the construction process
• Enables a smooth and fast operation
• Frame costs can be reduced by 15%
• Frame programme time savings of 25%
Tunnel form of construction
Tunnel form of construction
Tunnel form of construction
• Used in 40% of all residential construction in
Belgium and Holland.
• Used on the largest demonstration project for
the Housing Forum, the Millennium Plus
development in Hackney, London
• Currently used for the construction of a number
of hotels and student residences throughout the
UK.
• Tunnel construction - Robust construction,
excellent sound insulation, reduced heating
costs.
 Tilt up

• Cast concrete walls flat on a floor slab or separate

casting bed
• Tilt and lift into position by crane.
• Rapid construction.
– Well planned process
– Factory production line,
– Retains flexibility of in-situ concrete work.
• Used for low-rise projects in
• New Zealand, Australia, USA,
• Over 7,000 tilt-up buildings constructed per year.
• Has been used in the UK, Ireland, France and Hungary
in Europe.
• World wide - 50 countries
 Tilt up
construction
 Self Compacting Concrete (SCC)
• SCC mix designs differ from traditional concretes
• Difference is at molecular interface between Cement
compounds and the admixture polymers.
• Fluidity of SCC increases so :
– High level of workability achieved
– High durability achieved
– Get rapid rate of placement - Enhanced surface finish.
– High early age strengths.
• 24 hour strength 30-40N/mm2
• 48 hour strength can exceed 100N/mm2
– Enables easier and more reliable demoulding.
 Self compacting concrete (SCC)
• SCC - New product now used in UK
• Developed in Japan and Continental Europe
• Add superplasticiser and a stabiliser to normal concrete
• Significantly increases ease and rate of flow.
• Prevents segregation
• SCC – Benefits.
– No vibration equipment. Compaction achieved by
• Concrete’s own weight
• Admixtures ensure no segregation of the coarse aggregate.
– Health and safety
– Faster construction times,
– Increased workability and ease of flow around heavy
reinforcement.
– Spares workers from exposure to vibration (white finger).
– Quieter construction sites.
Self compacting concrete (SCC)
• Example. New City and County Museum in
Lincoln,
 Hybrid construction

• What is Hybrid Construction?

• Hybrid concrete construction marries together
the advantages of precast and insitu concrete.
• Achieves significant benefits.

• For example : Using a hybrid concrete frame

instead of a composite steel frame on an office
project in central London resulted in construction
savings of 29 percent and a 13 percent increase
in net lettable floor area.
 Utilising Hybrid Concrete
construction
• In-situ reinforced concrete – Foundations,
columns, beams. [Economic advantages]
• Precast concrete – Slabs [Speed & factory
quality.
• Combining the two - hybrid frame
– Excellent construction speed,
– Quality
– Economy.
 Self assessment questions.
• Why do we form reinforcement cages?
• Discuss why we need cover to reinforcement from :
– A mechanical design point of view.
– A durability point of view
• When a concrete cube is crushed, vertical cracks indicate the
commencement of failure. What sort of cracks are these? How
does the cube actually fail?
• Describe the process a reinforced concrete beam undergoes
from first load until collapse if :
– It is under reinforced
– It is over reinforced.
• Discuss the benefits of a concrete framed building over the
whole life of the structure from sourcing materials to disposing
of the structure. Consider maintenance, embodied energy,
running costs and demolition.
 Self assessment questions.
• Define ultimate & serviceability limit states for reinforced
concrete.
• Why are structures designed to be robust? Discuss this
in the context of Ronan Point and the World Trade
Centre collapses.
• Modern codes recommend a series of ties in and around
a building to improve robustness. Why should this help?
How and where should ties be positioned.
• Modern codes require designers to consider durability.
How can designers ensure chloride ingress and
carbonation effects do not reduce design life

• What four factors need to be considered to determine

cover to reinforcement. For each factor outline a
process to enable the cover required to be found.
• Consider similar RC buildings being built in
– North Scotland, Lusaka, Zambia, Riyadh in Saudi Arabia.

• How should designers approach each of the bullet points below at the three locations.
• Intended use of the structure. Designers need to view a nuclear power station differently
from a garden path. Consider a situation where many heavy metal fans are dancing on a
balcony in a purpose built venue and a car parking garage. Different needs exist in the different
situations and design will be influenced by these.
• Required performance criteria. Using nuclear power station and garden path example again..
Clearly very high performance criteria are consistently needed in the former as a failure will be
catastrophic whilst in the garden path failure will be unlikely to affect anyone’s life.
• Expected environmental conditions. Concrete protection will vary, depending on the
environment. A sea wall exposed to splash will need greater protection than say the internal
beam in a department store.
• Composition, properties and performance of materials. Durability is affected by the aggregate
and cement type and in some instances by the water used in the concrete. These factors need
to be considered at the design stage.
• Shape of members and structural detailing. Designers have the ability to influence the
architectural details to some extent. Good detailing is essential to reduce maintenance costs.
• Quality of workmanship and level of supervision. This is obvious but sometimes difficult to
implement. The construction phase is very pressured and quality control is important. A well
built structure will always be more durable than a poorly built one.
• Particular protective measures. Designers can reduce degradation of reinforced concrete by
including targeted protective measures. For example, waterproof membranes can be included
to prevent groundwater from saturating concrete. Good detailing can prevent concrete from
being periodically wetted.
• Likely maintenance during the intended life. Clients will want the best of both worlds. Low build
and zero maintenance costs. There ia always a cost implication in the long term if construction
costs are cut.
 Learning outcomes.
• At the end of this unit you should be conversant with :
– The basic constituents of reinforced concrete.
– The fundamental aims of design and how various participants
react to these.
– The behaviour of reinforced concrete beams from initial load to
collapse.
– The different behaviours of over and under reinforced beams.
– Ultimate and Serviceability limit states.
– Robustness requirements.
– Preventing chloride and carbonation ingress from corroding
reinforcement.
– The damage sulphate attack can inflict on concrete and how to
abrogate this.
– Cover requirements for reinforcement in concrete with respect to
environmental factors, fire resistance, bonding reinforcement into
concrete and other deviations.
– The relative benefits of steel and reinforced concrete frames.
– Hybrid and tunnel forms of construction.