Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Stephano Pu Los
Stephano Pu Los
PROBLEMS................................
PART II: MODELING THE DYNAMIC AND STATIC BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES .
.
Chapter 4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P R O B LEMS...............................
k:
TRANSFORMS........................
1.:1 outputs ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
I
10.3 The Dynamic Response of a Pure Capacitive Process . . . .
REFERENCES..............................
PROBLEMS............... i...............
PART IV: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . .
Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,’
17.4 Nyquist
REFERENCES.............................. 1’
PROBLEMS...............................
7
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;. .
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY.AND CONCLUDINGREMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . .
PROBLEMS.......: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. 27.3
SUMMARY
A
AND
Physical Example
CONCLUDING
..................
REMARKS ................
;
z
Chapter 28. SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTING CONTINUOUS SIGNALS . . . . .
a. 29.1 Converting
Difference
Continuous to Discrete-Time Systems. The
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
29.2 The z-Transform and Its Properties ...........
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PROBLEMS : ................................
I.
c
,
PART I
chemical process,
CHAPTER 1
integrated with each other in a systematic and rational manner. The plant's
overall objective is to convert certain raw materials (input feedstock) into
imposed by its designers and the general technical, economic and social con-
for the well being of the people in the plant and its continued contri-
maintain the pressure below this value. As another example, we should try
plant.
and quality of the final products. For example, we may require the pro-
duction of two million pounds of ethylene per day, of 99.5% purity, from
the production level (2 million pounds per day) and the purity specifi-
example exist on the amounts of SO2 that a plant can eject to the atmos-
maintain a certain net positive suction head; tanks should not overflow or
catalytic reactor should not exceed an upper limit since the catalyst will
be destroyed. Control systems are needed to satisfy all these operational
constraints.
- Economics: The operation of a plant must conform with the market con-
ditions, i.e. the availability of raw materials and the demand of the
final products. Furthermore, it should be as economic as possible in its
utilization of raw materials, energy, capital and human labor. Thus, it
is required that the operating conditions are controlled at given optimum
All the above requirements dictate the need for a continuous monitoring
of the operation of a chemical plant and an external intervention (control) to
guarantee the satisfaction of the operational objectives. This is accomplished
through a rational arrangement of various equipment (measuring devices, valves,
controllers, computers) and human intervention (plant designers, plant
There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called
to satisfy:
- Suppress the influence of external disturbances,
turbances denote the effect that the surroundings (external world) have on a
1_
reactor, separator, heat exchanger, compressor, etc., and usually they are out
control mechanism that will make the proper changes on the process to cancel
I the negative impact that such disturbances may have on the desired operation
of a chemical plant.
p
Consider the tank heater system shown in Figure 1.1. A liquid enters the
heated with steam (having a flowrate Fs, lb/min). Let F and T be the
flowrate and temperature of the stream leaving the tank. The tank is con-
sidered to be well stirred, which implies that the temperature of the effluent
- Keep the volume of the liquid in the tank at a desired value Vs.
the feed flowrate and temperature Fi and Ti' If nothing changed, then
after attaining T = Ts and V=Vs, we could leave the system alone without
any supervision and control. It is clear though that this cannot be true
e=T S
-T. The value of the deviation E is sent to a control mechanism
which decides what must be done in order for the temperature T to return
back to the desired value Ts. If E > 0 which implies T < Ts, the con-
troller opens the steam valve so that more heat can be supplied. O n t h e
contrary, the controller closes the steam valve when e-c0 or T>Ts. It
is clear that when T = Ts, i.e. E. = 0 the controller does nothing. This
case) after a disturbance had its effect on it, is called Feedback control
system. The desired value Ts is called the Set Point and is supplied
systems. All feedback systems shown in Figures 1.2 and 1.3 act post facto
(after the fact), i.e. after the effect of the disturbances has been felt by
the process.
Returning back to the tank heater example, we realize that we can use a
different control arrangement to maintain T = Ts when Ti changes. Measure'
I7
the temperature of the.inlet stream T and open or close the steam valve to
i
provide more or less steam. Such control configuration is called Feedforward
does not wait until the effect of the disturbances has been felt by the sys-
tem, but acts appropriately before the external disturbance affects the system,
anticipating what its effect will be. The characteristics of the feedback and
behavior of processing units is one of the main reasons for the usage of con-
factors, but that as the time progresses the value of x returns to its
initial value.
in Figure 1.6 (curves a,b,c) are called unstable processes and require
4
Example 1.2 - Controlling the Operation of an Unstable Reactor
coolant medium that flows through a jacket around the reactor (Figure 1.7).
As it is known from the analysis of a CSTR system, the curve that describes
hand, the heat removed by the coolant is a linear function of the temperature
i.e. nothing is changing, the heat produced by the reaction should be equal to
. I
5
the heat removed by the coolant, thus yielding the steady states Pl, P2, Pg
at the'intersection of the curves A and B (Figure 1.8). The steady states
Assume that we are able to start the reactor at the temperature T2, and
the concentration cA
that corresponds to this temperature. Consider that
2
the temperature of the feed Ti increases. This will cause an increase in
the temperature of the reacting mixture, say T;. At, T; the heat released
by the reaction (Q;) is mqre than the heat removed by the coolant, ,Q; (see
Figure 1.8) thus leading to higher temperatures in the reactor and consequently
Sometimes we would like to operate the CSTR at the middle unstable steady
state for the following reasons: (i) the low temperature steady state P1
causes very low yields because the temperature Tl is very low. (ii) the
high temperature steady state P3 may be very high causing unsafe conditions,
etc.
In such cases we need a controller which will ensure the stability of the
operation at the middle steady state. Question: The reader should suggest a
steady state P2. This example demonstrates very vividly the need for
presence of external disturbances that tend to take the system away from the
desired point.
next goal is how to make the operation of the plant more profitable. Given the
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1
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fact that the conditions that affect the operation of the plant do not remain
the same, it is clear that we would like to be able to change the operation of
taken by the automatic controllers of the plant and its human operators.
Let us now see an example from the chemical processing industry where the
take place:
A +B -t C
1 2
Both reactions are assumed to be endothermic with first order kinetics. The
heat required for the reactions is supplied by steam which flows through the
jacket around the reactor (Figure 1.10). The desired product is B while C
is an undesired waste. The economic objective for the operation of the batch
reactor is to maximize the profit @ over a period of time tR, i.e.
tR
,Maximize @= {[Revenue from the sales of product B]- [cost of purchasing
I
0
A + cost of steam]] dt (1.1)
where .'
and
8
tR = the period of reaction.
The only variable that we can change freely to maximize the profit is the
8
steam flowrate Q(t) which can vary with time. The steam flowrate will
8 affect the temperature in the batch reactor and the temperature in turn will
affect the rates of the desired and undesired reactions, The question is how
should we vary Q(t) with time so that the profit @ is maximized. Let us
a. If Q(t) is given the largest value that we can for the whole reaction
period tR, then the temperature of the reacting mixture will take the
8..
largest value that is possible. Initially, when CA is large, we will
8 have high yields of B but we will also pay more for the steam. As
for the entire reaction period tR, we will not have any steam cost,
8
but also we will not have any production of B.
We see clearly from the above two extreme cases that Q(t) will vary between
8
its lowest and highest values during the reaction period tRa How should it
8 vary in order to maximize the profit is not trivial and requires the
the reaction period and (b) will adjust the valve (inserted in the steam line)
so that the steam flowrate takes its best value (computed above in (a)). Such
not used to ensure the stability of the reactor or to eliminate the effect of
surroundings.
Example 2.1
For the CSTR reactor discussed in Example 1.2 (Figure 1.7) we have:
output. If there is a control valve on the effluent stream so that its flow-
variable.
Example
-. 2.2
For the tank heater discussed in Example 1.1 (Figure 1.1) we have:
output variables: F, V, T
The input variables can be further classified into the following
categories:
. Manipulated (or adjustable) variables, if their values
1.
The output variables are also classified into the following categories:
ii. unmeasured
- output variables, if they are not or cannot
be measured directly.
Example 2.3
-
Suppose that the inlet stream in the CSTK system (Figure 1.7) comes from
then
T is a disturbance.
ci
V are measured outputs since their values can be known easily using thermo-
couples (T, Tc ), a venturi meter (F), and a differential pressure cell (V).
0
The concentration CA can be's measured variable if an analyzer (gas
stream. In many industrial plants such analyzers are not available because
they are expensive and/or have low reliability (give poor measurements or
variable.
Example 2.4
For the tank heater system (Figure l.l>, the inputs Fi and T.1 are dis-
V and T can be measured easily and they are considered measured outputs.
2Example
. 5
extraction unit, reactors and the like, is not normally measured and conse-
trol problems.
Figure 2.1 sununarizes all the classes of variables that we have around a
5 chemical process.
Let us see now what are the basic questions that we must ask while
attempting to design a control system that will satisfy the control needs for
a chemical process.
want to control. The first question that is raised by the control designer
is:
The answer to this question determines the so-called control objectives. They
At the beginning the control objectives are 'defined qualitatively and sub-
Example 2.6
For the CSTR system discussed in Example 1.2 (Figure 1.7), the control
objectives is not useful for the design of a control system and must be
requires that the temperature (an output variable) does not deviate more than
5% from its nominal value at the unstable steady state. 8 L
Example 2.7
For the stirred tank heater of Example 1.1 the control objectives are to
maintain the temperature of the outlet (T) and the volume of the fluid in the
tank at desired values. For this example the quantification of the control
v = vs
Example 2.8
For the batch reactor of Example 1.3 the qualitative control objective
problem, which will yield the value of the steam flowrate, Q(t), at each in-
B. Select Measurements
Whatever are our control objectives, we need some means to monitor the
represent our control objectives, and this is what is done whenever possible.
Example 2.9
For the tank heater system (Example 1.1) our control objectives are to
keep the volume and the temperature of the liquid in the tank at desired
levels, i.e.
monitor T and V directly. For the present system this is simple by using
cases we must measure other variables which can be measured easily and
which allow us to determine the values of the unmeasured outputs (once the
we will see that the above mathematical relationship between measured and
considerations.
Example 2.10
pentane and hexane into two produce streams of pentane (distillate) and
measure the concentration of pentane in the distillate and tllcn using fcrtl-
back control to manipulate the reflux ratio, so that we can keep the
can change the reflux ratio to achieve our objective. This control scheme is
shown in Figure 2.2b. Both of the a'bove control systems depend on the compo-
sition analyzers. It is possible that such measuring devices are either very
measure the temperature at various plates along the length of the column quite
reliably, using simple thermocouples. Then using the material and energy
balances around the plates of the column and the thermodynamic equilibrium
peratures of some selected trays are known. Figure 2.2~ shows such a control
or infer the composition of pentane in the distillate, i.e. the value of the
control objective.
The third class of measurements that we can make to monitor the behavior
turbances. Measuring the disturbances before they enter the process can be
G
highly advantageous because it allows us to know a priori what the behavior
of the, chemical process will be and thus take remedial control action to
Once the control objectives have been specified and the various measure-
process, i.e.
is a crucial question as the choice will affect the quality of the control
actions we take.
Example 2.11
After the control objectives, the possible measurements, and the available
The two feedback control systems in Figures 1.3a and 1.3b constitute two
and Fi (Figure 1.3b). Similarly, the feedback control system (Figure 1.2)
and the feedforward control system (Figure 1.4) for the tank heater constitute
two distinctly different control configurations. FOP these two control sys-
tems we use the same manipulated variable, i.e. Fs but different measurements.
Thus, for the feedback system of Figure~l.2 we use the temperature of the
liquid in the tank, while for the feedforward system of Figure 1.4 we measure
either in:
Thus, for the two feedback control systems in Figures 1.3a and 1.3b we
use the same information (measurement of the liquid level) but different
in Figures 1.2 and 1.4, we have different measurements (T or Ti) which are
Definition
--II_-
variables.
It is clear from the previous examples that normally we will have many
The answer to this question is very critical for the quality of the con-
SISO system.
- On the contrary, if our control objectives are (more than one) to keep the
(more than one) the steam flowrate and the effluent flowrate, then we have
a MIMO system.
we will start first with them and progressively we will cover the design of
MIMO systems.
Let us close this paragraph by defining three general types of control
configurations.
a. -Feedback
- - control configuration: Uses direct measurements of the con-
(set points). We can see examples of feedback control in Figures 1.2 and 1.3.
the controlled variables are not measured, to adjust the values of the mani-
pulated variables (Figure 2.4). The objective here is to keep the (unmeasured)
The estimator uses the values of the available measured outputs, along
with the material and energy balances that govern the process, to compute
These estimates in turn are used by the controller to adjust the values of the
The objective here is to keep the values of the controlled output variables
in Figure 1.4.
receives the information from the measurements and takes appropriate control
actions to adjust the values of the manipulated variables. For the design of
Example 2.12
tank (Figure 2.6), in the presence of changes in the inlet flowrate Fi. Our
measurement will be the liquid level and the manipulated variable the outlet
The question is: "How should F change with time to keep the liquid level
Let us assume that the heater has been operating for some time and that
1 its liquid level has been kept constant at hs while the liquid temperature
has remained constant at a value T s' We I say that the heater has been
done on F, the liquid level h will start rising with time. How h changes
with time will be given from the transient material balance around the tank,
i.e.
dV
= Fi - F
dt
or
Adh=F -F (2.2)
dt i
where A is the cross sectional area of the tank.
d(h - hs>
A = (Fi - Fi,s) - (F - Fs) (2.3)
dt
since h S = const.
level from the desired value hs. We want to drive this error to zero by
This law is called Proportional Control law, and the parameter a is known as
Proportional
- Gain.
-
take,
d(h - $1
A + a(h - hs) - Vi - Fi,J (2.6)
dt
This last differential equation is solved for (h - hs), and for various
values of the proportional gain a yields the solutions shown in Figure 2.8.
(2.8)
The solution of eqn. (2.8) f or various values of the parameter a' is shown
oscillates for a longer or shorter time, etc. In other words, the quality of
According to this law the value of the outlet flowrate is given by,
with the control of single units like a CSTR, a tank heater, and a batch
processes, let us see some of their characteristic features which do not show
Example 2.13
distillation column (Figure 2.10). The raw materials entering the reactor are
A + B - C
The reaction is endothermic and the heat is supplied by steam around the
1. Product specifications:
stream.
The disturbances that will affect the above operational objectives are:
raw materials.
At first glance the problem of designing a control system even for this
The basically new feature for the control design of such a system is the
interaction between the units (reactor, column). The output of the reactor
affects in a profound way the operation of the column and the overhead product
of the column influences the conversion in the CSTR. This tight interaction
between the two units complicates seriously the design of the control system
manipulating the steam in the reboiler. This control action will aEfect the
composition of the overhead product (A+B) which in turn will affect the
On the other hand in order to keep the conversion in the CSTR constant
at the desired level, we try to keep the ratio *A'53 = constant and the tem-
perature T in the CSTR constant. Any changes in FA/FB or T will affect
the conversion in the reactor and thus the composition of the feed in the
engineer. Due to its complexity though, we will start by analyzing the cgn-
trol problems for single units and eventually we will treat the integrated
processes.
CHAPTER 3
taken into account during the design of a control system and the associated
problems that must be resolved. In this chapter we will discuss the physical
elements:
secondary variables, and are the main sources of information about what going is
trol since its measurement cannot be readily transmitted. On the other hand the
Since good measurements are very crucial for good control, the measuring
trol until they are converted to physical quantities (like electric voltage
transmitted easily. The transducers or transmitters are used for that purpose.
For example, the Strain Gauges are metallic conductors which change their
d. Transmission lines: They are used to carry the measurement signal from
the measuring device to the controller. In the past the transmission lines
were pneumatic (compressed air or compressed liquids) but with the advent of
digital computers for control, the transmission lines carry electric signals.
Many times the measurement signal coming out from a measuring device is very
weak, and it cannot be transmitted over a long distance. In such cases the
transmission lines are equipped with amplifiers which raise the level of the
It receives the information from the measuring devices and decides what
could perform very simple operations and implement simple control laws.
f. The final control element: This is the hardware element that implements
in real life the decision taken by the controller. For example, if the
controller “decides” that the flowrate of the outlet stream should be increased
(or decreased) in order to keep the liquid level in the tank at,the desired
value (see Example 1.1, Figure 1.3a), it is the valve (on the effluent stream)
:
that will implement this decision, opening (or closing) by the commanded
‘,
amount .
The controi valve is the most frequently encountered final control element but
not the only one. Other typical final control elements for a chemical proces,s
are : -
,
,? Si *
&.?’ ,’ .s ~!
,?
Si
ten years, coupled with. s$gpifieant .reduction of their cost, had a very pro-
., ; . . .
found effect on how the ohemical-plants are controlled.*,‘The expected future
il’ :: . .
improvements aqng with the growing sophistic ation
of the control design tech& " ::
:. . 'i
niquesmake the digital computer the centerpiece.for the development of a ;'-~'-+:f7;r. 9 .,
process by the computer through the proper adjustment of the final control,
elements (valves, pumps, compressors, switches, etc.). This dfrect imple-
mentation of the control decisions gave rise to .the name direct digital con-
trol, or sim& DDC.' Figure 3.2 illustrates a typical DDC configuration.
The process can be a&of the units'we,have already considered such as; heaters, reac
separators, etc. The two interfaceslbefore and after' the &&pitter are hard-
ware element6 and they are used to create the interface 1 between the computer
and the' process.: In a let& cbapter"we.wiil diecuss the nature of these'
interfaces. Finally., the human operator c&"%nteradt~‘ititb 'the Computir and
the plants. A typical system oYf DDC's for an ethylene plant can include ,.
i ' P *.
between 300 and 400 control loops. aAl1 the compan&es which furnish the con-
'., i -, ‘, r /: , .," '
trol systems for the chemical industry: rely 'more and more on.,DDC.
1 ' ,_ ad,,, '; L ,-. ! I " v.
b. Supervisory computer control: -Aswe discussed earlier one of ;the
,,,, !..!..
These decision
These decision can
.
. . .'
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canbebe$made
$made rationally
ii
rationally
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with
with ~ thenaidaid of.a
then
~ &.a digital
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digital cpmputer
computer
7
7
which in, turn will communicate these ds$.sions to the supenrisptiy computer
./ .;
controllers.
. . .I Pinally, these supervisory eontrollers .i", will
.,..' implement the,se
; / . ..'I ,< 2
decisions on the chemical plant through$the ;DDC'8+ !. .L , * I
-II .i
;" In subsequent
',
shapters
/ .s we ~i$l. +++Z , !, ;‘ .px!,edominantly~with
-^ .' &he ,- DDC
.: and
i aI
.,-'
little with superyisory computer : %ent&.~,wh~ile
,'.t/I :.I . i we..$ll not'conkern not'conkern '.i ourselves
,. 2.
with 'the scheguling computer c*t$;ol $$ch $~,the subject u&pr qf ii dif- :
I. :
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ferent field. i- ._' / " _, .I
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CONCLJDlNG R&g ON PART I ',
L :(. i.
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It is hoped that the reader now his a sk&chy outl$ne oft
,.*:. -;:.. ,Tf .6 _' , ~5: :,:' . i ,;, ;I _ ,l. I ,_
I.- 'I%0 iced8 &id 'the incen~tives for' 'procees ~:onerol,:~I'~ .< St \,
,* /_ ‘:;;“‘ ,~ 1 > -i $ ', ', .',. 1. .: ,;,.$;t "' : ;* :
- the basic questions involved'during the design 6f'a control syst.en‘for a
/ ** * .,,r+ : .' 3,.:- ' ~ /'l.l : 14 :
chemical process, b ( * .,'
I.,. . I , :a:$,' ' ,s , I (' ,, ), .
- the‘hardware elements involved in a; &on& 8ys't&~;&,4
I : 'j-k'* .;' 'fJ :" * ,?j;i -,z.f , .:," ,' -F ..;i
- the importance of the digital,comput&s~f& the pres.en.t"a~ future
, '; . ~I * , ,z d$:'yje ; I ‘ ,:
, implementation of advanced control'teohriiques.~ _ '~~~'~~~~
I. j I *:,r ,,&:$;.! -1,. ,$;? : '. I (.: b "
In the remaining chapters we~will~~s&~t'~ we~will.~~s&~t'~ ay~tkmatic analysis &,the
various questions raised in thi.s chept$F:, -wfW'the final,
*’
I,
i :
REFERENCES I (1
.. .
ChaRter 1: Numerous examples of the needs and %ncent%ves'for prowess control
'*
can bc'foun&'& the following booti:
(1) Techn-Jl&@ of Process .Cqmts@‘, by Fi S‘i 'Buckley, John Wiley &
N&# T*yii (~9~4),V _ “', : c ',
Son&, Inc. ,
I
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Coolant Water
COLUMN
Controller I
Contrdller
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Feed /I
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kimat& o f t h e
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Values zrf the t
Unmeasured CX&rolled
‘k-ti’ -4 VariabIes f ’
----w-a
‘Estimates
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of the ’ ,:
Unmrzrsured
Controlhd ./
Variables i’
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T h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e dnFetenfia1 c o n t r o l configurntim.
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U n m e a s u r e d
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c CHEMICAL PLtiT
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‘ ‘
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
2.
2. While you are taking a morning shower, what $8 your control ob.jective,
item 6.
9. In the tank system shown below (Figure Q.I-3),the flowrate F of the effluent s
‘.
8 . .. .: : I. :; i
F ! .‘ ,‘:.
10. What is a differential.‘pr’&‘sure cell and how doee’ it measure the liquid ’
1 I
level in’& tank? )-” ’ . ’ ’ ’ i
_
11. Is a Venturi meter a good ‘me&zing device for monitoring and trans-
+ J ,. ’ ‘. . i
mitting the U&rate vaJ%e’of a i&earn?’ d ,.
I 8”“,
,:,;!
12. Determine the hardivare‘elem~~‘tequired for the feedback co&&con-.
.$’
^. . ,( f. i ’
figuration of- the pli ‘in the &&red tank de&ibid in”‘qu&tion 5 above.
{ 9. i ./ ;‘,,
If you were to use a digital computer ‘ita your controller in. the control
., r ,., : .
I_ i,’ *:;,
configuration above (queer tion 8) ‘&at ‘&w hard&&‘ ‘element@ would’ ‘$0~
. ,_ “$-j :f .I; i”,..~ , I”. .: a. . 1 : J , -. ::..g’ I _
need? ” ._
i (i ~ ,., t,.
14. What ire’ the,b&ic and moB‘<i.import!ant advantages offered by the’ digital
, i ‘$ - ‘; :- . _ .’ I
cornput ere in process control? Discuss thesj size, Cbp&ilities and ,the
:. . : /,(I : 5, t :rP’ %. =f ‘:.<’
prices of the most recent’higital m~croprochaeore~ evailable in the , ’
t.: ,a I’ 1
market. Do you realize the inexpensive potential, tha?. they offer for
*, s * ., t <‘<.,. ;: ‘.
I 2
process Atroi? “ :,. ‘.
, 2,’
~: :“? .: I”.
i i.9. ,
,1 ” .I.
I. :
(c) All the available $Xnipulated variables for the contm-1 of the
i(
exchanger; in the presenc%"df disturbances. ,"
2, For the same heat exchang& &kiwn in F%.gu3e P;I-'Q', considtir that'thie: ~,,
after the excess 'H2 and 'ihe'produced CH; have deenrem&ed in a ' I
.' .-
'flash unit. For the distillation system, '
‘%I (a) Identify all the control objectives (make sure that you have ,,I,! ,i
I ‘.
. - ’
included all the operational object,ives) , , t. 3 : .;-
.I
(b) identify all external ,disturbapces, and,, , ,, I
(e) if the control objective. is to; keep the purity of fhe..~@#h@, ,: ” “:,.
r ~,: J:., _‘:
,prodpce (benzene) constant and.: the .use of, concencratiqn rn&$&?#g
.* d e v i c e s ‘.
( g a s lchromatographs,z’ infrared;l,anaiyzerS,;le~~?)a~B:ao~ .; ~,,
*, .:,
”:
,‘recommended d% fo. their low relwility;,i sugge#;
‘,
+ control configuration. What secondary mea&em
* _’ -x
31; ,,
..une?. How would you use them in principle.. to.Se$t,ima~+4,;& ,:‘i,i+ ,-
I:.
,,
I 1. . ,_
I
7. Ftgure ,P.I-5 shows a system of ‘tw0 tanks which are used fur the temporary )
lis used. :to a&uimA%te the l&@id. product in excess of the demand.
(c) Is ther e any si$,uation, that ‘may arise durgng “which you&¬
I
avoid’ overflotiing “the ‘storage tanks’3 !A” .:
_. .f
8 . Consider ii s&em of two ~contitiuou~~~ stirred Gnkreactors in%&.&
x
(Ffgure P. I-&) wh e r e t h‘ e,’ - ? foll&#ing’ &ndqth&mic Tre@tion takds pl’titie: (. V’
.l/
.’ A + Cataiybt,t 4 B 1 t ‘, ,:‘:. ,~ .:.I-. ‘,’,,t ;‘,,Z-:T i, .j. i
*.
?I (
+ !
d; ) ~J CI .!,i,.i .b i: --r (/ ‘, :-_- :’ ’
'. ., "
(f) In your opinion, which syst@ is easier to .control, the two CSTR
I devices, transmissionlines,,:final
,. * ', con,trol elements and whatever
.*
/.
.: :.r.,i
(Figure P.I-8). We want to maintain constant the ,flowrate .Fj and
the temperature .T3of the liquid stream resulting from the mixing
\
of th.9 fir& two.etreama. /
.; : z4.
*(a) Ide@.fy the control objectives, ,disturbances, available
,P/
.measurements and manipulased variables. Is this a SISO or a
MIM&'system? .‘
C-T - vI- -
S?ART II
MODELING THE DYNAMIC AND STATIC BEHAVI6R OF CR~EMICAL PROCESSES
$8. :
In order to analyze the behavior of a chemical..process and to ansyer
some of the questions raised in the previous chapters about its control,
and finally
process wh$ch will guarantee that the operational objectives of our process
., ! L :. a*: , 1, ‘<
.‘. /
are satisfied in the presence of ever dhangiag disturbances. Then,whydoye .’
/ .” .. ’ 1; ( ,,, ci “;; 2.’ *t, , ; :“:I
: 2,,I ;;.
need to develop a mathematical description (model) for the process @z2.,want’,ztAa ’
.,!C r . :“4 d ‘: ‘: f ? ,,~. ‘. :
i
control?
,:;, ‘;“; ” s ;i.’ .. ~.,f&:, I- I‘7. I / 1s i *.,;;t’y
In the introductory paragraphs of ‘the .previous page ,I” :.~ we noticed :&at, “
*_, * ’ .I x
often times the physical equipment of the c&mica1 process we want to control “,
: :: ! -.,e , ; L; ’ ” /, -. L’..i hi--’
: b’ .d’
have not been ‘constructed . Consequently we cannot experiment to determine ’
_. .’ , ,:,k.‘” ‘, ,’‘J* “’
how the process reacts to various inputs and therefore design the appropriate -’ _I
~. “ I, ‘1 ,-f r-fq 1 a,,* *:. , .:,. :
control system, But,. even if the process equipments a&available fop.
. j ,a.:,,. *_*. . . : .:.:. I ‘, .,< ..’ .’ ‘ I”, I/h,“-e-
r “8, .P+‘ :
experimentation, the procedure is usually very costly. ). Therefore, ; ii x.$ Lq we’need a I
‘. ::,. .- . +. ‘i .) i.:x
- m ‘I. I .:’
1 simple description of how the process reacts to various, .&iputs; ;a& this- is
a> : ., I’ ,: : :’ .& r; ,~i ;.; ,: ii &s$ .T-’ & _ .:Q,f;
‘
what the ‘mathematical models ,can provide to \&a control d&ig&&. :, .’
;r ‘.,‘I / :,;, ;- x: -~,) .,., 3%. *. ; ‘, ;. . ‘1 i$ .,4’ i, fI.’ ;, 1. 1..
Let us demonstrate nbw in terms of some : -*I&es th&*‘nee& for’ the ‘,. _
,.,,‘ .. “,i’ r _
,’ ”
development of ‘a mathematical model before we $&sign the control., system ,fo‘r *, I’
e. :
a’ .‘, .I-. _/‘I i ..,I
J 9 :-;-I .‘:,i~’ .,: .1 f. I.“~,j’:I;‘,
e.. .i .., , I ,.” ,_.. :
a’ chemical process. I :, , z 1,
: ‘& 5 ‘* :‘” ,’ i
( *. b I”,,. .*) ‘1..i ,’ ?\, +:i,“ -I ,’ c
s’s’
,I ,’,’ ;: ‘, -, i). ‘d i .’ \ 1’1’ ;. me /’ r ‘,‘: . ; ’ ,. : ’
Example 4,l t Design && Integral &o~ro&&~‘t~ Ll,q~id Level.
: . .,-in e Tank I, , , I_
. Consrlder .the. problem. of ..con.trolling the IeveJ~of the Uquld 3n a tank, ;
‘.‘, + .‘
% “f . * .
using integral control., <:@xample- $612) .1 i From F&@re 2.@.&~no%ic$ that’ the
- I
quality of the.,control depends$on the &&ue:o-f~ the pet&m&er: a’. B u t ! th&j:
which constitutes the mathematic’al model of the tank with integral control.
“.
Example 4.2 - Design a Feedforward Controller for s^Process L
‘< , ::
In the feedforward control arrangement shown in Figure 4.1 we measure
. ,: ,..
the value of’th,e disturbance and we hnticipate __ what“! its effect will,be I on the
.‘, .
output of the process that we want to control. In order to keap the value I P” ofi.
2’. ‘<.& ) : : n .,__ :
this output’ at the desired level,. we’need to change the value of the msni-
:’ 3 > ‘i ‘,. .- ., ,/-I ‘I: .,
pulated ,vrriable by such ‘&~u&uni ‘ae t,o d&Rat& the impact that .iha
I’ .: .
disturbance would have on the output. &e ques’(ion is:” how much should, we
<.I ‘; ..- .I r s
change the manipulated variable‘ in order., to,,; c&&cel’ thb effect of the dis-
q,::’j :L; I :‘- ” ( _/ $ . ,I& i; ,
’ :
turbance? To answer this qupat$on ‘ tie must” kno;I *the following two
/‘ .( .) ;’
relationships, ;
i _,*
output - f l (disturba&%?) :*
; ,, , . ’
f.“. 3?I,.. f,
output - f2 (mani&ated v a r i a b l e ) ‘- “.
,) _I
: .: .t:., ~ ‘. / ., ‘..i.I ” ::Q i’s :
which are provided by a mathematical ,model of the process. ,Indeed, ‘if the. ,A-;,
: ‘ . . ,. .+. 1 :I. +: ..’$ +<I; : 2’ ” s,+s; ., 14:; i-i (‘ f r
:
,’ ;, the
output is’ to remain the fsame,, manipulated variable &st. take’ such :W valu’&,
‘.’
..,_’ -*‘.i “, .‘, ,.&7:< .*. ; p& ‘-*,,: j , &A.- ‘, *
: ’
that .B ., . ,. ; / ‘,
s :;#.& ( ” -*$ A ,‘ *
fl (dis++&)““~~ f;i.:~m&ipulat& &&blG$ “: S , ,, “,f j:
“t I ‘.
:’ 2 ,‘. , I i.‘
This example demons&&s very vividly how important ‘is the mathematical
.i . -, t.7, iI’ .j ~ ,.” _~ .,. <i” 1 , I ’ !
modeling for the ,deaign of a feedforward control system. In fact, iwithout.
: /.
.good and accurate: mathematical . 5,~ modeling we .can&t desigti efficient feedfarward
. ., *: ’
control sys terns. ’
: . i; : ‘$.
Such a ‘relatio&hip ‘in turn Is‘ not poss$ble’3f we “do .not have ‘a’ mathematical
.:. ~‘I’ ,I’ , , ;. i ; ) , ,
representat&“.of the process (mathematical model) ;. Once the value of the
,,>- a
control ob objective
j e&ecan canbebee&mated
e&mated ofof tom- tom- aa &atXonship
&.atXonship ‘like
‘like the
the above, above, it can
> ‘iL, j : ‘,‘;j, _~ ‘_ .) ‘-8 ,., f’
b; compared to’the desired-value (set po;nt) and,,sctivate the iontroller for
i: , .a , .,,6 .I$,”‘I .- J _* $,, ;. ,~ ” /
an appropriate action like ,:.: in the/. feedback control*
. I ,‘I, * ,I, ,..‘/ I! .,;
I We notice’ therefore 1. that the availability of a good mathematical mod&
3 : “I, .>,I** (, .‘:.. ‘.. ._: ~ -:L“ *
4 for the process is indispensable: for the d”t;arign of good inferential control
I ,. -. I ‘,y ‘,
i \, .’ri !,‘r .) A* ‘. ,:,i
systems. : ’ * :‘:. i s1 ‘..,
.:. _. I .,*_a%- >“, 3 -I :,* I :
., ..,‘l/: ,.. i ,i rr, i
.- , f’ ‘
*
,. , . i! * 3 .:.**.. ,~,’ 3
.” I. /. ‘: . J: .*
., .->
The above‘ 7 three exkmples” ind!lcate very ‘clearly ttit the mathemst$&l “’
f. ,1” a’:. “’ _ :
modeling of a process. is of parsmount Gportance for ihe des%gn 02 ‘good and ~ ’
t ,*. :., f. : : , ‘. : 1 ‘.
ef f iciest control‘ systems for a chemical process. ,In the follow& sections
‘!. ) _ 1 f :’ ‘+ rr j
we will develop a mathodology for the’ con&e modeling of &&&al pr.ocesses.
‘.
4.2 STATE VARIABLES AND STATE EQUATIONS..FQRA
I,’ I ” e?-- CHEMICAL PgOC&SS~,
In order to characterIzea? proceeelng dly$tem (tar& heater; ‘b,atch’* reactor,
i. 1.. .~ ; _I ,’ i : ‘, “5 ; * ),, ,; i ,”‘*: ‘;. ..:I .I
distillation column, heat exchanger,. etc.)., and its, behavAor we. ne+l:
, *.a- ‘, :‘f i I .*., QF.‘>
- A set of fundamental dependent quantities whose values .will describe the
,‘.‘, i , 7, c 1 ‘. ,i SF, ,‘ I a :, *I : ,(/ .,’ “. ,_’
natural state of a’given system, and .: I ’
4 a
. .
- a set of equations in the above variables-which will describe how, the
r.r.
natural state of the given system changes with time.
_’
r ’
sectional area, of the ‘tank and h the height of the liquid level.
but since the tank does not move, dK/dt - dP/dt * 0 and dE/dt =
‘, 1 * ..# .: ,, _ t
dU/dt. For liquid systems *
,, ,_:.
dU/dt a .dM/dt
H - pVcp
(T - Tref) - pAhc (T - Tref j’, ” (4-3)
:p . ,:_ ,’
,’
where 9 . t :.a,$ : ‘I‘,’Y)
.’
:: .( La, . ,. L; .:..a;.
‘
is the heat capacity of. the, l,iquid __,” inri ‘the tank, and
cP I ‘
+ ;i’ i -, I ),
;’ _ ..L.
T -,c is the reference tsmper~fur&:~
LtzI. where the sPe$if,lc en thalpy of
‘ ,: y $k> -i ,. ;’
the liquid is assumed to b& %ero., _-
2 Lb, . .
Frmi eqne, -‘ ( 4 . 2 ) i&f- (49) qii;i+i$adi t&at the eta&i &i$$+“~ f o r . a
,‘Y : ._ (. . ::
the. stirred tank..’ heate) t&& t~~~~~$&wln$; ‘, a’ : . ‘. ’ “~:, ‘. ‘, 7’
I’ 5 I”
s,tate variablesi >:.t::. h, I and :,i .,” ,_’ , ‘;,.> *,,. ,,
” -,?P , _ .’ .; 6
, I
while the 4\’ *’ . ) .I : ‘, ‘. . 4 I, 1,
)
constant parameters: p, A,.c p’; Tref *
2.
are characteristic of the‘ tank systemi4,
‘Note: It has been assumed that the d&si.ty , p ,. 2e.i independ&nt’ of: the ..,/I, i
temperature. ’ ”$ :
*‘, .- : .”
‘, 1
Let us proceed now to develop the state equations for the stirred tank
b
or
IT
,!“ ‘i L .i ‘.’
&dT
dt
= Fi (Ti' - T) + + .: ‘.: (4.5b’) :
p ,
‘L J.
.’
j
Summarliziag the above modeling steps we havel _ 5
‘ : : ,‘
i. t&Eat* auua~l~ns
,I Li/
(4.4a)
Ah dT - Fi (Ti - ‘0 + $- _, (4.5b)
dt (,
.I
”
P
The variables “in F4qns. (4.4a). .and “4.: 5b) can be classif ied a$ follows (see
..
j Section Z.1) ’ ’
. he&er using the 8 tatq eqns , .‘.* (‘4.4id c?nd (4&) g ,,.,‘F
w- ci, , .-.,‘
.
initially the tank hea.ter is at steady state, i’.d.,]noth:
,i 1 : ,..’
rj., /
Fi,i (Tg,s - 5) + g
P
” O ,,
1
:
The subscript :s ,denotes the steady state value of the, corresponding variable.
the input variabfes changes value, Let: us examine the following two
I'
situations: 6,
j;.& c
i. Consider that the inlet temperature: Ti
decreases by 10%. 'from,- its ..: Q j ,,-~‘- I ,::,,,'
.* p
k steady state value, Then value.:qf,~~he,l~~uid. leve!, wil,l remain thq . +i f
/
, '
same at t,he steady state value, hs,.since 'Ti does not influt&ee 1) .:~I' .:~& .+
,.' the tot&mass,in the tank (see aJ,so equation (4.4a). ,$n t&con-
.:, :
trary, the temperature of tke,liqlr~d,wilZ,$lso.~tart decreasing with,
change
;1I \_'_," i' fi-
(4.5b) using as initial conditions,
(tco) p hs ' ^,v '_ .'.;T~!p'*) 6,' Ts*:' " I_
h and '*' ,,
,,* ,,,
Figure 4.5 summarizes the static &d dynamic behavior of the tank
.
By coriue&on, a”quantity’ is considered positive- if it fl&s in
- the system
and negati&$if it flows out. j
Consider the stirred tank. heater of tha &le, l..l”:(F&& 1.1) r The
:
fundamental quantities whose values, provfde every’ information about the: -G
., : ,.
reactor are: >‘, : I
The momentum of the heater rematns constdint even when tb,di&turb&nzes Change
Remark: It. is worth noticing that, after Fi. has changed,,. the level h .I) ,_ i
and the temperature. T reach their~‘new steady states with 1 z.: :’
. ‘
.different speeds. In particular,,
. the level, h, achi&es its new-: . . -’
steady state fast,er than the.,.temperature.In a subsequent chapter : . ‘,; :,
. D ,II’-
we. will analyze the reasons fo>r ,- such behavior:., _,:I “, s1 .-+‘,,,>.*: 1
,‘~ 1
‘. :st _
i i . .‘.I> :
I II ‘,,
: ;$ i,r
: , ” ‘.? -I. ,I>/ . i, ,‘,
..-;I .A.:.!
4.3 ADDITIONAL’RLWRNTS OF TUZ,’ MATIiEMAqICAL MOD&$ ~‘_ ” ‘ , .il, “,
*., ; .,
A, ,;: ; iy4 ,. ‘;
In additian’to the balance equations , we need’ other’ reldtion$hi$ to’
. ‘j
G ;.:: < . . 0 I. )‘. ”
express thedodynamic equilibria, react.ion rates, t$ansp&t ‘ra&e for h&t,
1I :d
5, p,“’ ,f i : , ” ; ” / :*’
mass, momentum, etc. Such additional r$‘a&onshiRs~needed to comple& ‘the Y’ *‘,
where j_ * .,/
where
Example 4.7
_.,‘x _. d
or considering'that ,
Average Molecular Weight = yAMA' + ys% I". " "< " '-
_- .', *,!~:, 1 i ?.
we have
P vapor (4.6a)
.?“;
where yA9 yB are the molar fractions of componen& A and I‘.,'B and MA, MB
j ,.
are the molecular we&h& oi '‘A-. and "k?. ." -_ ,I,
_
b. I
In all the modeling e@n$les discussed in the e&lCei sections'it has
,?J
been assumed thatfshenever a cha& takes &a&in&e of, the input variables
‘.
9
(disturbances, manipulated variables), 2ts effect is instantaneously observed
.
in the state variables ana.the outputs.\ Thus, whenever the feed qomposition,
*.
c. , or the feed knroerature. I
*
T,.
1'
or the coolant temperature,
i - T,, change-.
Y'c-.
in
Ai-
the CSTR of Example 4.4, the effect of the change is fek: immediately and the
-*’ : ‘<
‘.<
sequent 'ppragraphs;
f$. ?.I
Let us apply the conservation principle on the three fundamental
quantities:,, I : I/ _ ,
j *(
.’ ”; ,,
” ,d ._
.of mqlas of
,
Since the system ii a liquid system, we -can‘make the following approximation, “:’
- 1
2 .. ., .:
Accumulation of total
energy of the
material in- the CSTE
per unit time
’ ,*‘:““:
’ ._ * ^ i :
Furthermore, I I . iL
‘j2) *._.a4,.:’ I
I “ t 4 ‘~:. *,: _:/ ^.
. (Input of total energy-&th;feed’ per unrt,“t!ej ~$,p,~Fi lhi(Ti)‘; :“ ’
,‘. -2
, :i ‘,
. ” :. ‘, ’ ?, ,; . a 1 >’ ., .i” ~1
and, 5. ;
,\’ ‘T$, i ,, _.’ ,?. i” ).*,. . .?’
(Output of total ‘o&ergy with the. ou,t&$$&$#n ,per’ .un@“~$@& A. pF h’(T)
:{,*’ -) .I ,’ ‘.: ,. ._ .$: :., ,, _,_ ::’ 2 .: :,b,.: ._, i.1 ?:‘ : )
where hi ‘is the specific enth&y (&Ghalpy per un$” maas)&&,‘:the fee& at$,eam
>$ ,% I. 6. ,L I ,,i .:” , ..‘-,: .z
and h is the specific enthalpy of ‘dhe ‘cid.et % tF&rni (kqkytadti+, the ‘total
‘i I
). ‘. ;. @
energy balance leads to the foll~~i~~~~~~~uafr,~n, ,’
I” .I
‘: h. .‘“.:i...I *-:; ,’ . i.
.,
“r.’ r;,, ‘:
- Q’rz
z ‘;
.7 ._ -1 i/ ‘( I ‘ . - 1: .‘e,. ;,i* : .
‘, I . j ,.‘_ ,. ‘_I
where Q is the amount of. heat &moved by ‘the. coolaqt ,per unit: t&me. .a
., : ,.,. .::.:$ .I ,_,.‘( a’ ;;, ‘_ ,;,: , , I.:; ; :i;* $.Y : 1;; ;
Equations (4.8)) (4.9) and (4.10) are %ot t&heir f&a! and most con-
I ’ ,(,. :.“‘,~ ~” -! I< i :1 y,.:..,i : ‘? . . “S ,< .‘,
venieht form for process control design. studies. To bring them to such form 1
I’ L ;,~*..?f~,;’ ,i ( , ^, :., ., i
I we need to identify the appropriate state v&tab&; ‘I ’
qf4, : t $ ::
- Characterize total mass: We need the denCity of ‘the reacting’mixture, p,
.+
;
and its volume, V. ,,The density will be a functioh of- the co&&ntration
., WI
,. ‘,
.’ : .‘<
l+l,t, ;‘ a , I “. i ;_. .-. ) L‘: : 1: .(,I. “., ~. (be>; :,. 2. i : a’,
aI4
aT. - PVC P ’ *m an, fiA(.T) , - fig(T) ,; I’ ’ ‘I
where cp: 3s the specific heat capacity of the reactihg miiture and “A,’
dn..
H
d(c.V)
n
-Le s
dt P
,‘
Substitut.e the above quantities in eqn. (4.11) and take:
< _.
,.
dH ,. i
* PV c,$ + $1 cA Fi - cAF - rV1 + ,f& I-cBF + rV 1 ‘. g.
dt :>, ,,.
i ? .(.,I
:, ; I <. :. : I *
Sub,stituting the dH!dt’ by. its equal., ‘in &he .t’ total’ energy balance ,JM &k&, ” ‘)
.,
i
; 1 ,. ‘__ ‘< i ,)
L -HA[cA~F~ - - ,tq -,, , iiB [-ch,F.. + r&J + p iF i h, &:-
‘AF, PF%-Q(4d?&)
,. ‘.^’
._ , .I:
i.,
Consequently: eqn. (4.lOa) becomes 9 ’ : ‘, i i ‘” ‘. *
,‘
dT
PV cp dt - -iiAcAIpi + fiAcA + n,ri + &cBF, y, fiBrV ’ et ”
:
(Ti - FcB%. ‘: Q
i i .i Pi, ‘A A
:
or
that temperature T is the state variable
_/ 2’. ,; .,*..;
!ne&y’of rthe. system. -:
j’ ,.
.‘,‘T ” ^)’ SE-;, ‘ : . . :‘. i
y -: 7 - _..,_ ___ .e ‘steps in tha;mathemi’tical modeling of a CSTR tie
; ;: b‘ ‘. , .; ,: ‘, i
have the following :‘ ,i‘ g ;’ I‘ / *~,,
:-
s t a t e v a r i a b l e s ; V , cA, T ‘, : >’ I
.; i t .
state :equatAons : . ’ .* .
._,
Among the input variables the most ‘;~a&& ‘&&rub&&ss’ are : .-’ ,l
: I
disturbances: cA , ,Pi, Ti ,., “. . . . . ! 1 ij :‘_ _s’ :,, zIIz,.. ,.:,i: I
i’, ‘,. 1’,*1-”
- * ., )I
while the usual manipulated variables ’ atie: -\ _,.,; ‘f
I‘ ~.
: manipulatgd variables: Q; F (oocasionally Fe o r T i )
x _ : I ‘, + ‘. ;i
The remaining (variables are parameters cha~acter&lc of the reactor system,
i.. e. ‘. I
constant parameters : p, cp9 (-PII,) ,A ko, E, (activatYon energy), R. I’
i
,* _-
In the presence bi changes in the input variables, the state variables I
change. Integration of eqns. (4.8a), (4.9a) and (4.10b) yields the CA(t),. '
'r
V(t) and' T;(t) as funrtions of' time. '.
‘: I; 1,;j. . / :
Theieteady state behavior of the CSTR is given by eqns. (4,8a), (4.9a) and
(4.10b) Setheir left-hand sides are set equal to zero, i.e. from the'solution
of the following set of algebraic equations: a_ :.
'
.,
product stream 3 (Figure 4.8‘). Each 'of the‘ltio feed streams“&+ composed?of
perature.of ,the product str~pm. A cqii. is also immerspd.,k the; li#iid of the
.,
tank and it is used to SUDD~V or remove heat from the svstem with steam or
.
,. .'
:. ',
u
I
.-
where %’ p2,.p3 are the densities ‘of the streams 1, 2, 3, respectively. :..
Since the tank is well mixed the density of the’ product stream., p3” is equal ” ’ ’
,
to the density of th,e material in t&e tank, p, i;e.’ ‘~3 * p. V is the volume .
of the material in the tank which Ia charaeterizM by the cross +ectional area . ‘i. i
of the tank, A;* and the height, h, of ‘$he liquid level, ire. .‘: ! ( > ._
_’
: 4,
. ;,a i
V I A*h,. _‘~ ‘.
In general, the densities -p, pl and 6,” ,, depend on thq corresponding conce~
,, ‘1 ‘, .I : ) ‘*;r*
trations and tes@eratures, I, e. ‘,, , ly: ’ ” ‘_: ,%.$ ‘. 2 ,,: -i
dcA
Y x +- cAflFl + F+ 1 i31 = (cAIF1 + cA2F2) ‘- cA3F3
i.
i ‘;i.’
and since CA =’ CA due to the we!@‘st$rring assumption, ,’ ’ .,.
*
3 ,I . .
dU -. dH I _. +a,- <, :7 1
,dt - dt .I
where H is, the total enthalpy t3f the- material. in the Fuf t h e r m o r e ,
., *tank.
.
Input of total .” %li. ,.
with. feed stream 4 F2h2) ” v‘
per unit time ‘1 ,, I.
and
4.
where h 1, h2, ,h3 are the specific enthalpies (enthalpy per unit mass of
streams 1, 2 and 3. Due to the perfect stirring
A, ,: assumption: ‘, the specific
enthalpy of the material *in stream 3 ia ithe:, aa& aa ,$be specifi$ enthalpy of
a9 , ,- ,. .‘
:
the material in the tank, Thus, :f I
,i ‘)’
H - pV h3 I i i _’ *
\
Consequently, the total, energy balance’ yields,,’ ,, .?-y
.’t 4. :
d(pV h3) .;..:. ,.
dt - p(Flhl + F2h2) - .: FP3h3 +, Q ,: ’: (4.?4)
;
.‘t
The question now Is’ how to characterize .,I hi, :h, and 63 in terms bf. ether ..
‘.’
variables, i.e.. temperatures, concentrat’tons, etc. , Weiknow‘, thao;di-” . _ ,+,A. . ‘*. r
r;
;‘
h3(T3$ 9 h3(To)-, t, 6 ‘%T .- T 1, ~
.j .
ph2’qbl =, cA2tiA +b$iw +; cA2A$2(To) , (4.16~)
.;, ’
~‘*!.
where 8, and’ fi B are the molar’enthalpka ‘(en$halpy per mole).of components
A and B at temperature To. “gs , A$ , A$‘3 ,.are t&heat -of solution for ‘,
.’ ,;1 2 , : J ,“.
streams 1, 2 and 3 per moie of A at temperature To. Substituting eqns.
(4.16a,b,c) and (4.16a,b,c) into the totsi energy balance eqn. (4,14) we have:, . :,
I
i, 3
f, + cA A*
dt
3 s3
)'+ Cp3@3 - To)
1 :
I
= F,(CAfin+ca i$+~~Afi~)+pF c .(Tl-To)
i J. nln D1 ,1 1 ~. 1 PI
.:
4 F,(c. ii. +'c i$ + cA Ati ) + PF 2 'c p2 (T 2
L-A 2 A, B2 - To)
2 s2,
\ 1
- F3c"& + cB:$&.' cn,hti ) QF c iT3 -'To) %,Q t
3, ;3 3 s3' , ? -P3
. j _A' ':.
AT-
“I
^,
.' 4 0 @alance on A)
.a
dT 3
A' 1
Summarizing the, above -steps we have:. . ! :-c
1 ,'
state variables: V, c 'T '/', ,I~
',':
t., A3' .3 ,' -.
,l ,' .'
state equations:
'8
< '
,' j Iy . :,.-
.g, - i,Tl" +,F2)+ ,- F3 (4.12;) "
i^ ., .; ' i '0' . $.p
II.
:, :dcA.' ,I' .: :- ‘.
,. y-2 'I @A - kA )F + PA (4.13a) ;
dt 1 3l 2 - 'A3)'2 \‘
i 'I :, .I ., 1f 'I .
.: I .,* ,I ., .,,:.r' '.
dT3. , :% 'i
f?cpvdt- c F fAii -Atis‘ ] "cA F2[A# -Aii ~+PP~c~(T~-T~)+PF;C~(~~-T~)~I~Q ' _-
_: Al l s1 3 2 ‘ i s2 Is3 :+ : -,/". ' :,
_ : ii (4.14a)
'. )
input variables: F1s cA1' T1s F22 cAiP T2,,'I! ,3 (for fa&bac~~~i$ntroL) I:<
.I b'
flows through the Snner tub~‘aird ,.it is being h~,~,ted~:by:+team ttfiieh flows outside
/‘* ,I :” ; ~ ~, ,_
the tube. The temperature of the .liquid. does c&t,‘only change.<wS& time ,but it
,y; .:‘. ” ,i ,_, . ,.
also changes’ along the axial direction t ~&NU thi :. ‘_ :valua :I$. at the $ntrance
. i I ‘i . ;. “ L I,. ~ ,‘,
t o t h e v a l u e T2 a t t h e e x i t . We wiil &&I& t&t’ the” t~emp&ature does not
;I
change, al.qng the radius. qf the pipe,. S&J.:- .we will+~ssitimp p$.& nlh. CO&
. \ , ;.!J.
sequently, we have two indep.endents variable& $..$. ‘,;ti.“!’ a$ni,‘;:‘t,: .me..stgt$ i _
1 ‘,
variable. of interest for t&e h e a t +&hanger i; .th&&peratt&.
;., l(T) bf the’ ‘,
‘., f ,
,
heated liquid. Therefore, we need the energy baltitic.e;-foi;i..athe $b&&!briiation r,
+ Q*Dt*(vrD*Az) (4.17)
I’,,
I',, ,, .:,
Enthalpy trans&rred
,
from the steam ‘$0 the I. . . .
liquid ,1 through the
.. !, 7% wall ,. during s&e time
,,:: period, At. .‘I_
.’
.’ tt’’ II 1
1 I,I,
where .d;., f _
;yri _ ! ’ ’ * *i
Q is the amount of heat transferred. from the steam to the liquid per
unit of time. and unlit ,u$,heat tratisfer ,greo, -1. : ,:, .j
1. i
‘1
A is the $ross section& :ar,ea of .the ,inmr tube,. ’
7
v is the velocity of. the liquid, an$ .:;; L ‘1
:, ‘ ”
D is the eFterna1 diameter of the inner tube.
: ,
Dividing both sides of eqn. (4.17) by Az*At ‘and letting A&& and AtA,
,< i
)r we take,
.
1 aT
P cp AGE + p cp v+$ ,F$,*
Q,:**”" I.).' \',, .:, :. ,:* (4vW
*.‘I
5, *.'I
In eqn*
eqn* (4*18) we can subst'it&&.
(4*18) we subst’it&&. Q.:!:'gf~&&
Q.:!:‘gf~&& e*ai e*ai - - '’ :, jj'J’J 5::5:: .. ..y. :,
_ i ,,
h(Ts I T) ~; : - ; t y :::.a-
Q - h(Ts :::.a- ',‘, ",“, 1 1 ~.,I~.,I i.'i.’ ,, ..‘u..‘u '’ ,',’ :I
t “: .;
.; 00 **j :
.*:.*: 11 ‘,{‘,{ i;;
i;; "j“j : '$i‘$i : .'.’ jj
and take’ ’
I, ,, 1
‘/ ” .$, Z$
iT ‘1” ,’ : I‘ i ,j ) i ” i, ;*, :. ,*:A :i” q ;.
: ST ,
1 pcpAat,, + P c V A - --h*D;(Ts-T) (4.19)’
P J a?.>!,:,.::~ i ” i : ‘;A,
:‘.
This is. the equation of st.&te that models t.ha- behavior of the, liquid’51 tern-
.,
perature (state variable) along .thp~.~eng~~..of!-thre .exehanger. S&me e&‘.~~(.4.&
L,
is a partial differential .eq&ion: we say$+&at the -changer *has baen*modeled
v ,&S.
0~ 41.e ..“.e....mW”.I
~li8rrab~t,t~~ornnoter
~li8rrab~t,t~~ornnoter syatct,,
syatct,, ‘t‘*t:*: .‘; I ‘I ‘,i> “( ‘5., j . ,‘ :;
.i
: s : ‘I’-,: i -
‘.
,‘. t
Example ‘4.13’.
4.13’.The Mathematical Model of~‘&~$&, Binary.,DSsti$J.ation CQ~U~ ’
I i:‘,. .,*, “, ” ,;r .1:
Consider a binary mixture of components A atid‘ B to be separated into ._
;. 1. : ‘J . “,
two product streams using’conventional dlstillatian, The rn+5ke
. 1 m+5ke
;<.‘a .I, :,
is fed in
is
the column as a saturated liquid, i.e. at its bubble .point, ‘onto the feed tray -(. ‘-
Nf (Figure 4..10): with a molar flowrate (,moles/mi&te)‘.Ff ani a molar fraction“
,-
: ?l
: *, ’ ;‘g,
i
(reflux stream) and partly is removed as the distillate product Qith a molar
*.-
flowrate FI,. 'Let us call MRD the'1iqu.i.d holdup in th‘e reflux drum and xD
the molar fraction of component ‘A in theliquid of'the.re'flux'drum, It‘&
./
clear that xD is-the composition"Yd"r ,both 'the r&l& ,and dis'til.l~te &reams,
I
At .the base of the distil,lation column, a'liquid &duct ,&'eirn (the' '
,
bottoms product) is removed with 'a 'flo&a'tb'~'~b, and's com#osition xB (molar
>. 3 '
fraction of A). -A liibid stream w$& ,& wlar flowrate 6s' i# "&&A &$,, fr<im,
:
the bottom of the column and after it has been heated pith steam,“&t'retucns
,.I
to the base of the column." The~'-Eompoeition of the recirculaddng',back to column
'_. :
stream is xB* Let s, be the,S&iquid .h+dup at,the baee og:%the column.
each tray will be, assumed to be, neglig-ible. __ ,‘+, j ; .: '. ..'9
In Figure 4.11a we see the material flows in and out of the feed,,,hray,.
Figures 4.11b and.4.llc show the material flows for the tag (n-rth) and" bottom '
(1-st) trays. Figure 4.11d refers to any other (,. tray.
, . ,',.J..,' I. II
mately equal.,
This( means that one mole,of condensing vapor releases enough
i ' ,A .:
heat to vaporize one mole of liquid., 4 ! P
1,
- The heat losses from the column to th,e surroundings are assumed to be ,
negligible.
- JThe relative~,volatil*ty
relativei,volatil&ty
~ : ,-. c(a of the t@ components remains constant through-
1
!out ,the column. '. 1 ."I
L : ,< -" .,
- Each tray 4' is assume< to be 100% efficient, i.e. .' the vapor leaving each tray ~7
# 5 \ : f
la in~.equil.&brium pith the liquid,,on ..?.# the tray. '. .-,
., ,, i ..a ,",, :
‘&e :/,-
T6e iret’ thr& ..‘arraumptioF,e :: ’.imply,that
ff*~stthr~~'agsumptions .imply ,$hat ::
:/,- ,a,-> ..,, t
,a,-> t ' :: ... ."” --,,.. :: tt ‘.
‘.
*,?.$
*,?.$ ,w“-v -.-.
,w“-v
V
V j
z .' .l & 2
' . ' * L-Y
,* 'Y; ., 7:: VN ,;'
.' t ,
, jl _., ' :* .i
and,there is no,peed for! energy .L : a" '~ala~cq~around each,tray.. '.,,, ,,
,' I : +
The last&m,, h~-~ , assump~~qns~.~~~y"thaf'a.,Bampl~
L . ,-, ,..) vaporrliquid equ,ilibrium‘ ! ,
.* ./.j j
relationship c&n beai,used ,"":; to rele;~~~~~,~~~~Olay.,frs,ction
rele;~~~~~,~~~~Olay.,.frs,ction of A in the;,~yap~~~,
;r, ,O,‘ ) . __I
'
leaving the i-th tray (yi) with the,molar~.f9~aci$on~ of A in the liquid leaving
I
,a; ::
the same tray (xi); i.e. I. _ , j 4,,_ 2",. *,; ; , i .; ', ,
,"I I" / -
;
J"/, : rr: a*
ax ._ 2' ': :,;. 1,; :. _. a: * '1 * ,. :
1
yi 7 ,1 + (a-lhi *. ., f _<' :I. (4.20)
.I ;
r‘ "
.i, " f !',$ I+ I.
where a is the relative vola~ility'.o~.th~'twc~.~ornponeqts AandB. i *!-' ,
., e,7 ' ' ,
88 The final assumption$ that tie ~~~i~riU?e'@&&hb~ Wil'i :ni&e’e$kl”thd’ fo&x#ihg: fo&mihg: '‘** II
;:Neglect the dynamics of the cond'enser~%nrd 'the r'kboiler, it :is clear: that '
:
these two units (heat exchangers) consfktute ~roces$ing'syefems ‘on their '
,'
'own right and ds such they have'ti'dynaniic behavior ‘(see &ax$le‘ 4.12).
I.,rate of the liquid leaving each tray is related to the f;iquid,holdup of“ ". '
.!i ,
the tray through Francis weir foir&tA; -1’ $
..***“‘*“‘ii
Li -- f(M$
Li f(M$ wi - 1,2,***,f,***,N (4‘:21.) -
:I i
Let us now davelop the s‘tate equat$&which will detkiba'the dynanic
behavior of a 'distillation column. The Fndamental quantities are total iaass
i. i
<i
and mass of component' ,A. But the 'question is:
_
on each tray-change with time, we cannot find how the variables of practical
*r
significance, like xD and x ~khqti~e with time. Therefore, we are forced
B
to consider the'balances around each *tray. Thus, wehsve
< .*> . ,: (see also Figure
. ., f ':
4.11):‘ ,I: i
Feed+'j"ay (ipf) it -, cr:,i. *.: . ::' ci ' ' CJ : .,i^
r: .:: 1.
Tntnl A&am. N’L.w
-1 -tr -m -1 I tr
UL 'R T VNwl - aaM - .WN - PR - UN '(4.23a) 1
" .. " ,
'. d"!$& , -, / &.' ,:
s- 1 & ",,_
Component A: dt. - FR*xD + $R-l*~~~l - L$$.'~~~ *i* Ec r ' ,; (4.23b)
.j, ," .; <'I; i i.
_ Bottom Tray (i=l).,
-i I
; i :
d(M,) ' '". ,' -
&“LcI.l. AIUZID.
-.&I 2 \9. apa)
dt
*
- ? : j r, i’
dfM-x-l
- ‘n-L--,--L L.
.- ‘--1--1’,
- + .<i.,. <’ -...' vlyI: :‘ ." i :! ; ,'(4;;. 24b)
I
UXll~UWNlL~A~
dt = L2x2 ? vyO - 'Llic&
.,::; 1, ., ,\ ; -: ',A;. cI.I *. ; !
i-th 1tray (112,***,R-1 and if
, :' :- '. i ..Y 1 , ,: b._
d(Mi) ~
Total Mass: .r = LieI - I.,~ 1; I '(4,2.59)
Reflux Drum
.i D; (4.26a)
! i4’. .‘” ,I j’. ,’
’
i Com‘pon&t 8: d(fIRDxD) c i
NAYS - uR + FDjXD ‘- .I (4.26bj .l)
dt
.G,. , .$’ “:.::.” : ,, ._
I:
Column Base ’ ” J .i
” j I, * .:i : i .
d($ ”
Total Mass: dt’- Ll<$. -. V -
EB$ ~, *. ‘(4.27a)
.’ /) !
I’ . . :i d(MB.sj ! j # _/..‘“. . ‘-,
Component A: - Llxl r Vu,
L F& (4.27b)
..,‘2 dt
( ;’
1’ ,A11 the above equations are the, state eqwtions ‘and descrl;be the dynamic
,/ 2
behavior of the distillation column. T#e stgte variable&, of the model are:
T$‘A
L
r )~, * ..
4
Liquid’ holdups; M1)M2, v ? ,Mf ,“I FI* ,M& G, and MB l
v
* . . ,.G.’
Liquid concentrations; x1’x2.,‘;:*‘ixf5.* l ;,x ‘;’ ‘$c ‘- ’ .
’ j. ~ $;* I &. ;q ,” 2!nd xl$ . , i
l
To complete the modeEing of the co&n, in addition ‘to. the state equations, ,’
.’ ,.3 )
,t / ’ I : i .i; _. “,
we need the following -relationships: I “. 1‘*. I,:: 1‘ I, ::_, .;, ,’ 6,
. ‘.’ r
)I (a) Equilibrium relationships: “I i ‘, ,: .. : “‘.’ : : :+, i ,’
,>I ‘i,. .& .)” ‘! -i’. ” ‘.,‘
axi 6 ,I
Yi = 1 f (a-l)xi~ i~,Q,2, , f ,‘a k&NiB-
s ‘, (4 .‘20)
* ,jr “$ .:i’
l l *
i. ) I’ ‘.V.’ .’
( b ) H y d r a u l i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( F r a n c i s we%+,, foimulg) ) ,, , ._ _
. *r
* i * I %.1,2,***‘if,***,N
Li = f(Mi) L
(4.21)
1
When all the above modeling equations’ are solved wg find how the flowrates
1 x’ ‘. .:
/‘(’ I : j.
4.6 MODELING DIFFICULTIES
‘I. . ,! . 8, : '-. : <..
The modeling examples discussed in the previoue s.ections or,tgis ghapter ’
. > 1 :., .I :.
should have alerted the reader to a series nf diff+rttltJna +lra* -ma k.-....enr-
(b) those caused from inaccurate values of various parameters, and ,; "_
(c) those caused from the size and the complexity of the resulting model. 'I,
,~
A .._ Poorly Understood Processes .,
;
I' To understand completely the physical and chemical phenomena occurring
in a chemical process is,virtually impossible. Even <an aaceptable degree of
knowledge is at, times very difficult. Typical examples include:
6
4 .
/'
1
- Vapor-liquid’,or ‘liquid-liquid thermodynamic equilibria for multicomponent
‘systeI5. :
IZxample 4.15
All the above information is not only difficult to acquire but at times ‘it
,, .:.
‘. ._
/w
; ”
models that describe
i the ef f ec,t, of the
_‘ ‘heavy
, ;;Jn?l$.l 9 feed
, . k rite. on the reactor tem-
.;”
pera ture. We notice that the qualitative behavior predicted by the two models
) ‘“, 1
is’ quite different. ,_ i ,2i:r * L
Finally, the two units (reactor ,reg.enerator): are fluidized beds and it is
well known how poorly~ understood are the fluid mechanical characteristics of
such units.
‘ E
4 ‘- :I
,11
B-. Imprecisely Known , Parameters
_/ -.: / I, * ‘ I
The availability of accurate va$ues,: for the p9rameter.s of a model is
indispensable for any quantitative. analysis of the behatior of a, process.
‘. *
Unfortunately, this. is not always possible. Typical examples incl+de-. the ,- :
. ‘. ,~,:
C. The Size and Complexity of a Mod&
*$ ‘ ,>.' i: i
f;nan effort to develop as accurate and precise a mathemat+al,model as
:, .:.: .:9.. ii : iI
possible!, th& size ano,the complexity pf the model increases,si.gnificantly.
*:‘farmulate the state equations whose s’olutibn depicts ,ho$‘the values of the
#.
‘,sttite’variables, art? consequently the -uatural state of the process, changes
t ’ :. “,j .-we
; -_ ; ! ’
with ‘ t i m e . . c
-
The state equatjzons are developed from the application of the cgnservation .’
. :
principle on fundamental quantities like. total’tiass . * mass
+ ., of ‘various ~comp&&hts,
tot41i. energy, momentum. ,_ :~ ’ :: t ?. ‘I. 1 I. i ’
To complete the .mathematioaLmodeUng of a process, ad&itional’ equations
,, .;
1 :. ._.
are needed to Bescribe the: . .( i.,
.’ ,I; tj
presence of etgnificant dead time.( The :dead time Is i v&y %mportant f*ea,tur’e,
1 : .,J :; .z , ,;~,? I : ( I
and it’ plays a ,significant role”inW’tfie &sign of effective controllers -for a : I u
,. .
chemfcal process. Only when ‘the’ de&* t$@a is very ‘amall (since”i& priaciple
(. _/‘,_,
\ it will never b,e zero) it can be neglected from the d&iopment”of ‘a mod+.
:‘t
Several difficulties arise during .the modeling, of a &he&c& process.:: ’ j
. .’
These difficulties can be classified int the following,, categories: ;. q
1’.
- Difficulties arising from Amprecisely known 4:i chemical _ or.chemical
/,. : ~ phenomegi,
-.
;,:
.,.
affecting the,, eff ectiveness of the selected equilibrium nor rate reJ.at$onships.
P .
- Difficulties arising from the inaccurate values of the various model
resulting model.
/
:. ,
liquid and water vapor are at equilibrium for a given ‘Gressure. They
*i. - :a,
also give ‘the specific values for enthalpy, ,entropy, and, volume...of both I
i
1
11. For the fash ‘drum example (Examples’ 4.7 and 4.8) develop an expression
for the density of the vapor phase , using the Van der~ Waals equation of
*. .‘, .’
state. State also an expression for the d,ensity,of the liquid phase.
.I
12, When is a system at’ steady state?’
..i /
13. What is the main reason for the presence of dead time iu’a process?
, ,‘.
14. Do you know of any systems which do not possess dead time?
15. How would you find the dead time of a system?
16. In the Figure 4.4-2 we see the behsvioi of the concentration at the
/)
“ :.. _ 1
outlet of two processes , after the concentration at the inlets and at
time t=O was incrjeased by 10%. Which process possesses dead time? .
What are the assumptions leading to equimolar vapor flow rates, i.e.
18. Why have we neglected the energy galances for the binary ideal distillation
19. What are the assumptions leading to the equilibrium relationship (4.20)
20. Could you have dead-time between the overhead vapor and ,the distillate
*a
.A.
1 (Clnmeurure
h T
I
Otd --------we_
,-e-m---- Steady Sfafe
n--w ---
\
-err---- -------
f-.
^,
,;;I;’
c iY.
/,Yrcxesr 45
,.
:<,:, .,
CHAPTER 5
: ‘. Pt. :
E x a m p l e 5 . 1The
- Input-output Model for the Stirred Tank,Heater ’
Q = UAt(Ts - T\
or
dT f aT = + KTs (5.1)
dt
where
, ' 1 c" ', ' UA,
LT Fi
a - -;+L and K - - :
T ,I vpCp
the state variable and Ti the input variables. Let us see how we
and T,
r
: I
can develop the corresponding input-output model.
‘.,, i'.'..
/ .,- *
At steady state, eqn. (5.1) yields L
'? I. , , i' 7 z- .
where
“. .‘a
,'d ,
,:
T'(t) = cleVat + (5.4)
:
0 '
.
Assuming .that initially the heater is at steady state, i.e. at t=O, T'(t=O) =
'.
0, we .find easily 'cl - 0. Therefore eqn. (5.4) gives
output (T'), and constitutes the INPUT-OUTPUTS MODEL for the tank heater. This
:', t
relationship is also depicted p$ctorially in Figure 5.2,
‘. :
,/ : *,
Example 5.2 - The Input-Output Model for,a Hixing Process
; ,: ::. ' 1
Consider again the mixing of two siream& process discussed in Example
'_ , .(I
4.11 (Figure 4.8). Assume that:
:
- Fl -k F2 - F3;' which implies dV/dt = d, i.e. "V'i constant.
.'
- The heats of‘solut&ons'are independent of the-‘concentration which,,z&mplie$:
dCA
1 -2+ ($++cA3 = &i; +' +cA2 _ .c : (5.6a)
~
I * '
,
and t
dT3 Fl .,F2 " Fl ;. F2 '
dt+ \v + $T3 - ?j-Tl'+ 7T2 + -& (5.6b)
'
, , ,' (5 6 ; '&. (, ,,,;iG,,
I, ,; 7,‘~ '*' i '
)' .'
At steady state eqns, . a ' . : I' i '.
t
F1 ” ‘> F2 :
- V.CA t”+CA ,:. (5.7a)
*! U8) Z(s)
and
-- ,, ,
;i't.j- j.
: ,. F. F,
F1 F2 F1 F2 Q(# f !I
0,.I +> Ctf. + -$T3(oj.. I T Tx(idd) + p T2(#j f -j (5.7b)
p=p..
i ;
Subtract ,$5,7a) from: (5.6a) and (S.fb) from (5.6b) and take:
(5.8a)
F2 ,: ( ; ,(4,8b),
,+ 7 Td *+.,'KQ'.,
where A1
c' ,:.*c' ,T'2, Ti 'and Q' ,are ,deviarjlon vhriablesdefined as
Ai' ‘c'
A3' T',1:
follows: L . ,; 31 :.i
‘ .
*' - =A1 - Cilo ' =i; = 'A2 - CA2(sj ' %3($; :A3 - %3(s)
,. ; -. ‘
and .
.I > :. ;i' ,I
Ti 9 T1 L Tl(s) , T; = T2 - T2(s) *, TJ .* T3 - T3(s+Q'+ Q.- Q(s)
" /.. ,( i I--.;;, s-z
,, ',
Also, "-(
.,i.;,..
I
F1 F2 x
a &* .v..+ v; and K.+- ql .:I:;' 3 ,,: ;: j .:.:)
i li
: " '_
The solution of (5+8a) and (5.8bl) yields: ,: ., ;:. ,.
1
p2 *,, :, ..,;i:- /_; " ; / ',
ci (t) - cleeal + '- +- c' dt :'. ; '. (5,9a)
3. : A1 : _r P : A2 3 I; c,g,,:. _t, :
/ ,./I
' , :i ':* 'i,'. .f,$.,"
L
'I'.:. . .
and
: I .i “
R&arks : (‘1) In Examples 5.1 and 5.2 the;.output, variables coincide with the
,’
:.
state variables of the two ‘processes. @&equently, in order-
‘.
to develop the,, input-output* model’weneed only’ solve the
‘; i’ dif- :
ferenti+ equati&s of ‘the: ‘mass and energy ,balances., ‘phi; is I,-
wi have:
>” “J :* :*
state variables:
Consequently , ,the desired control of alprocess will be.achieved when and only
and f$ 4:.
% TYs I7
Then, we can integrate eqns. (4.4a) and <4.,5bjY anb find how h . and T change
,( <
'4:. ' '2 -',
with time. If we give different value co "' or ,P, ,or./I Q,.we,find I ~ .
1 /:_ T+' I j., :', ,-;pi,' a ?UX Ti
thst h and -T,' change d,iffe"re@tly than>befoke.‘ Consequently; 'if we want h'
.' ,yr
+
and T to change in a prescribed manner we$ho&ld,,not ha& any d&reas of
,<: ;
Fri?edom, i.e. vclriabl.oswlrich can. t&e a&$&~,&$$&$,uee. 'Ttijk: lc?p&us to the
I '_ ,. _.i. ,. *' 4 I -
conclusion that,,'in order to specify compIet& a'*procesh the number of,,degress
;~ * -I, : f "' /, ,( ! :: 't,"* I :v I. 1'
of fre'edom shoulh be. zero. ." % ,' I, /
3. ),, ~, + * -" -z ..,). : : : jr .: .~<.i :. ,~ ; i 1%. ,., > : '.
1 I ,-- 1
I, ,:
y, I ,i::_;, ' '.,J. I,', : ,,:-
‘;f,”
/.
.A .T .' ,,:
qg$
.i:
Example 5.4 - Degrees of I?ree&m'in -an $deal:Bin&ry Bistillat!~on‘@dl~mn
i
Consider t&e model for an idea18'Bin&y distillati~ca~~n'deire~~psd in
,‘
Example 4.13. We have: : ,; ';.. 4~: .;' ", 7 ,-., ..' _I
Number of Variables m.
N-I-2 xi i=1,,2****,f,***, N,D,B liquid compositions
s
1 .i :. , J i,Msl, yi # W,2,:***,f,*** ,N,B v a p o r com$&sit$zons ’
-,
N+i ’ “,Mi fnl,.2,r**,f,*;*,k;I,~ liquid holdups ”
.I ,. ,. ,j ..: . . .) :
N i=l 2 l **,f,*** ,N l i q u i d f l o w s t
Li “, ’
,; .
6 Ff’ c,; FD” FB,’ fFR’ ,!! \
Total = 4N f 11
j
The number of degrees of freedom For the ideal ‘bin&y distiliation column is
_ (4N i $ &’ 6 ,’ ‘I .f* - :. ‘:: ; ‘.I
f - (4N C 11)
(. .z
i. e, we need to specify the values of alx variabWs“before kk c&. solve the ‘.
$,I.~ : * :,:y *
model of the b&ary distillation. _‘,
y‘
‘/’ _ ). “.I” ,” L/ :*
_i. I
:
_.’ ,
, . . al..’ ,.
8, ‘,.:$,,c _;
:I I '.gi..
,’
The observations made and the conclusions drawn from the above two ‘&tamples
_“,S f. J., / :. “f *’ b :. i
can now be generalized for any pradessing system deefribed by.,a s.et of E ‘,
* I’
equations (differential and/or algebraic) containing V varisb$es. The num-
,I. .,
_
b e r o f d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m forsuch’a s y s t e m is given%:by, :, li,, ’ “.”
. ,“
f i Y _ E ,1 _ / t _/ ” * ,I:‘.,” ;.’ ; :’ ‘,) ,
v
Accardfng to the value of f ‘t we can have the falluking c@s&k: !, ‘,
1
” ”
for the V variables. In this ease we. say that: the process is
exactly specified.
Case 2. If f>O, then we have more variables, than equations, Multiple
ther e%s no solution to the E 'equations, 'In this case tie say 1
9.
that the system
system isis ovirs$ecified
ovirs$ecified bybyf equations,
f equations,i.e."we
i.e."ws
needneed
I ,_ I ,_
*. _ :
to. r em&e. f <equat,ions in order t;q have a solution for the &&am, "' "
Remarks: (1) ,It is clear .from- the above r* analysis that a sloppy.mopellng of
a* process may lead to a model
'n .Y which
'" does not include all the
,*
relevant eouations .and va&ables:o?"includes redundnti6
:.
initial
f
Example 5.5
suppose that this is not the case and' that the‘liquid. flows out 'fromlthe tank
'1
/I 3’
I
I
,,
-, ‘:‘i.:. k+ ’
\. ’ % ; :
freely under .; *t the
,,,.; hydroa{atic pressure oE the liquid, ih the t&k, In tli38 cn8c
,: !t
there is, .? an additional _* -i equation relating F to h, e.g. F = $&, which
reduces the numbyr of degrees of freedom by one. ” r, ’
.‘I
., I
Example 5.6 '
Consider’ again the stiired task heater, but noti &id& f.eed&ck control
(Figure 5 . 5 ) Loop
%ontr& . 1 inaintainlb
the. l&&d level ‘ai a desired-'v&&&by
, "
measuring the revel of ‘the liquid atid adj'ui3&lni &e va$e~of the,efflue&t
two additional equaitons, thus red&irig t&. d&$&s of fk’&do!m b$’ two.
,
I
*‘,<’ I% ‘. ). i : “; !_
5.3 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND PROCESS CONTROLLERS ::'T .,,.
".
In general, a carefully modeled
.I , process
, . i: will.,pqqsass
, ? ,: oyV9,,oi more degree?
of freedom. Since for f>O L the &qxs~ +.ll.i “’ have an @fini@ ntimber pf , ’
There are two sources which ,prq,vid+ the,addifional equations$~' (a) the.
external world and (b) the control system. Let us examine them closer using:
I
the: stirred tank heater as our example,
,” ,.
\’
! ,’
. _
:* ,’ I
N ,I‘
Recall from Example 5.3 that the s&red tank heater powetises four
‘I .
degrees of freedom. Therefore, we need four a?lditional’.’ relation&hi&, inde-
pendent of the linodeling equations (eqns J (4.4a) , (4.5b)“. ‘These are provided
from the following considerations: ’ ’ ” ”
- The feed flowrate Fi and feed temperature Ti are the maiin two dis-
turbancae for the stirred tank heater ;and they are both speclf,ied by the
L The control system required to achieve: the’ ‘iontrol objec&‘ve$, ‘it removes
i
as many degrees of freedom as the nurnber”~~:.‘cdn~r;;~ obf&%ie’s~.
‘_
During the* reduction in the numberI,,of
degrees
_: :t.;-of. f?eedom ‘fir. a, chemical
’ 1’ I .,,i
process, care must be exercised not to specify more control’ obj’ectives than it
-’ I
is possible for’ the particular sys’tem. Thus we can have tit most two control
objectives for’ the stir&d tank heater. Attemptfng to have three contro’i
objectives we are lead to an overspecif ied syst& &Yth fe0. ,,” ’ ”
:; ‘/ i ;
0 I.
, , ‘;‘,. ,L :
3 * ._
\
-_
(
follows :
;.
1’1 i‘
Specif
j ,, &&on of the disturbances. Two are the main disturbances
.i for the ,
. .I
binary. disfil,lstlon column ; the< feed flowrste Ff’, and the feed
(I ,.,
composition
I,‘ cf. The&r,values are speoified by the external world, e-.g. a
I
reactor whose, affluent
, stream is _ :.the Feed to
;. the JSs ti3lation Lco ~mt\ I A 1 tllou~:ll
objectives since there are four remain$ng degrees of freedom. The acceptable
d.
operation of the binary col,umn requires that$he follo@ng variabZ& be mainc
safety purposes. Figure 5.6 shows the ,four control loo,ps,which aatlsfy the
We must note that the above four specifications of the control objectives
1
r-
"Keep at the desired values &he FI), x~; Fg, xg; MD and' I$?
L
i 2 .:c;.. s': I %, ,~
‘
Number of variables - 17: v,c A3'. T3, pi.7 'F2', Fj I "Al' CA; 9 'Ai'
_’
: m_,.
. . Further 1imLiation‘of the degrees of freedom.
14 - 5 - 9 degrees of freedom. ’ i ‘. ’
The eight degrees of freedom are now specified as foll&s: l:‘*,.; , i
‘,
T h e r e , ak& pix’ uain- d4ifhAhmncee corni*
.:.,
from the two feed styream,’ *tee., : , “. /r\_ ‘$. *,: 1 ,. ~1 ,:I. ” ’
3; ‘L* ‘j , ‘_.’
1 ‘.
Feed stream 1; Fl, Tl, and tii , _ :p&& stream .2; “%?2’~ T2.’ And. cA .
1’ ‘, , 2
‘,I. , ‘.“, L: I,
. ,,.: *I / I.
The values of the dist$rbances are’$pe$f&d by’ the extert&,world.
.‘. ,. .;‘..‘,,“.“ 3,s: *: ,, >‘.I .‘; s_: .
Specification of’,:rfie son&o& &bje&t$v&,~ a, Considering s&x disturbances
Q i+ * i. ,.
Before closing the’ present chapter let ‘us’emphasize’some of the factors which
will determine
will determine .the
.the scope
scope of modeJ.$,ng
modeJ.$,ng for: .qontrol
It”’.T purposes,
L ” Before attem4pting to mode!., a* pro!esg, tie wuqt pose the, follow$ng questions
t ad try to understand their +mplicat&ns’ well:
(1) What are the
the control
control ,objectives,we
,objectives,we must
must oat&y? I
(3) What are the dominant’ physical and chemical phenomena taking place in
Clear understanding of the above .questions and their, ansyera will, help
greatly to define and simplify, _,,
i n l e t Fi.
;.’ y /
: ., ;F i 4>,. 1~
B. If on the other hand our control objective fs’.‘to k& the.tem$ature’
;. :. : ‘“‘ 3’ ;: 1 :,‘pf y ,.,ii’ I/,
of ‘the outlet stream, T, at a ‘desired value, them
“‘I we r&et ‘.cons;Ld& _:” . ~both
: b,
state variables, i.e. the temperature and the level t& the:%qu$d in ‘the
.,~ . .
tank. This implies that we need write both total mass and lenergy
l,.’ ,f
balance. The disturbances of interest are the temperature and the
‘_ .h,
--
0
0 ‘,
‘, :
:
Example 5.10 ’ I
! ’ ‘.
Consider the continuous m&id ‘proiess d&cussed in’ Example 4.11 (Figure :
‘, *.
4.8). We can distinguish the following control situations: ,i
:*’
, ,
The relevant balances are thoaa‘,on total mass and on comionent A. ‘tie’
available manipulated variables are:.F13 .Fa. F3, the a.. r+o Fl/p2
_I. ‘ . a i
( and Q. 1
process must be included in the model. This will’ deter&e what ’ complexity 1
-.,
model is needed, i.e. what balances andiwhat state
‘, variables should be
included in the model. . t
balances. : : ) ., ~ ,
;.,
Example 5.11
Let us return to the stirred tank heater (Example 4.4). If the feed
;
Remark: Note that if’ the feed tempera&e,’ Ti, ” ke “no&‘exp&ted .to qary sig-’ ‘
, ; *_
nificant’iy but the feed floGrate, Fi, is expected” to! change
simplified, i.e. dV/dt = 0 and it is given by eqns. (4.9a) and (4.,lOb). ,,,
f’ 1 :
. . 2’
, .’ :
a process can’ lead to signif icant ‘simplifications for control purposes. This
simplMicot.ion can be done by excluding from the balances (model) those terms
which have small contributions.
j
‘*
Example 5.12
Let us return to’ the continuous mijring ,prodess dkussed in’Example 4 .ll.
1. :.
Assume that for the particular combnents A and B of the mixture, tlie
aa -
Ait Afi z
Afi . Afi .I’ z 0
C sl s3iI [ 3 ,~ s3]j <i,.‘,.
, 1
and .the to
total
ealknekgy
knekgy ‘balance
‘balance (eqn.
(eqn. (4.
(4. Ida)9
Ida)9 &n
&n be
be simplif
simplif &d&d r 6 .the following:
following:
,
:. a ..(, ‘( :
dT3 ~
: PCpV.rdt - %=p% -: )T3) + cPF2CP(T2 -‘T) f Q
, . 3 __ ) i-.
In other words, we see that the qature of thk sr$xing phenomenon leacjs
I_ ._- to a :
. Q ,,
s&plif ication ,of the model.
7. ,I 1 ; j i”:. _
Furthermore, assuming that
that from
from ali~possible
ali~possible disturbances,on\y the feed
I
II :,.
compositions and c aye expected, to change significagtly whiJe the,
CA, by,. ,,’ :
feed flowrates a n d F2 and feed temperatures. Tl, and ‘i; are expected
F1- i
to remain almoat the same w& can
I j n+gleg&from t+e mathematical mbdel the total
!! ‘,) ‘,s
cucrgy balapce grid, from, fhs sezFr_of state; _*.:
variables the temperature J’i, TINIS )
.,:.
the
. s i m p l i f i e d po$,el Ss &e,n o,n+y‘&y.L t;h,e; balegce in @nponent A ( e q n . 4.13a).
I
7. “,tf . B ‘”
:
. .i; ) (’ -,
;; ’
Example 5.13
reaction for the particular reaction A-B is :very Small. and the temper%ture
,_ _I ‘i . -.
of the feed stream is. not’ expected to cpange signiflcpntly‘, the ,Wmperature of
i
the reacting mixture will not change appreciably. In this case the reactor
,. /,
II
can bei assumed iso thermal. We can ‘exclude-‘the total energy balance from the
mathematical model and the temperature from the ,set of state variables;
., I _ ‘. (, ,.,’ : ,.
. L ‘5 .
Examples ‘;‘.9, 5.10,
5.10, 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13 demonstrate very simply but also
> > !; ! ;
)’ )’
-
vividly how’ the %.mathematical model o;f a process .can be simplified when we take
: ,’ ,y : ‘_ ; ‘,
into account various consider-ations Lrelated to the nature of the process and
:,t i‘i, 4 I
the characteristics
._ of the control problems. ~
,~,’
The control designer always looks out for such s f icatio.n.j$
icatio.n~~.~(_,f! i( ., z1 : ‘?I:
’ ‘-
i’
” * ‘I
SUMMARY biND CGNCLIJDING REMARKS -<; i 1.., * _*F[.x 8 , 5?’
,i! .‘ _ i .*.
The mathematica,l:
mathematics,!: model .describing,:i,the
.describingLi,the dynamic
dygmic behayi&,
behav,i&, of of ,$:
,a: pqoc&
proces& is
,”
the result of a series ‘of assumptions made the modeler* : :For ;socessi &ntrol .-
,I
purposes8. the !aasumptionsl made should: . , ,~ __ _ ,.L (,,”
‘ .“i. ”(,,” . . . bb: : :;,
- identify and retain thethe %tipo~tant,~iqput
irn~ortant,~input
/ . (dieturl?gncesl.~~nipulated’ v&iabl.es) v&ables) ,
equations when the outputs coincide with the state variables. In Part III we
/
,’
6. How does the number of *degrees of “&e&iom affect the number and the
’
I
’
9 Can. you
Can you have
havethe
thedesired
desired
operation’
operation’
for an
for underspecified
an underspecified process?IfIf yes,
process? yes,
explain w
explain hy.
why. If no,
no, explain
explain how,can
how,can you
youlift
liftthetheunderspecification.
underspecification. t
10. ConszQler a system modeled by the following set of state equations
Consi@%-
‘hi e
dt: fl(xl,x2,ml,m2,m3,dl’dZ)
dX2
dt- f2h1,x3al,d2)
f2h1,x3ayQ) , ’
dx3
dt-,f(x
f(x
3 1’x x2’x x3’mM2’mm3’ d1’ dd2’ d)
d)
3
where 1,, xx22,, xx3 are the state variables, m 1' m2' m3 are tbe manipulated
xx 1
where
(a) How
How many
many degrees
degrees ofoffreedom
freedom does
does the
the system
system .possess?
(c) Consider the above system at steady state. How many degrees of
.,”
freedom does it possess? . .
i
11. A system is described by the follow$ng ‘, sbt of state equationsi
..dx , .
dXl
dr* fl(ml,m2~dl,d2) ~ kd ,-J$
,‘
<A f2(ml,n$,dl) ;i,,
*,‘.
Find the degrees’ of freed&n for the system at its dynamtc state &d
: I.
steady state. Are they equal? If ‘ndt, why? What ‘are the implica$ions
I 1
V I
c“,
I I
i ; fl\ #?N I
I ,“, I I
h’ Ts /I I
I 1Llnll-r - ‘)UfPUT ~0DE.t. I ,_’
I
L - - w e - - - -------c---m-----------c--. I :
F;qtlre k.2~ *
d d
;
rI --------------------e--*-r.--‘--- II
I
I
'I
I
I
fF, ,4(,-
‘a \-,
I OUTPUTZ
a'&) j
I
1
I
INPUTS 1 I
I~~PuT-OUTPUT EJIOPEL I
l- --------.----c& - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ricjure 5 . 3
..,--. _ __
1 I
.
,
1
*.
.. . .
c
m
1 ,
i
‘\
A ‘). j
15:+"H&w caia the ?Jnpact'of
the disturbances simplify the model of a process?
:i
Give an example other than that discussed in the text.
",
:16. G&ve examples to demonstrate how you can'simpIify the model' of a process I
',
':~by'~Ef®ar$¶.ng'physicai and khemacal phdndmena with-sma&l impact on 1
the behav.fpr
-3 ,,
* of
,a::. .the process. _'- ;, ,"
,.
.'
17. Give'an outline of the steps tbat'yo$ should take .during the development
.. 1 . ..:',
of the tnathema&al model f'or a 'cbemidai process,. I_ '\, )'
, ,, .;
, .,. :
REFERENCES ""' ; ,i :
'
Chapter 4: ,Three' eiceptional references -with ,a .,large number of
i:, ; " process,
..
modeliqg examples parer 5 .~ .,' .rl S,‘ a = ,. " ,:
:, + , .'
(1) Process Dynamics and Control.' -voi ;i j., I b$ *J, MI": Dousl&, $~eniidg-Hall,
],
Inc., E~glewoO;d Cliffs, N.d. (1972). , .,:-'\ ', ,.* .,:I -f,i ,,
.I 1 ./ , .~ ",.
(2) Process Modeling, Simulation and 'Control for Chemical %ngin&&, by'
W. L. Luyben, McGraw-Hill Book C.o**I p 'New York (1.7,3)i, .* :. ,,:,' t: .
. ;p. .%i -'
(3) Dynamic Behavior of Processes, by J. C. Fri&ly, Prentice-Hall, It&.,
Englewood Cliffs,G N.Jj. (1972) l , Iz ‘i . ,, II I_ f7Q,’ + ,,~ ;
_ .’
For the development of the dynamic material and energy..;ktalanees, the rgader
7
could also consult &he following book mhere . Examples: .*' ,4.l@'.and
*j 4.1-11,have been
. .
:" 1 '. <1 a:' : i ;. /
adapted from: I
.. .I
(4) Introduction, to Chemical Engineering ~~~~sis'~:'by,lj?'.:'IW;:Pir.,RueselJ. and
M. M. Denn, J;.Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1972);:
I' / 53 o we,:: .‘ , : ?\I* a
Additional references for material'and,energy balanoer are: : '
'j *y;; :,, . . ,. ..i. '. .s
(5) Basic Principles and Calculations,.in Chemical Engineering,'3rd Ed., by
D, M. Himmelblau, Prentice-Hall, Ina*, EngL&?00&C1@!f*,.N.J* (-l.974).
L.
(6) Elementary Principles of Cbemieal~Pgdc~se~~~.by~~K. M...Feldsr* an&R. W,
Rousseau, J. Wiley and Sons, Ink., New York,$l978),
,"f "/ '._ : ,. (.' 1' :"., s.' i
For the modeling of specific unit operations and reactors, there &fists a large
'. I
number of textbooks that the reader could use. Not all models included'in
these books are convenient for process control purposes, but they could,help
to develop simplified
. and useful models. Among
.'-, all the available references
.: ::
the following constitute a par.tial.fist‘: ,
the design of process control systemsS the reader should ref.er to the following
book:
PROBLEMS :. I / ;..
I'
(a). Develop the mathematical model for each of the two systems.
'I
(b) What are the state vari&les,for e@i'syst;km,:and what type,of;,
,'
balance. equa$ons %ave'you used? .;,
,
(c) "Which mathemhtical model is elsier to a&ve~;~'0hat for System 1
liquid. The cross sectional area of tank 1 is' A,$&t2 and of.'Itank 2
d
'is A2" ft3 (for both systems). The flowratee :Fl, Pi, F3' are $a
i
i
ft3/min.
(c) ,Deve$op the state model .th$t $escribes the dgn.amic behavior!
1
o f the system. t c
,
(d) How would you express the hea$s
,1 given by’ the ttio ,steam flbws I_
(c) Develop- the state model that describes the dynamic behavior. of
the process, assuming that the heats of solution are strong
‘. ., I”
functions of tha composition.
i , a. ‘y. . . ;;
.., ‘+.
\
. ,f% ,‘.‘i.,‘, :,,, ai *
weak functions of’ the com’pos’i’tib’n?” ’ ” ’ ” ”
Assume that the flowrates are volumetric $nd ,the compositi&s ‘are in
volume, and that the heat, oft solution depends on the oom@s,~tio~n
.. - ‘3
7. Develon the state model for’ a ‘batch ‘reactor whese ehe F&&Y
‘1; i ‘. s &j Z’“‘.,I ‘$ I.‘2 . r:*
reactions take place. . I, .’
* ‘.
I‘
k, k,
4. :‘...‘.. .’
:: 9 ’c!*_
A ‘,tB ’ +C
, 1
\kZ D ~; 9 ,‘, ,r: *
,
All reactions are endothermic and *have, f irst-ord.er k&n,et+s,:, :@he :::#‘i,,
‘, .r;<;r‘
reacting mixture is heated by,steam of., lS&~ps,ig.w?&zh. f&$ws”‘through
.-. 2
a jacket around the reactor with a rate of : Q (lEr/at$n)-,. ?’ ‘~1
, .’ <$
8, Consider the continuous stirred tank rea&tor, system shot+W’in,,,~FiguVe
t ,, : i ';, ..*-
content with! 'At ' 'h&t.transfer a&&. -:
10. Assuming plug flow conditions for a jacketed tubular, react& (Bigure
' mixture around,the tube of t&e reactor,, ia used to keep-the reaction '
temperature et acceptable levels, Aqsume:,con@tant temperature for the
malten salt along the lengthsof the reactor. The reaction takes place
* ., ,.
in moles/volume. The’internal
., diameter of the tube is d (in.) ano
.j,.; .,L’ _
i t s langth >,;,II ,’ 6
(b) ‘Does the realtor possess dead time between inputs ‘and outputs? ,/
‘&plain. -.’ ’
., . I
11. F i g u r e P.,lI-10
.c
shows a s i m p l i f i e d reoresentntion nf ‘a clt-lllll bnf’trrr. ’
. .
j - __ ‘.~ . . . . - . . -. . -
,z
Feed water-“enters the boiler with a flowrate Fl (mass/hr) ,and ‘a,, tern- ’
?: :
perature TX and it is ‘heated by ; an :./
amount ‘ofS’heat Q (Btu/hr)
A sjmple feedbaclk control system has been..instaUed tlo keep the level
,
(a) Identify the appropriate state variables to describe the system.
‘, : 5’; , -, ./,
(b) What are the relevant balances, for the system?
!, 1 3 1
(c) Develop the state model for this flow system. ,
water enters the pipe. Assuming the t A does not diffuse along the
I
length of the pipe: . 1. : , : 1 .
(a) Develop the state model that describes how the <‘, concentration of ‘. .(
_. _I’ / ,- i 1,’
: /a
The liquid stream passes through an isenthalpic ,expans.ion valve and
&:. 1 2 I i:.. /.
is “Flashed” into, a flash drum (Figure 416). The pressure p in
I” * .I _s
the drum ‘is assumed .to be lower than the bubble point pressure 04
‘
the liquid mixture at ,Tf. As a result, two phases at equilibrium
! !>
.
with each other appear in the flash drum; a vapor
,f, phase
_,. with a compo-
_ .‘
sition yA and yB (molar fractions) whic$ is drawn with a h,‘ .
;
,
_:. : ’ .:‘a i
(a) What are the fundamental ,dependen,t quantities whose* values .’
,..’
describe the,znatural state of the flash drum?, (See Section
15. StaFting with the statg,models for the two ,%&tams of Probl& L
4 : : .i %I ,. .” :, : ., ii .., i” (..._ :‘;, \ .‘L ::, _ ‘:: I” I_
i
*i,, : i,::., feve@p
(Figure P*II-f), .: * ,. the corresp9~~~g~ipput~plutp~t.
l. . “. ‘t.;. ., models. Also,
,
( a ) F i n d t+’ d e g r e e s.I..“^.
o f f r e e d o, m f o,‘. r : ev!..f,$.t a c h.” .&~&em,~:~~d.~,,U, ‘I ,’
: I
(b) Specify,, how i many control objectivee c& you h’#ve’for;each:
1 ..--I2% ,’ : .i ,‘,:;t3.j f:;r),
, “,
systaQi!l ‘.,\ -:>.r “~ ,:.
:
For each of the fallowing syst&e find?” ’ “:’ ; ,: .’
(b) The number of independent ko&rol joikj ectives you can specify,
(Problem 4) . . .,
(Problem 5) .’ 1, j 1
i)
(c) Fo’r the number control objectives you have specified, do you
input-output model. , :
18. Do the same work as in- Problem 29 for the two .CSTR ,system of Figure
P.II-8 ( P r o b l e m 9 ) . ., i
19. For the f,lashdrum system of Problem 14 (see also Figure 4.6) find:
‘_.
(a) The number of degrees of freedom, and _’
i,$.
(b) The ifi&nber.of independent control obj&tives” you can specify. “’
_- : , ‘, ( a.:
( c ) Identify,a s e t o f ’ c o n t r o l ’ o b j e c t i v e s bhich’are m$&ngfui ‘ “;
( ,. .t ;’ i
.I
from a practical operation point of ‘view, “” ’ ,,:,+,:’ s
~$
(d) Show how wouii you develop an, input-output’ model’ &r’ the
flash drum.
P.II-11). Assume that ‘the mSxing process and the CSTR are both iso-
thermal. I ,’
(a) Identify the. fundamental dependent variables which describe
(b) What are the relevant balances and what‘are the boundaries
“(a) Determine the number of’ degrees of freedom, for ‘the ‘plant.’ “I
22. Develop the state model for an ideal binary ‘l&&h d’istilla”t& column
* ,
with N ideal plates (Figure P.II-12). At t=O,- the composition of
;.
t h e i n i t i a l m i x t u r e i s cA a n d
mass is M (moles).
(a) -List the assumpt;lans you will ‘make for modeling the system.
,
( b ) I d e n t i f y t h e r e l e v a n t balance,;equations.
equations? ..‘I
‘:
.,E .,,
. .
12,
L‘
. _- -
I J L
ioo*psi \
Q, (lblmin)
‘- -
Fiqure ‘P.p- 5
,
I I FR : cons-kud
Figyw ?‘.0-8
. :
CST’R
r FR
~, :
- I I AL’
..a- 1 -
Liquid S.ream
Fe
d
y; ‘.**-:.- :.I 1. *
.. .. :.
. . .. .. .. .. .
--,
. ’ . ..- **. Fiqure P.X -13
. . . : ‘. --.
a..:. a.v ‘.
*. ,
. .:.*. ‘ . * ‘1. ::
‘..** .. *.. *. .* .
.., ..*. ..*. --:
. . .- . ..‘.
Liquid t A
1
: ’
:
.,,
.,;-”
PART III
*.
ANALYSIk OF THE DYNAkiIC BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
/
In Part XII we will study the ctynamlc: rind lwl~nvlor of SCVCViIl , f3 iniplo
, ‘~
process%ng sys terns. Understanding the dynamics of such simple s)tstoms a.l.low61
processes.
_' :
.I ,)
,The analysis is limited, to linear dynamic sysbems; T@s may se& incom-
patible with the fact tha<'moost of the dhemical'eng&k&&ing '.) _, .~ _ /. processes are
, .' I"
,..
modeled by nonlinear equations,' Rowe$or, linear .technique; . ,$e'very v&luab&e
:* ,.' .,/ _,:I ,j : $,.;
and of great practical importance the follov~hg reascns:. (a)..:There
3 for' is no
';.
general theory for the analytic sokution of nonlinear' dif'ferential e@nations,
" , I" : .; :".
and consequently no compreh&sive analysis o,f :nonlinear dynamic syst+ms.
,. *, ,I -ip I...'
,. _,. ,. j': s
(b) A nonlinear sjfstem can be ad,~~tely,appr~~~~~i‘(?d by ~linoar system
., I 1%,' near
I':! '
some operating-conditions; (c) Significant 'kdvancei in .,the'~inearl,;eontrol
I ' '!.
theory permit the synthesis and dsisign of.veri effective co&llers .' even for
., .*, -: !",
nonlinear processes. : ,)
In the remaining chapters of Part III we will cover the following items:
..
a ; :
- the dynamic analysis of various typical pr'ocesses and their stability
b
characteristics.
.
. i
,/CCMPUTBR SIMULATION AND THE LINEARIZATION OF NONLINBAR SYSTEMS
,...__,
.f”
_ .- I
‘ ‘Q ; , ;r:’
‘, ; : LG.InJorder-
, to,‘find the.dynamic
. : behavior of a chemical process, we have to
;. ” 1’
‘integratet2the state,equations used to model the, process.;,. But, most of the,
,’ .1
processing systems that we will be interested in are modeled, by nonlinear dif-
ferential equations,
r and it is well known thatthere is. no, general,mathematical
I
theory for the solution:o,F
,J .~nlinear.eq~iations., Only -for lineat I differential
‘. ,.
equations are closed form,
~. ‘analytic: solutions avail,able. ;,,’ :,’ ,
linear systems. ,.
/-
analytically, but the analytic'sbl'utions are very cim@ex 'and provide little
!
insight Wthe b&&v&r of's system; '. i.
I It is not 'only the aonlinear$ty of, the eqwtlons but alsothe sise of model
,; *
historically, analog computers were the first to be used to simulate the
..
dynamics of chemical processes with or without control. They iermitted a ’
~
rapid solution of the modeling equations, thus providing useful insight as to
+. ‘:. I ,.
how a process would react to eiternal disturbances ir how effective was the
,. -1, ,, .:‘i /
control of the process using various measurements, manipulated variables and
1: :
control configurations. The analog computers have several serious drawbacks:
/ Y .’
‘,
( a ) R e q u i r e s i g n i f i c a n t t i m e t o s e t u p t h e pioblem’and g e t i t iunning.
,,:, , + $
(b) The”need ‘of one hardware element per mathematical. oberatioh prohibits the
/ i: 3* ,i 5 ,2,
siinulation of ‘large, complex systems. (c) The nonlinear terms are simulated
i _.
by rather ‘expensive %ardiare’ ei’d;ents “(function generators)“bi.th limited
flexibility .
(d) They -” do’ not possessmemory like’the digital cohputers. ihe
I “) I’,!’ : 3: ” * .:,.
subeequent revolution;“brought ‘ibout by’ the digital eorniuters’i ‘made ‘the ‘analog
,s
,, y&;. & ‘a 3 ; ;*i iE$? i t Y,q<.’ ,; ,*‘, .<:: >
computers obsolete re sti?{I used’ in a”nme,Il ..$caFe and’.$mari.ly ’
_ ,_ ., ’ ‘ .I ,
.’ I”.
to train operzitorq‘ on the ‘dynamic opetiation’ Sf chAic% kiints. ,’
* :,-, ’ . ..I*.’ . i
The computational power introduced with the digital computers,‘;~a$Song wtth ,
: T‘ j
has expanded tremer@ously,” the scope
.1. ! I,. ,. . -*<; * r&hi: _ i I ( : 5 f ‘i” , 9 I ! ; ?_.j’
‘c ‘.~ -2 4% “ : .
and the practical significance ,of computer simulation for91 prcc4s@zdmamics
‘.,,,; )) .* 1 __ j s,.: ; “? ! ! :! : J I ?, 1” ,.!
and control. The availability of sophisticated equation goAGing foQtines for
:., “i$.$, .s, : 1; $&, q, ,’ I
almost every digital computer sy.stem availabe has simpli.Eled the’required
i
., . ‘. 2; ,J, )j a I . ~ i c.
groundwork for process simulation and has relieved the engineer from the need
: i’. aI ,.*1 \ j_ ,;, ! .
to be an expert in numerical analysis.
’ ’ I :, . .‘, I. .,
Digital computer simulation of process
. dynamics involves :the solution of
it. , ‘(,/, : \ I ‘. *s:’ ,
‘. ‘.
a set of’ differential and algebraic equations which describe the process. l
i :. ,
There are several categories of numerical methods which can be used to”
;_ 4.’ I,
integrate differential equations and solve algebraic ones. Let us examine
/
briefly the simplest and most populat hong them.
* : *
‘
j
‘,
I,
.-
t. .~ ;
,.’ .,
.;::,j..+ s .
computer simulation, is that “it only gives you,.numbers” and not a general
v
analytic solution in terms of arbitrafy, unspecified parameters which in turn ,
;/j
you taylor to your’ particular prob&m. ,Theref
’ ore, the results of computer
ia
simulation are of ad hoc nature , and you will have to make several runs with
.‘ : ‘_ :,
different values for the input va&&es and parameter8 before “you can estab-
i’i” ,j
lish a good understanding of the dynamics of the particular ‘procese.
.,j .%
: . 1 v,., ,; ,” ‘,C
6.2 LINEARIZATION OF S,YSTRMS WITj;: ONR ‘;ARiAF&
J
L i n e a r i z a t i o n ia t h e p r o c e s s by’which’tbe approz&at!e nor&rear &ten%
(b) All the significant deV$!&qprR~ntS towards the design of. ef&titive &ontrol
‘~:j ,:, _ ,i .:
systems have been limited ‘to;‘line$r epteqe. ., .:': .,:;:
': I :
process :
d x .=
7 f(x) ( (6.1)
dt : -'--'
Expand the nenlinear function’ f(x) into a‘Taylor series around the point x.
‘,
and take: 1i :.,
‘. II. .:
very &lose to xo where the’ vai&ue of the t’&m I : is: very small. :::’
Tn Pigure’ 6.1 w e ten sco .tl\o nonlihaar $unct$on f ( x ) )-and its’ J&tear
,
linear approximation depends on, the ?lbcktian “of the point xo “around- &ich we
system given by eqn. (6.1). In later chapters the design of the process con- I
‘
troller will be based on such approximate linearized models.
Example 6.1
Consider the tank system shown in Figure 6.&, The total ma@+! balance
.* , ,,,
yi&&,
/ . .’
dh
A dt = Fi - F. (6.6)
i ._., '.
where A is the cross-sectional.area of the'tank,and h'the height of the
liquid level. If the outlet flowrate
_,, 2. ; F is a linear funqtion'of the liquikf's
. ,* > :!
level, i.e.
I '.>
- a h, _' where a - constant (I
F. I , .I
: .i
. . ,a I
which is a linear differential equation (modeling a linear dj&&c system) and
"' ! . _‘,
no approximation is needed. , i ,' ',
/ :
If on the other hand; I
F. = B
then the resulting total mass balance yields a nonlinear dynamic model,
_. _* ,' :
VfbFi : '..' (6.7)
Let us develop the linearized approximation for the nonlinear model. The only
.,
nonlinear term in eqn. (6.7) is 13 v%. Take the Taylor series expansion of
as
h=h 0 :
?
0
t: o + ‘.-dt-d(h
-sdi ‘A-(h ‘- hi) + :,“’ fs (h - ho)2’ + l .;
h =&PO + m-k-’ ih - h o ) :
2%
I, 2, I,
which, if introduced in the nonlinear dgn8mi.c
dyn8mic system (6.7) yields the following
: ,jP
Qnearized approximate model:
"”
Adh+.di-hsF _ vii-
dt i (6.8)
. 2% .
j 3 i O >p"
>p” :_ . ,#,. >.$
2.s ‘.'. !'!’
I
fl
.i Let”us compare‘ the linearized, approximate’ m&h& given by eqn. ” (6:g) to
3. P
the nonlinear
one, given by eqn.
eqn. (6.7)..
(6.7).. Assume
Assume that that tha
tha tank
tank is
is at
at steady
steady
1’ *,~j
with a liquid level h
state With Then at time t=O, & ‘stop the-supply of liquid
0’ 0 ’
.;
to the tank, while we allow the liquid to flow out, Th&,’ a t r-O
t-o th,o l i q u i d
level is at the steady state value, i.e,” h(t=O) -‘ho:!-‘ho;;: Curwe ‘(A) .$n Figure
;
solution of
6.2(b) is the solution of eqn.
eqn. (6.8)
(6.8) and,“curve
and,"curve (B)(B) in
in the::
the$s&e
s&e figure figure ,is
,is the
the
,a> : ./ _'’ : ,:i~ ,* 9,. ~
solution of eqn. (6.7). We notice that the two curves are very close to each
.: ‘.i
other for a significant period of time. This indicates that the linear$zed
I ,.
model approxim8 tes at the. beginning very well the nonlinear model.
1
As the time increases and the liqudd,level continues to fall, fts value
,r;:i I / . .. ‘, .,; -.
h 1 deviates m&i’ and more’ ;rom the~~&ri&al value ho around .which the
linearized model was developed. Figure ,6.2(b) indicates very ‘&early that as
the differ
the difference
enca 'ho
‘ho - h +ncrea8es the.
the. l%:neolriaed
l%:neolriaed appro)cimation
appro)cimation becomeo
becomeo ;pro-
Let us now introduce the concept of the deviation variable that we will
find very helpful $I% later chapters for the control of processing systems.
d(x - xs)'
xs)' .L.L :" . :.i. :/ a .* ' * i,2i ,.
'.
m (df, ') ( x - xs) (6,. 11).
dt dx xs ., * 3
dx' ="(q i
dt dxxsd -' S.&A * .y (6.12)
i :. .u’ :
5- ~<r ,‘.(
Equation (6.12) is the linearized approximation of the nonljnear‘idynamic
. >, ,,'.'P " I :. "
t,. ; 'St: (-. j sys-
.'
tern (6.1), expressed in terms of the deviation variable x'.‘
.‘ ' ,' I 'kj! *
The notion of the.deviation variable is'vesy '? useful in' procesd,control.
,
of.the given process has been designed. well, it will not allow the,process
variable to move
. far away from the desired steady state value. Consequently,
the approximate, .G linealieed model exp,ressed in. terms of, daviat$on variables,
will be satisfaqtory to describa the dynamic behavior of the .process near tha
steady atate. :r I.
In the subsequent chapters we will make extensive use of'thelfnearized
fdrlr5i Of dll:Furl!ntl,ill cqilcltions, in terms of deviation variables: ' "
r'
! ,-
;, 3
Exumpta 6.2 al
:: I’_
/:
Consider the linearized model of ‘the; t&k &is tem (given by eqn’. ,.(6.8), of’ ’
_., ._/
Example 6.1. Let hs be the steady st,ate vakua of the.llq@l level,fcw (,
._, ,,.’ .,,
I
a,,
given value, Fi,s of the inlet flowrate, Fi.: Then, , the linearlzed.model ^
:*
around ,,hs, i.e. h 0 5 hs, gives
(6.15)
,
nonlinear dynamic system that had only one variable. Let us noG extend that
a&f2
+c axlax 1 ~~~~~~~~~
(x 1 -x lo )(x,-x2()) +*-**
Neglect the terms of order two and higher and take the'following approximations:
afl
fl(XiSX2)
fl(XiSX*) T fl(Xl~‘X20)
fl(Xl~‘X20) f (-)
afl
f (-) “4
“4 ’’ (X
(X -
- X afl
)) ++ (-
(-
afl
ax2+x1o,‘
X
axI (X ~(p2~)
ax1 1(p*$ 11 1010 X 20)(x2 - x20)
X2#x2
,. *
and ’ -, C’
,1.I >< ; .. ‘!
af2 .a+,. ,:
,:
f295) tf2(x1(92())
tf2(x+2()) +~~)(xlo’x~o)~~~-~~~~ +(;i;;;J(x
+(;i;;;)(x
10;2c~o) (x2 - x2*),
.,” .( ,:~
: ,,’
. ‘CL. _-
Sub,stitute t h e a b o v e l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s o f f,b(x1,x2) a n d f2(x1,x2) in&
1
the eqns. (6.16) and (6.17) af ,the init& nonlinear dynamic system and take:
dXl
x=f1 “(X ~~,X2~)f~~)(xl~~x20)(Xl-Xl~)+~~)(x,~~,x~~)(.i‘~2~)(6*l8)
These last two equations are linear,differential equatiod .and constitute the
0. - ;. (6.20)
fl(xl,s,x2,s) .
0 -
.; f2(xl,s,x2,s) i :;- t (6.21)
9
Subtract eqn’, (6.20) from (6.18) and (6.21) ‘from (6.19) and take:
‘. ,. af
, , ~ rhrx ) -‘~.’ , ':"j'
I~$&&& (1)
axi (x l,~,x2,*)(x1-~l,a) ~,~~~~,l,*,x2,a)(“2-,x*,~)~~;22)
c
and
l,s,x2,s)(x1-xl,s) + (~)~~l,s’X2,s)(XZ-.X2.a)(6*23)
eqns. (6.22) and (6,23) take the following form,in terms of’devlation variables:
hi
- i
-dXi !' :, .
+ a12x; *
aiixi
3
dt
‘,L
3; :
,i %,,dx; ‘I ., .+ _: ‘
~ .: -‘
dt
s
‘akxi + “22x; : ’
,j
_.
where ‘: es;. ~. c :.p ,,.-I*
af.
i
af- '
dxl
-
dt z fl(x1sx2~yn2sdl) I
dxl afl ,
afl
dt = f1(x10sx20sm10s~20rd10) + (T&~ lx,- xl01 + $qo (x,- x2$‘**
. .
t.
wh-@l-e all the derivatives have been camntr~d a+ +h- n~4..+ -e ,.,-r--.t--ll--
Xi 3.’ X2 -’ Xi0 ‘=
ml, di d2 - --
d20
-
Introducing theie deviation vari&les in’l.eqns. (6.24) and (6.25) we take
’
.
‘. (-
*t *‘_ sallXi f .~;ZX; + bllmi + bl2m; + Cldi (6.26)
., and ‘7 :,.”
_ dxi”’ . ‘.
c ,txi ,f_: tal$ + a22xi + bzlmi f bZ2mi + ~~$1 5. .C6.27)
.*, ,;+
where the cons tante a.
i-j ’ bij’ =i are the appropriate derivatfves in the
eqns. ‘- (6.24) .annd (6.25)) i.e.
and
I’ * .’ ’
form that we would like to have for ‘process control purposes, i;e. ‘linearized
,.
approximation of the nonlinear state equations, in terms of deviation
,! .:
_
var iab 1 es. \’ ,* . 1. I
,
Example 6.4.
Linearization of a Nor&o thermal CS~TR ”,$!:: ~ r : ’
I I > y> '5
The modeling eqt tations for a CSTR were given in Example 441O'by eqns.
(4.ga), (4.9aj a n d (4.10b). Assume that the volume V of, the reactlpg ‘i ‘I-
‘,
mixture remains constant. Then,. ‘the dynamic :model of the ,reactok
‘_ _. “ I is !relktced
to the following : ,
dCA k, e-E/RT
$ cc - CA)’ - ( 6 . 2 8 3
dt is.= Ai : .O” CA /
I,
and
“
dT
,
dt’ - f
P ‘,
’. I ? .? .~ I
-& a:
This model is nonlinear due to the ‘presence of the no&near term .e .’ -- cAS
.
while all the o.ther terms are linear. ‘*Thus, in order to linearize ,-n?qns.
(6.28) and (6.29) we need only to rinearize the above”nonlinear term around
(6.31)
P _
I
$e can proceed a stlp further co develop a more convenient form for eqns.’
-E/RTo
0 = $ (;;4"' - cA ),- ki e .-c (6.32)
i0 0" AO
,.
I
.;.. . I
-E/RT_ .t.
0 - + 'Ti -To)+ 8 Jko e - 5 (To-~Tc ) (6.33)
Q _ ., 'I.,/ ;a- . o. 'A 0 ‘. ,.p :‘o j
dca \ '-R/RT_
-d'[(.c -c "(T-T~)-~~ e u(~A-
dt T CA 0.~.)
,:: Ai ,A : ,) '! !':.-
. (6.34)
-E/RT .I
,.,
i
I + I (e O)(cA-,CA)
0
I -3 [(T-To)
P
-- (Tc-Tc
0
)I. 1 e(6.35)
:, *
Define the following deviation variables:
I
Then, eqns. (6.34) and (6.35) take the following form,. in terms'of the deviation
: !-
variables:
dCA f. i ,; i ‘i . ‘% koE -E:/RT -E/RT
--7
dt Cc& - cl> -, ~~~ !+‘. T - hoe, ‘1~: (6.361,.
:’ 3’
.[,0 I
.1I; ..
l ci :---g
dT' m 5 (T;‘- +') + r ,,*
- Jk CT'-T;)
dt
I P (6.37)
_ (,
'<
-.
1 SUMMARY AND CCNCLDDING:RRMARRS
r, 1. .,. ii
Most of the chemical engineer&rig syst& ire modeled with nonlinear
only first order terms, while second and higher order terms areineglected.
,: -i$, :"
j:
The lineaiized model provides very 'good',~Bprol;tnate'de~.~ripsidn of a ,process
only near the point of linearization.
':
For process control purposes the steady sta& operation of,, &stem is
taken as the point of. linearization. the-jatroductionbf the This allows
.9 I
' deviation variables
ii whose values indicate how much a system is removed from
L the desired steady state operation. The deviation variables are very useful .i, "
,
quantitiss ip control and in subsequent chapters we will model a
2'
.;, : t
prOc888 alWay 'in tqm8 a$ deviation ~Varfidib?!S~~
I’ ‘,
?I
i (
y
I
.’ .I .-_ ,I
‘
.,, ,) ;? :;.::
f .’ “. “‘,.. .A . , ii’ ; _ ,._’
THINGS' TO" THINK 'ABOUT
4.
4. What is
linearization,? I*/
i
5.
5. Why are.the linearized, ap&%imate models useful for process control
:
purposes? : i
6. When is the linearized model more accurate, near or far from the point.
1
of linearization, and ,.. why?
7. What is the most attractive‘pdint of linearization for control purposes
and whyi?
8. Which linearieation
Which linearieation iris mote
rnoi~~ uskful,
useful, the one around
the one erouad the
the point
point AA or
arc the,
the,
.
. ‘
one
one around,'the
around,'the point
point B,
B, and
and why?
why? (See
(See Figure
Figure 6.4-1). \’ .
9. What are the deviation variables? What is the point of linearization 'r
in order
order to
to define
define the
the deviation
deviation variables
variables that wiil be-
that will be useful for
for
ssteady
t a t e .
.’
.-
11. The following differential equations provide the mathematical models
t
‘ for several processes.. Which of them $$e"linear and which nonlinear?
1
dxl
I bl-z-+ b2
5,’ 1
I CH,APT?ER 7'
,;: *I l.
? *it LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
,,:; I
The use of L&place transforms offers a very simple and elegant method to
I, & i '
solve the linear ar linearized differential equations.which ,#* result from the
; ,\S , .j,
mathematical modeling of .chemical processes.
:", :. j ' 6 ::,
The T,aplaee : transforms
1 ~ < .*, also allow;
:: “), i"
.
I
various external.influences.
,ld i. '... ., !&.i 3
It is for all,',the
above reasons' that the Laplace trans,forms have been
,- :
included in a Process Control ;,_bo$', although they\, constitute a,purely
rY' k, -i. : i :
mathematical subject.; !
:
“.
:
I- J=
0 0 .
’ f-%i ’ ,’
Now, if a - s > 0 o r s<a ‘then&e i&g&” i n ’ ( 7 . 2 ) ,?‘.
: ., , “.
becomes unbounded. ‘Consequently, tire iapia&’ transform of
:’
e at is defined only for ’ s>a, . which yield finite values ”
.,
f-or the integral in, (7.2).,;: AI,& the. fu$ctions that, we wi’ll ,;
@’ *
be concerned with in this Ibook &ll possess Laplaca trans-
. !
forms so Mat we +ll nob”‘test their, exis’teac’e every ,time . ‘.
straightfoeard,
& i.e,,,. ; ’ ’ + ,j *. -.
/ I :
S ,’
‘;
, 3.:’ :: .&~jL& ‘, .‘, .,:. 1 _ -“‘ ,a:‘.;. &“’ ..:A$
If,(t) I.
7.2 THE LAPLACE &UWFORMS OF_! I f@4E BASIC F&CTIONS " "
.q , 6.'
Let US now apply the Laplace transformation on some basic-.&ncfions that we
Then
Pro0 f :
‘;
&=-St dt ;, ; .*
&c[at] -
.
0
.‘
Integratffig by. parts, where t and e et
1 ‘are ,Ghe two’ hnct%ons’, we take :
i .’
0 !’ . ‘.: , ‘P ._ 0 TJ’ .,
: a.,
Proof:
-
-- -*: - -. .I-;
:.
“
r,
^” .:
’ ”
f., ,.
.’
: ,‘ . .
”i + w’
.1
.j
Similarly, it can be proved that,, <,
>’ i ) ,’ :.:.,. :
b’
~[cos(wt)] - s2+42 i *’ ,^ p) L.
ri’
n
Note: In the above proof we have us&d the Euler ,identity ;~ ’ ’
1
e3a _ g-N
sina : - 4
a -_ .i I
‘X
:_ ‘-.: ,,I’
d
e3a + Ja
cosa -
2
D. gtep,Functi,on, (Figure’7.lb) ‘I -’ ”
-0 1 for tco
d[step f u n c t i o n o f s i e e A ] = As (7.9)
, L ,.
.9 .‘y,
Proof:
* 1 a. ’
We notice, that a.:discontinuitv in the value of- the function’ exists at
T‘ ‘II.
t=Oi-,
t=Ot, i.e. aa very
i.e. very small
small but
but finite
finite positive time, instead of’.
of’. t&O,
t&O, Hince,
E. Translated Functions ,’
.
Consider the function, f(t) shown ‘in Figure 7.2a, sf .this’funct;ion is
4
delayed by to eeconds we take the function shown in Figura.7;2b, and if it
is advanced b y to seconds then we have the .,curve of, Figure 7.2~. The
relationship among the three curves is:
curve in curve in c u r v e i n
Fig. .;7.2c F i g . 7.2a Fi;g. 7,2b
L e t S!Z[f(t)]
= f(s)
)- be -the Laplace transform of, f (‘t) ;’ .Then .’ .’ ’
t
‘. I’
1
-a0 -SWto)
,,$[f(t - to) ] = -f (t - to)emst .dt .f e. . <;‘f(t.- to).e , , : d(t- to)
I r
0 .s?
.; ”. .O rs ‘_ , _ i L ,.“.I I
S i n c e d t = d ( t - to). L e t ty to=ri t h e n ::.
,.‘, ., .” ;;.r:. I * ,,’
c j
-st OD -s(t-.to)
:’ ., ., .” ?qt*., Q) . / “ _ ~: ;,.
0
e f(t=to)e d(tL t ) * e ._ f(r)e-*’ dr
I I i”~.
0. ;‘toI I: -., “, :
0
z 1
*’
’
-St0 * 4
‘I - e f(T) $-ST dT,. 6: e ,o ?(s) ! : 1.4 ,(
I , .’ . .
0 ‘I 1
Notice that in the last. equality,we ‘rep$aced tha lower., bound -to wPthv ,O.. (*
This will not change the value ,of the.Jntagra& since f<(t) 4 9 -for t&k d 0.
1
9 Equation (7 .lO) will be pakt$cularly useful in the computation of
‘ ;;: ,
tiplace transforms of, systems wiq,*,dead, time. V,
i.!’ 1 ; I
: % >
‘.,
1’ 4,:. :;. -1
Example 7;l
is .the temperature of the fluid flowing .in the pipe. The temperature of the
is the dead-time (transportation lag), i.e. the time required for a change in
I f ,?&Tin( t ) ] - Tin(s)
J.
-st
Tout(k) = dfl[Tout(t)] - ,$%in(t - td)] - e d f,,(S). .
.
,:
Consider the. function shown in Figure 7,3a., The height is l/A and the
,‘: ‘i . ,: ? s’
‘I
width A. Thus, the area under the curve, is
/ if,’ ., 1 :>
L
area - 1
X’” r’l 1 i. _
1 This function is called unit pulse function of duration A and. 58 defined by:
0 f o r ‘t<O‘
,/I s -f 1 0,
I “ii(t) i &ct<A
l/A f o r
i . ; . *
1: 0’ ‘+/ for t>A
1 ,
I .* :
It can also be described as the difference of two step functions of equal size
I
r..;
l/A. The first step fuktion occurs at time j t=O whiie the second is delayed’
‘,t _’ .;
by A units of time. Thus, if
1
I.’ first step function: ,
t<o
then,
3 ,’
,-f.(t) - f.6A)
‘4 .~,
G; Unit Impulse Function
:
_ I 3: I ‘;
Consider that the duratidn A of ‘a unit pulse function& allowed t o
, *. i. .; ,r) L/
slirink, approaching’ z e r o , w h i l e t h e heiiht l / A .~ appr&ches i n f i n i t y . T h e
‘4:
area under the:curve remains always ,’
A +“I I l 1 :’ ‘,,; 1 : : r j f’ ‘i
I
/ . ,
As A+0 we take the function shown in Figure’7.jb. This function is called. ”
i! 1 i’
I~!L~,-Q!!~)~I~~ or I).Lrnc function and it Is usually represented hy a(t) l I t i s
i-
defined as equal to zero for all times except for t=O. Since the area under
). ;;-, “,i’I : .’ _- Ij, c .!
l.hc unit pulse remains equal to 1, i t in c l e a r tl& tlih ia true for the unit
.-I r., ,- ; ’ !,. .) :
impulse, i.e. L
G(t)dt - 1
I
-cn
;erw1 - 1
Proof:
;7 i" ':
'tabulated. ' '4 . ., -: _: "
": ,.
Remark: It ii Amp&tant'to nO&z& tba$'Xhe
" ,i ;.a '.
baeie fundtiona exam3n;ed-P$.3zhis.:se
time, which include the elrponential ie,, e,.+og . .!Bh+efo$e, -*, for..
*. ,.
where qy(s) and q2(s) are two polytaomial$,in 8, i.e.,: : '! %.' g,:'
I )<
Example 7.2
91w
i rf f(t) = cos(wt) then f(s) = 8
= 42(s) 13th
w-?-y q&ii)
- - i4t 0
8 2 + to2
and .q7(s)'L l-s2 + w?. From Table 7.1 if f<t) T_ emat cos(tiit) t h e n
' :“ :
1‘
s+a &". s&Q
?(s.): -
(s+a)2 + w2, q.2 ~~~,.
“; * .’
: .I
./ -,,‘.i ‘:j x
.
with Q,(S) 2:‘ “2 ,'
-J.- _ = i-s + a a&I~.. i:a,f85
"FZ'"-, 88 1.9~
-7 +- 2a’ : 8 9’.(ig~ ,-r- tlJ2):
/ .'
0 ”
.,.~ ( 7 . 16)
‘ '.i ,. j
-- .(7.15) and*$7.161
* From eqns. (?.14j. -, k~‘&tr
~_ ----ce that in orde?.‘to ffnd the
I
Laplace transform of any derivative,,w$ n&$d,to have a number of initial con-
t
Pi f(t)dt] = " (7.17)
0
where. _
-. ‘,
. I
and dv
Now
t
f(t)dt]e-*tdt i -~-$
J ,J
0 0
” 0
0
“d-‘fdt ’ .- St dt p &cS) _ f(o) .- ‘,’ .’
‘,
5, .-: I
Take the limit of both sides as s-9
01 "
lim @&$ e-" dt - lim [s?(s) - f(O)]
S-+O s-a 8.
0 +
Since variable s is independent‘of time t, we take
'
1
lim"dflf) cost dt - lim [s?(s) -,f(O)I
!, P;
Example 7.3
lim f(t)
t-
a.. _,_. _
;
i .-
Z(B) =. E(t)e-=dt - Laplece transform of f(t) .
r- - ( )*? > _,
‘ o"; / ":> I, "i‘ ', :" .:. ,
'( .I
The proof ~follows the* $nme patteen &i:kdr the final-&alua theoreti,. '
‘; .‘ : ^ ,;r 1: : /^
, ‘.-,,
.I ;, :*s, ;:*i
Example 7.4
,*;.' :.. .; .,_ 1; ,. &I. ._ ;
Let Z(s)
b
we have,
As was the case with the final-value theorem, similafly for the, initial-
F
.__
*, c ,’
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ;JI- , ;‘i i. ‘.Y?, ‘7 +a
*I
The Laplace transform
The transform of
of aa function
function f(t)
f(t) ,-defined,
,-defin&,by eqn;,~.:~(!.l),
by eqn;,t, ,(T. 1) , isis aa
,.
linear transformation of a function from the’time “domain to the s domain
* ,:.
where 8 is a complex variable.
..
The important feature of the Laplace transform is that it always leads to
I> h 1
a function’& t h e 13 d o m a i n , w h i c h -is t h e rgtl,pof two,polynomials In s
,I
(with the only exception the tranelrted Sn .Qrn~ ,fufz@ionr) t in$apendantly
I ,! *
of the type of the initial function f’(t) which can be: constant, linear
b
in time (ramp), trigonometric , exponential, or linear combination of the ”
.
above, etc. 3,:
li ’ ‘, I..‘, . c I.,
In addition, the Laplace transform <converts the derivatives and the integrals
into ratios of two. pplynomials. This .imRortant feature allows .tFie con-
show that
[cos(wt)] - *
s2 + u2
:
6. Show that
where
?(s) = iAf(t) 1
7. Starting from the equation yielding the Laplace transform of a derivative,
'a
i.e. 4
df(t)
r dt d-" dt - s?(s) - f(O)
0
_’ 6) II
, , I La.-.-J, ,.- ‘7 1
Tnb-le 7.1. Laplace 'Transforms .of Various Functions
Unit Step
Ramp, f(t) = 1
t” n.!
xi
a I ‘I
I /
~ TabLe 7.1 (continued)
t
cosh(wt) 8
2 -U2, "-I,
s
I-
.*
:. . . .
Table 7.1 (continued)
i 1
Time Fynction (tz0) Laplace Transform
eaatsin(wtI w
I CHAPTER 8
,a.,
SOLUTION OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
J 1. k’
,;
mentary and the particular solutions for l&near ddfferential equations. The
_ : I - &t;,c" :*z ! 4 ; "/ L A i .,?'< ; r;'.' h y: L h &; :; I 1 *
same procedure'can,,~ie'exte~deb"to 's%ple oti”q$!tems of paftial diiferential
_ .ir ./’ , ,‘g ,$’ i ‘. .i $ “,I’ t
equations and to iritegral equation&. ,. I., ”
_*
+ aT’- $ Ti + ,,iT* > j,
$f .* ,‘.,j- / .‘: (5.1)
I’
.’
Equation (5.1) can be expressed in terms of deviation vkri+bl&, "" ?,
' dT' ;' .p .* ,! ‘< j. :: ',,!" 1
+ ,aT' =' 5 T'i' + '^ KT' (5.3)
dt ,I: ,"% ' 1: ',7 *i.. ,". ,'
: .,;
where <; . _.,j
T' - T - T(s) , T; = Ti - Tiis) , T; '= Ts - Ts'(s) *
I.
are the deviation variables from the steady state defined by the values
<. . . ,*J _ ,'
Tb) a Tib) and Ts(s)'
c r
Assume that the heater is initially at steady state: i.e. T'(O) - b.,
'
At &O, the temperature of the inlet'stream increases by a step of 10°F from '
‘ .I
its steady state value and remains at this new level. Thus, T'(t) = 10°F for
/ I ', T ,~ L
t>o. The temperature of the h~uib’in tile tank will start increasing and we
I’
want to know how it changes with time, In other words, we must solve eqn.
.:
,* ^.
or. ,
h
*
.
.
sum~~~M.~e the solution procedure described in the above example, w’e can
summ&3.?e
2’
hdentify, .s
, ( ,i .: ~ ‘. the following steps: *’
A., 3 -its’i Take
‘3: 1 fjthe
I , Laplace
:transform of bot,h’sid&. of the different&l equation.
,
,U& eqni., (7;14), ( 7 . 1 5 ) and (7.16) to develop; the La@aee , &ran&orms
of thy vnr.tbus derivatives.
I
llle init tat cond-1.tions giucn ~Fffr .tlW tllf-
it is not obvious at all what is the function jt( t) whi-ch has the” above’; I’
” i
Laplace ‘transform. : In Section 8.4’we
8.2’we .wcill
.wcili study a particular ðodo$gy for
Laplace transforms.
In this section we: will study a method developed by :.
t I.,.
Heaviside for the inversion of Laplace transforms known as J-leaviside. or?,
.
Partial-Fractions Expansion. __, . I ., / :.I _,
where rlW, r2’W,*** ,rn(is) are low order ‘polyno&ls like first,
second order, etc. . ;:’
B. Compute the values of the constants Cl, C2,*;*,Cn from eqn. (8.6).
c. Find the inverse Laplace transform’of every pirtial fraction; Then; .the
unknown function x(t) . Is giveh by ’ .** 1,’ : ,
6
r
.,,,, = k-l@$j + X~[~~ + ii*-+,, &.?j]
f.
. wh.ere -
z1 symbolizes the inverse L&lace transfcirm of the expression within
the brackets. The inversion’of each fr:action ean be done rather easily b,y
‘.
.,
inspection using tables of Lap1ao.e transforms for typical funat,ions ‘like.
When Z(s) is given as the ratio of two polynomials (eqn. (8.&) its
.:, ,. . , .-
expansion into a series of fractions is governed by the form and the roots of
: . h
the polynomial in the denominator P(s), In general we will distinguish two
i _’ ‘,’ j. .!
cases;
i /’ . i : . ?, ’
- polynomial P(s) has n distinct (all different) roots, real”orcomplex, or
,: -_
- polynomial P(s) ‘has multiple ‘roots : ’
.I .I
We will examine each case separately using characte&tic examples: “- .’
‘j ‘r -4 -* : I_
’
i
\ ..!, I ,’
given by
(8.7)
*and . . pj &.:
Pl’ ; 1 *P,y* = - 1
Therefort%;
Let us see now how we can compute the constants Cl, C2, C3.
.,
3
(8
i 9
2
(s-;)~(s-*)
)i.@!-D
C1(s+l) c&+1)
- s-l ,:- + c2 ,+ ‘yg--
'*
l ,. i
..
II. Dlstlnct Complex Roots of tha'Polynomia1 P(s)-'
I
Consider the following Laplace'transform ‘ '
Z(s) f - -s-i-1
- - -
S2 -2s+5
The polynomial P(s) is of second‘order,and has ,two distinct roots! which s ,'
not real (as in the previous case) but complex conjug!ates, i,e. .,
ri ! , 'g
and
p1 -l-t 2j P2 - 1 - 23,
: <'
Therefore, _I
','
P(s) - 82 - 2s + 5 - [s - (1+ 2j)][a - (1 - 2j) ,,.
, ,' -. , .!_
Expansion into partial fractjons yields:
- Compute C2: Multiply both sides of (8.12) by [e T (1 - 2j)J end then set
A$i '/
c2 -
or
. Then we have:
.P . J
e 2jt = cos(2t) + jsin(25)
‘,. I ! ,<.’ Lt
*::
pd ’
.-2jt’
- cos(*2t) + jsin(h2t)” ‘A ‘~z?os(Lt) i jsin(2t) ’
h
ig -AL. ‘! i
I n e q n . ‘(8.14), r e p l a c e eLJr by’ti leir .squal:’ f$bm’th& above ‘eq&~tions! a&$
8’
t *_
take, : .? :p.’ :,
.,I’
.’ , . .I
* .
x(t) - g {(l-j) [coi3(;2t) lY .jsin(tLt) ]?+ “(‘l+j) &as(&) ?.: &&(2t)
J* 1,)
L : -.- - -
,: . Is :b -5 ~5. 1, ‘. _rl
or 1
:
\
x(t) - et[ooi(2t> + sin(2t) ] ‘-, ,. ., : (8.16)
/ i’ ,
Recall the trlgonomatrlc identity
” .>’ ,
alcdsb + a2sinb - egcrlo(b+~) (8.17)
‘I
where ,
*
c
;y
., . 1 .’ .:, “:;i 8 \. ; ._ ,,
II 2 2
! a3 .= r
al + a 2 ‘and. :. $I -. tan-l(al/a2) s
.
-..
-..
,*” .I’,’
/
From Tables 7.1 and 8.1 we find that .c ,t-,;, (
I t
c; C3 'C3 2 -t
.-p - C2teWt = Tteand z4,-1
8. ' (s+l,j 2 :. , * .&w3 I, . . i. r.
_
Consequently, the inveroe Laplace tranlfosm 03 ' (8.19) ir easily foutid tq trek'
: cg ,.g I, +.*,' p i .
x(t) - Clewt + C2tP + 2 -t e (8.20)
.+
Let us see then how can we compute the constants Cl, C2,1 C3*. and Ci.' ,
c4 = -1 .._ 3 .'
- Compute C3: Use the familiar procedure ,i,e. multiply both sides of (8.19)
1
.l (8.21)
-' - C1(s+l)L + C2(sfl) +* c3 + -*+2
s+2 I.
‘ i 1
Set (s+I)~ - 0, i.e. B m -1 and f&d ., , 1
;i
.cgi'-l'
:, '/ i : . :*$', :n i
- Compute C2: The familiar procedure used ibove cbnnot
L..; ,) be -employed for the
i " : n
computation of C2. Thus, if we multiply ,both sides of (8,19) by (~+l)~
',! '/
we take,
i Cq(s+l)
C3
* e,(s+l) + ci +;(
iG (s+&s+3) +; --GE- :
Then, setting s - -1, the term invo$vin$ C3 becomes infinite. The same
_' i &r i"* ,,i.l,.' .; i ‘ a, ^_
problem ;8' encountered if we try to cpmpute Cl, Therefore, dn'alternite
:, * _'. "
procedure is needed to compute C2 and Cl. ' '
il
Differentiate both sides of (8.21) wtd respec@&' s, &d take,"
r;.
I <. >a I -:
.
1 A 'F 2C,(s+l)‘ k '2, &> c,4 /hLr\ 2 ' /3an\
- Compute Cl: To obtain t&e value of, ,C1, diffetentiatd'g8,22) once more and
I.:
lita@, ..a ': * i'." ; '$ ,k‘-.. 1 ? , ) .,_ . '. ; ,!,
I I:,2
- " 2c1 + %;'c& ):i
.' (e+2)3
( : ,
.;
From Table 7.5.$a know that I
transform:
In this section we will give twa characteristic ex&~+.es ~.oP solving linear
differential equations using the’ Laplace transforms,Y, .The first example is the
* I,
solution of a second-order differential equat’ien, while’ln the’ second example
linear differential ,,equations ; ‘twill f aU,Qw j the same general p&tern outlilned in
the two examples. For the solution of ghe general n-th order linear
differential equ?tion and of a general system of linear differential equations;
:;.
the interested‘ reader is encouraged’ to consult ip&ndic& A anti‘ B at the end
.
of this clmaptey; j .’ . .I I
,
c, P ,i _, ;
‘, * ,r,
- >sx(O) - (2)
dt ]F-O
a2[s21(s) + a ,.-_[d(e) -0 i(O)] +‘ap - f ( s )
1
or ,I
“ _. i’:“,’ :2J ; .j,;, ; j’ I, : .: .“-‘I
The polynomial P(s). 5’. ais + ale’.+ aiD,. is,aalled the characc&ristie polynon&al
of a second order equatiaai In ;order tie’ invert <the right hand chide of (8.26)
r.:s . ’
we need to knew .&e rooes of the poZyaomia1 P*(s) i Depeading .on. the values
:
,* /‘
of ,.the
, .'. constants a2, a 1' and ao we can distinguish three cases:
T .'. .;'
...f',
::
Case.1: .;a2 - 4a2ao * 0. Then, we have two distinct real roots, .
.! I"
e.g., 'let a1,:,y,4, a2 - 1, a, - 3 then ai ; 4a2ao *'. 16 -1294>0 and
_., ,_ ,: L, .,
%
sl =, -1 and.:: s2:'= '-3.
.. ;
1 " - ; 1 'Z;. i. I Cl e2 C3
s+l (8.27)
s(a2s2 + als + a,) *(is2 -I- 48 + 3) &. s(s+3)(8+1) - -ii- +‘s+3’+
..a”: ..-
* t
Multiply (8.27) by s and set '~0. Find
‘i : ,
* i/3 , ':
c1 _'
Multi& (8.27) by e+3 bnd'lset a.4 -3. Find
*
*: -l/G : I:, “, ; : 1
c2
,
Multiply (8.27) by' s+l and set B - -1.. Find
:
S1 = T2 = -al/2a2 I
".l
.,.1
.) :
Let al - 2, a2 ~'1, a0 - 1. a: - 4a2ao - 4 - 4*1*1 - 0
',' 2,' ,,. 1 '" '. .,
s1 - s2 - -1 *
i
i Multiply (8.28) by s and set ~0. Find
c
'.
Differentiate (8.29)'with respect to .s T' ' . .'. I_ :
‘. 'I :
c2 - -1
2
Case3: al- 4a2ao <
Let a, - 2, a3 = 1, a, * 2, a? -$ b&a- - 4
roots are:
1'
b
$2 ,$a,
*-+-----+-(8.m) c3
s - k$U s - +J.
I, ._ .' 3.
t ,.>A‘. r ,v
, -. _p
Multiply (8.30) by s, set s-O, and find, :. "2..
- 112 L i:
c1
s‘1 ’ ty<,I
1. _) :
-q 1; ,1
L t_- _ EYIs- + . (-1+i) z$
e 4: y-l 1
x(t)
--
. . . + (-.w,i-l
- k _ _ -yl
, .
,;, ? i : !
,’
or if
- d ,..a *. _L -'a-. - _. ,’
Recall &k?i-ls;idemity'
,
dxl .I
t
P
allXl + I - bllfl(t)
dx2
‘a.21Xf
dt .+
3
with initial conditions” xl(O) - ~~(0) ‘IL: 0. Taking the Laplace’ transforms of
.‘, , .,
the above equations and after appropriate grouping- we find,
,
(8 - a lp$f’) - ‘l+$(‘) - bllW + b&(s): ‘i,;,
example.
/I*
* dxl
1 dt= + rx, + 1 with Xl(O) - 0
2xl
dx2
- - 2xl -t x2 + et with
dt
‘I ‘I’.’
I
Take the Laplace transforms and after rearrangement find.1
Using Cramer"s rule to solve the above system of linear alg&afc equations in
. ‘. : -z& :
?$(s), Z,(s), we find: :' _'; .'
'_ ;..r.i ‘ -,
: : " & _( .
or
:, (
3 9,
+) -
s'fs+l :':. .and s2(s). i -..,; s: r.2, /
\ s(s-l)(s-4)(s+l) s(s-l)(s-4)(s+l)
, 1, ' d i .~
Expand into partial fractiotis,
* ., i .x r ; : ‘
s2*s+1 cl c2
q(s) = s(s-l)(s-4)(&#+1) -y +x :.;' )I :'.
SUMMARY AND
CONCLUDING RRMARKS
. \ !. " : :, ;.f; a . '\ s,__ ,:t+,< , ,>:
In the previous sections it was 'shown that the golution of lineqr dif-
. * ,t
, .I :;,.,:.'. ,- '
ferential equations (single or syeti?Ofj 'be&omes ~"sii&le'ilg$braic problem
.,-
" ii(s) -
and
>:, -
x(t) -
I .‘. ’ ..I’? k.: J )I\. : .; :a! I) ;‘I.) / / ,$ . i ,;,c ; ,$
I’!
If f(t) - C (no external influence)
i we
'. .': have,the solutioni“.to the n-th,
i ._ ' iI f.f i 2:'
. . ,.: -' I! j .+ :i 1 I *i' ,‘ : *> !'* '*.,. 1,
. .I
x(t) - x2(t) -
I, . q*]~: ‘* _ ":.. : ;__ j
i' ,.
,' b.
roots of the characteristic polynomial.. i.P*(s) should -lie i to the left of the
/.ii ’ I ‘.- .’
: .
imaginary axis.
.I, ,
.r : ,. I’.i
I& \ ‘/ .t.
‘. ‘i ,,:. ., A*
:. : k1.r: i / i
,
4 .: .; +, .r
APPENDIX8,.B4'HE. I SOLUTION
; .- OF A GENERAL SYSTEM OF,LINEAR . DIFFERENTIAL
I EG UATIONS
,-,
Consider the following system of n linear differential
: .' equations:
'
dX1 - allxl + al2x2 +
5 - l ** + alnxn + bllfl(t) + l ** + blmfm(t)
dt .
i 'i ~, i...,.! L, :.iv 1. , _ , y; v
i '
dki
--$,= a2lxl -I- a22x2 + l ** ,f a2nXn f bqlflW + •*;~ +:b2nfm(t)
. . . . . . .
: v
// ! :/ ‘:
dxn
-qTa x + a22x2 + ** f a2nxn + b,lfl(t) + : '0.
l + bnmfm(t)
8 <,l
'. 1. ;, : ! ' !- j ,;* A I"‘ \ t 'A :5,,
I 1'
with initial conditions xl(G), - ~~(0) - ** I x,(O) - 0. In matrix: form the
l
* .j I/ j.
). , ', " '; I a
above. equations yield,- ,. .'i '
'fl.
:-,., / ,'," . ; , *i 1 .,t. ‘.:~, .> 711 , .
di I" .‘&B‘::
: 1
(8B.l)
dt - & + j, Bf .. ,-
. 3
where:
where: II =
[1
111. O
0 “1
= identity matrix; g(s) and
P 9
:, ,(!!I
: 2 : ,..: .,l I, ,:’ ” 1 ;, !” ”
, :1 : L
where adj($)x *a the adjoint ‘of m&+x S~U- (isee Appendix B)r:’ ,Thctefore, eqn. j ,
i8~.3),~g~es,., .i ir. ’ I ,.+ ,j ,? .! i , ,.. +’ ;I: 1
$t) *
:t PA
The inversioq will be done using $a&ia$.
< /
ftactidns expansion. The polpnomfal
‘, ,
P*;s) = 1s: - 4ii - sn + C& G-l +.;;Yp+ + ..‘. l + c,B T cp
k. ‘& * .
are called the’ characteristic values or+ eigenvalues ofi.,tI$ aiatrk ,of : S.
I 1. : -,‘,{&i
:‘, ,; ! id
coefficients &, which characterises the homogeneous’ iystk’af e&+ohs. .,
,.
.“$’ ! ‘,>
The eigdnvalues also determine ‘the forth of fh& solutiq6 ‘:z(t)‘. ‘,‘j “’
/ I:v
.. ..
C’
I
;)
: : *. >; : / L i.
4%’
1. ,I;Jhat is 'the characteristic polynomial for a Pzi,r%t-order and +I socontl-
. ic,
:,
oz%jer eystem? F i n d i t s roots,
root&,
‘,I
. ’ are: _/w%interested
2.. Why in-the roots of the charaeterlstic p’ol~no&~l of
.
an.n-th order linear differential squation, or ‘a system of linear d.$f-
,I
f erential equations? :
* .’.’
i dI
3. Ho~'doeg the prbcedure to’: $&@ute othe &netants of the terms resulting
IjIj
I'’ $ 1 _,:
t~e”pgre!ili’ fraotldns qpansibn V&y;
from t~e”pgrt!ili’ v&y,i i”n ,thQ’preaence of, multiple ‘’
,. _, ’
ro$qsi “, :; ;, :,, ,>* : : L :,
-. _,
1 (I .’ : I.I.,,
,.’ .h a.,
4. What ‘2s the complement&y eolutioni, and what; i$’ the particular eolutlon
(. ., ,,. :’ j1’1’ ; I. I $ &-, ’ 3%. .’ 1 * I.I ./’ /
for (a) an n-th order iin+ar differential equation, and (b) a 2x2 sys-
: i!(. .’ I ? i.
tem of lfnear diffaren~~al,8quatiansi ’ %WhatL do these eolutions mean?
1.; ;:,$. , ‘.’ ‘, ,., 6. / (
, f‘ .,
What fact&e’ deiermfne ‘.the@ ,i. ‘; : ‘$,’ :
’ : _’
5. Consider the foglowing ‘e$st+ of aimdtaneoue ifnear differential ” .
2
equations . : : I ,(
dxl : I / I l., 1’ * I. ~ ‘_
,<,.I i
dt: 811X1 + a12xie ,” fg(t) with Xl(O) - ~0
:
1 dx2
dt .- C2Pl t a22x2’ ‘j- f,(tj with x2(0) - 0
-
Show that this system ksn be converted to’ the following equivalent
sys tern:
-dX1 - - h(t)
dt allXl
and I
dx2 dx2
+- .b2dt + b3x3 - g(t)
bl 2
w h e r e bl, b2, b3 depend on ,all, a12, a22; h(t) and g(t) depend
on f,(t), ,f2(t) and their derivatives. Notice that the modified
System can b6 s~lv& seauentiallv and thlla mnre ma41v'+&&++kd.
1:,
r, ! ‘_ ,
Table 8.1. Inverse Laplace Transforms of Selec!ted Expressions
‘
s+a
3. (Mb) (s+c) - ‘.’ [ (a-b)‘dbt - (a-c)e’ct]
,-726T
a \
4. n at
- - - lcbt ’
(s+b)’
.
5. a 3 $ ,-bt
(s+bj3 ‘. /_ r.
A -
6.
-_ 3 t” ekbt
(a+b)“+’ ) ,. ‘i, ;, ::
,$’ ^.,._.
1 >
_,.. >.
7 . “..:. I‘ 1 _ ply
s(as + 1)
j; .;
2.
‘
8.
a : :‘;I> a+t -t/a
7 -y- c. ,. ” ,;
‘s(as + l).* .:, _: :
s.
* 2 . , .' -rwt
, 9. 1 +?e, z;>p
*2(s2 + 11~0~ +, u2jl,
10. - 1 -
? 2
(l+as)(s +w2 : (1 + il"wS)
1 ’ e-at - ein(cJr- 4)
12.
(a+a) [(sfb)2 + w2 ]
te
w[(a-b)’ +.k2]1e
(a&j’ -ty w2 ’
w h e r e cp - taa - (--“-
a-b.1
_.’ ,
4-d
CHAPTER 9
n-l
a &+a d ‘+ 0.0 + al s + a,y = bf(t) (9.1)
n dtn n-l dtn-l .
where y(t) and f(t) are the input and output of the process, respectively.
that the process is described by one state variable which coincides with its
output variable].
2 n-l
d
Y(O) = (%I t=O = 84
dt2 t=o = l *. =
L>
cdtn-l tz() = O
(9.2)
After taking the Laplace transform of both sides of (9.1) and using the initial
m - G(s) e b
n-l (9.3)
m a,s" + an 1s + l ** + als + a0
G(s) is called the transfer function of the above system, and in a simple I
I
.-
algebraic form it relates the output of a process to its input (Figure 9.lb).
I
The‘diagram of Figure 9.lb is also known as the block diapram for the system.
If the process has two inputs, fl(t) and f2(t) as shown in Figure 9.2a,
1
then its dynamic model is
n-l 1
a &+a d y+ l ** + al% + a,y = blfl(t) + b2f2(t) (9.4) _
n-l dtn-l
n dtn
I
with the same initial conditions (9.2). From (9.4) we take,
bl b2 I
Y(s) =
ansn + a
n-l
+ 0.0 + als + a0
f,(s) +- n
ans +a n-l +***+as+a Z,(s)
n-lS n-lS l o
or equivalently,
with
bl b2
G1(s) E and G2(s) K
ansn+a s n-l +***+as+a ansn+a
n-l
+***+as+a
n-l l o n-lS l o
G1(s) and G2(s) are the two transfer functions which relate the output of the
process to each one of its two inputs. Thus, Gl(s) relates the y(s) to the
first input z,(s), and G2(s) relates j?(s) to the other input z,(s). These
relationships are shown by the block diagram of Figure 9.2b. A similar pro-
cedure can be applied to any system with one output and several inputs.
Summarizing all the above, we can define the transfer function between an
F(s), and from (9.7) we see that the response of the system
is
Y(s) = G(s)ii(s)
dT'
- + aT' = t Tf + KT; (5.3)
dt
= L UAt
a $+K,== Fi/V and K = r
PP
or
Then,
and Figure 9.4 shows the block diagram for the tank heater. Gl(s) relates
the temperature of the liquid in the tank to that of the inlet stream, while
G2(s) relates the temperature of the liquid in the tank to that of the steam.
Remark.
-___ Compare the input-output model given by (9.8) and Figure 9.4 to
the more complex developed in Example 5.1 (eqn. 5.5 and Figure 5.1).
Consider a process (Figure 9.5a) with two inputs, fl(t> and f,(t), and
two outputs, yl(t) and y2(t). Let its mathematical model be given by the
deviation form;
dyl
- = ally1 + alp2 + bllfl( t> + bl$2(t) (9.9a)
dt
dy2
-= (9.9b)
+ b21fl(t) + b22f2(t)
dt a21yl + a22y2
Yp = y2(0) = 0
[Note: Here again we have assumed that the process is described by two state
(9.9b) and solve with respect to s,(s) and y,(s). [For the details of this
or
where the transfer functions G.,l, G12, G21 and G22 are defined as follows
matrix notation;
function matrix.
(2) For a system with two inputs and two outputs, like the
(number of inputs).
tank reactor in terms of deviation variables, given by eqns. (6.36) and (6.37).
- rl2
dcl;
+ L+ koe -E'RTjcL + E ;E'RTjT' = + cii (9.13a)
dt
-E/RTo
t UA T'
' =.i! T' +- (9.13b)
'A r i pcpV c
-E/RT kOE
-E/RTo
0
=L+koe , a12 = z e
all 'c
0
and
bl
= l/-r , b2 = UA/bcJ)
dcL
- + all CL + al2 T' = blcii (9.14a)
dt
dT'
- + a21 CA + a22 T' = blTi + b2TA (9.14b)
dt
2
where P(s) E s + (all + a22)s + (alla22 - a12a21).
cp Q) G12W G13W
=
f’(s) G2#d G22b) G2+4
H -
In Table 9.1 we see the six transfer functions corresponding to the CSTR. These
can be derived easily from eqns. (9.15a) and (9.15b). The transfer function
matrix is nonsquare since the number of inputs is not equal to the number of
outputs.
Figure 9.6 shows the input-output model for the CSTR in a block-diagram form.
Table 9.1. The Components of the Transfer Function Matrix for the CSTR I
output Input G Element Transfer Function
-ij
am cd, (s)
i
G1l. bl(s+a22)/P(s)
I
'i's) -a12bl/P(s)
y(s)
G12
G13 -a12b2/P(s)
I
T’ (s) Eb, (s)
I
G21
i
bl(s+ all)/P(s)
G22
G23 b2(s+all)/P(s)
34 = G(s) I
Z(s)
In general, the transfer function G(s) will be the ratio of two polynomials,
I
G ( s ) = $$
The only exception are system with time delays which introduce exponential
terms (see Section 7.2(E)). For physically realizable systems, the polynomial I
1
Q(s) will always be of lower order than the polynomial P(s). The reasons will
become clear in subsequent chapters. For the time being, all the examples we
function, or the zeros of the system whose dynamics are described by the
transfer function G(s). When the variable s takes on as values the zeros
The poles and the zeros of a system play an important role in the
The input-output model of the tank heater was developed in Example 9.1 and
it is given by:
l/T
Glb) = s+a
and has no zeros and one pole at s = -a. Similarly, the transfer function
G2 = sta
has no zeros and one pole at s = -a. Notice that the two transfer functions
Example 9.2 and are summarized in Table 9.1. All six transfer functions have
common denominator,
and therefore common poles. Since P(s) is a 2nd order polynomial, the system
-
-(all + a221 + (all - a221 2 + 4a12a21
p1,2 = 2
For given input f(t) we can find easily its Laplace transform Z(s), while
the transfer function G(s) is known for the partiuclar system. Therefore,
the response y(t) in the time domain can be found if we invert the term
G(s)%).
Furthermore, in general,
G(s) = s
while the Laplace transform of all common inputs can also be expressed as the
Pi(S)
f(s) = -
P2(S)
Consequently,
P,(S)
f(s) = $g - (9.16)
P2(S)
To invert the right hand side of (9.16) using the method of partial fractions
we need to know the roots of the polynomial P(s), i.e. the poles of the sys-
tem, and the roots of the polynomial p,(s). The terms resulting from the
system and the roots of Pz(s). Therefore, if we know where the poles of a
Let us use the following general example to clarify the above statement.
where pl, p2, p3, p4, p2 and p5 are the roots of P(s), i.e. the poles of
the system located at various points of the complex plane (see Figure 9.7).
The following observations can be made for the location of the poles:
A. Real, Distinct Poles, like pl and p2, are located on the real axis
(Figure 9.7). During the inversion, give rise to exponential terms like
pit p2t
C1e and C2e
pit decays exponentially to zero as t -f 00 (Figure
Since p1 < 0, Cle
P2t
9.8a). Also, because p2 > 0, C2e grows exponentially to infinity
axis produce terms which decay to zero with time, while real positive
poles make the response of the system grow towards infinity with time.
The term within the parenthesis gorws towards infinity with time. The
behavior of the exponential term depends on the value of the pole p3;
- if p3t
P3 ' 0 then e + ~0 'as t + w
- if p3t
P3 < 0 then e + 0 as t -f 00 and
p3t
-if p3=0 then e = 1 for all times.
negative.
C. Complex Conjugate Poles, like the p4, pt. We should emphasize that
complex poles appear always in conjugate pairs and never alone. Let,
P4 = a + jf3 and p$ = a - jS
In Section 8.2 we have seen that conjugate pairs of complex roots give
eat sin(Bt + $) .
9.9b).
- If a=0 then eat = 1 for all times, and eat sin(bt + 4) = sin(St+$) /
which oscillates continuously (Figure 9.9c).
behavior, whose amplitude may grow continuously if the real part of the
Remarks. (1) The above observations are general and can be applied to any
response of a system.
The use of Laplace transforms allows us to develop a very simple and con-
the concept of the transfer function, which is defined in the s-domain (complex
plane).
The transfer function between specific input and output is defined as the
ratio of the Laplace transform of the given output, over the Laplace transform
of the given input, provided that both have been expressed in deviation form.
between the various inputs and outputs of a process. From the block diagram
we can identify very quickly; (a) what input affects what output, and (b) by
how much.
The zeros of a system are the values of s which make its transfer
function zero, while the poles of a system are those values of s which give
and three measured outputs, how many transfer functions should you
Would you prefer that over the input-output model based on the transfer
it convey?
6. Draw the block diagram of the distillation column shown in Figure 4.10.
Can you develop analytically the transfer functions among the various
9. Repeat question 8 above, but taking the location of the poles of a system
into account.
10. Show that the poles of a 2x2 system are also the eigenvalues of the
r;,<. ’., ,.
I
r------------,
!L-e-,--,-- ,,,J
I Fiqure 9.2 I
I Fi 3 we 9.4
I
..-
b)
I Figure 9.51
I
I
I
I
c I 1 I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,
I ? G&l
I l
*ii,.
I
P4 - --
CHAPTER 10
The previous chapters of Part III have provided us with all the pre-
processing systems, when their inputs change in some fashion, e.g. step, ramp,
impulse, sinusoid, etc. In this section we will examine the so-called first-
first-order systems,
al Liz?!
dt + 'soy = bf(t)
yields,
k!Y + y =
a0 dt $- f(t)
0
Define
al
-= b
a and = K and take
0
TP ' a0 P
4.Y
'p dt + y = K f(t) (10.2)
From eqn. (10.2), it is easily found that the transfer function of a first- I
order process is given by;
I
G(s) = ti = ; :p+ 1 (10.3)
w4 P I
A first-order process with a transfer function given by eqn. (10.3) is also
G(s) = (10.4)
I
S
F(s)
(b) the resistance associated with the flow of mass, energy or momentum in
reaching the capacity.
Thus, the dynamic response of tanks which have the capacity to store liquids
pumps, valves, weirs, pipes which are attached to the inflowing or outflowing
For such systems the resistance is associated with the transfer of heat through
to store mass or energy and thus act as a buffer between inflowing and out-
heater of Example 4.4 and the mixing processes of Example 4.11, are typical
It is clear from the above that the first-order lags should be the most
lags.
stream there is a resistance to flow such as a pipe, valve, wire, etc. Assume
At any time point, the tank has the capacity to store mass. The total mass
balance gives:
Adh = F _ F = h
dt i 0 Fi - it
or
AR$+h=RF (10.6)
i
where A is the cross sectional area of the tank. At steady state
hw = R Fi(s) (10.6a)
and from (10.6) and (10.6a) we take the following equation in terms of
deviation variables:
i; ’ 6s) K
G(s) = - = P (10.8)
TpS + 1
p;(s)
(1) The cross sectional area of the tank, A, is a measure of its capacitance
to store mass. Thus, the larger the value of A the larger the storage
The liquid of a tank is heated with saturated steam, which flows through
a coil immersed in the liquid (Figure 10.2). The energy balance for the sys- I
tern yields:
where
V = volume of liquid in the tank
0 = UA(T (10.11)
t s(s) - T(s))
Subtract (10.11) from (10.10) and take the following equation in terms of
deviation variables,
G(s) I
T’(s)
~ =
UAt =
K
P (10.13)
TpS + 1
Tp
where
lag system.
VPC,
(time constant) = ~~ =J=(storagecapacitance)x(resistanceto
uA flow).
t
1
Consider the tank discussed in Example 10.1 with the following difference, I
"The effluent flowrate :Fo is determined by a constant-displace-
In such case the total mass balance around the tank yields
A dh
dt = Fi - F. (10.14)
At steady state
0 = Fi(s) - F0 (10.15)
Subtract eqn. (10.15) from (10.14) and take the following equation in terms of
deviation variables:
G(s) = P(s) r
- l/A
- (10.16)
S
F;(s)
rather rare.
10.3 THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A PURE CAPACITIVE PROCESS
K’
G(s) = f(s> = +
m
Let us examine how y(t) changes with time, when f(t) undergoes a unit step
change, i.e.
P(s) = f
Y(s) = K;/s2
y(t) = K;'
We notice that the output grows l-inearly with time in an unbounded fashion.
Thus,
In the tank of Example 10.3, we can adjust manually the speed of the
I constant-displacement pump, so as to balance the flow coming in and thus keep
the level constant. But, any small change in the flowrate of the inlet stream
I
will make the tank flood or run dry (empty). This attribute is known as
I non-self-regulation.
Processes with integrating action are quite common in a chemical process.
The most often encountered are tanks with liquids, vessels with gases,
Let us examine how it responds to a unit step change in' f(t). Since f(s) =
K
Y(s) = P KP
Kp-- (10.17)
s(rps+l) = s rps+l
-t/T
Y(t) = Kp(l - e ') (10.18)
If the step change in f(t) were of magnitude A, then the response would be
-t/T
y(t) = AKp(l - e ') (10.19)
Figure 10.4 shows how y(t) changes with time. The plot is in terms of the
dimensionless coordinates
and as such can be used to determine the response of any typical first-order
are:
the Example 10.1, when the inlet flowrate increases by unit step, the
liquid level goes up. As the liquid level goes up, the hydrostatic
effluent stream (see eqn. (10.5)). This action works towards the
d[W/AKpl -t/r
dt (e P)t,o = 1
It=0 =
maintained, the response would reach its final value in one time
are:
The smaller the value of the time constant T the steeper the
Y
initial response of the system.
Equivalently,
(3) The value of the response y(t) reaches the 63.2% of its final value
Time elapsed
2TP 3TP 4sP
y(t) a s percentage of its ultimate value 86.5 95 98
(4) The ultimate value of the response, i.e. its value at the new steady
This characteristic explains the name steady state or static gain given to the
parameter K since for any step change in the input
P'
A(output)s
K = (10.20)
P A(input)s
where A(output)s = change in the steady state values of the output caused by
A(input)s = change in the steady state values of the input. Equation (10.20)
also tells us by how much should we change the value of the input in order to
achieve a desired change in the output, for a process with given gain, K .
P
Thus, in order to effect the same change in the output, we need
A1 > A2 and the same resistance, R. > T From eqn. (10.9) we find that T
Pl p2'
i.e. the tank with the larger capacity has a larger time constant, while the
static gains remain the same. When we subject the two tanks to the same unit
step changes in the inlet flowrates, the liquid level in each tank responds
notice that the tank with the smaller cross sectional area responds faster at
the beginning, but ultimately, both levels reach the same steady state values.
This is in agreement with our physical experience. Suppose now that both tanks
A1 R2 (10.21)
AZ =q
But, since Al > A2 then from eqn. (10.21) R2 > Rl which implies that
K >K Figure 10.5b shows the responses of the two tanks to a unit step
p2 Pl'
change in the input. Since both tanks have the same time constant, they have
the same initial speed of response. But, as the time goes on, the tank with
the larger resistance R2 allows less liquid out of the tank. Thus, the
liquid level grows more in this tank and its ultimate value is larger than
the value of the level in the tank with resistance Rl. This again agrees
with our physical experience and also demonstrates the fact that the larger
the static gain of a process the larger the steady state value of its output
order differential equation (see eqn. (10.1)) were constant. This lead to the
conclusion that the time constantand steady state gain K of the pro-
TP P
cess were constant. But, this is not true for a large number of components in
more often processes with variable time constants and gains than not.
For the tank system discussed in Example 10.1, assume that the effluent
flowrate, Fo, is not a linear function of the liquid level, but it is given
F. = BJi; , [3 = constant
Linearize this equation around a steady state and put it in terms of deviation
Adh’+ f3 h’=
dt F;
or
dh’ + h’ = KF!
rp dt PI
where
We notice that both the time constant and the steady state gain K
rP P
depend on the steady state value of the liquid level Since'we can vary
hw *
the value of h (s) by varying the steady state value of the inlet flowrate
Fi(s) 2 we conclude that the system has variable time constant and static gain.
constant and the static gain for the heater were found to be:
and K = UAt
TP P
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, does not remain the same for a long
of the heat transfer coefficient. This in turn will cause the time constant
and static gain of the system to vary. This example is characteristic of what
The question then arises as to how one handles first-order systems with
variable time constants and static gains in order to find the dynamic response
- First; we can use the analytical solutions which are available for first-
are quite complicated and of very little value to us for process control
purposes.
- Second; we can assume that such systems possess constant time constants
and static gains for a certain limited period of time only. At the end of
such period we will change the values of T and K and consider that we
P P
have a new first-order system with new but constant r and K which
P P'
will be changed again at the end of the period. Such an adaptive procedure
can be used successfully if the time constant and the stagic gain of a
process change slowly, in which case the time period of relatively constant
their capacity to store material, energy or momentum, and constitute the most
K
dynamics with a transfer function
1
G(s) = +
P I
The two constants which characterize a first-order system are; the time
while the second indicates the size of the change in the steady state value
I
of an output resulting from a unit input. Therefore, -
the time constant is I
associated with the dynamic behavior of a system, while the static gain is
resistance
capacitive
to the
process
flow of
arises
mass,
from a
energy,
process
in
which
reaching
has
the
only
capacitor.
capacity
It
I
is a non-self-regulating process leading to serious control problems, unlike I
the first-order lags which are self-regulating, thus causing milder control
problems. I
order
In Chap ter 11 we will study the dynamic behavior of systems with higher
higher-order systems. 1
I
I
I
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
1. What is a first-order s'stem and how do you derive the transfer functions
3. In Examples 10.1 and 10.2 it was found that for a first-order process
4. Show that a tank with variable cross-sectional area along its height
6. How would you regulate the purely capacitive process of the tank in
0 1234
I t/q
I’ ure
FJ m4
CHAPTER 11
Systems with first-order dynamic behavior are not the only ones encountered
2 d2y (11.2)
-c- + 25~ g + y = Kpf(t)
dt2
where
K
= the steady state, or static, or simply gain of the system.
P
The physical meaning of the parameters r and 5 will become clear in the
next two sections, while K has the same significance as for the first-order
P
systems.
If eqn. (11.2) is in terms of deviation variables, the initial conditions
are zero and the Laplace transformation of eqn. (11.2) yields the following
K /
G(s) = 'j(s> = P (11.3)
f(s) T2S2 + 25TS + 1
Systems with second or higher-order dynamics can arise from several physical
will be discussed briefly in Section 11.4 and two examples are given
(iii) A Processing System With Its Controller, may exhibit second or higher
when together with the dynamics of the unit, give rise to second or
this point.
The very large majority of the second or higher order systems encountered
control systems. Very rarely we will find systems with appreciable, inherent
a unit step input. Such analysis will provide us with all the fundamental
For a unit step change in the input, f(t), eqn. (11.3) yields:
K
f(s) = P (11.4)
S(T2S2 + 2<TS + 1)
The two poles of the second-order transfer function are given by the roots of
T2S2 + 25TS + 1 = 0
/--
c2-1
p1=-$+ T (11.5a)
and
p2=-$- J52_1
T (11.5b)
and the form of the response y(t) will depend on the location of the two
poles, p1 and p2' in the complex plane (see Section 9.4). Thus, we can
yields,
a -a
sinh(a) = e -2 e e' + e-'
and cash(a) = 2
The response has been plotted in Figure ll.la for various values of 5, <>l.
response we notice that the system initially delays to respond and then it's
the system becomes more heavily overdamped. Finally, we notice that as the
time goes on, the response approaches its ultimate value asymptotically. As
it was the case with first-order system, the gain is given by,
Overdamped are the responses of multicapacity processes, which result from the
system with critical damping a-proaches its ultimate value, faster than an
overdamped system.
CASE C. Underdamped Response, when <<l.
1
1
e-Tt/.r sin(wt + $) (11.9)
I-
l-c2
where
/-
l-c2
oJ"-
T (11.10)
and
I-
4 = tan-l l-C2
5
The response has been plotted in Figure ll.lb for various values of the damping
- Although the underdamped response is faster and reaches its ultimate value
quickly, it does not stay there but it starts ocillating with progressively
- The oscillatory behavior becomes more pronounced with smaller values of the
damping factor, 5.
chemical plant are caused by the interaction of the controllers with the process
very often, and it is wise to become well acquainted with its characteristics.
Characteristics of an Underdamped Response
Figure 11.3 shows the plot of overshoot vs. 5 given by eqn. (11.11).
2. Decay Ratio: Is the ratio C/A, i.e. the ratio of the amounts above
the ultimate value of two successive peaks. The decay ratio can be
is given by
f-
l-G2
w = radian frequency = ___ (11.10)
T
To find the period of the oscillation, T, i.e. the time elapsed between
two successive peaks, use the well known relationships w = 21-rf and
T 2x-r
=- (11.13)
I--
l-c2
4. Natural Period of Oscillation: A second-order system with <=O, is a
K K
G(s) = P = P (11.14)
T2S2 + 1 (s-j +)(s+j +)
i.e. it has two purely imaginary poles (on the imaginary axis) and
wn = l/T (11.15)
Tn = 271-c (11.16)
it has been agreed to consider that the response reached its final
value, when it came +5X of its final value and stayed there. The time
needed for the response to reach this situation is known as the response
6, Rise Time: This term is used in order to characterize the speed with
I required for the response to reach its final value for the first time.
/ From Figure 11.1 we notice that the smaller the value of 5, the shorter
/
the rise time, i.e. the faster the response of the system, but at the
I same time the larger the value of the overshoot.
I
I
Remark: In subsequent chapters (Part IV), our objective during the design of
and T values, so that the overshoot is small, the rise time short,
r
the decay ratio small, and the response time short. We will realize
that it will not be possible to achieve all these objectives for the
controllers.
order system. If on the other hand, mass or energy flows through a series of
two capacities, as it moves from the input to the output variable, the behavior
are shown in Figure 11.4 with two mass capacities (the two tanks) each.
Examine the two systems of Figure 11.4 more closely to identify a sig-
Tank 1 feeds Tank 2 and thus it affects its dynamic behavior, while the
between the liquid levels hl and h2. This system represents the so-called
processing unit. It is quite possible that all capacities are associated with
the same processing unit. For example, the stirred tank heater is a multi-
storage capacity (liquid holdup), which in turn allows for thermal energy
L----- - -----,L--
Let us now see how multicapacity processes result in second-order systems.
A. NON-INTERACTING CAPACITIES
dyl
- + y1 = K f,(t) first capacity (11.17a)
rP1 dt p1
dy2
-+y2 = K p2 y1(t) second capacity (11.17b)
rp2 dt
In other words, the first system affects the second by its output, but it is
not affected by it (Figure 11.5a). Equation (11.17a) can be solved first and
are:
Y,(s) KPl
Gl(s) = ~ =
fl( s) rplS+l
The overall transfer function between tba external input, f,(t)and Y2(t) is:
K
Y,(s) y,(s) y,(s) Kpl Pl
Go(s) = - = - * - = G1(s)G2(s) = (11.18)
s+l * r
q(s) Y,(s) f,(s) rp1 P*s+l
or
K'
GO(s) = P (11.19)
(Tt)2s2 + 25'T'S + 1
I
where
Equation (11.19) indicates very clearly that the overall response of the system
is second-order. From eqn. (11.18) we also notice that the two poles of the
If the time constants r and are equal, then we have two equal poles.
Pl Tp2
Therefore, non-interacting capacities always result in an overdamped or
given by eqn. (11.7) f or the overdamped case, or eqn. (11.8) for the critically
damped. Instead of eqn. (11.7) we can use the following equivalent form for
the response
-t/T -t/.r
(-r e p1 - T e p2 > (11.20)
Pl p2
I
K *..K K
'1 '2 'N
Go(s) = G1(S)G2(S)“‘GN(S) = Gs+~)(~ s+l)...(T (11.21)
ss-1)
Pl p2 PN
and
where, according to Example 10.1 we have,
and also variables hi, hi, F;, Fi are in deviation form. Since,
Equation (11.22) indicates that the relationship between the extewrnal input,
-t/T -t/T
Fi( t), and the final output, h2(t)' is that of an overdamped second-order
system. Using eqn. (11.20) for the response of two non-interacting capacities
c
with r # T , we find:
p1 p2
Figure 11.6 shows the qualitative features of the response, which are the
same as those of an overdamped system (see for example Figure ll.la with 511) *
dhl (11.23a)
Alx=F Tank 1
i - F1
dh2 (11.23b)
F1 - F2 Tank 2
A2dt =
dhl
A 1R l dt + hl - h2 = RIFi (11.24a)
dh2 R2 R2
A2R2 -dt + (l+R)h - (11.24b)
1 2 "1"' = O
We notice that eqns. (11.24a) and (11.24b) must be solved simultaneously. This
hw - h2(s) = RIFi(s)
(11.25a)
R2 R2 (11.25b)
(l +ir;)h2&) - q Qs) = 0
Subtract (11.25a) from (11.24a) and (11.25b) from (11.24b) and after intro-
dhi
AlRl dt + hi - hi = RlFf (11.26a)
dh;
R2 (11.26b)
-
A2R2 dt + (l+~)h' -
l2
where
h’ =
1 hl - hi(s) , hi = h2 - h2(s) and F! 1= Fi - Fi(s) .
Take the Laplace transforms of eqns. (11.26a) and (11.26b) and find
Solve these algebraic equations with respect to El(s) and g2(s) and find:
R2
i;;(s) = (11.27b)
2+(T +T + A1R2)s+1
rP1TP2S Pl p2
where and r = A2R2 are the time constants of the two tanks.
= AIRl
rp1 p2
Equations (11.27a) and (11.27b) indicate that the responses of both tanks
follow second-order dynamics. Compare eqn. (11.27b) for the interacting tanks
term, A1R2. This term may be thought of as the interaction factor and indi-
cates the degree of interaction between the two tanks. The larger the value
of AIR,,J. L
the larger the interaction between the two tanks.
Remarks: (1) From eqn. (11.27b) it is easily found that the two poles of
I
-(TV, +T~ +A1R2) I! 4~ +T +A1R2)% T
7 Pl p2 Pl p2
p1,2 = (11.28)
2r T
Pl p2
But
(T +T 2 - 4 T T >o
+ A1R2)
Pl p2 Pl p2
Therefore, p1 and p2 are distinct and real poles. Consequently,
qcs, R2 R2
- = (11.29)
F;(s) (S--Pi) b-P,> = (rls+l)(T2s+l)
where
and
'I1 = -l/P1 r2 = -l/p2
and
rp1 =P2 *
constants
r1 and
(3) Assume that the two tanks have the same time constants, i.e.
-(2-c + A1R2> + 7
A1R2 + 4-cA1R
VT2 = P2/P1 = # 1
-(2T + A1R2) - JA:R; + ~TA$X
of the effective time constants for the two tanks, i.e. one tank
becomes faster in its response and the other slower. Since the
~;(s> R2 R2
~ = (11.30)
= (0.21~s + 1)(4.8~s + 1)
F;(s) T2S2 + 5-rs + 1
For a unit step change in F;(t), i.e. for Pi(s) = l/s, eqn. (11.30) after
inversion yields
or
If the two tanks were non-interacting, then the transfer function of the
q<s>
- = R2 R2
(T s+1)(rp2s+1) = (U?+1)(2Ts+l)
F;(s) p1
-t/-c - 4e-t/2T]
h;(t) = R2[1 + e
or
-t/T _ 4e-t/2T
F;(t) =l+ e
(1) They are both overdamped. As such they have the characteristics discussed
in Section 11.2, i.e. they are S-shaped and with no oscillations.
(2) For the system of the two non-interacting tanks the time constants
are:
T and 2T
For the case of the interacting tanks the effective time constants
have become
i.e. one was decreased and the other was increased. Their ratio
(3) As a result of the change in the effective time constants, the response
result.
The linearized mass and energy balances for a constant volume holdup
dci
+ allci + a12T' = blcii (9.14a)
dt
dT'
- + a21ci + a22T' = blT; + b2Ti (9.14b)
dt
for storing component A, while eqn. (9.14b) denotes the capacity of the CSTR
for storing thermal energy. From the form of the equations we realize that
they are interacting. Thus, the term a12T' denotes the effect of the thermal
Consider now that the CSTR is at steady state when one of the following
According to the analysis made above we conclude that CL(t) and T'(t) will
[Note: In the above example it has been assumed that the linearization of the
CSTR was made around a stable steady state (see Example 1.2) and that unit
step changes do not move the system far from this steady state.]
chemical process, and they are associated with the motion of liquid masses
(b) resistance to motion and (c) capacitance to store mechanical energy. Since
d(velcoity)
acceleration =
dt
and
we conclude that,
Balance of forces d2
= (mass of system) x---- (spatial displacement) (11.32)
on the system
dt2
The second term of the right-hand side gives rise to the second-order behavior
order of the process and produce a dynamic behavior which the process cannot
we will have the opportunity to examine many such situations. For the time
would like to control the liquid level at a desired value when the inlet
control system (see Section 2.2) shown in Figure 11.7a. This control system
measures the liquid level and compares it with the desired steady state value.
If the level is higher than the desired value, it increases the effluent
flowrate Fo by opening the control valve V, while it closes the valve when
the level is lower than the desired value. Let us now see how the presence
of this controller changes the order of the dynamic behavior of the tank from
A dt
dh = Fi - F. (11.33)
Adh’ = F; - F; (11.35)
dt
When the liquid level is not at the desired value, h' # 0, The measuring
device measures h and this value is compared to the desired value h(s).
(11.36)
- When h' = 0 then F = Fe(s) and the valve V stays where it is.
- When h' > 0, i.e. the level goes down, then from eqn. (11.36) gives
.
F. < Foes), 1-e. the effluent rate goes down and the level starts increasing.
- When h' < 0, i.e. level goes up, then from eqn. (11.36) we find F. >
I
F i.e. the effluent rate increases and the level decreases.
I o(s) '
The control action described by eqn. (11.36) is called Proportional - Integral
terms, one of which is proportional to the error h', and the other proportional
In eqn. (11.35) replace FA with its equal given by (11.36) and take:
K
A s K'(s) + K$'(s) + c 1 F;ys> = F;(s)
=I s
or
=I
2 s2 + TIS + 1 E'(s) = K P;(s)
K C
[ C I
From eqn. (11.38) we find that the transfer function between the external
input F;(s) and the output 6'(s) is that of a second-order system and given
by;
m= P
K
where
Depending on the values of the control parameters Kc and -cI we may have
In Figure 11.7b we can see the dynamic response of the liquid level to a step
The above example demonstrates very clearly how the simple first-order
that the control parameters Kc and rI can have a very profound effect on
the dynamic behavior of the system which can range from an underdamped to an
overdamped response.
factor 5 and the natural period of the system, '5. Depending on the value of
- The overdamped or critically damped responses are sluggish, and are usually
with increasing value of the damping factor, and with the degree of inter-
its behavior in the time domain and give its transfer function.
11.
3. Identify the three classes of second-order systems and give one repre-
sentative example for each class. What is the origin of the most second-
6. Develop the expressions for the overshoot and the decay ratio (eqns.
8. Explain why two interacting capacities have more sluggish response than
12. A drum boiler (Figure P-11-10) has a capacity to store material and
14. In Example 11.4 if you use Proportional Control only would you change
0 ;z >
4
i.0
0.4
APPENDIX ll.A. EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS WITH INHERENT SECOND-
ORDER DYNAMICS.
In this appendix we will present three simple units which can be en-
When the pressures at the top of the two legs are equal, the two
liquid levels are at rest at the same horizontal plane. Let us assume
meter. We take,
forcepduEnt;ePgr;ssure) _ (forcepduEnt;e;rqssure)
(
1 2
= mass of liquid
( in the tube > x (acceleration)
or
Typically Al = A2 = A.
g = acceleration gravity.
= conversion constant.
gC
rest.
the force due to fluid friction with the flow velocity. Thus, we have
(Poiseuille's equation)
dh rR4 AP
(volumetric flowrate) = A dt = -- (ll.A-2)
811 L
length L.
manometer, we take:
(ll.A-3)
Recall also that the fluid velocity and acceleration are given by,
+ 41.1L dh gC
Tx+h=2pgAp (ll.A-5)
P@
Define,
T2 d2h dh
- + 2r;T dt (ll.A-6)
dt2 + h = KP'Ap
chamber, has many similarities with the manometer. The cross sectional
areas of the two legs are unequal and the Ap (external) pressure dif-
K
h,(s) 'rn
-= (ll.A-8)
a) ,;s2 + 26,T,S + 1
very popular device which is used to sense and transmit pressure dif-
level in a tank, etc.) will make the pressure p2 at the end of the
= (mass) x (acceleration)
or
where,
= displacement of diaphragm.
The force p2A at the end of the capillary is balanced by two forces,
i.e.
resistance exerted by viscous friction force
P# = ( the diaphragm )+( exercised by the fluid >
which acts like a spring
dx (ll.A-10)
=Kx+cz
where,
of the diaphragm.
(ll.A-11)
24 _ L
Fl (s) T2S2 + 2FTS + 1
3. Pneumatic Valve.
The pneumatic valve is the most commonly used final control ele-
The position of the stem (or equivalently of the plug at the end of
the stem) will determine the size of the opening for flow and conse-
quently the size of the flow (flowrate). The position of the stem is
are:
downwards.
M d2x
pA-Kx-Cz=r~
c dt
or,
Let,
T2 = M/Kg
c ' XT = C/K , K = A/K
P
and take,
=2 -+
d2x dx x = Kp*p
2<r dt+
dt2
The last equation indicates that the stem position x follows inherent
ad _ A/K (ll.A-12)
P(s) (g-)s2 + ; s + 1
C
Systems with higher than second-order dynamics are not uncommon in chemical
systems:
overall response is of n-th order, i.e. the denominator of the overall trans-
n-l ** + als + a0
ans n + anls + l
K K **OK
p1 '2 'N
Go(s)=G1(s)G2(s)"'GN(~) = (T (11.21)
s+l)(T s+l)***(-r s+l)
p1 p2 PN
where Gl(s), G2(s),***, GN (s) are the transfer function of the N capacities.
the response.
necessitate a controller which will not only keep the final output at a desired
value but will also try to improve the speed of the system's response.
in series.
Consider the batch reactor shown in Figure 12.la. The reaction is exo-
thermic and the content of the reactor is cooled by constant flow of cold
water circulating through the jacket. We can identify the following three
capacities in series:
For the jacketed CSTR of Figure 12.lb we have more interacting capacities,
i.e.
According to what we have said above, we expect that the response of the
chemical processes for the separation of a mixture into its components. Both
systems have a number of trays. Each tray has material and heat capacities.
top of the absorption column produces a very delayed, sluggish response for the
because the input change has to travel through a large number of interacting
capacities in series.
(see Figure 4.10) will have quickly an effect on the composition of the over-
head product while the composition of the bottoms stream will respond very
Finally, a step change in the steam flowrate of the reboiler will have
almost an immediate effect on the composition of the bottoms stream since very
few trays intervene between the returned to the column stream V and the
bottoms product. On the contrary, the effect on the composition of the over-
For all the systems we examined in Chapters 10, 11 and Section 12.1, we
have assumed that there is no dead-time between an input and the output, i.e.
whenever a change took place in the input variable, its effect was instan-
taneously observed in the behavior of the output variable. This is not true
will involve some time delay between the input and the output.
y(t) and the input (forcing function) f(t). We can represent such system by
series with a dead time. For the first-order system we have the following
transfer function,
while for the dead time we have (see Section 7.2, eqn. (7.10))
Therefore, the transfer function between the input f(t) and the delayed output I
by,
-tds
[y(t - t$l KP e (12.2)
[f(t)1 = T2S2 + 25TS + 1
Remarks: (1) Figure 12.3 shows the response of first and second-order sys-
td
1
ewtds :: - 2
& ' first-order approximation (12.3a)
(3) Processes with dead time are difficult to control because the
we have seen so far. Figures 12.4b and 12.5b show the response of such sys-
terns to a step change in the input. We notice that initially the response is
Example 12.3 - The Inverse Response of the Liquid Level in a Boiler System
Consider the simple drum boiler shown in Figure P.II-10. If the flowrate
water and consequently the liquid level will be decreased for a short period
and then it will start increasing, as shown by the response in Figure 12.4b.
Such behavior is the net result of two opposing effects and can be explained
as follows:
- The cold feedwater causes a temperature drop which decreases the volume of
the entrained vapor bubbles. This leads to a decrease of the liquid level
sequently the liquid level of the boiling water will start increasing in
i.e. K
/s (curve 2 in Figure 12.2a).
p2
- The result of the two opposing effects is given by
K K (K 'c -K )s+K
- p2 - p1 = p2 p1 p1 p2
(12.4)
S s+l S(T s+l)
rpl p1
and for
K-r <K
p2 Pl p1
response.
[Note: When K 'c <K then from eqn. (12.4) we notice that the transfer
p2 p1 p1
function has a positive zero.]
The above example demonstrates that the inverse response is the result of two
opposing effects. Table 12.1 shows several such opposing effects between first
or second-order systems. In all cases we notice that when the system possesses
where one of the roots of the numerator, i.e. one of the zeros of the transfer
response equal to
K K
p1 p2
Y(s) = ( s+l - T s+lms)
Tpl p2
or
(K r -K T )s+(K -K >
p1 p2 p2 p1 p1 p2
Y(s) =
(T s+l)(,r SSl)
p1 p2
- initially PROCESS
_. _ 1 reacts slower than PROCESS 2, i.e. T > T but
p1 p2'
- ultimately PROCESS 1 reaches a higher steady state value than PROCESS 2,
i.e. K > K
p1 p2'
Figure 12.5b shows the inverse response of the overall system.
[Note: When 'I >'c ,K >K and K 'I < K 'c we find that the
p1 p2 p1 p2 p1 p2 p2 p1
system's transfer function has a positive zero, i.e.
K
- K
I
= - p1 p2
z
K T
p1 p2
-K T
p2 p1 I
I
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
Chemical processing systems may exhibit higher order response. The most
I
common are; (a) N capacities in series, (b) systems with de-d time and (c)
I
systems with inverse response. N capacities in series yield delayed and
time. First-order with dead time covers the large majority of dynamic elements
3
in a chemical
effects, usually
process.
the
The
difference
inverse
of
response
the
is
responses
the result
between
of
(a)
two opposing
first-order
I
systems, (b) second-order systems, (c) first and second-order systems, with or I
without time delay. Systems with significant dead time and inverse response
2. Using the above definition why is a system with dead time a higher-order
not. What general type of responses would you expect for the overhead
6. How many capacities can you identify in the mixing process of Example
cesses? why?
I
REFERENCES
Both books provide a series of examples drawn from the area of chemical engi-
can enhance our ability to understand the dynamics and develop better con-
trollers for such systems. Computer programs in FORTRAN for typical systems
are also included. For more details on the numerical techniques for the
The notion and the characteristics of the Taylor series expansion as well as
Example 6.1 was motivated by the physical system analyzed in Section 2.3 of the
book by Russell and Denn where the reader can find more information.
of Laplace transforms the reader will find useful the following book:
(ordinary, partial or sets of) the book by Jenson and Jeffreys can be very
valuable.
In the following two references the reader can find tables with the Laplace
Chapter 10: The book by Weber [Ref. 111 is an excellent reference for the
cessing systems.
In the books by Douglas [Ref. 51 and Coughanowr and Koppell [Ref. 121 the
find quite useful. In the books by Coughanowr and Koppell [Ref. 121 and
Douglas [Ref. 51 the reader can find the response of second-orcer systems to
mounted level measuring systems, or the manometers, and their dynamic second-
order characteristics, the reader can consult the References 18 (Chapter 18),
The following two references can be consulted for further details on the
control valve.
Chapter 12: Luyber [Ref. l] has a good discussion on the inverse response of
boilup (Section 11-5). More details on this system can be f;ound in the
following paper:
(16) "by W. L. Luyben, Inst. Chem. Eng. (London), Symp. Ser. No. 32, p. 6
(1969)."
Iinoya and Altpeter [Ref. 171 discuss the characteristics of the systems which
exhibit inverse response and give a table of the most common physical
In the book by Shinskey [Ref. 131 the reader can find further discussion on the
inverse response of a drum boiler.
A-B
, ‘J I-
I Figwe 12 . 31
,!%.
S
Input
+) ’
k .
t,st4
*<
-- ----
(. a ) Cb)
C-+.’
PsoCEsS 1
> output
cc )
S
PROCESS 2
?j (9
Table 12.1. Systems With Inverse Response
K K (K T -K )s+K
= P2 p1 P2 p1 p1 P2
G(s) S s+l
=
S(T s+l)
Tpl p1
K K (K T -K T )s+(K -K >
p1 p2 p1 p2 p2 p1 p1 p2
G(s) =
s+l - T s+l = CT s+l)(T s+l)
Tpl P2 p1 p2
-T S
d2
K l e
P2
G(s) = for K >K and T >'I L 0
s+l
p1 p2 dl d2
K K
p1 p2
G(s) = - - for K >K
T2S2 + 25TS + 1 s+l Pl p2
K K 2 K
G(s) = p1 P2 T2 p1 > 1
for -7j K
r;s2 + 2C2T2S + 1
Tl p2
G(s) =
p1 P2
for K >K and
T;s2 + 2yp + 1 T;s2 + 2c2T2S + 1 p1 p2
‘dl ’ ‘Id2 2 0 .
PART IV
manipulated variables). In doing so, we were not concerned about having the
Starting with Part IV, our main concern will be; how can we control a
input changes. We will start with the most common control configuration known
Thus, in the subsequent eight chapters of Part IV, we will do the following:
- Discuss the notion of the feedback loop and present its hardware elements.
- Identify the types of feedback controllers which are available for process
process.
- Solve some special problems which are encountered during the design of
feedback controllers.
CHAPTER 13
this chapter we will expand the discussion by introducing the hardware elements
manner and our control objective is to keep the value of the output y at
- Measures the value of the output (flow, pressure, liquid level, temperature,
composition) using the appropriate measuring device. Let yrn be the value
- Compares the indicated value y, to the desired value ySP (set point) of
controller does not affect the manipulated variable directly but through
another device (usually a control valve) which is known as the final control
element.
The system in Figure 13.la is known as open loop in contrast to the feed-
/
I back controlled system of Figure 13.lb which is called closed loop. Also, when
the value of d changes. the response of the first is called open-loop response
I
while that of the second is the closed-loop response. The origin of the term
The following represent some typical feedback control systems which are
(4 Flow control. Two feedback systems are shown in Figures 13.2a and 13.2b,
(b) Pressure Control. The feedback system in Figure 13.2~ controls the
(cl Liquid Level Control. Figures 13.2d and 13.2e show two feedback systems
used for the control of the liquid levels at the bottom of a distillation
Cd) Temperature Control. The system in Figure 13.2f controls the temperature
All the above examples indicate that the basic hardware components of a
3. Transmission lines, used to carry the measurement signal from the sensor
to the controller and the control signal from the controller to the
the unit with logic that decides by how much to change the value of the
sections of this chapter we will take a closer look at the dynamics of these
hardware elements.
13.2 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS
Between the measuring device and the final control elements comes the
signal y,(t) and after comparing it with the set point yd to produce the
actuating signal c(t) in such a way as to return the output to the desired
details of construction may differ among the various manufacturers but their
functions are essentially the same. Let us study each one separately.
PB = loo/Kc
The proportional band characterizes the range over which the error must change
in order to drive the actuating signal of the controller over its full range.
Usually,
1 6 PB < 500
It is clear that,
"the larger the &ain Kc or the smaller the proportional band the
c(t) = c(t) - cs
and take,
The last equation yields the following transfer function for a proportional
controller
Gc(s> = Kc (13.3)
KC
c(t) = KCW + -y- c(t)dt + cs (13.4)
I f
where is the integral time or reset time in minutes. The reset time is
r1
an adjustable parameter and is sometimes referred to as minutes per repeat.
0.1 I TI 5 50 minutes
terms of its reciprocal l/rI (repeats per minute), which is known as reset
rate.
Consider that the error changes by a step of magnitude E. Figure 13.4 shows
K
c(t)dt = 2 EATS = Kc~
r1
i.e. the integral control action has "repeated" the response of the proportional
action. This repetition takes place every TI minutes and has lent the name
The integral action causes the controller output c(t) to change as long
reset-plus-rate controller.
c(t) Kc
= K$t) + y dc
E(t)dt + Kc 'D -
dt (13.6)
I
With the presence of the derivative term, Kc d&/dt, the PID controller
anticipates what the error will be in the immediate future and applies a control
action which is proportional to the rate of change in the error. Due to this
property, the derivative control action is sometimes referred to as "anticipatory
3
control".
The major drawbacks of the derivative control action are the following:
since dc/dt = 0.
- For a noisy response with almost zero error it can compute large derivatives
From eqn. (13.6) we can easily derive the transfer function of a PID con-
troller,
critical manner upon the good measurement of the controlled outupt and the
requirement implies the need for an accurate measuring device while the second
For more details the reader can consult the various references at the end of
Let us look more closely at the various typical sensors used to measure
A. Flow Sensors
The flow sensors most commonly employed in the industrial practice are
The, using the well known (from fluid mechanics) equation of Bernoulli, we can
compute the flow-rate. Such sensors can be used for both gases and liquids.
The orifice plate (Figure 13.5a), Venturi tube (Figure 13.5b) and Dal1 flow
tube are typical examples of sensors based on the above principle. The first
is more popular due to its simplicity and low cost. The last two are more
A different sensor is the turbine flow meter which uses the number of
Flow sensors have very fast dynamics and they are usually modeled by
the flow sensor, and Ap is the pressure difference between the flow con-
transducer has become very popular. Figure ll.A-2 shows a schematic of such
the sensing diaphragm and the capacitor plates is converted into a d-c voltage.
A force balance around the sensing diaphragm leads to the following second-
order model
2 d2z dz (13.9)
'c- + 25~ dt + z = Kp*Ap
dt2
where
Z is the displacement of the sensing diaphragm,
T,C,K are the +.hree parameters of a 2nd order system defined in this
P
case by the constructional characteristics of the device.
For details on the development of eqn. (13.9) see Appendix ll.A at the end of
Chapter 11. Various other types of sensors, all of them measuring the dis-
placement of a mechanical part under the influence of Ap, are also in use.
C. Temperature Sensors
can be examined in terms of the temperature profiles in Figure 13.6a and 13.6b.
In the first case (Figure 13.6a) we assume that the major resistance to heat
single capacity with resistance and as we know from Chapter 10, it is modeled
dTm
-+ Tm = T (13.10)
=P dt
In the second case (Figure 13.6b) we have major heat transfer film resistances
inside and outside the thermowell casing. This is equivalent to two capacities
in series and as we know from Chapter 11 the thermocouple reading will exhibit
dT
+ 25~ -$ + Tm = T (13.11)
(dead time) in their response, which can be quite large. Thus, for a
chromatographic column, the time required by the sample to travel from the
process stream to the column, plus the time required to travel through the
column, plus the time needed by the detector at the end of the column to
respond, can be quite large. Such long time delays result in ineffective
control.
operational reliability (easy breakdown) and (b) their relatively high cost.
These are used to carry the measurement signal to the controller and the
control signal to the final control element. There are two types of trans-
mission lines; the pneumatic (compressed air, liquids) and the electrical.
Unless the process changes very fast or the transmission lines are very
from consideration. When the above assumptions do not hold, it has been
found that the following transfer function correlates successfully the pressure
at the outlet (PO> to the pressure at the inlet (Pi) of the pneumatic line,
-Td s
p,(s) e
-=-
rps+l
pi
with r /T s 0.25.
d P
[Note: IN the subsequent chapters, as a rule, we will neglect the dynamics of
These are the hardware components of the control loops which implement
the control action. They receive the output of a controller (actuating signal)
The most common final control element is a pneumatic valve (Figure ll.A-3).
This is an air operated valve which controls the flow through an orifice by
which at the other end is supported on a diaphragm. As the air pressure (con-
troller output) above the diaphragm increases, the stem moves down and
consequently the plug restricts the flow through the orifice. Such valve is
known as an "air-to-close" valve (Figure 13.9a). If the air supply above the
diaphragm is lost, the valve will "fail open" since the spring would push the
stem and the plug upward. There are pneumatic valves with opposite actions,
i.e. "air-to-open" which 'Ifail closed" (Figure 13.9b). The most commercial
valves move from fully open to fully closed as the air pressure at the top of
order. But, the response to changes of most small or medium size valves is so
fast that the dynamics can be neglected. In such case only a constant gain
term will remain which relates the output from the controller (air pressure
For non-flushing liquids the flow through the valve is given by,
F =
where
shape of the plug's surface. Figure 13.10 shows the most common types of
plugs and the corresponding f(x). Figure 13.11 shows the flow capacity
actuators, etc.
processes. Its basic idea is to measure the controlled variable and use its
deviation from a desired value to activate the controller, which in turn will
adjust the value of the manipulated variable through the final control element.
The controller's action is such that the output variable is returned to the
(a) process, (b) measuring sensor, (c) controller, (d) final control element
physical system with input and output. Their dynamic behavior can be modeled
using the same principles as in Part II, and as we will see in Chapter 14, it
response varies and will be extensively analyzed in Chapter 14. In the same
requires information which the reader can find in technical manuals and hand-
1. From all that you know so far, what are the strengths and weaknesses of
2. Describe one example of; (a) flow control, (b) pressure control, (c)
and which are not the same as the examples covered in this chapter.
5. Write Bernoulli's equation for two points of a Venturi tube and show
how you can compute the flowrate through the tube by measuring the
pressure difference between the two points, i.e. prove the essence of
eqn. (13.8).
in Appendix ll.A and is given by eqn. (13.9). It shows that the system
changes by a step?
8. Discuss some of the factors you should take into account, before deciding
10. Consult References 6 (Chapter 15) and 7 (Chapter 10) and discuss the
factors which affect the selection of the valve type, i.e. linear,
11. When an error E(t) persists for a long time the value of the integral
has saturated and in physical terms it means that the valve is fully
open or closed before the control action has been completed, i.e.
before the error has been driven to zero. This situation is also known
as reset windup. How would you handle such a situation? You can con-
U&VICE
Y?lL
t&&WiSW
- Conlroll~~
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I r
?I
PP cell
LiL
Orif iCf2
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> time
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0.B
0.3
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CHAPTER 14
control system when the values of the disturbance (load) d or of the set point
and final control element, we can write the corresponding transfer function
Process
Measuring Device
Controller Mechanism
(14.3a) and (14.3b) hnd (14.4). Notice the direct correspondence between
the block diagram of Figure 14.1 and the schematic of Figure 13.lb.
The series of block between the comparator and the controlled output, i.e.
GcGfGp then Figure 14.2a shows a simplified but equivalent version of the
block diagram.
(14.5)
that it is composed of two terms. The first term shows the effect on the
output of a change in the set point while the second constitutes the effect
GpGfGc G
l+GGGG (14.6)
p f c m ' l+GG m = GSP
is the closed-loop transfer function for a change in the set point and
Gd Gd
l+GGGG ' 1 + GGm = GLOAD (14.7)
p f c m
is the closed-loop transfer function for a change in the load. Figure 14.2b
shows a block diagram equivalent to that of Figure 14.2a but further simplified.
For every feedback control system we can distinguish two types of control
- Servo Problem; the disturbance does not change, i.e. j(s) = 0 while the
set point undergoes a change. The feedback controller acts in such a way
- Regulator Problem; the set point remains the same, i.e. &+> = 0 while
and the feedback controller tries to eliminate the impact of the load
Remark: The closed-loop overall transfer functions GSP and GLOAD depend
Consider the liquid level control system for the tank of Figure 14.3a.
and F. the manipulated variable. The transfer functions for each component
Adh=F -F
dt i 0
h. The dynamic response of the sensor is given by eqn. (13.9). Let Ap = a*h
T2 -+2&$+2=
d2z = Kp*a*h
Kp*Ap
dt2
where z - hm, i.e. the value indicated by the measuring device. Therefore,
Kpoa
Eim(s> = i;(s) (14.11)
T2S2 + 2qLs + 1
Control Valve. Let us assume that for the control valve of this system, the
%
Fo(“) = qTi c(s) (14.13)
Figure 14.3b shows the block diagram for the closed-loop system, with the
transfer functions for each component of the loop. The closed-loop response
of the liquid level will be given by eqn. (14.5) where the transfer functions
G are shown in Figure 14.3b. The servo problem arises
P' Gd, Gm, Gc and Gf
when the inlet flowrate Fi remains constant and we change the desired set
point. In this case the controller acts in such a way as to keep the liquid
level h, close to the changing desired value hSF. On the other hand, for
the regulator problem the set point hSF remains the same and the feedback
controller acts in such a way as to eliminate the impact of the changing load
Consider the temperature control system for the heater of Figure 14.4a.
is the load and the steam temperature is the manipulated variable. The
The parameters r, a and K have been defined in Examples 5.1 and 9.1.
Figure 14.4b shows the block diagram for the closed-loop system with the
transfer functions for each component of the loop. The closed loop response
where the closed-loop transfer functions, GSP and GLOAD' are defined as
follows:
and
rg1
GLoAD(4 =
1+[-
.;a1 [Km1 [Kc1 &I
V
functions for any feedback control loop use the following rules:
given by
i.e.
l+GGGG
pmcf'
path between the set point or the load and the controlled
output. Thus;
the numerator is
G;Gf lGp
- The transfer functions on the forward path between the
numerator is:
Verify these two rules with the overall closed-loop transfer functions GSP
and GLoAD ( =w l
(14.6) and (14.7)). Also, these rules can be used to
troller and its effect on the most commonly encountered first- and second-order
GJs) = KC
and eqn. (14.5) yields:
A. First-Order Systems
which gives
K
3s) = *ii(s) + + &s)
P
Put
K Kd
Gp(s) = A and Gdb) = 1:
Tps+l
P
j;(s) =
KpKC Y,pb> +
Kd
a(s)
~~s+l + K K
PC =P"+l + K PC
K
K'
j;(s) = -q-- 7 (s) + & a(s) (14.19)
rps+l SP
where
% -i&t- PC
(14.20a)
K K
K' = (14.2Ob)
P 1 +PKCK
PC
and
Kd
K; = (14.20~)
l+KK
PC
The parameters K' and "ii are known as closed-loop static gains.
P
From eqn. (14.19) we conclude that the closed-loop response of a first-
(ii) The time constant has been reduced, i.e. r' < -c which means that
P P
the closed loop response has become faster with respect to changes
in the set point and the load (see Section 10.4 for the effect of the
time constant).
consider unit-step changes in the set point (servo problem) and the load
(regulator problem) and examine the resulting closed-loop responses. For the
servo problem, S;,,(s) = l/s and a(s) = 0. Then, eqn. (14.19) yields
K'
sits1 = r’;+l l i
-t/T ’
y(t) = Ki(l - e ') (14.21)
"The ultimate response, after t*, never reaches the desired new
equal to
KK 1
= 1 - K' 3 1 _ 1 +PKCK =
P l+KK *'I
PC PC
3
“1
The offset is characteristic of the proportaional control. It decreases as
-t/T '
y(t) = Ki(l - e ')
Figure 14.5b shows this response to a unit-step change in the load. We notice
agains that the proportional controller cannot keep the response at the desired
= 0 Kd
- % = - l+KK
PC
The benefit of the proportional control in the presence of load changes can be
seen from Figure 14.5b. Although it cannot keep the process response at the
desired set point and introduces an offset, the response is much closer to the
desired set point than would have been with no control at all. Furthermore,
Remarks: (1) Although the offset tends to zero as Kc + ~0, we will never
trol. The reason will become very clear in the next chapter
K K K
offset = 1 - Pcf
l+KKKK
p c f m
Kd
offset = -
l+KKKK
p c f m
response for the servo problem assuming that the reader has
not exhibit offset for set point changes but they do for
tank yields,
*dh’ = F; + F;
dt
Gp(s) = l/As
l/Kc
P(s) = IL i;;,(s> + A
$ s+l y- s+l
C C
For a unit step change in the set point, i&(s) = l/s and
F:(s) = 0. Then,
Ii’(s) = l ;
+ s+l
C
Therefore,
l/K
g(S) 3 A c . +
K s+l
C
For liquid level control systems like the one of Figure 14.7a, usually we
are not interested in maintaining the liquid level exactly at the desired value
but with a certain range. In such case the value of the offset l/Kc may be
Similar conclusion can be reached for gas pressure systems whose transfer
K
Gp(s) = Y(s)
- = P - -
2 2
m(s) T s t 2STS + 1
Put this expression in eqn. (14.18) and recalling that for the servo problem
d(s) = 0 we take,
K'
P (14.22)
Y(s) = - L,,(s)
(q2s2 + 23'~'~ + 1
where
= T (14.23a)
T’
J~+KK
PC
= 5 (14.23b)
5’
v'ltKK
PC
K’
KpKc (14.23~)
P = l+KK
PC
- Both the natural period and damping factor decrease. This implies that
K'
Ji(s> =
(,,)2s2 +
p
Z<‘T’S + 1
l :
Depending on the value of 5' the inverse of the above expression may be
given by,
KK
Y(t-> = lim [s y(s)] = K; =
1 +PKCK
s-to P C‘
K K
= PC 1
l-
l+KK = l+KK
PC PC
Remarks: (1) Depending on the value of the damping factor 5 for the
while
whelm the reader with the repetition of algebraic manipulations we will limit
our attention to first-order systems and for the servo problem only.
Recall that for the servo problem, d(s) = 0, and eqn. (14.18) yields:
G G G
S(s) = (14.24)
i-+ :pif:cGm 'd(')
Gm = Gf = 1
K
G z-f-..-.
P Tps+l
Gc = Kc&
I
(--IF_
TKS+PK c 1)
TIS
B(s) = P . Y,,(s)
1+ (---
TK:+l)(K A)
A -, .,. ,
or
1
Y(s) = l ‘j,,(s) (14.25)
T2S2 + 25TS + 1
where
T = (14.26a)
PC
= 1 ?
5 -z JTKK (14.26b)
PPC
12.1 that by increasing the order of a system its response becomes more
sluggish. Thus ,
Let us examine the dynamic behavior of the closed-loop system when the
1 . -1
T(s) =
T2S2 + 2STS + 1 s
critically damped, or underdamped) but the ultimate value of the response can
y(t-> =
s-to
lim [s y(s)] = lim
s-to [
r2s2+
1
25TS + 11
1 = 1
Therefore,
offset = 1 - 1 = 0
The reader can verify easily that for the regulator problem the integral con-
zero offset.
Remarks: (1) Equation (14.26b) indicates that the form of the closed-
5 are:
Figure 11.3).
restated as follows:
In the next chapter we will see that such trends lead to instability of the
closed-loop response.
GC = K/TDS
___ l Kc(y)
T
P
s+1
U(s) =
K Ysp(s)
1+-J--* KckDs)
y+l
or
KpKc’DS
Y(s) = (= Y,,(s) (14.27)
+KK-c)s+l
P pcD
Equation (14.27) leads to the following observations on the effects that the
(5) The derivative control does not change the order of the response. In
TaQ .4
..j L _*
(ii) For a unit-step change in the set point eqn. (14.27) yields,
KK-rs
j;(s) = pcD
(TV + KpKc D)s + 1 * :
r
Y ( t-m> = lim [s Y(s)1 = lim
l$lKcTDS
+ K K ~ >S = 0
SO s-to pcD i
and
offset = l- 0 =l.
offset".
(iii) From eqn. (14.27) it is clear that the effective time constant of the
K
P l Kc~D~
2 2 + 25TS + 1
y(s) = T s K ~ - K&9
P
l Kc~D~
l+ 22
T s + 25TS + 1
or
KpKcTDS
f(s) = 2 2 l Y,,(s)
T s + (25~ + K K -c )s + 1
pcD
Z<'T = 25-c + K K r
pcD
i.e.
T' > 5
process.
(2) The decrease in the speed of the response and the increase
action,
controlled process."
Although proportional control can be used alone, this is almost never the
mode, see eqn. (4.20a) and more oscillatory to set point changes,, i.e.
the overshoot and decay ratio increase (effect of integral mode). Large
-As -rI decreases, for constant Kc, the response becomes faster but more
mode).
resulting from PI control alone. Let us now describe the main benefit
We have seen that the presence of integral control slows down the closed-
increase the value of the controller gain Kc. But increasing enough Kc in
order to have acceptable speeds, the response becomes more oscillatory and may
dynamic behavior of all the elements in the loop, i.e. process, measuring
sensor, controller and final control element. The form of the closed-loop,
overall transfer function for set point or load changes, i.e. GSP (eqn. (14.6))
With respect to the effect that the various types of feedback controllers
following:
- The proportional control action, (a) does not change the order of the closed-
loop dynamic response while (b) it makes it faster by decreasing the dominant
an offset between the desired set point and the closed-loop ultimate response.
- The integral control action, (a) changes the order of the closed-loop
dynamic response and (b) eliminates always the offset. The first character-
and even become unstable. The second feature indicates that integral control
- The derivative control action is the only one that anticipates future errors
and takes appropriate corrective action. With respect to its effect on the
closed-loop response we notice that, (a) it does not change the order of
closed-loop dynamics and (b) allows for higher proportional gain due to its
stabilizing effect.
THINGS TO THINK BOUT
2. Develop the closed-loop responses for set point and load changes.
3. Repeat items 1 and 2 above for a process with two disturbances. Can the
_I--.--I-____
Figure 4.14-l
Reduce the above block diagram to a simpler one like the following (Figure
Figure 0.14-2
6. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the proportional,
7. The proportional control leads to a lower static gain for the closed-
for the controlled process? Recall the definition of the static gain
11. Consider a first-order process. Could you have almost the same closed-
13. Which one of the three controllers, P, PI, PID, would give more robust
14. Integral control action makes a process, (a) faster or slower, (b) more
oscillatory or less, (c) with larger deviations from the set point or
CONTROLLER
CoN-rRO~ L-------- _ _ _ _ _ _ 1
ELEMENT
Gm,
ym CSI
W
MEASURlr\lG
DEVICE
Fi
L-s-)
i,- _ _ ---a------_
yd(+) L--
3
4
+Kc '
I F i g we 14.51
L
W
. .,
. .
- ----
CHAPTER 15
-change
-- the dynamic characteristics of an - - - - _ . - - -process.
_ - uncontrolled .---__ Thk~s , non-
and tuning its controller, we are seriously concerned about its stability
designing a feedback control loop, we will study the notion of stabilitv and
tem was considered unstable if, after it had been disturbed by an input change,
its output “took off” and did not return to a state of rest. Figure 1.6 shows
typical outputs for unstable processes. Example 1.2 also described the
utility for realistic applications. In this text we will employ the following
E7ery systc‘m wllicki is not stnhlr according tr? t11t alcove drl'inition wi1.1. be
- bounded is an input wl~ich always remains between an upper and a lower Iknit
~.&2)o~ln+.if~il 01.1 tptitc; exist. c-n1 y in tl;t:c~r-y and nr?t in pr:3~tice b~~.a~lse all.
/,*5ys i :x1 rlilantit i<": 31'e !.imited. Thwefort:, the t crm unl~oiindecl means y:er!’
? xr F e ”
Accord-in:: t:!) tllc above def j.nition, a system with response like those of
F'jgure 1ij.l~ ic: A stabtt while Figure 15.lb shows the rpspnnses of unstable
1.-t 11.5 consjder a tiv2ami7 system with input m and output y- 7.'h en )
Tn Section 9.4 we concluded tbnt if G(s) has a pole with positive real part
then it gives rise to a term c1 e Pt which grows continuously with time, thus
llncont rolled.
"If the transfer function of a dynamic system has even one pole with
complex plane.
Example 15.1 - Stabilization of an Unstable Process With P Control
control only. Assume that for the measuring sensor and the final control
element
G = Gf =l
m
The closed-loop response of the system is given by eqn. (15.5) which for
lO*Kc 5*Kc
3(s) = s _ (1 - 10K ) %P(') + s - (1 - 10Kc) d(s)
C
From the last equation we conclude that the closed-loop transfer functions
10-K 5-K C
G
SP = s - (1 - ;O*Kc) ' GLOAD = s - (1 - lo-Kc)
have negative pole if Kc > l/10. Therefore, the original system can be
stabilized with simple proportional control. Figure 15.2b shows the dynamic
response of the controlled system to a unit-step change in the load for Kc=l.
Compare it to the behavior of the uncontrolled system and realize the stabilizing
1
Gp(d =
S2 +2s+2
The system has two complex poles with negative real parts
Pl = -1 + j and P2 = -1 - j
Figure 15.4a. Introduce a PI controller. Let the measuring element and the
G,(s) = Gf (s) = 1 .
GG
P(s) = 1 +PGCG l j,,(s) = Gsp-Ysp(s>
PC
,.L T s+l
. Kc m-i!-
s2+2s+2 ?s KC(71s+1)/71
GpGc
GSP = l+GG= rIS+l = K
pcl+ ' .K- s3 + 2s2 + (2+Kc)s -I- 2
,2+2s+2 c -rIs =I
Let
S3 + 2s2 + (2 + 100)s + g
.
Y(s) = $+ ii(s) +
Clearly, this process is unstable because its transfer function possesses a
control only. Assume that for the measuring sensor and the final control
element
= Gf = 1
Gm
The closed-loop response of the system is given by eqn. (15.5) which for
lO.Ke 5’KC
Y(s) =
s - (1 - 10Kc) %P(') + s - (1 - 10Kc) '(')
From the last equation we conclude that the closed-loop transfer functions
lO*K 5*K
G
SP = s - (1 - ;O*Kc) ' GLOAD = s - (1 -clO*Kc)
have negative pole if Kc > l/10. Therefore, the original system can be
stabilized with simple proportional control. Figure 15.2b shows the dynamic
response of the controlled system to a unit-step change in the load for Kc=l.
Compare it to the behavior of the uncontrolled system and realize the stabilizing
1
process with the following transfer function
I
GpW =
a unit-step
according
change in
to our
the
criterion the system
G,(s) = Gf(s) = 1 . I
The closed-loop response
GG
to set point changes is given by,
I
P(s) = 1 +PGCG
PC
- s;,,(s> = Gsp*YspW
I
To examine the stability of the closed-loop response we have to find where
Let
S3 + 2s2 + (2 + 100)s + g
.
Kc = 100 and rI = 0.1 have been used. Figure 15.4b shows the response of
response of the uncontrolled system and notice the destabilizing effect of the
find that all the poles of GSP have negative real parts, i.e. the closed-loop
system is stable.
Examples 15.1 and 15.2 dramatized the effect a feedback control loop may
appropriate terms.
G G G
7(s) = Pfc (14.5)
1 + GDGfGcGm 'SF(') + 1 + GIEfGcGrn '(')
or equivalently
by the poles of the transfer functions GSP and GLOAD. These poles are
common for both transfer functions because they have common denominator and
l+GGGG = 0 (15.1)
p f c m
Equation (15.1) is called the characteristi equation for the generalized
i.e.
1 + Gp Gf c
G mG = (s - pl)(s - p2)***(s - p,)
then we can state the following criterion for the stability of a closed-loop
system:
imaginary axis, i.e. it has real part zero or positive, the feedback system
is unstable.
Remarks; (1) The stability criterion stated above secures stable response
Go, = GpGfGcGm
follows,
1 + GOL = 0
(3) The roots of the characteristic equation are also the poles
G
10
=- Gf=l , Gm=l and =K
P s-l ' Gc C
1 + l*Kc*l = 0
pG G
f GcGm =l+S*
p = 1 - 10Kc
I
15.3 THE ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION FOR STABILITY
I
The criterion of stability for closed-loop systems does not require the
imaginary axis and thus reach quickly a conclusion as to the stability of the
p f c m
equation by -1.
there is at least one root of the characteristic equation which has positive
needed.
Row 1 a
0 a2 a4 a6 ***
2 al a3 a5 a7 ” - *
3 Al A2 A3 l
. . 0
4 B2
B1 B3 l *‘**
5
cl c2 c3 ’ -*-
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
where
B1 = Ala3 - alA
B2 = A1A5 - alA ~..
>
A1 A1 ’
Examine the elements of the first column of the above array, i.e.
- If any of these elements is negative then we have at least one root to the
- The number of sign changes in the elements of the first column is equal
Therefore, a system is stable if all the elements in the first column of the
equation is
3 KC
S + 2s2 + (2 + Kc)s + -r = 0
I
2 2 Kc
?
K
2(2+Kc) -$
I
3 2
0
Kc
2(2+Kc) -y-- K
I C
2 ' T-1
11
All are always positive except the third which can be positive or negative
-If Kc = 100 and -cI = 0.1 the third element becomes -398 < 0, which
means that the system is unstable. We have two sign changes in the
elements of the first column. Therefore, we have two roots with positive
the system is stable since all the elements of the first column are
positive.
Return to Example 15.4 and let rI = 0.1. Then, the third element of the
first column in the Routh array becomes,
2(2+Kc) - 10Kc
.
2
K = 0.5
C
-If K/0.5 all the elements of the first column in the Routh array are
positive and the system is stable, i.e. all the roots of the characteristic
- If Kc > 0.5 the third element of the first column of the Routh array
becomes negative. We have two sign changes in the elements of the first
equation move towards the imaginary axis and when Kc = 0.5 then we have two
roots on the imaginary axis (pure imaginary) which give rise to sustained
sinusoidal term.
Remark: The two purely imaginary roots can be found from the equation
K
2s2 + .-A = 0
r1
i.e.
2s2 + g = 0
.
+ j(2.5)
the Routh array just before the element of the first column which
is zero, i.e. the elements of the second row.
The preoceding examples have demonstrated very vividly that the stability
Thus, in Example 15.1 we notice that the closed-loop system becomes stable
when Kc > l/10. Also, in Example 15.4, the system is stable when
2(2+Kc) > F
Kc
I
The root loci are merely the plots in the complex plane of the roots of
Example 15.6 - The Root Locus of Two Capacities in Series with P Control
The two capacities in series may be two stirred tanks, two heaters, etc.
K
P
GpW = (T1s+1)(T2s+1)
Let,
= Gf =l and = Kc .
Gm Gc
Then, the characteristic equation is:
1+ KP l K = 0
(Tls+1)(?2s+1) c
or
Consider K as the changing parameter instead of the gain Kc, and make the
following observations:
(ii) As K increases from the zero value, the roots of the characteristic
2
(T1+T2) _ 1
K <
4=lT2
K c1 (15.2)
C
%
(iii) When
(15.3)
T +-r
- 1 2
-
Pl = P2 =
2=1r2
(iv) For
K+ (15.4)
P
P1,2 = 2T 1T 2
=1+=2
-~
2T1’2
as K -f a.
Using the above information we can construct the root locus of the system as
follows:
and negative roots. Therefore, the root locus is given by two distinct
curves which emanate from points A and B and remain on the real
axis. Furthermore, the two curves move towards each other and meet
at the point C (Figure 15.5). At this point, Kc i\as the value given
two distinct curves of the root locus because we have distinct, com-
plex conjugate roots. Since the real part of the complex roots is
,...
constant, the two branches of the root locus are perpendicular to the
The complete root locus is given in Figure 15.5 and since all its branches are
LQGated tQ the Left af the inagtnaary a?sis-, More CQRC~NdC tkat tke ClQsed- b2~
satisfying inequality (15.2) the response of the system to a step input is not
Example 15.6 demonstrated that the root locus of a system does not only
Therefore, the root locus analysis can be the basis of a feedback control
loop design methodology, whereby the movement of the closed-loop poles (i.e.
the roots of the characteristic equation) due to the change of the proportional
The construction of the root locus for the system of Example 15.6 was
rather simple. For higher order systems to find the exact location of the
root locus branches we need a computer program that can find the roots of a
high order polynomial. Such programs are available in any large computer
Quite often though we are not interested in the exact location of the
root locus branches and simple but qualitatively correct graphs will suffice
system. Appendix 15.A gives a set of general rules which can be used to draw
the root locus for a reactor system and its use for the analysis of the
Example 15.7 - -The -Root Locus for a Reactor With Proportional Control
Douglas [Ref. 121 has developed the model for the reactor shown in
despite the upsets in the inputs of the reactor. He attempts to achieve the
3s) = 2.98(s+2.25)
Gp(s) =
G(s) (s+l.45)(~+2.85)~(~+4.35)
Assuming instantaneous responses with gain 1 for the measuring device and
Gm = Gf = 1
1+ 2.98(s+2.25) -K = 0 (15.5)
(s+1.45)(s+2.85) 2 (s+4.35) C
= -4.35
p1 = -1.45 , p2 = p3 = -2.85 and
p4
through the use of a digital computer. Table 15.1 shows how the locations
of the four roots change with the value of Kc. These results have been
Table 15.1. The Roots of the Characteristic Equation-
for the System of Example 15.7.
5
- p1
- p2 p3 p4
-
0 -1.45 -2.85 -2.85 -4.35
Let us examine the root locus branches of Figure 15.7 and draw some con-
(i> The system is stable for gain values up to 50 because all the roots
are located to the left of the imaginary axis. For a gain value
between 50 and 100 the root locus crosses the imaginary axis and
(ii) For any value of Kc > 0 until the critical value there are two
complex conjugate roots with negative real parts. They imply that
decaying oscillation.
(iii) For Kc larger than the critical value (where the system becomes
unstable) the roots that cause the instability are complex con-
Remark: A very satisfactory approximate sketch of the root locus for the
Appendix 15-A.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
Almost all processing units employed in a chemical plant are inherently
stable. Under feed back control, though, they can become unstable. Therefore,
the stability characteristics of a closed-loop system are of uppermost importance
during its design. They depend on the dynamics of all the components in the
control loop, i.e. process, sensors, controller and final control element.
The notion of stability that suffices for our purposes is that of the
produces a bounded response to any bounded input. The criterion that we will
- For uncontrolled systems the poles of the process' transfer function must
be located to the left of the imaginary axis for the system to be stable.
- For closed-loop systems the closed-loop poles (the roots of the character-
istic equation) must be located to the left of the imaginary axis for the
the right of the imaginary axis, without computing the actual values of the
poles. This procedure should be used whenever we need to know only if the
the controller used which are affected by the values of the parameters Kc,
TI and ~~~ The root locus analysis permits us to examine the location of
the closed-loop poles as Kc changes from zero to infinity. From the location
of K
C’
The root locus has been historically a popular method for the design of feed-
efficiently systems with dead time, and today it has been replaced by more
system. Consequently, we will spend no more space and time expanding on its
is stable or not.
closed-loop poles.
or controlled process?
of an uncontrolled process?
9. The root locus analysis cannot handle easily systems with dead time.
why? Show how systems with dead time could be handled with root locus
analysis.
10. Examples 15.6 and 15.7 indicate that the root locus has as many
Thus, in Example 15.6 the open-loop transfer function has two poles and
the root locus two branches., while for Example 15.7 we have four poles
and four branches. Is this true for any closed-loop system? Explain.
t 376
3 Y
- - - -
t t
A+R - ?I
%+a-, c
C4R”r-D
D-l--R-E
I Figure i5.4
I
c? 6’
I
k .;I00
-6
\\
4 .,,,.... . ,-” ,,,. .,
. . .
~.
system,
l+GGGG
pmcf= o
( s - z ) ( s - z ) l -* (s-z )
1 2
l+K (15.A-1)
c (s-p,)(s-p,) l a* (s-pr) = O
while pl, p2' a*-, Pn are the poles of the open-loop transfer function.
tic equation (15.A-1). The geometric locus of all the roots consti-
The Root-Locus for the general closed-loop system with the char-
4. Loci on the Real Axis. The real axis is part of a branch (locus)
if the sum of the number of poles and zeros to the right of any
the poles and zeros of the open-loop transfer function. The center
of gravity is given by
n m
c1 = i"l 'i - j~l 'i
(15.A-2)
n - m
n[(2k+l)/n-m)] k = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (n-m-l)
with the real axis. This means that they are equally spaced at
angles of
2T/(n-m)
real poles intersect, they leave the real axis at a point which is
poles move towards two adjacent real zeros, they enter the real
simple pole on the real axis is 0 or TT. For multiple real poles of
angles given by
zero is either 0 or IT. For multiple real zeros of k-th order, the
given by
n
oi = i (2i+l)n + Y& (zq-zj) + ' ~ ('q-pj)
L j=l j=l !
7%
branches (branch 1, see Figure 15.7) terminates at the zero, while the
other three (4-l) approach zeros at infinity along the three asymptotes.
(15.A-2)
= -3.08
-1~[(=+1)/(4-1) 1 k = 0, 1, 2
with the real axis; i.e. 60", 180" and 300". The center of gravity
and the location of the three asymptotes are shown in Figure 15.7.
The following segments of the real axis are part of the Root-Locus:
- Between -1.45 and -2.25. One pole to the right of every point of
this segment.
- Between and --m. Four poles and one zero to the right of
The segment from -1.45 to +m has no poles or zeros to its right, while
the segment from -2.85 to -4.35 has three poles (pI,p2,p3) and one
zero to its right. Both these segments cannot be part of the Root-
Locus, according to the Rule 4. The same is true for the segment from
-2.25 to -2.85.
From the double pole of -2.85 emanate two loci with angles of
Example 15.7.
CHAPTER 16
adjust the parameters of the selected controller (i.e. Kc, TI, rD) in order
both questions lead to the synthesis of the control system , and the analysis
Figure 14.1.
When the load or the set point change, the response of the process
deviates and the controller tries to bring the output again close to the
desired set point. Figure 16.1 shows the response of the controlled process
to a unit step change in the load, when different types of controllers have
the response of the controlled process. Thus, the first design question arises:
Given that we have decided somehow to use PI control, we still need to select
the value of the gain Kc and the reset time r1* Figures 16.2a and 16.2b
demonstrate very clearly that these two parameters have an important effect
on the response of the controlled process. Thus, the second design question:
or
then, we would have selected the other controller yielding the closed-loop
state. We have seen already that in most situations, the proportional controller
know that for proportional control the steady state error (offset) tends to
performance criteria.
- Criteria which use only a few points of the response. They are simpler
- Criteria which use the entire closed-loop response from time t=O until
t = very large. These are more precise but also more cumbersome to use.
In the remaining of this section we will deal with the first category of
simple performance criteria and we will leave the more complicated criteria
of the closed-loop response of a system. The most often quoted are (see
Figure 11.2):
- overshoot,
- rise time, i.e. time needed for the response to reach the desired value
- settling time, i.e. time needed for the response to settle within 25% of
- decay ratio,
Every one of the above characteristics could be used by the designer as the
basic criterion for selecting the controller and the -values of its adjusted
one simple characteristic does not suffice to describe the desired dynamic
istics. For example, Figure 16.4 shows that by decreasing the value of the
overshoot we increase the settling time. Scuh conflicts will always arise
while using simple design criteria as the above, The control designer must
From all the above performance criteria, the decay ratio has been the
c/A = l/4
is a reasonable trade-off between a fast rise time and a reasonable settling
criterion.
Example 16.1 - Controller Tuning With the One-Quarter Decay Ratio Criterion
rIs+l
'*(s) = Ysp (s) (15.23)
T2S2 + 25rs + 1
where
T =
J Yp
K K
PC
(15.24a)
and
1 r1 (15.24b)
r, =
? JT K K (' + KpK~)
PPC
For the selection of the "best" values for Kc and 'II we will use
tem. Select the one-quarter decay ratio criterion. From eqn. (11.12) we
know that
-2lT3
Decay Ratio = exp( --->
l-r2
f-
exp
Equation (16.1) has two unknowns; Kc, rI. Therefore, we will have several
K =l Kc = 10 Kc = 30 Kc = 50 Kc = 100
C
etc. The question is which one to select. Usually, we select first the
to push the response back to the desired set point and then we choose the
The shape of the complete closed-loop response from time t=O until
steady state has been reached could be used for the formulation of a dynamic
performance criterion. Unlike the simple criteria which use only isolated
characteristics (e.g. decay ratio, settling time) of the dynamic response, the
criteria of this category are based on the entire response of the process.
co
34
cm
where E(t) = yd(t) - y(t), i.e. the deviation (error) of the response from
follows:
"Select the type of the controller and the values of its adjusted
system's response."
Which one of the above three criteria we will use depends on the character-
impose on the controlled response of the process. The following are some
general guidelines:
because the errors are squarred and thus contribute more to the value of
the integral.
- For the supporession of small errors, IAE is better than ISE because when
we square small numbers (smaller than one) they become even smaller.
- To suppress errors which persist for long times, the ITAE criterion will
responses. When the controller parameters have been tuned using ISE, IAE and
- For the same time integral criterion, different input changes lead to
different designs.
Let us analyze these two statements on the basis of the following example.
response is:
-rIs+l
- 5s
L(s) = Y,,(s) + ;i(s)
r1 2
--Q s+l
20Kc ' +5(l+20Kc
or
TIs+l T s
I
d(s)
+4 = r2s2 + 2cTs + 1 %P(s) +,282 + 2T.s + 1
where
T = (16.4a)
and
= 1 =I
(16.4b)
5 2 J20K (1 + 2OICJ
C
In order to select the best values for Kc and TI we can use one of the
either in the load or the set point. Finally, even if we select set point
changes we still need to decide what kind of changes we will consider, i.e.
step, sinusoidal, impulse, etc. Let us say that we select ISE as the
criterion and unit-step changes in the set point. From eqn. (16.3) we have:
.rIs+l 1
Y(s) = 2 2 . -
T s + 25TS + 1 s
03
"Minimize ISE = [ysp - y(t)12dt by selecting the values of
I
0
The optimal values of r and < are given by the solution of the following
Let -r* and <* be the optimal values. Then, from eqns. (16.4a) and (16.4b)
we can find the corresponding optimal values for the controller parameters TI
and K
C’
If the criterion was the ITAE then we would have to solve the following
problem:
co
a(ITAE)/ar = a(ITAE)/ar, = 0
and in turn, from eqns. ((16.3a) and (16.3b)) we can find the optimal Kc and
yields;
T s
Y(s) = .-1
I
T2S2 + 2<TS + 1 s
and inversion,
-?t/T
*I e 2 t
y(t) = sin(f-
l-5 --) (16.6)
T /--
l-c2
as previously. Since the response y(t) is now different than it was for a
unit step change in the set point (compare eqns. (16.6) with (16.5), we expect
manner as follows:
controller with the best settings for the adjusted parameters Kc, -cI,
- Select that controller which gives the "best" value for the performance
criterion.
drawbacks like:
- it is very tedius,
- it relies on modes1 (transfer functions) for the process, sensor and final
troller using only general qualitative considerations stemming from the analysis
. “.
in Chapter 14. There we had examined the effect of the proportional, integral
and derivative control modes on the response of a system. In summary: the con-
Proportional Control
- Accelerates the response of a controlled process.
- Produces an offset, i.e. non-zero steady state error for all processes
except those with terms l/s (integrators) in their transfer function, like
the liquid level in a tank or the gas pressure in a vessel (see Remark in
Section 14.2).
Integral Control
devications.
Derivative Control
Figure 16.1 reflects in a very simple way all the above characteristics which
the best. This is true in the sense that it offers the highest flexibility
desired response against the tuning difficulty we can adopt the following
rules to select the controller.
for which the P control does not exhibit offset. Therefore, for gas
tems but very often (almost always) for flow control. The response of
loop system, despite the slow down caused by the integral control
The PI eliminates the offset but reduces the speed of the closed-loop
effect allows the use of higher gains which produce faster responses
(a) Liquid level control. Consider the two liquid level control systems for
drum (Figure 16.7). Our control objective is to keep each liquid level
within a certain range around the desired set point and not to meet it
the tank of Figure 16.7c, when the inlet pressure p1 or the pressure
Cc> Vapor pressure control. Here we can have loops which react quite fast
shown in Figure 16.8. The loop in Figure 16.8a measures the pressure
and manipulates the flow of vapor, thus affecting directly and quickly
the vapor pressure in the process. For such systems with fast response,
vapor condensed. Such systems may be used for controlling the pressure
process are introduced in the control loop. We expect that the response
(d) Flow control. Consider the two flow control systems shown in Figure
of response.
the reactor. Between the measured temperature and the control effect
we have two rather slow processes: (i) heat transfer between the
reacting mixture and the temperature sensor (see Section 13.3) and
controller will make it even more so. Consequently, for such systems
the system.
After the type of a feedback controller has been selected, we still have
the problem of deciding what values to use for its adjusted parameters. This
is known as the controller tuning problem. There are three general approaches
- Use simple criteria like the one-quarter decay ratio (see Example 16.1),
- Use time integral performance criteria like ISE, IAE or ITAE (see Example
In this section we will discuss the most popular of the empirical tuning
methods known as the Process Reaction Curve Method which was developed by
Consider the control system of Figure 16.11 which has been "opened" by
the value of the output with respect to time. The curve y,(t) is called
by the dynamics of the main process but also by the dynamics of the measuring
Cohen and Coon observed that the response of most processing units to
an input change as the above had a sigmoidal shape (see Figure 16.12a) which
-tds
YmW Ke
GpRC(s) 2 ___ = (16.8)
,rs+l
C(s)
which has three parameters: static gain K, dead time td and time constant
Cohen and Coon used the approximate model of eqn. (16.8) and estimated
derived theoretical expressions for the "best" controller settings using load
- minimum offset,
I
the loop (Figure16.ll)and thus disconnect the controller,
system.
I
(3) From eqns. (16.9), (16.1Oa) and (16.11a) which give the value
P controller.
control mode
This is due to the fact that the integral
In
16.4
this
- Tuning
example we
Feedback
- - - -Controllers
will examine how the
Through
dynamics
Reaction
of
Curves
various typical
I
processes influence the tuning results recommended by Cohen and Coon. I
I
(0 Processes with very shosrt time delay (dead time). When td is very
small (almost zero) the process reaction curve (Figure 16.12a) reminds
the
settings
response
dictate
of a
an
simple
extremely
first-order
large
system.
value for
The
the
Cohen and
proportional
Coon
gain
i
Kc (see eqns. (16.8), (16.9a) and (16.10a)). In real practice we
will use the largest possible gain to reduce the offset if a pro-
K
G = P
P CT s+l) (T s+l)
Pl p2
Let the measuring device and the control valve (final control element)
G =-Knl and
Kf
m -cms+l Gf = rfs+l
KKK
G =GGG = f pm (16.8)
PRC f pm (y+l) (T s+l)(-r s+l)(Tms+l>
Pl P2
Equation (16.8) indicates that the process reaction curve has the
Figure 16.13 shows the process reaction curve for the following
values:
5 7 2 , Tf = 0.00 ) Tm = 10.0
TPl = rP2 =
1.0 e-2*5s
GPRC 2Os+l
KC
= 8.0
Figure 16.14 shows the closed-loop responses with the above settings for
set point (Figure 16.14a) and load changes (Figure 16.14b). We notice that
the Cohen and Coon settings produce underdamped behavior with rather good
decay ratio.
sensor are poorly known, i.e. we do not know exactly the order of dynamics or
the values of the parameters. In such case the process reaction curve reveals
the effects of all the dynamic components, i.e. process, sensor and final con-
trol element and provides an experimental, approximate model for the overall
process.
c-- ._., A
,...
Take as example the temperture control system for the reactor of Figure
16.10. It is quite a complex system and we may not know with satisfactory
- the overall heat transfer coefficient between steam and reacting mixture,
The process reaction curve for this system provides us with an experimental
model of the overall process which we can use to tune the controller without
requiring detailed knowledge of the dynamics for the reactor, heating jacket,
controller (P, PI, PID) and (b) to choose the values of the adjusted parameters
for the selected controller. There are two main classes of dynamic performance
(overshoot, decay ratio, rise time, settling time), while the second includes
criteria which are based on the time integrals of various functions of the
errors (e.g. of the square of the errors, or of the absolute errors, or of the
product of time with the absolute errors). The first class of criteria,
- are simpler to use,
1
- can be used even with poorly known processes, but
single solution. I
The time integral criteria,
- lead to unique solutions, since they depend on the entire dynamic response
of a closed-loop system.
In order to select the type of a feedback controller we can use the following
- Use proportional control only if small offsets can be tolerated, e.g. liquid
- the Cohen and Coon settings based on the process reaction curves.
The first and last can be used with poorly known processes, while the second
In the next two chapters we will discuss a methodology for the design of
1. What are the main questions arising during the design of a feedback con-
troller designs.
4. Can you design a controller which minimizes the rise and settling times,
simultaneously? Explain.
5. Can you design a controller which minimizes the overshoot and settling
6. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the three time-
integral criteria, i.e. ISE, IAE and ITAE? How would you select the
9. Discuss a set of simple heuristic rules you could use to select the
10. Discuss the philosophy of the methodology that leads to the Cohen and
11. How do you understand the "opening" of the control loop shown in
12. Why do most of the process reaction curves have an overdamped sigmoidal
13. Are the Cohen and Coon settings reliable for all processes? Explain.
14. What is the value of the proportional gain Kc for a pure dead-time
Explain.
15. If the dynamics of the process or measuring sensor are not well known,
4 a.7
uNc~~TROLCED
RESPONSE
1
i 6.
lyue 1G.d
-.--__ -_ I
-
/
I
.r-- u
pc --:
I I
a
IF ig u-e 46.8 1
Cls)=A/S
2jnJs)
- - G,
. .
/
slope =s
44
id t
!b)
?/
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.25
0 -7
‘t
1 A
I . .
CHAPTER 17
how the features of the output sinusoidal wave (amplitude, phase shift) change
with the frequency of the input sinusoid. In this chapter we will deal only
with basic premises of the frequency response analysis, while leaving its
G(s) = Y(s)
~ = KP
(17.1)
Us) TPS+l
f(t) = A sinwt
Then
T(s) = Aw (17.2)
s* + u*
Substitute F(s) from eqn. (17.2) into eqn. (17.1) and take:
K
Y(s) = * l Aw
P s2 + cd2
Expand into partial fractions and find
5 c2 + c3
Y(s) = s + l,T + s + jw s - jw
(17.3)
P
Compute the constants Cl, C2 and C3 and find the inverse Laplace trans-
-t/-c
As ta the e '+O and the first term disappears. Thus, after a long
Y,,W = KPAwr P
- ,2w2 KPA (17.4)
+ 1 coswt + ,2,2 + 1 sinwt
P P
where
a3 = m and I$ = tan-'(al/a2)
where
= -1
4 tan (-o.rp) (17.6)
. ..“.
9/3
- The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is called amplitude
- The output wave lags behind (phase lag) the input wave by an angle ]$I,
17.1 shows the ultimate response of the system and its relationship to the
input wave.
The above three observations do not hold only for first-order systems but are
generalization of the above results let us make the following remarks related
w = a + jb
and
Then
-jw-iP+l
G(j > = jutp+l = juFp+l
P P -jOrp+l
or
K K WT
G(jw) = P P P
T21112 + 1 - j T2U2 + 1
P P
(1) above,
and
This is an important result which we will generalize in the next section for
G(s) = (17.11)
sinusoidal wave.
s = ju, i.e.
AR = modulus of G(jw)
- The output wave is shifted with respect to the input wave by an angle 4
$ = argument of G(jw)
PROOF
For a sinusoidal input f(t) = Asinwt we have f(s) = Am/s2 + w2) and
S + cd2
The terms
c1 c2 ... , %
s-p ' s-p ' s-p n
1 2
decay to zero as t-tco (see Section 9.4). Therefore, the ultimate response is
given by
a = AG(-jw) b=h!t$+!d
and
-2j
AG(-jw) 1
Y&4 = - zj
s + jw
or
Use eqn. (17.10) to express the complex numbers G(-jw) and G(jw) in polar
form, i.e.
and
eqn. (17.13)
or
G(s) = !k
S
K
G(jw) = ' =
jw
i.e. the ultimate sinuosidal response of the system lags behind the input wave
by 90".
K K
KpN
G(s) = G1(s)G2(s) ,*-,GN(s) = p1 . p2 s+l
. . .
' ' T
T s+l s+l
p1 rp2 PN
Put s = jw and take
j(41+$2+,***,+4N)
G(jw) = 1 IGl(jW) llG2(ju)l - ,-*- ,- IGN(ju) II l e
- amplitude ratio,
or
K -K *,**-,-K
p1 p2 PN (17.18a)
AR = ~--qyK~~,"~, /L--q?
1 p2
- phase shift,
(17.19)
or
K
G(s) =
r2s2+L+l
.
A/!‘”
K K 22
P = P . (-T w +l)-j25rw
G(jw) =
(-T2u2+1)+j2<Tu (-T2u2+1)+j2cTu (-.c2u2+1) -j 2y-rw
or
Kp(l--rLuL) Kp*2T-rlri
G(jw) =
(1-*2fA2)2+(257w) 2 -9 (1-r202)2+(2r7U) 2
AR = IG(jw) 1 = P (17.20)
2
+ (25TW)
- phase shift is
--T s
G(s) = e d
-j Tdw
G(jw) = e
Clearly;
Let us now shift our attention to the various types of feedback controllers.
Gc(s) = KC
Therefore,
AR = Kc and $=O.
Therefore
AR = IGc(jw)l = Kc m
(UT > (17.24)
I
Therefore,
-1 (17.27)
$ = argGc(jw) = tan (~Dw) > 0
The positive phase shift is called phase lead and is the consequency
Notice that;
represent the frequency response of a system. As we can see from eqns. (17.14a)
and (17.14b), the amplitude ratio and the phase shift of the response of a
system are functions of the frequency w. The Bode diagrams consist of a pair
of plots showing;
- how the logarithm of the amplitude ratio varies with frequency and
the frequencies.
Let us now examine the Bode diagrams of some simple dynamic systems that
K
amplitude ratio = m = P (17.7)
I-
1 + r202
P
17.3a (solid line) and can be constructed from eqn. (17.30) for various values
-As w-, then -rpw- and from eqn. (17.30) 1ogAR = -log(-rpw)
constructed from eqn. (17.6). We can easily verify the following character-
Remark: If Kp # 1 then as it can be seen from eqn. (17.7) the low fre-
The Bode plots are easily constructed and shown in Figure 17.4.
C. Second-Order System
K -2??w
AR=...-.-- P - and I$ = tan -5 >
1 - T202
J(l-T2U2)2+(25Tw)2
The two plots are shown in Figure 17.5 for various values of < when Kp = 1.
AR =l,rw =l
From Figure 17.5 we notice that for underdamped systems, i.e. 5~1, the
AR = 1 and $J = -TdW
The Bode plots for this system are easily constructed and shown in Figure 17.6.
E. Systems in Series
Gl(s),G2(s),...,GN(s)
G(s) = Gl(s)G2(s),-,GN(s)
G(jw) = Gl(jw>G2(jw>,**o,GN(jw)
or
j@,
G(ju) = IGl(ju) jw> le
or finally
j ($1++2+,** l ,++,I
IG(jw) 1
= IGl(ju) I* IG2(ju) 1
l ,***,-IGN(j~) I (17.31)
and
@ = $1 + $2 +,“‘,+ $N (17.32)
AR = (AR)l*(AR)2*,~*~,*(AR)N
or
where
(AR>,,(AR>2,***,(~>N
are the amplitude ratios for the individual systems in series. Equations
(17.31) and (17.32) are very important and indicate the following rules for
(1) The logarithm of the overall amplitude ratio is equal to the sum of
(2) The overall phase shift is equal to the sum of the phase shifts of the
individual systems,
(3) The presence of a constant in the overall transfer function will move the
phase shift.
G(s) = & l -
6
5s+l
Then,
or
where (AR)l and (AR)2 are the amplitude ratios of the individual systems,
when their gains are 1. Figure 17.7a shows the amplitude ratios of the two
systems as functions of w. The addition of these two curves plus the factor
log6 will yield the amplitude ratio of the overall system versus the frequency
w. The overall curve is also shown in Figure 17.7a. From this curve we
A .“. -
notice three distinct frequency regions. JCJe slope of the asymptote in each
region is the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes for the two systems
the point AR = 6.
point AR = 6 o = l/5
Figure 17.7b shows the phase shift for the overall system versus the frequency,
as the algebraic sum of the phase shifts of the two individual systems, i.e.
9 = $1 + $2 = tan-l(-2w) + tan-'(-5w)
It is clear that;
F. Feedback Controllers
The Bode diagrams for various types of feedback controllers can be con-
The Bode plots are trivial. The AR and 0 stay constant at the
Therefore:
1
As ~0 ,>jl , then log@) = -log(w~I)
(WTI) L RC
and the low frequency asymptote is a straight 1 ine with s lope -1.
AR/Kc = 1.
The AR and $I are given by eqns. (17.26) and (17.27). The Bode
plots can be easily constructed and are shown in Figures 17.9a and
17.9b.
The Bode plots are easily constructed and they are shown in Figures
Consider the feedback control system shown in Figure 17.11. The open-
G = Gc*Gf*Gp*Gm
OL
or
1 -0.2s
G = 100Kc*(l + -+)* l
OL O.ls+l l (2s+&+1) l 0.5s-U' e
I
with = 0.25 and Kc= 4. We notice that the GOL can be factored into a
?
product
1
of six
1
transfer
1
functions, i.e.
-0.2s
I
- - cl+&), l
2s+l ' s+l ' 0.5s+l '
I
O.ls+1 ' e
I
with the following corner frequencies (in the same order)
they are shown in Figures 17.12a and 17.12b. The Bode plots for the overall
present section.
w5 5 w < a.
vs. w diagram, the
- Second; for the AR - slope of the overall asymptote I
is equal to the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes of the
- Third; the overall phase shift is equal to the algebraic sum of the phase
I
shifts for each individual transfer function and is shown in Figure 17.12b. I
-.
+Q Y
at the point 1 (Figure 17.13) the frequency has a value ml and we observe
the following:
- The distance of the point 1 from the origin (0,O) is the amplitude ratio
- The angle $ with the real axis is the phase shift at the frequency wl,
i.e.
Thus, as the frequency varies from 0 to ~0 we trace the whole length of the
Nyquist plot and we find the corresponding values for the amplitude ratio
and phase shift. The shape and location of a Nyquist plot are character-
The Nyquist plot contains the same information as the pair of Bode plots
for the same system. Therefore, its construction is rather easily given the
corresponding Bode plots. Let us now construct the Nyquist plots of some
typical systems using their Bode plots developed in the previous section.
A. First-Order System
The corresponding Bode plots are given in Figure 17.3. We observe that:
Nyquist plot is on the real axis where $=O and at a distance from
(ii) When u-)co then AR+0 and ++--90". Therefore, the end of the Nyquist
Figure 17.14a).
the Nyquist plot will be inside a unit circle and will never leave
the first quadrant. Its complete shape and location are shown in
Figure 17.14a.
B. Second-Order System
The corresponding Bode plots are shown in Figure 17.5. Notice that:
(i> When w=O then AR = 1 and Cp=O. Thus, the beginning of the Nyquist
(ii) When wxo then AR-+0 and (p-+-180', i.e. the Nyquist plot will end
(iii) When ~1 then AR51 and the Nyquist plot stays within a unit
frequencies. Thus, the Nyquist plot goes outside the unit circle
C. Third-Order System
Therefore, the Nyquist plot starts from the real axis at a distance 1 from the
and
$= -T d w
Therefore, the Nyquist plot for this system is a circle of radius 1 and
The phase lag remains constant at -90" for every frequency. Therefore, the
Nyquist plot coincides with the negative part of the imaginary axis (Figure
17.14e).
F. Feedback Controllers
PI, PD and PID controllers. They are shown in Figures 17.15a, 17.15b, 17.15~
to the input. We have a phase lag when @O and phase lead when (p>O. The
varies with the frequency of the input wave, Bode diagrams and Nyquist plots
Bode diagrams consist of a pair of plots showing how the amplitude ratio and
phase shift vary with the frequency. The Nyquist plot is a polar plot with
Frequency response analysis and the Bode diagrams or Nyquist plots will
3. What means could you use to represent the results of the frequency
4. Define the Bode diagrams and Nyquist plots. Do you have any personal
G(s) = l-s + 1
diagram and try to rationalize the word lead in its name. [Hint:
6. Construct the Bode diagram and Nyquist plot of a first-order system with
-T s
d
Kp*e
G(s) =
ups+1
Show that the Nyquist plot for this range of frequencies is the mirror
transfer function
K
G(s) = P
(Tls+l) (r2s+l) (T3S+l.) (TqS+l) (TgS+l) (T6S+l)
where '1?29 T39 r49 T59 =6 are all real and positive.
9. For a system like the one in item 8 above, we claim that the slope of
the overall asymptotes in the 1ogAR vs. logw plot of its Bode diagram can
-
be given from the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes for the
individual subsystems,
1 ___1 1
. . . ___
T 1 s+l ' T 2s+l ' ' rgs+l +
the slopes of the asymptotes for the overall system. Draw a qualitative
10. The Bode plots for a PI controller show that as w-t0 the AR-. This
GC
= Kc(l +$-)
I
11. The Bode plots for a PD controller show that as w- the AR-. This
actual PD controller.
12. Based on the responses in Items 10 and 11 above, develop the transfer
characteristics:
as w-4 , AR -+ c1 = finite
and as w- , AR -f 8 = finite.
,
q35
- - - _
- - -_
AR
I
1 /Yjwe 178)
. .
I ’
I I
I~ i
-3 ,’
c
,
I I
1 I
.
A
,
-41
1 I
I
I ’ I
.-- - _ - , -, -I,- ’
’ I 1
@) c __- - ^ -
C>
I
-^ - _ *_-_
-3
49
1
--_
-1 Iti
6
0
CHAPTER 18
its application to various dynamic systems. The question that may have been
raised in the mind of the reader, i.e. what do we do with it, will find its
- second, to select the most appropriate values for the adjusted parameters
of a controller.
K ,e-o.ls
y,(s)
(18.1)
GOL = = oc5s + 1
Y,,(s)
The Bode diagram for GOL(s) can be constructed easily (see Example 17.7) and
The frequency where the phase lag is equal to 180' is called crossover fre-
AR = = 0.12 (18.2)
”
Consequently, if Kc = l/O.12 = 8.56 the amplitude ratio becomes equal to 1.
Now, let us consider the "opened" loop shown in Figure 18.3a with Kc =
8.56. Here, the measurement signal has been disconnected from the comparator
Y$) = sin(l7.0t)
At some instant of time the set point yd is set to zero, while at the
same time we "close" the loop (Figure 18.3b). Under these conditions the
comparator inverts the sign of the y,, which now plays the same role played
by the set point in the "open" loop. Notice that the error E remains the
with constant amplitude, since AR = 1, despite the fact that both the load
Example
Using the Bode Criterion
K
Process: G = -$&
P
P
Measuring sensor: Gm = Km
K K K K K
G = cfpm =
OL cGGGG
f p m =
rps+l
rPs+l
We know (see Section 17.1) that the phase lag for a first-order system
over frequency.
dynamic components of the loop in the case (a) above with the following
change.
G = K .-Os5’
m m
K .-0.5s
G
OL = 'rps+l
criterion the system may become unstable for a large Kc which leads
(c) Higher Order Open-Loop Responses: Consider again the control system
Km
Gm = ~
-rms+l
K
G
OL = (rps+l)(rms+l)
and the phase lag becomes -180' when W=m . Therefore, according to the
If we consider
Km Kf
Gm = ___ and
r-,s+l Gf = rfs+l
frequency wCo where 4 = -180" and the system may become unstable for
large enough Kc. This leads to the second important observation about
Remarks: (1) All systems in Example 18.1 have an important common feature;
18.4 are very few and consequently the Bode criterion will
Consider the Bode plots for the open-loop transfer function of a feed-
back system (Figure 18.5). The two important features of these plots are;
Let M be the amplitude ratio at the corssover frequency (see Figure 18.5).
- if M>l it is unstable.
Define,
instability.
- The higher the gain margin is above the value of 1, the more robust the
closed-loop behavior will be and thus the safer the operation of the
controlled process. In other words the higher the gain margin the higher
margin larger than 1.7. This means that the AR can increase 1.7 times
C
AR = = 0.12 K
C
.
&T&z2
1
= 1.7
0.12 K
C
Let us assume now that the dead-time for the process has not been estimated
accurately and that its "true" value is 0.15 instead of 0.1. Then, the open-
and not by the assumed eqn. (18.1). For the open-loop transfer function of
the dead-time of the process. Notice though that the amplitude ratio has
moved closer to the value 1, i.e. the system has noved closer to instability.
- Since process parameters like dead-times, static gains, time constant are
almost never known exactly, a gain margin larger than one, e.g. 1.7, is a
- If the various parameters are known very well, only small safety factors
are needed, i.e. gain margins in the range 1.4-1.7. For systems with
parameters poorly known the safety factor must increase and the recommended
Besides the gain margin there is another safety factor which is used for
the design of a feedback control system; the phase margin. Consider again
Figure 18.5. Let $(,) be the phase lag at the frequency for which AR = 1.
clear therefore that the higher the phase margin the larger the safety factor
used for designing a controller. Typical phase margins used by the designers
C
AR = and 4 = tan-'(-0.5o) + (-0.1~)
. w 2
6-k
Let us tune the controller using a phase margin equal to 30". Then, we have
From the second euation we find w = 12.5 rad/min. Then, the first equations
gives Kc = 6.33.
(i> Assume now that the dead-time has been estimated wrong and that its
We notice that the system has become unstable, i.e. a phase margin
of 30' was not enough to provide a safety factor for a 50% error in
dead-time.
(ii) The reader can easily show that a phase margin of 45" is enough to
tune the controller in case (i) above and provide the necessary
safety factor for absorbing a 50% error in the dead-time. The value
has a "true" value of 0.25 instead of the assumed 0.5. Then, the
crossover frequency is found from the equation
5.05
AR = = 1.1
J/(o.25*17.9)2+1
curve. The method is primarily experimental and uses real process data from
Unlike the process reaction curve method which uses data from the open-
(i> Bring the system to the desired operational level (design condition).
(ii) Using proportional control only and with the feedback loop closed,
introduce sinusoidal set point changes with low amplitude and varying
(iv> Using the values of Ku and Pu, Ziegler and Nichols recommended
rI(min.) ~D(min.)
KC
-
-For PI control use a lower proportional gain because the presence of the
(see Figure 17.8b) with destabilizing effects on the system. The refore,
arguments were used in the process reaction curve tuning technique (see
Section 16.4).
- The presence of the derivative control mode introduces phase lead with
have;
G = 1 Gf = 1.0
I (5s+&2s+l) ' Gm = 10s + 1 and
P
I
The controller settings according to the process reaction curve method were
found to be:
Let us now find the Ziegler-Nichols settings and compare them to the
above.
log(AR) = log
2
&l + log & + log &
K = l/O.055 = 18.22
U
= 15.14/8 = 1.89
rD
Comparing the Z-N to the C-C settings we observe that;
- the proportional gains are a little larger for the Z-N settings,
- the reset and rate time constants are also higher for the Z-N.
Figures 18.6a and 18.6b indicate the responses of the closed-loop system to
step changes in the set point and load respectively, using a PID controller
with Z-N and C-C settings. We notice that the responses with Z-N tuning are
better than those with the more conservative C-C settings. It must be
relative superiority of one method over the other. The only conclusion we
draw is that both methods provide very good first guesses for the values of
systems with open-loop Bode plots like those of Figure 18.4 the more general
line of this criterion and its usage. For more details on the theoretical
background of the methodology the reader can consult Appendix 18.A at the end
of this chapter.
G OL
Kc
= (s+1)(2s+1)(4s+l)
Figure 18.7 shows the Nyquist plots for GOL when Kc = 1 (curve A) and
Kc = 50 (curve B). For each Nyquist plot the solid line covers the frequency
range 0 I w < -+ while the dotted part the frequencies from -a to 0. The
dotted segment of the Nyquist plot is the mirror image of the solid line
Figure 18.7 shows that curve A does not encircle the point (-l,O), while
curve B does. Thus, according to the Nyquist criterion the feedback system
with open-loop Nyquist plot the curve A is stable, while curve B indicates
Consider the Nyquist plots shown in Figures 18.8a, 18.8b and 18.8~. All
correspond to the same open-loop transfer function with different values for
the proportional gain Kc. The plots in Figures 18.8a and 18.8~ do not
encircle the point (-1,0) while the Nyquist plot of Figure 18.8b does.
Therefore, the feedback systems corresponding to the first and third Nyquist
plots have stable closed-loop responses, while that of the second is unstable.
From the above plots it is clear that the closed-loop response becomes
unstable for a range of values K such that the point (-1,0) is between A
C
and B of the resulting Nyquist plot. When point (-1,0) is to the left of A
(-1,0) by the open-loop Nyquist plot, the reader can use the
at the pencil and with the other end trace the whole length of
the Nyquist plot. If the thread has wrapped around the pencil
Nyquist plot."
The gain margin and phase margin of an open-loop response can be also
computed from a Nyquist plot. This must be expected since Bode and Nyquist
point A the Nyquist plot intersects the unit circle around the origin.
Therefore, since the distance of point A from the origin is the AR at this
The amplitude ratio at this point is the distance between B and the origin,
d The open-loop Bode and Nyquist plots of feedback systems reveal if the
- The gain and phase margins can be computed easily and constitute the
account for uncertainties in the values of time constants, dead times and
static gains. Tuning with gain margins larger than 1.7 and phase margins
larger than 30” is the most typical. It should be emphasized though that
the size of the margins used, is dictated by the magnitude of the uncer-
settings.
Wtih this chapter we close Part IV which dealt with the analysis and
- special compensatory control far processes with large dead time or inverse
response,
- adaptive control.
process dynamics and present some techniques used for this purpose.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
1. Explain in your own words that by "opening" a feedback loop we place the
rigorous?
3. Do you think that the following modified statement of the Bode criterion
6. Using the Nyquist stability criterion show that feedback systems with
7. Define the phase and gain margins and show how you can compute them
8. Explain in your own words what we mean when we say that phase and gain
controller?
t
10. The Ziegler-Nichols settings result from closed-loop considerations,
I
while the Cohen-Coon settings are determined from the open-loop I
response of the control system. Would you choose one over the other
gain? I
- Larger gain margin makes closed-loop response of a process faster
or slower?
I
-
-
Larger
Larger
phase
phase
margin
margin
implies
implies
faster
smaller
or
or
slower
larger
closed-loop
allowable
response?
controller
I
gain? 1
14. The discussion in Section 18.2 and Examples 18.2 and 18.3 have indi-
cated that we could use very large phase and gain margins to guarantee
closed-loop stability under model inaccuracies. Why would you try not
\
\
\
\
\
4 .“. ,,, _ . _”
,
,
I’
,’
I
,
-0
.c
-2
REFERENCES
Chapter 13: There is a variety of references that the reader can consult for
For the dynamics of some typical sensors the reader can consult the article,
While for the dynamics of thermocouples, valves, pumps, piping, et al. the
Chapter 15: The mathematical proof the Routh-Hurwitz tests can be found in
The books by Willelms [Ref. lo] and Douglas [Ref. 121 can also be used for
the subject.
The construction rules for the root locus of a closed-loop system can be
found in the books by Douglas [Ref. 121, Luyben [Ref. 71 and in the following
There is a variety of references on the use of root locus for the design of
closed-loop systems. The texts by Luyben [Ref. 71, Douglas [Ref. 121,
Coughanowr and Koppel [Ref. 131 and Ogata [Ref. 141 offer an excellent
design are the books by Buckley [Ref. 61 and Shinskey [Ref. 151
In these two texts the reader will find useful practical guidelines in
In Ref. 16, the reader will also find various techniques for solving the con-
troller design problems, which use time integral performance criteria. For
additional reading on this subject the following sources are also recommended:
For additional reading on the process reaction curve method and the Cohen and
Coon settings, the reader can consult References 8, 12, 13 and 15. The
details on the development of the Cohen and Coon settings can be found in the
Chapters 17 and 18: The books by Buckley [Ref. 61 and Caldwell, Coon and Zoss
[Ref. 211 are two very good sources for an in depth study of the frequency
very hard to complete the frequency response analysis, Luyben [Ref. 71 dis-
program in FORTRAN which uses the "stepping" technique to develop the Bode
and Nyquist plots for a distillation column. More details on the philosophy
control systems, and draw some useful general inferences according to the
control system.
APPENDIX 18.A. COMPLEX MAPPING AND THE NYQUIST CRITERION FOR STABILITY.
Im[G(s)], then, the value of G(s) at the point A is given by the point
A' (Figure 18.A-lb). We say that point A maps onto the point A'
through the function G(s). In the same way we find the maps of points
B, C, and D which are shown in Figure 18.A-lb (points B', C', and D').
Curve S' is the map of line S in the space of Re[G(s)] and Im[G(s)]
for 0 Ia.
1 + GPGmGcGf = O
G(s) = -1 (18.A-1)
Define a contour C (Figure 18.A-3a) which encloses all the right half
and its map in the G-plane will give us the Nyquist plot (see Section
Q,(s)
G(s) = p
n
where, Q,(s) is an m-th order polynomial and P,(s) is an n-th order one,
with n > m. Substittue s in G(s) by its equal from equation (18.A-2) and
take:
G[RejW] = Qm[RejW]/Pn[RejW]
Since the order of Pn is higher than that of Q,, then it is clear that
IGIRejW] 1 + 0
and the large semicircle maps in the origin of the G-plane. Also,
dG[ReJW] takes all values from -90' to +90°. Thus we conclude that;
a closed-loop response.
46’
1
stability.
n
I,
b
-.
.
4
c
47f
PART V
processes, it is not the only one. There exist situations where feedback con-
In such cases other control configurations are used like feedforward, ratio,
In the following four chapters of Part V we will study the static and
- Compensatory control for processes with large dead time or inverse response.
processing systems and will examine several techniques which are commonly
OR INVERSE RESPONSE
All the previous chapters of Part IV have been devoted to the analysis
and design of feedback control systems for rather simple processes. In this
chpater we will be concerned with the feedback control of two special types
of systems; with large dead times and inverse responses. We will see in the
Consider the general feedback control system of Figure 14.1. All the
dynamic components of the loop may exhibit significant time delays in their
response. Thus,
- the main process may involve transportation of fluids over long distances
- the measuring device may require long periods of time for completing the
such a device);
- the final control element may need some time to develop the actuating
signal;
- a human controller (decision maker) may need significant time to think and
- A disturbance entering the process will not be detected until after a sig-
- The control action also will take some time to make its effect felt by
the process.
- As a result of all the above significant dead time is the main source of
(ii) Suppose that the dead time increased to td = 0.1. Then, the
notice that the increase of the dead time has introduced significant
additional phase lag which reduces the crossover frequency and the
instability.
frequency = 2.3 rad/min and ultimate gain = 1.52. And we see the
In the previous section we identified the critical need for more effective
Smith, consider the simple feedback loop with set point changes only shown
in Figure 19.2a. We have assumed that all the dead time is caused by the
process, i.e.
-tds
Gp(4 = G(s)e
and that for simplicity, G,(s) = Gf(s) = 1. The feedback measurement signal
-tas
P(s) = Gc(s> l [G(s) -e 1 Y,,(s) (19.1)
i.e. it is delayed by td minutes.
the y(s), we would like to have a measurement signal which carries current
and not delayed information, like the
-tds
p'(s) = (1 - e Kc(s) -G(s) l Y,,W (19.3)
The implication of adding y(s) to the signal f(s) is shown in Figure 19.2b.
There we notice that the signal y'(s) can be taken by a simple local loop
that of Figure 19.2b and indicates the real effect of the dead-time compen-
sator, i.e.
with dead time. The only measurable signals are the process
-tds -td(model)'s
= &G e +(l-e jGc Gmodell*?'Sp(s)
or
-tds
-td(model)'s
Y,(S) = [GcGmodel+(G e -Gmodel e ) 1 -Y,,W
(19.4)
dead-time compensators:
- The larger the modeling error, i.e. the larger the dif-
exponential function.
Consider the feedback loop shown in Figure 19.3a. Let the controller
-1s
Gp(s) = ’
OJs+l' e
G(s) = &
. and td = 1
(a) Suppose that we use simple feedback control. For this system it was
crossover frequency:
%o = 2.3 radlmin and ultimate gain: Kc = 1.52.
The fact that the ultimate gain is 1.52 forced us to use Kc = 1.5 <
offset = 1 1
l+KK = 1 + 1.1.5 = 0.4
PC
Curve A (Figure 19.4) shows the response of the system to a unit
7,w Kc
i&(s) = GcG = 0.5s+l
which has no crossover frequency. Consequently, we can use arbitrarily
of the closed-loop system with Kc = 50. The offset has been greatly
reduced, i.e.
1 1
offset = = 1 + 1a5o = 0.0196
l+KK
PC
(c) Suppose that the process gain and time constant are perfectly known
but not the dead time. In such case, Gmoael = G = l/(O.Ss+l). The
0.8.
which we must avoid. Were we to consider the value 0.8 as the "true" value
compensation is not perfect. There is a dead time equal to 1.0 - 0.8 = 0.2
which has not been compensated by the dead-time compensator. Thus uncompensated
dead time gives rise to additional phase lag and leads eventually to a cross-
over frequency. If the ultimate gain is smaller than 100 then the system with
3c.'C = 100 is unstable. Indeed, for the present example the crossover frequency
with inverse response. There we saw that the net result of two opposing
The most common case of a process with inverse response is that resulting
from the conflict of two first-order systems with opposing effects (Figure
12.5). In this section we will limit our attention to the regulation of such
processes. Extensions to more complex systems like those of Table 12.1 are
Two are the most popular ways to control systems with inverse response;
the first uses PID feedback controller with Ziegler-Nichols tuning and the
From all types of feedback controllers only PID can be used effectively
for the following simple reason. The derivative control mode by its nature
will anticipate the "wrong" direction of the system's response and will pro-
vide the proper corrective action to limit (never eliminate) the inverse
shoot. Wailer and Nyg?irdas [Ref. 261 have demonstrated numerically that the
time compensator) which cancels the effect of dead time. The same general
concept of the predictor (compensator) can be used to cope with the inverse
response of a process and was developed by Iinoya and Altpeter [Ref. 251. *
7* ’
K
rp1
-> J&l
K
=p2 p2
and has a positive zero at the point (see also Example 19.4)
K -Ki f
= - Pl p2
Z > '0
-K T
KPlTP2 : p2 p1
Then, from eqns. (19.5) and (19.6) we can easily find that
[(K Pl T P2-KP2TPl)+k(~Pl-TP2)1S+(KPl-KP2) .y
Tm(s) = Y(s) +Y’(s > = Gc(s> l
(T s+l)(-r s+l) SP ,(s)
Pl p2
.and for
K 'c -K ^c
p2 Pl Pl p2
k L (19.7)
TP1 - =P2
we find that the zero of the resulting open-loop transfer function is non-
positive, i.e.
(K -K >
= - Plp2
z 0
(K T - K T )+k(T -T ) '
Pl p2 p2 Pl Pl p2
Adding the signal Y'(S) to the main feedback signal y(s) it means the
19.5b. The system in this local loop is the modified Smith predictor and
(19.8)
Remarks: (1) The inverse response compensator predicts the inverse behavior
is given by
K K
p2 p2
GCOMPENSATOR (s) = T s+1 - s+1
P?L TP,I
a special challenge to the control designer. For the case of processes with
dead time there is the danger of instability even with low controller gains,
while for processes with inverse response the elimination or at least sig-
both problems can be solved with the introduction of the so-called Smith
duce a local feedback loop around the controller which anticipates the time
delay of the measurement signal and makes the proper compensation. If the
dead time is perfectly known the compensation is perfect and the control
feedback signal carries current not delayed process information. If the dead
time is .~ not perfectly known (which is usually the case) or changing with time
only partial.
location of the zero of the open-loop transfer function, i.e. shifts it from
With this chapter we close the analysis and design of feedback control
-systems. In Part V we will focus our attention to the analysis and design
processes.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
1. What is the effect of dead time in the response of simple feedback con-
4. Show that the dead time and inverse response compensators are based on
: 1’
-- --_
the same as the dead-time compensator constructed for set point changes?
time compensators?
8. What is our goal when designing a controller for a system with inverse
10. Consider the system with inverse response described in Section 19.3.
0.5
0.4 -_---__
t
CONTROLLER MEOtAN’Sti
-----------------, I
CHAPTER 20
one manipulated variable in a single loop. There are though other simple
In such cases control systems with multiple loops may arise. Typical examples
of such configurations which we will study in the present chapter are the
following:
loops which are not separate but share either the single manipulated, variable
or the only measurement. In this respect the multiple loop control systems of
this chapter are generically different from those we will study in Chapter 22.
snore than one measurement. It is clear that with a single manipulation we can
-mtrol only one output. Let us now examine the motivation behind the cascade
control and its typical characteristics using an example from the experience
Consider the CSTR shown in Figure 1.7. The reaction is exothermic and
the generated heat is removed by the coolant which flows in the jacket around
the tank. The control objective is to keep the temperature of the reacting
reactor are; the feed temperature Ti and the coolant temperature T C’ The
It is clear that
Fc’ T will respond much faster to changes in Ti than to
Cascade Control
its effect has been felt by the reacting mixture. Thus, if Tc goes up,
increase the flowrate of the coolant in order to remove the same amount of
We notice, therefore, that we can have two control loops using two dif-
How these loops are related is shown in Figure 20.lb. There we notice
Fc'
that,
or master control loop and uses a set point supplied by the operator, while
- the loop that measures T C uses the output of the primary controller as
The control configuration with the above two loops is known as cascade control
two parts as shown in Figure 20.2a; Process I and Process II. Process I
(secondary) has an output which we are not interested to control but which
affects the output we want to control. For the CSTR system of Example 20.1,
Process I is the reaction in the tank and the controlled"output is the tem-
Figure 20.2b shows the typical simple feedback control system, while
Figure 20.2~ indicates the general form of the cascade control. The last
control, i.e.
.&emical processes.
systems.
(a) Heat exchangers. The typical configuration is shown in Figure 20.3a.
Example 20.2, the secondary loop is used to compensate for flowrate changes.
This observation is quite common in chemical processes and someone could state
that;
shown in Figure 20.4a. To simplify the presentation we have assumed that the
characteristic equation,
G p,II = 0 (20.2)
l + Gc II
,
Figure 20.4b shows a simplified form of the general block diagram (Figure 20.4a),
G c,II Gp,II
( (20.3)
GPRIMARY = Gc,I l+ Gc II G ) Gp,I
, P,II
G G
1 + Gc I 1 +‘;‘I “I1 ) G 0 (20.4) .
, ( P,I =
c,II Gp,II
Remarks: (1) The two controllers of a cascade control system are standard
process.
(2) The dynamics of the secondary loop is much faster than that
eqn. (20.3).
Consider a process with the following transfer functions for its primary
1
G and G
P,T = (5s+1~010s+1) P,TT = 0.5s+l
The secondary process is faster than the primary as can be seen from the
100
G , (1 +$*
c,I'Gp,II'Gp,I = KcI (O.sls+l) l (5s+l)(los+l)
The crossover frequency can be found from the equation that sets the total
and it is equal to
%o = 4.9 -rad/min
The ultimate value of the gain Kc I can be found from the condition
,
AR =l at w =
%Ci
Thus,
and we find
K = 32.25
c,I
merefore, when the disturbance dII (of the secondary process) changes, the
simple feedback controller can use a gain up to 32.25 before the system becomes
unstable. Also, given the fact that the overall provess is 3rd order, we
The open-loop transfer function for the secondary loop is given by eqn. (20.1)
G 1
c,II Gp,II = Kc,11 0.5s+1
can use large values for the gain K which produce a very fast closed-
c,II'
-.
loop response to compensate for any changes in the disturbance dII, arising-
Once we have selected the value of -Kc II for the secondary loop, we
,
i .I
can find the crossover frequency for t!he overall open-loop transfer function
given by eqn. (20.3). Thenj we can select the value of Kc I for the primary
,
controller, using the Ziegler-Nichols methodology. Quite often we will not
These are control systems which involve one manipulated variable and
several controlled outputs. Since with one manipulated variable we can con-
trol only one output, the selective control systems transfer control action
from one controlled output to another according to the need. There are
.exral types of selective control systems and in this section we will discuss
it is possible that dangerous situations may arise, which may lead to destruction
from the normal control action and attempt to prevent a process variable from
the use of special types of switches. The high selector switch (HSS) is used
whenever a variable should not exceed an upper limit, while the low selector
charge line. At the same time the water level in the boiler should
not fall below a lower limit wkich is necessary to keep the heating
coil immersed in water and thus prevent its burning out. Figure 20.5
shows the override control system using a low switch selector (LSS).
According to this system, whenever the liquid level falls below the
allowable limit, the LSS switches control action from pressure control
action from the flow control to the pressure control loop whenever
line (Loop 1 in Figure 20.7): To protect the high pressure line from
HSS, which transfers control action from Loop 1 to Loop 2 when the
the one with the highest value and feed it to the controller. Thus, it is a
selective controller with several measured outputs and one manipulated input.
hot spot. The location of the hot spot moves along the length of the
flowrate) and the catalyst activity (Figure 20.8). The value of the
hot spot temperature depends also on the above factors and the tem-
identify the location of the hot spot and provide the proper control
reactor and
which will be used to control the lflowrate of the coolant (Figure 20.9).
20.1 and 20.2, the split range control configuration has one measurement only
(controlled output) and more than one manipulated variables.
Since there is only one controlled output, we need only one control
signal which is thus split into several parts, each affecting one of the
which have the same effect on the controlled output. Such systems are not
very common in chemical processes but provide added safety and optimality
Consider the reactor shown in Figure 20.10a where a gas phase reaction
takes place. Two control valves manipulate the flow fo the feed and the
reactor the two valves cannot act independently but should be coordinated.
Thus, when valve Vl opens, valve V2 closes and vice versa. Figure 20.10b
operation of the reactor by 6 psig. From Figure 20.10b we see that valve V2
too. Then, it is split into two parts and affects the two valves simul-
taneously. Thus:
-As the controller output increases from 6 psig to 9 psig, valve V2 opens
- For large increases in the reactor's pressure, the control output may
exceed 9 psig. In such case, as we can see from Figure 20.10b, the valve
V2 is completely open while Vl starts closing. Both actions again lead
operation.
steam in a common steam header and from there to the process needs (Figure
are several manipulated variables (steam flow from every boiler) which can be
used simultaneously. Figure 20.11 shows also the structure of the resulting
control system. It should be noted that instead of controlling the steam flow
from each boiler, we could control the firing rate and thus the steam pro-
Table 20.1
Control systems with multiple loops arise when we have one manipulated
processes.
which arise within the secondary part of a process. The response, when com-
emphasized that cascade control is possible only if we can measure the output
cesses and almost always flow control systems will be cascaded with other
control loops.
the measured output that we will connect to the single manipulated variable.
control. The first is used to protect the operating personnel and process
operating limits. The second is used whenever we need to identify the highest
value among similar measurements and use it for control purposes. Other types
of selective control systems are the variable structuring control and the use
1. Consider a process with one manipulated input and two measured outputs.
Can you keep both outputs at the desired values, using only the single
2. Starting from the premise that tht answer to item 1 (above) is negative,
3. Discuss the rationale of a' cascade control system and demonstrate why
caded with other control loops. Why does this happen? [Note: Take
into account the following two facts: (a) The flowrate itself is
processes].
7. What types of controllers would you use for the two controllers of a
your answer.
11. Describe 2-3 situations (different than those discussed in Example 20.4)
12. What is an auctioneering control system, and where would you use it?
13. Consid%er a process with one controlled output and two active manipulated
better? Why?
0°F R :‘L_ _ -P_R_ocJs_S- - - - - -,
i------- ----
4da IdT1 ’
I _---_- - - - I I
!.-------------
,
I
ME-
I
1 3EVICE 1
1 - - -+
L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ ----/---;----
LOGP -
df) 1
ib)
1 Figtire
20.6i
You tssl’ng
process, i.e. keep the output of the process continuously at the desired
set point value in the presence of load or set point changes. The reason is
systems and describe the techniques which are used for their design. In the
last section we will examine a' special case of feedforward control, the
ratio control.
Consider the stirred tank heater shown in Figure 21.la. The control
value (set point) despite any changes in the temperature of the inlet
stream. Figure 21.lb shows the conventional feedback loop which measures the
llrsperature in the tank and after comparing it with the desired value
increases or decreases the steam pressure, thus providing more or less heat
the steam pressure if the inlet temperature decreases and decreases the steam
pressure when the inlet temperature goes up. Figure 21.1~ shows the feed-
effect that it will have on the process output. Subsequently, it changes the
that the reader can contrast directly:the two control systems. It is clear
that feedback acts after the fact in a compensatory manner while feedforward
chemical processes.
inlet temperature.
the objective is to keep the liquid level in the drum constant. The
two disturbances are the steam flow from the boiler which is dictated
by varying demand elsewhere in the plant and the flow of the feed-
The two disturbances here are the feed flowrate (F) and composition (C).
The available manipulated variables are the steam pressure in the reboiler,
and temperature are the two disturbances while the product withdrawal
flow-rate and,'the coolant flowrate are the two manipulations. The con-
(3) With the exception of the controller, all the other hard-
control elements).
21.2 THE PROBLEM OF DESIGNING FEEDFORWARD CONTROLLERS
The reader may have suspected already that conventional P, PI or PID con-
trollers will not be appropriate. Let us start with an example; the design
In Example 4.4 we developed the dynamic mass and energy balances for
the stirred tank heater of Figure 21.la. They are given by eqns. (4.4a) and
'/
(4.5b).' i
A dh = F _ - F
dt i
Ah =
dt = Fi(Ti - T) + Q/PC, (4.5b)
Assume that Fi does not change and that Fi = F. Then dh/dt = 0 and we
have only the heat balance, eqn. (4.5b). The inlet temperature Ti is the
balance, i.e.
0 = Fi(Ti - T) + Q/PC,
or
T = Ti++ (21.1)
i Ocp
From eqn. (21.1) we find that in order to keep T = TSp, the manipulated
Equation (21.2) is the design equation for the steady state feedforward
control system.
(b) Dynamic feedforward controller. :To improve the response during the
heat balance and not its equivalent steady state, as above. Equation
Fi Fi
FT=TT~+&- (21.3)
d
where V = ah = liquid volume in the tank. Put eqn. (21.3) into a
dT' Fi Fi
dt + VT' = ?T; + Q'
vpc (21.3a)
P
T;(s)
T’(s) = x + 1 (21.4)
Fi PC
P
controller should make sure that T'(s) = T;,(s) = set point, despite any
As it can be seen from Figures 21.4a and 21.4b, the only difference
between the steady state and dynamic feedforward controllers for the
forward control will be better for set point changes. Figures 21.5a
control:
Thus, the steady state design came out from the steady state heat balance,
and the dynamic controller from the dynamic heat balance. It is obvious
that,
Let y,,(s) be the desired set point for the process output. Then, eqn. (21.6)
We can solve eqn. (21.7) with respect to G(s) and find the value that the
manipulated variable should have in order to keep y(s) = y,,(s), in the
E(s) = (21.8)
Equation (21.8) determines the form that the feedforward control system should
have and which is shown in Figure 21.6b. It also determines the two transfer
functions, G, and GSP, which complete the design of the control mechanism,
i.e.
(21.9)
Remarks: (1) From Figure 21.6a we notice that the feedforward loop retains
(2) From the design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) it is clear that
(3) The design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) demonstrate again that
trol.
(4) In the control system of Figure 21.6b we left out the sen-
zero, i.e.
Gd - G pG v Gc G
m =O
or
= Gd/GpGvGm (21.12)
GC
the process output track exactly any changes in the set point, i.e.
GGGG
pvcSP= 1
GpGv(Gd/GpGvGm)Gsp = 1
5-17
and finally,
= Gm/Gd (21.13)
GSP
Equations (21.12) and (21.13) are more general than (21.9) and (21.10),
The design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) or their more general counterparts
(21.12) and (21.13) indicate that the feedforward controller will be a special
we use a digital computer as the controller (see Part VII), but for analog
i
controllers it is rather difficult and expensive to build these special purpose
Then, eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) will be the basis of the controller design.
Each of the two process transfer functions, Gp(s) and Gd(s), ahs two elements;
(i) the static element whit corresponds to the static gain and (ii) the
For instance, in Example 21.2, for the stirred tank heater we can easily
.identify the static and dynamic parts of the process transfer functions (see
"sp. (21. 4) ) ;
1 1
GpW = F ‘,c ‘Gi indicates that K = and G;(s) = -&-
Ts+l
P Fi PC
i P P
state balances for design. How does this modify the design eqns, (21.9) and
(21.10)?
G = K and = Kd
P P Gd
Then, the design transfer functions, Gc -and GSp, are given by,
GC
= Kd/KP (21.14a)
and
i.e. they are simple constant. Therefore, the elements Gc and can be
GSP
constructed easily in the same way as a proportional controller, which has
only the proportional gain. This the reason that the design elements given
possible to use approximations to them and still obtain very good results.
athough they are approximations, they are expected to give improved results
Then,
1
Gd(d as+1 Bs+l
GcW = = = (21.15a)
GpW 1 as+1
Bs+l
and
1
GSp(s) = Go = as + 1 (21.15b)
(Bs+l) intorduces phase lead and the l/as+1 adds phase lag. a and B are
adjustable parameters for the controller. For the set point element GSP(s)
when B is very small. Finally, lag-lead elements can be bought easily and
they are not expensive like special purpose analog computational devices.
developed the transfer functions for the linearized model of the system;
..where
For the definition of the constant parameters; all, a12, a21, a22 and bl, b2,
Let US examine two different control problems and develop the necessary
the manipulated variable. Since we have two disturbances, we need two distinct
feedforward controllers. To develop the design equations for the two con-
bl
P(s) = - (s + a22)Eii(s)
bl
- 5 Tf(s) (21.16)
a12b2
Equation (21.16) indicates that the first controller is a lead element while
(9.15b) yields
a21bl 1 ' bl
F(s) = - . - C' (s) *- F T;(s) (21.17)
b2 s+all Ai 2
Equation (21.17) shows that the first controller is a lag element while the
Figure 21.7b.
Feedforward control has the potential for perfect control but it also
--it requires the identification of all possible disturbances and their direct
cannot be detected;
- feedforward control requires a very good model for the process which for
On the other hand, feedback control is rather insensitive to all three of the
above drawbacks but it has poor performance for a number of systems (multi-
Table 21.1 summarizes the relative advantages and disadvantages of the two
control systems.
retain the superior performance of the first and the insensitivity of the
feedback control loop monitors directly the behavior of the controlled pro-
forward-feedback system of Figure 21.8. First of all recall that (we have
7 = G
P
iii + Gda (21.6)
Replace iii in eqn. (21.6) by its equal given from eqn. (21.18) and after
GpGV(G +G G )
c2 SP Gd - G PG vG c2 Gm2
ji = c1
l+GGG G %P + l+GGG G
ii (21.19)
P v cl ml P v cl ml
A close examination of eqn. (21.19), which yields the closed-loop process out-
l+GGGG = 0
P v cl ml
Therefore,
(2) The transfer functions of the feedforward loop, G and G sp, will
c2
be given by the design eqns. (21.12) and (21.13), i.e.
(3) If any of the Gp, Gd, Gv, G, is known only approximately, then
Gd - G G G G #O and/or # 1
P v c2 m2 GpGvGc2GSP
In such case the feedforward loop does not provide perfect control,
i.e. 'i + Ysp. Then, El # 0 and the feedback loop is activated and
Consider again the tank heater of Example 21.2. Under feedforward con-
trol only we have the configuration shown in Figure 21.4b. The design
transfer functions are:
Gc = Fipc
P
and G sp = -rs+l
Assume that the density p or the heat capacity c are not known exactly.
P
Then, the feedforward loop does not provide for perfect control. Figure 21.9a
shows the temperature in the tank after a step change in the inlet temperature.
21.9b). In Figure 21.9a we have plotted again the temperature of the liquid
in the tank, for the same step change in the inlet temperature. Notice the
turbances (loads) are measured and held in a constant ratio to each other. It
is mostly used to control the ratio of flowrates of two streams. Both flow-
rates are measured but only one can be controlled. The stream whose flowrate
Figures 21.10a and 21.10b show two different ratio control configurations
their ratio. This ratio is compared to the desired ratio (set point) and
the deviation (error) between the measured and desired ratios constitutes
stream A and multiply it by the desired ratio. The result is the flow-
rate that the stream B should have and constitutes the set point value
which is compared to the measured flowrate of stream B. The deviation
(1) Keeping a constant ratio between the feed flowrate and the steam in the
(2) Holding constant the reflux ratio in a distillation column (Figure 21.11b).
(4) Holding the ratio of two blended streams constant, in order to maintain
(5) Holding the ratio of a purge stream to the recycle stream constant
(Figure 21.11d).
(6) Keeping the ratio of fuel/air in a burner at its optimum value (most '
efficient combustion).
exit vapor stream. Figure 21.11e shows such a ratio control system in
advantage is the ability to act beforehand, while its most serious drawback is
its heavy dependence on the process model, which is almost always incompletely
known. Additional weaknesses are; (i) th e requirement to know and measure all
possible disturbances and (ii) the inability to cope with changing process
parameters. For all these reasons feedforward control is used with simple and
well known processes and almost always with feedback compensation. Processes
which benefit the most from feedforward control are those with very slow
- - ._.
response (usually multicapacity) and/or significant dead time. .
Feedforward control, when appended with a feedback loop, offers sig-
feedback control. The combination of the two will be encountered quite often
in chemical processes.
processes.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
riding a bicycle?
114 What is ratio control and why is it useful in process control? Give
system?
13. Draw the feedforward and feedback control systems which regulate the
14. In Figures 21.10a and 21.10b we see two different ratio control
configurations. Which one would you prefer and why? (Hint: Examine
the static gain of the control loop in Figure 21.10a and consult
FEEDFORWARD
Advantages Disadvantages
process model.
FEEDBACK
Advantages Disadvantages
closed-loop response.
cc>
FEEDFO2WARD
CcNTRCLLEI:
IF‘.yure 21.3 1
53/
_ Ti, FL
-- _----- - ---7 i
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5302
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t
,
t I
Cb)
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i
533
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Ay$--Y
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FT : Fhu: Sense r-
Rat; u
*-- -__-______
Q -,
CHAPTER 22
(a) adaptive, and (b) inferential. Although their basic objectives and
is accomplished through the use of digital computers. For this reason we will
postpone and quantitative discussion on these two control systems for Part VII,
where we will study the use of digital computers for process control. There-
i
control system, discussing its basic logic and giving examples of its practical
application.
systems differ only in the way the parameters of the controller are adjusted.
But, why are adaptive controllers needed in chemical processes? Two are
*-:-~.;dels which are used to design linear controllers depend on the particular
that as the desired steady state operation of a process changes, the "best"
values of the controller's parameters change. This implies the need for
and process gain of a simple liquid storage tank depend on the value of
change with time. Typical examples are; the decay of the catalyst activity
heat exchanger, due to fouling (Example 10.6). This change leads again to
i.e.
There are two different mechanisms for the adaptation of the controller
parameters.
Suppose that the process is well known and that an adequate mathematical
correlates well with the changes in process dynamics, then we can relate ahead
of time the "best" values of the controller parameters to the value of the
control system. We notice that it is composed of two loops. The inner loop
is an ordinary feedback control loop. The outer loop includes the parameter
the gain of the nonlinear component will depend on the current steady state.
Suppose that we want to keep the total gain of the overall system constant.
From Figure 22.2a we find easily that the overall system gain is given by
= K pmcf
K K K = constant
KOVERALL
.
It is clear then that as the gain Kf of the nonlinear valve changes, the
= constant/(KpKmKf) (22.1)
KC
*can be calculated from the stem position. Therefore, by measuring the stem
;etion (auxiliary measurement) we can compute the Kf. Then, eqn. (22.1)
adaptation.
Example 22.2 - Programmed Adapative Control of a Combustion System
Consider a burner where the fuel/air ratio is kept at its optimal value
. Figure 22.3a.
The otpimal value of the fuel/air ratio which maximizes the combustion
From previous experimental data we know how the optimal fuel/air ratio
maintain the ratio continuously at its optimal value despite any changes in
the air temperature, we can use a programmed adaptive control system. Such
(auxiliary measurement) and adjusts the value of the fuel/air ratio. Notice
B. Self-Adaptive Control
:finction on-line (while the process is operating) using the values of the
nntrolled output. Then, the adaptation mechanism will change the controller
process output ideally should respond to the command signal (set-point). The
model output is compared to the actual process output. The difference (error,
Ed) between the two outputs is used through a computer to adjust the parameters
loops. The inner loop is an ordinary feedback control loop. The outer loop
includes the adaptation mechanism and looks like a feedback loop too. The
model output plays the role of the set-point while the process output is the
input of the adjustment mechanism. The key problem is to design the adaptation
mechanism in such a way as to provide a stable system, i.e. bring the error
Elll to zero. This is not a trivial problem and we will be concerned with it
in Chapter 32, i.e. after we have studied the use of digital computers for
fdTp->cess control.
parameters of a controller.
The STR is composed, again, of two loops. The inner loop consists of the
process and an ordinary linear feedback controller. The outer loop is used to
adjust the parameters of the feedback controller and is composed of, (a) a
recursive parameter estimator and (b) an adjustment mechanism for the con-
troller parameters.
The parameter estimator assumes a simple linear model for the process,
e.g.
-tds
KpeTs+l
Then, using measured values for the manipulated variable, m, and the controlled
a and b are known, the adjustment mechanism can find the "best" values for
involved computations. For this reason the STR can be implemented only
the quantitative design of such systems until Chapter 32, i.e. after we have
measured and an adequate process model is available, then we could use feed-
forward control to keep the unmeasured output at its desired value (see
Chapter 21).
Consider the block diagram of the process shown in Figure 22.6a, with
one unmeasured controlled output (y) and one secondary measured output (2).
The manipulated variable m and the disturbance d affect both outputs. The
&ock diagram indicate the relationships between the various inputs and out-
reliationships;
7 = G -iii + Gd l d’ (22.2)
p1 1
? = G l fi + Gd l ii (22.3)
p2 2
From eqn. (22.3) we can solve with respect to d and find the following
(22.4)
Substitute the above estimate into eqn. (22.2) and find the following
relationship,
Equation (22.5) provides the needed estimator which relates the unmeasured
shows the structure of the resulting inferential control system. Notice that
the estimated value of the unmeasured output plays the same role as a regular
measured output, i.e. it is compared to the desired set-point and the dif-
ference is the actuating signal for the controller. Figure 22.7 shows a
unmeasured composition.
‘.- ., -. ,; ,.
,
variable.
infer the overhead composition is the temperature at the top tray. Let us
now examine how we can develop and design the inferential control mechanism.
The process as defined above has two inputs and the two putputs, i.e.
How can we identify the four process transfer functions? In Example 4.13 we
The process reaction curve method, which was ciscussed in Section 16.4, is a
simpler approach and yields the transfer functions between the various inputs
Remarks: (1) The temperature of the top tray was selected arbitrarily to
Chapter 32.
Figure 22.3. .-
Adaptive and inferential control schemes are gaining importance and wider
models and for their implementation require extensive computations which are
Chapter 32 we will return to these two schemes for further design developments.
on how the controller parameters are adjusted we may have programmed or self-
adaptive mechanisms. The former is used in processes which are known well,
while the latter for processes which are poorly known. Gain scheduling is
digital computers the range for adaptive control applications has expanded.
process output is measured and from it the value of the unmeasured controlled
sition is the most commonly inferred process variable and temperature the
systems. But, most of the processing units in a chemical plant have more than
design control systems for such processes? This will be the subject of the
one example of each, different than those in Section 22.1. When would
4. What is gain scheduling control and why can you use it in chemical
disadvantages?
configurations.
547
7. The outer loops in the MRAC and STR configurations, are they of feed-
from a chemical plant. The titration curve of the waste being neu-
-.
_.
-'tralized is nonlinear and changes with time due to unmeasured
.>
troller is not to keep the controlled output at its desired set point.
variations.
11. Discuss the logic of an inferential control scheme, Why is this control
and another (process B) faster with time constant 1 hour. The compo-
sition of the output streams from the two processes is measured every
2-3 hours. Which of the two process outputs can be controlled by con-
14. Show that the inferential control employed for process A or B in item
15. Develop an inferential control scheme which can be used to control the
drying of solids with warm air. Discuss how would you develop the
16. If, in addition to the unmeasured disturbance there are measured dis-
(4
550
\I
7 Unmeasured
Disfurbanfl
_- ---7
,
!
YI
Gd,
c5 Gd, i)
rzI
i- _ - _ _ __ - _ - - - - - - _a**
0a
d
r ----
J/
- - - - - - -I -
I J I
I
;’
I
--
I
ii
,/
, -
I
PART VI
Such single-input, single-output (SISO) systems are very simple and not the
cesses usually have two-or more controlled outputs, requiring two or more
.
manipulated variables. The design of control systems for such multiple-input,
- Chapter 23 will discuss the new questions which must be answered for the
control systems for complete plants, which constitute the most complex MIMO
inputs creates a situation which we have not confronted so far, namely; there
are more than one possible control configurations for a MIMO process. In this
Consider a general process with several inputs and outputs (Figure 2.1).
There are several questions which must be answered before we attempt the design
(a) What are the control objectives? In other words, how many and which
(b) What outputs should be measured? Once the control objectives have been
or not.
22.1, 22.7).
(c). What inputs can be measured? We assume that all of the manipulated
(Figure 21.10).
fast and strong effect on the controlled outputs, some others do not.
(e.g. liquid flows), some others are not (e.g. flow of solids,
slurries, etc.).
(e) What is the configuration of the control loops? Once all the possible
The selection of the most appropriate is the central and critical question to
be resolved.
Let us now examine the above design questions in more detail and develop
23.2 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND THE NUMBER OF CONTROLLED AND MANIPULATED VARIABLES
We have defined the degrees of freedom for a given process (see Section
the process completely. The number of degrees of freedom was also found to be
f = V - E (23.1)
variables.
number of its degrees of freedom should be zero. There are two sources which
freedom to zero.
(a) The external world which specifies the values of certain input variables.
(b) The control system which imposes certain relationships between the con-
trolled outputs and the manipulated inputs (feedback) or between the measured
easily that,
This relationship was used in Examples 5.7 and 5.8 in order to determine the
respectively.
in order to keep the controlled outputs at their desired values (set points)?
specifications:
Let the following N equations represent the relationships between the con-
y1 = flbl,m2,***,y,+ dl,d2,***,dL)
---------me--
YN = fN(ml~m29”‘9mM; dl,d2,*-,dL)
the values of the controlled outputs must remain the same. This is possible
are fewer than k, say Il<k, then there are (k-k) process
by eqn. (23.2).
A dh = F - F
dt i 0
manipulations. i '!
1
Consider the flash drum shown in Figure 23.la. The feed is composed of
"flashed" from the high pressure pf to the lower pressure p of the drum,
vapor is produced and reaches equilibrium with the remaining liquid. Steam
flowing through a coil supplies'the necessary heat for maintaining the desired
For this process we would like to identify, (a) the controlled variables,
ib) the manipulated inputs and (c) generate all feasible loop configurations.
Let us first determine the degrees of freedom for the flash drum. The
- Total mass balance (assuming constant molar density and insignificant vapor
-boldup)
dh
41 dt = Ff - (FV + FL>
- Component balances
d (hxi)
= Ffzi - (FvYi + FLXi) i = 1,2,***,N-1
Ap dt
- Heat balance
A ---
d(W= cp,fFfTf - (cp,VFVT - c~,~F~T) + UAS(TS Y T)
cP,L dt
- Consistency constraints
N
ii1 xi = 1 and f
y i=l yi = 1
3
All the above relationships constiute a system of 2N+3 equations with
(2N+7) - (2N+3) = 4
But, which four of the (2N+7) unspecified variables will be selected as con-
%nr constant production the flowrate of the liquid feed should be maintained
* ST fie desired value. Finally, the liquid level should remain within certain
bounds. Thus, T, P, Ff and h are the controlled variables. All four con-
XGoiled variables can be measured directly, using simple and reliable sensors
Therefore, the measured variables for the control system are; T, p, Ff and h.
From the set of (2N+7) unspecified variables we can select the required four
N! different loop configurations. Figure 23.2 shows the two possible loop
etc.
- choose the manipulation which has a direct and fast effect on a controlled
variable;
- choose the couplings so that there is a small dead time between every
minimal, etc.
In subsequent chapters we will develop more precise quantitative criteria for
for the flash drum. But, how are these interconnected to form the control
loops? Table 23.1 shows the 24(=4!) possible loop configurations resulting
from all possible combinations among the controlled and manipulated variables.
The "best" among the 24 can be found using the following qualitative ,._
arguments:
trolling p and from the previously selected loop configurations only the
- Among the No. 3, 7, 9 and 14, the loop configuration No. 3 seems to be the
Remarks: (1) To select the most promising control configuration for the
variables.
(2) It should be emphasized that the four loops of the control
resulting loops.
acting processing units, since such are the systems encountered in a chemical
plant.
figurations for the overall process, we can adopt the following systematic
procedure:
Step 1. Divide the process into separate blocks. Every block may contain a
Step 2. Determine the degrees of freedom and the number of controlled and
Step 3. Determine all feasible loop configurations for each block. Having
that the number of the generated loop configurations for the overall
blocks.
Step 5. Eliminate conflicts among the control systems of the various blocks.
Example 23.3 - Generate the Control Loop Configuration for a Simple Chemical
Process
The heart of the process shown in Figure 23.4 is the continuous stirred
tank reactor (CSTR) where the simple, exothermic reaction, A-tB, takes place.
The reactor feed is preheated, first by the hot reactor effluent and then by
steam. Coolant, flowing through a jacket around the reactor, removes the
is heated. The rates of cooling and heating, i.e. Qc and Q, are constant.
With this configuration we can fine tune the temperature of the coolant
(increase or decrease it) before it enters the jacket of CSTR. The reactor
effluent is first cooled by the feed in the feed-effluent heat exchanger and
streams, a vapor and a liquid, which are further processed in separate units.
like to develop alternative loop configurations for this process which satisfy
1
l.32p . Divide the process into four blocks (Figure 23.4); coolant system,
feeti preheating, reactor, and flash drum with its feed cooler.
Steps 2 and 3. Determine the degrees of freedom as well as the controlled
and manipulated variables for each blocl. Also, generate all possible loop
Table 23.2 summarizes all the characteristics of the coolant system. There
are two controlled variables requiring two manipulations. From the operating
Table 23.2 also indicates a few of the possible loop configurations. Con-
figuration No. 1 seems to be the simplest and is selected for the control of
This block requires one controlled variable (see Table 23.3) which is the tem-
perature Ti. The only available manipulated variable is the steam flowrate
Table 23.4 shows that there should be two controlled variables for the
Table 23.4 shows the three possible loop configurations. The No. 3 corresponds
to cascade temperature control and, as we have seen in Section 20.1 and Example
the reactor.
543
This is similar to the flash drum system analyzed in Examples 23.1 and 23.2
with one difference; instead of the steam heating (see Figure 23.la) there is
a water cooling system (Figure 23.5d). Therefore, following the same pro-
Table 23.1. The configuration shown in Figure 23.5d is selected as the "best"
because some are obviously bad. Figure 23.6a shows the resulting con-
trol system if the "best" loop configurations are selected for each
block.
5Step . Eliminate confliects among the control loops of the various blocks.
Consider the control system for the overall process shown in Figure
loop in the coolant system. To erase conflict (b) we delete the flow
control loop in the flash drum. Thus, the final control configuration
both recycled to the reactor from the flash drum and the bottom of the dis-
the pressure of the feed and recycled gas A. The liquid B is vaporized in
a series of two heat exchanger (E-l, E-2). The reactor is a tubes-and shell
heat exchanger with the reaction taking place in the tubes and the coolant
The basic control objective is; maintain the desired steady state pro-
(c) .Mixing drum for the fresh feed B and the recycled from the-
4Step . Figure 23.9 presents the control structure for the overall plant,
(i> The flowrate of the recycles stream B from the bottom of the
column.
the flow control loop in the mixing drum (stream 6), the flow
(iii) Delete the flow control on the feed of the flash drum (stream
by two loops; the level control of the flash drum (stream 15)
and the flow control on stream 16. Retain only the second loop
elmination of the four conflicts among the control loops, which we des-
(B) For the pressure control in the flash drum we use the flowrate
in stream 13 are fed back to the main process and may cause
The typical processes in a chemical plant involve more than one inputs
Several questions need to be answered for either single MIMO units or pro-
cesses with several interacting units; (a) how many and which ones are the
controlled variables, (b) h ow many measurements and manipulated variables
are needed, (c) what is the configuration of the control loops, etc.
controlled variables.
variables, how does one select them among several process variables? One can
- Consider that all controlled variables are measurable and constitute the
available so that they provide direct, easy, and fast regulation of the
controlled variables.
3.~: -ihe best? In this chapter we have not addressed directly this question,
configurations:
573
- Divide the process into blocks and generate alternative loop configurations
- Recombine the blocks with their loop configurations and eliminate any
This chapter has been concerned with the generation of feasible control con-
figurations and not their precise evaluation. Some general and fallible
Chapter 24 we will study the most popular method for the quantitative
trolled variable, so that the interaction among the control loops is minimal.
1. What is a MIMO process and in what sense is the design of a control sys-
tem for a MIMO process different than that for a SISO process?
this assumption correct? How would you use the values of manipulated
M>N.
acceptable.
for a process. Why is it minimum? Could you use more manipulations and
by equation (23.3).
9. Consider the stirred tank heater example. Show that there are two dis-
10. Extend the observation made for the uncontrollability of the stirred
11. Assuming that all variables can be measured, how many measurements do
variables?
':12 * Consider the process examined in Example 23.3. Are there more degrees
13.. Why is the overall process overspecified when the various blocks with
it.
14. Determine the number of controlled and manipulated variables for the
flash drum (Example 23.1) assuming steady state operation. Why are the
results different than those of Example 23.1? State the danger involved
15. What are the controlled variables which remain unidentified when we
state models?
/
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FEED f’u.WfAT~N~t
- - - - - ----me;
FLASH DRUM
cc
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II
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l- . : . . :-.:. . . . .I. .‘ . ‘:
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BJ
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CHAPTER 24
concerning the design of control systems for processes with multiple inputs
of control loops.
of four loops, which must be selected from 24 possible such loop configurations
(Example 23.2).
- the relative-gain array method which determines how the controlled and
Consider a process with two controlled outputs and two manipulated inputs
Huts), H12W, H21(s) and H22(~) are the four transfer functions relating
the two outputs to the two inputs (see Section 9.2). Equations (24.1) and
outputs.
Let US form two control loops by coupling ml with yl and m2 with
that the transfer functions of the measuring devices and final control
elements in both loops are equal to 1. If Gel(s) and Gc2(s) are the trans-
fer functions of the two controllers, then the values of the manipulations are
given by
To understand the nature of interaction between two control loops and how it
arises, we will study the affects of input changes on the outputs when; (a)
one loop is closed and the other open and (b) both loops are closed.
(a) One Loop Closed. Assume that Loop 1 is closed and Loop 2 is open (Figure
24.2a). Assume also that m2 = constnat, i.e. E,(s), and make a change in the
set point yl,SPm After substituting eqn. (24.3) into eqns. (24.1) and
(24.2) we take:
HllGcl
Tl = (24.5)
1 + HllGcl 7 l,SP
(24.6)
1,SP
Lt is clear then that any change in the set point yl,sp will not only affect
k& behavior of the controlled output yl, but also the uncontrolled output
through which yl sp affects the two outputs. Similar conclusions are drawn
,
if we consider Loop 1 open and Loop 2 closed. The situation becomes more
state with both outputs at their desired values. Consider a change in the
set point yl,SP only and keep the set point of Loop 2 the same, i.e.
bring the output yl to the new set-point value. This is the direct
- The control action of ml will not only attempt to bring yl to the new
set point, but will also disturb y2, from its steady state value. Then,
control loops.
change in y2,Sp, while keeping yl,Sp the same. In summary, we can make
the following statement which described the interaction between two control
loops:
stitute eqns. (24.3) and (24.4) into eqns. (24.1) and (24.2) respectively
and take:
(1 + HllGcl)Yl+ (H12Gc2)~2=H11Gcl*~l (24.7)
, SP+H12Gc2’?2 , sp
Solve eqns. (24.7) and (24.8) with respect to the controlled outputs yl and
where
I
h
p&d = H12Gc2/Q(s> f
p21w = H21Gc2/Q(s>
and
Remarks: (1) Equations (24.9) and (24.11) describe the response of outputs
HllGcl H22Gc2
Tl = 1 + HllGcl 7 l,SP 7, = 1 + H22Gc2 '2,SP
stable.
istic equation
(4) Suppose that the two feedback controllers Gel and Gc2
-..
are tuned separat'ely, ite. keeping the loop under tuning
loops closed.
: Consider once more the.stirred tank heater (Example 4.4). Figure 24.3
shows the two control loops; Loop 1 controls the liquid level by manipulating
the steam flowrate. Let us see how the two loops interact:
- When the inlet flowrate (load) or the desired value of liquid level
manipulating the value of the effluent flowrate. This in turn will dis-
turb the temperature of the liquid in tank and Loop 2 will compensate by
- If on the other hand, the temperature of the inlet stream (load) or the
%! &sired value of the temperature (set point) change, Loop 2 will adjust
.- ,-be steam flowrate to compensate for the changes. This will leave the
inlet flowrate. Assume that initially both effluent concentration and tem-
manipulating the feed flowrate. However, this change in the feed rate also
disturbs the reactor temperature away from the desired value. The, Loop 2
- On the other hand, when to compensate for changes in feed temperature (load)
or the desired set point of reactor temperature, it also causes the effluent
It is clear from the above that Loop 1 interacts with Loop 2 in both directions
(unlike the loops of the stirred tank heater which interac in a single
direction).
7, = 1 + 5 -
O.ls+l % O.ls+l m2
Y2 = 1 ml + 2
0.5s+l 0.5s+l :2
Form two loops by coupling ml with yl and m2 with y2. The closed-
loop input-output relationships are given by eqns. (24.9) and (24.10) where
1 5 1 2
Hll = O.ls+l H12 = O.ls+l H21 = 0.5s+l H22 = 0.5s+l
G cl and G c2 = Kc2
= Kcl
K C-l
1 + Hll~cl = 1 + o.ls+l=O
Therefore, when Loop 2 is open, Loop 1 is stable for any value of gain
and consequently, Loop 2 is stable for any value of Ka2, when Loop 1
is open.
(b) Tuning with both loops closed: When both loops are closed, the charac-
teristic equation is given by eqn. (24.13) and for this example takes
1
(1 + oK;;+l)(l +.2Kc2, - O.ls+1
5 l 0.5s+l'K,1'Kc2 = O
+(0.6+0.5Kcl+0.1Kc2)s+(1+KclfKc2-9KclKc2) = 0 (24.14)
According to the first test of the Routh-Hurwitz criterion for stability (see
Section 15.3), eqn. (24.14) has at least one root with positive real part if
Inequality (24.15) places restrictions on the values that Kc1 and Kc2 can
take, to render a stable performance when both loops are closed. This is in
direct contrast to our earlier result (see (a) above), whereby all values of
K and K c2 were acceptable if each loop were tuned separately. [Note: The
Cl
Routh-Hurwitz criterion.]
to form the control loops. Which one is the best? One way to answer this
question is to consider the interactions among the loops for all N! loop
configurations and select the one where the interactions are minimal. The
.-
Relative-Gain Array is exactly such methodology whereby we select pairs of
- among the resulting loops. It was first proposed by Bristol and today is a
very popular tool for the selection of control loops. Let us now study the
-
logic of the mehtod and present some examples describing its usage.
A. Definitions
Consider a process with two outputs and two inputs (Figure 24.la). Then,
change in the input ml of magnitude Am1 and record the new steady
state value of output yl. Let Ayl be the change from the previous
steady state. It is clear that it has been caused only by the change
(AyllAml)m
2
(b) In addition to the static gain computed above, there is another open-loop
yl*Ayl will be, in general, different than Ayl for the following
reason: The input change Am1 does not only affect yl but also y2.
which in turn affects the steady state value of yl. Therefore, Ay;
is the compound result of the effects from and Let the new
ml m2'
open-loop gain between and when y2 is kept constant by the
Yl ml
control loop, be given by
(AYi/AmlIy -
2
The ratio of the two open-loop gains computed above defines the relative gain,
to control Yl'
- If Xl1 = 1, then ~2 does not affect yl and the control loop between
and ml does not interact with the loop of y2 and m2. In this case
Yl
we have completely decoupled loops.
the steady state value of yl. The smaller the value of the larger
xl1'
the interaction becomes.
direction than that caused by ml. In this case, the interaction effect is
very dangerous.
relative gains between the 2 inputs and 2 outputs of the process we have been
considering, i.e.
The values of these gians can also be used as measured of interaction for the
For a process .with two inputs and two outputs there are two different
..loop configurations, shown in Figure 23.2. Let us see how we can use the
thf! loops.
Arrange the four relative gains, All, Xl2, X21 and X22 into a matrix
ml m2
=A = r
Xl1
1x21 1
x12 y1
x22-1 y2
It can be shown that the sum of the relative gians in any row or column of the
+ Xl2 = 1 + A21 = 1
x11 x11
and _. /., :;* .- (2$*1!)
+ x22 = 1 + x22 = '1 I
x21 %2
Therefore, we need to know only one of the four relative gains while the other
three can be easily computed. For example, if All = 0.75 then Xl2 = A21 =
ferent situations:
and it is obvious that we can have two noninteracting loops formed by; ml
71
a =
11 0I
.Ihe 1 in the off-diagonal elements indicate that we can form two non-
(Figure 23.2b).
- 51 = 0.5. Then,
3.5 0.5
B =
L0.5 0.5I
and the amount of interaction between the two loops is the same in both
The two larger number, i.e. 0.75, indicate the recommended coupling with
and the recommended coupling is the opposite of the previous case, i.e.
- All> 1. Then, A22 = Xl1 > 1 and Al2 = h21 = 1 - Xl1 < 0. Situations
51) Suppose that you couple yl with ml and y2 with m2. The
interaction from the other loop and the larger the values of the
relative gains above unity, the larger the "holding back" effect
will be. Thus, we need larger values for the controller gains.
gains Xl2 and A21 are negative. In this case, the interaction
We can summarize all the above observations with the following rule for
for the selection of loops does not guarantee that the dynamic
Return the system to the initial steady state and repeat the
(aYl/Aml~y
2
(Ay2/Amlly
1
x22* [Note:
- Remember that you do not need to compute all
x ij = (Ayi/Amj)m/(Ayi/Amj)y
ml m2 %
=A =
'12
'22
’
l
’
l l
l
1
'1N
'2N
'1
y2
N
j&l ‘ij = 1 for: i=1,2,***,N summation by rows
l- 1
Yl = -iTi ml + O.ls+l %2 (24.18)
-0.2 - 0.8
Y2 = 0.5s+l ml + s+1 m2 (24.19)
-Bake a unit step change in ml, i.e. iii1 = l/s, while keeping m2 constant,
Recall the final-value theorem (Section 7.5) and find the resulting new
1 1 1 0.2 s+l 1
yl SS=lim [s Yl]=lim s* -a- = 1.25
, s+l s + O.ls+1'0.8' 0.5s+l'S
S-+O s+o Ilr
= l/l.25 = 0.8
x11 = (Ayl/Am,)m2/(Ayl~~ml)y2
Using eqns..(24.17) we find A12 = x21 = 0.2 and X22 = 0.8. It is easy now
to conclude that we should pair ml with yl and m2 with y2 to form two
1~op.s with minimum interaction. It should be noted that had we selected the
loops differently, i.e. couple ml with y2 and m2 with yl, the interaction
of the loops would have been four times larger (i.e. 0.8/0.2 = 4).
Two streams with flowrates Fl and F2 and compositions (moles per cent)
"1 = 80% and x2 = 20% in a chemical A, are mixed in a vessel (Figure 24.6a).
We would like to form two control loops to regulate the product composition, x,
inputs and outputs, and they are shown in Figures 24.6b and 24.6~. Which one
should we prefer?
F = F1 + F2 (24.20)
Fx = (24.21)
FIXl + F2X2
[Note: We have neglected the energy balance because the temperature of the
With these values we find the following steady state solution of eqns. (24.20)
and (24.21)
same. Solve eqns. (24.20) and (24.21) for F and x and find the
F = 201 X = 0.6012
Therefore,
F = 201.67 = 67.27
F2
Therefore,
F1 F2
-0.6 0.4 F
A =
I
10.4 0.6I x
First; the two loops with minimum interaction are formed when we couple F
The relative-gain array indicates how the inputs should be coupled with
the outputs to form loops with the smaller amount of interaction. But, the
enough. Example 24.5 demonstrated this aspect clearly. In such case, the two
control loops still affect each other's operation very seriously, and the
introduces in the control system special new elements called decouplers. The
two loops and thus render two noninteracting control loops. Let us now study
how we can design the decouplers for a process with two strongly interacting
loops.
667
(24.1) and (24.2). Form two interacting loops by coupling ml with yl and
Assume that initially both outputs are at their desired set point values.
Loop 2 to vary the value of m2. This will create an undesired disturbance
for Loop 1 and will cause yl to deviate from its desired value. However, we
{ =- H12(s) - (24.22)
1 HllW m2
transfer function,
H12W
I+) = - (24.23)
Hll(d
which uses the value of as input and provides as output the amount by
m2
which we should change ml, in order to cancel the effect of m2 on
yl'
This dynamic element is called decoupler and when is installed in the control
system (Figure 24.7a) it cancels any effect that Loop 2 might have on Loop 1
same reasoning as above and we find that the transfer function of the second
H21(d
D2(s) = - (24.24)
H22(~)
The block diagram of the process with two feedback control loops and two
From the block diagram of Figure 24.7b it is easy to develop the fol-
Gcl[H1l - H12H21'H223
Yl = -7 1,SP (24.25)
l + Gcl[Hll - H12H21'H221
Gc2[H22 - H12H21'H223
Y2 = (24.26)
l Y2,SP
l + Gc2[H22 - H22H21'H211
The last two equations demonstrate the complete decoupling of the two loops
since the controlled variable of each loop depends only on its own set point
and not on the set point of the other loop. Figure 24.7~ shows the net block
diagram of the two noninteracting loops described by eqns. (24.25) and (24.26).
Remarks: (1) Two interacting control loops are perfectly decoupled only
case the transfer functions Hll, H12, H21 and H22 are
two loops.
(6) For a general process with two inputs and two outputs we
cannot be returned.
Example 24.7 - Partial Decoupling;
that the operating requirements allow small variations in the product flowrate
Then, we can use partial or one-way decoupling to cancel any effects that
Assuming that x is kept at the desired value of 0.6, then eqn. (24.21)
yield
or
= Fl/2
F2
The last equation describes the necessary steady state decoupler which cancels
any effects that the flow control loop might have on the composition control
loop.
0.5e-1'5S ml + e-Os5' _
y1 = s+l 2s+l m2
2e-l.0s 1
Y2 = 0.5s+l ml + s+l iii2
Form the two control loops by coupling yl with ml and y2 with m2. Then,
the transfer functions of the two decouplers are given by eqns. (24.23) and
(24.24), i.e.
R12(s) = s+l +1.0s
Dl(s) = -
Hll(s) 22s+l' e
+1.0s .
Decoupler Dl is physically unrealizable due to term e On the other
hand D2 is realizable. The reader should elaborate more on the reason that
makes unrealizable.
D1
on the operation of a process. The loops disturb each other, i.e. load or
set point changes entering a control loop are propagated to other loops. But
what is even more serious, the disturbances propagating from one loop to the
.I.
others return back to the original loop and may destabilize the process
the control system and constitute the main "headache" for the control
designer.
the couplings between the various inputs and outputs in such a way that the
method are heuristic in nature and there have been instances where the
relative-gain array gave the wrong recommendations. But its simplicity and
practicality are two very attractive features which made it very popular.
Whenever severe interaction still persists even for the best configuration
equal in size but of opposite sign to the propagating loop interaction. Thus,
the interaction effect is cancelled and the loops behave as if they were
only if the process is completely known. Since this is hardly ever the case
with chemical processes, the decoupling is only partial, but even so some
systems for processes with multiple inputs and multiple outputs. In the last
two chapters we have only scratched the surface of the problem. Several
theories and design techniques are available, either in the time or s domain.
Due to their mathematical complexity, they are beyond the scope of this text.
The interested reacer can find several relevant references on these methods at
1. Explain in your own words the interaction among the control loops of a
flash drum (Figure 23.lb). Do the same for the loops of a distillation
2. Can you tune separately two interacting loops and retain the stability
with m 1, to form the two loops. Draw the corresponding block diagram.
4. Define the two open-loop gains used in the definition of the relative
gain X12. Give two different ways for computing X12. Why is Xl2 a
good measure of loop interaction? Can you compute All, A21 and X22
when you only know X12? If yes show how, if not explain why.
5. Repeat item 4. for the relative gain. A.. of a general process with
1J
N inputs and N outputs. What do the subscripts i and j denote?
6. Define the relative-gain array for a process with 2 inputs and 2 out-
outputs.
is given by
I I
1 0
0 1'
gain array of a process with; (a) 3 inputs and 3 outputs, (b) PJ inputs
and N outputs?
9. Explain how you can use the relative-gain array to select the loops
10. In Example 24.5 let xl = 0.3 and x2 = 0.7 and select the control
loops. Have they remained the same or not? Explain your result on
physical grounds. Has the interaction between the two loops increased
(1 - Xij)/Xij
and take the interaction index array (using the above definition)
1 1
-4 1/4
I =
= 1/4 4-
Which of the two arrays i and f shows more clearly the amount of
12. What do we mean by the term decoupling two control loops? Do the two
13. Consider the process of Figure 24.la. Form the two loops by coupling
14. Find the steady state decouplers for the two control loops selected in
15. What is one-way decoupling of two control loops and why could it be
acceptable?
16. Explain in your own words the feedforward control nature of a decoupler.
17. After introducing the necessary decouplers, can you tune the controllers
i
?
In&red Effeck ..........
&.. . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
t
I P R O C E S S :
I I
I - I
LP I -J-Q2 ’ I
I T ’ Ys
‘La - - ---- ---I
I I
i I
I
PRDCE55 I
CHAPTER 25
26.1); (a) process, (b) measuring sensor and the accompanying transducer (if
necessary), (c) controller, (d) final control element with the associated
cess continuously the analog signals generated by the sensors and/or the
signals for the final control element. It is obvious that in such case
The above picture has been the basis for all control systems we have
of an analog controller creates the need for new hardware elements and new
control design problems. Before we examine what they are, let us briefly
computers designed for process control have much the same functions. Figure
26.2 indicates the basic components of such a typical digital computer and
peripheral devices.
The smallest unit of information that the computer uses for communication
and word, an intermediate unit called byte is also used to characterize infor-
mation of 8-bit long (i.e. 1 byte - 8 bits).' The byte is a useful unit
characters, etc. can be fully specified by one byte according to the ASCI
among the various computers with 8-, 16-, or 32-bit words being the most
16-bit word computer arranges the binary digits in an octal system (composed
The first digit is reserved for the sign (e.g. 0 = +, 1 = -> and the other 15
form five groups of three digits each and are used to represent an integer
number. Thus, the above binary is equal to the following octal integer,
'To expedite and facilitate operations, modern CPU's are equipped with
various hardware options. Among all possible options the following are of
(2) Real-Time Clock. Every digital computer used for process control must
have a real-time clock. This is the device that keeps track of the real
world's time and allows the computer to schedule its functions at time
intervals, in coordination with the various needs of the real world. Thus,
it is the real-time clock that determines when the computer should take data
'(3) Power Fail-Safe/Automatic Restart. In the event that power to the com-
puter is lost, this option senses the power failure and executes a prespecified
may transfer the control of the process from the digital computer to another
back-up control system and/or save information necessary for an orderly and
automatic restart of the control programs, when electrical power has been
restored to the computer. This option enhances the safety of computer con-
trolled processes.
(4) Watchdog Timer. This is another valuable option for process control
loop. In the second case an alarm alerts the operator that the computer has
B. Memory
This is the place where the computer stores, (a) the instructions of
the program it executes and (b) the values of the initial data, intermediate
and final results from computations. The smallest unit of storage is the bit,
but the memory is organized in terms of words. Thus, 4K words memory is com-
posed of 4,000 16-bit words (for 16-bit word computers). Each memory word is
CPU keeps track of the memory address which contains the data or the instruction
under execution.
There are two general types of memory: The Random Access Memory (RAM)
Jaddress) in the memory. On the contrary, the Read Only Memory (ROM), as its
name implies, does not allow alterations of its content, i.e. a program can
"read" information from the locations of the ROM but cannot "write" in it.
The RAN is used for the storage of any size general purpose programs, while
ROM is employed for the execution of highly specific and small in size pro-
grams. Most of the ROM is "programmed" in the factory and it is used to store
The cycle time of a computer is the time required by the CPU to read the
content of one word from memory and restore its content. According to the
value of the cycle time, we can distinguish the following types of RAM:
- Core memory, with typical cycle time -1 us (slow) and low cost, it is con-
structed with ferrite rings which retain the stored information when power
fails.
- Metal-Oxide Silicon Nemory (MOS), with typical cycle -500 ns, is faster and
- Bipolar Transistor Memory, with typical cycle -300 ns is still faster but
,
more expensive. It is constructed from complex integrated circuits.
The cycle time is not the only factor that determines how fast a computer
is. Various additional determinants, like the number and type of basic
types of mass storage devices are available with different, (a) capacity for
storage, (b) purchase cost and (c) speed for accessing and retrieving infor-
- Disks, with very large capacity for storage (1 f 100 million 16-bit words),
low access time (5 -:- 100 us) and high cost. The disks are distinguished
into fixed-head and moving head disks. The first have capacities in the
range 1-10 million 16-bit words and access time -5 us, while the second
have longer access times (50 :- 75 US) but higher capacities (up to 100
million words). Floppy disks are low cost, small capacity devices and are
capacity (10 f 20 million words). They are seldomly found on process con-
trol computers and they are used to store off-line large programs and large
amounts of data.
D. Communication Peripherals
These equipments are used for communication between the operator and the
computer and include; typewriter terminals, line printers, video display units,
storage scope graphics terminals, card readers, X-Y plotters, etc. Uith such
devices the computer can display data describing the current state in the
operation of the process it controls, or inform the operator about the current
peripherals allow the operator to intervene and change set points, gains and
organized software. If this is not the case, then the operator may become
it useless.
This is the device which allows the communication between the computer and
functions:
(a) It receives the signals from the measuring sensors and transducers
(c) It allows communication with other computers, which are used either as
process controller. But, what are the features of such interface, how does it
operate and how one selects the appropriate interface for a given process
computer based control system and will be covered in the next section with
some details.
a few peripheral devices. The cost of the basic CPU is less than
tremendous abilities.
Then, the control functions (e.g. feedback P, PI, PID laws) will be performed
program requires as data (input) the values of the measured outputs and
produces as results (output) the values that the manipulated variables should
have in order to keep the controlled variables a't the desired set points.
For a digital computer both input (data) and output (results) are in digital
A. Samplers
discreteltime basis, i.e. at given time instants for the following reason:
the time taken by the computer to "read" the measured value, calculate the
error, and make a control correction is finite. If during this period the
measured value changed, this is not recognized by the computer. Then, the
(Figure 26.3a).
B. Hold Elements
plished by the hold elements. Figure 26.3b shows schematically the conversion
signal. Here, the hold element keeps the value of a discrete in time signal
constant for all the period until the next signal comes along.
The measurement data are not only provided continuously in time, but they
are also analog electrical signals in nature. They cannot be used directly by
the control program which requires data in a digital form (e.g. information
coded in l&bit words, for a 16-bit word machine). Therefore, the input
The analog signals coming from measuring devices and sensors are modified
so that they fall within a prespecified voltage range, e.g. 0-lOV, 0-5V, tlOV,
digital form. The most common converters use 8-bit or 12-bit resolution, with
1
Resolution = - (26.1)
2"-1
For a 12-bit converter the resolution is about 0.05 per cent, i.e. when two
voltage values differ by more than 0.05% of the prespecified voltage range,
the converter will distinguish the two signals and assign two different
integers for them. For an 8-bit converter the resolution is smaller, about
0.4%. Usually, both 8-bit and 12-bit converter's are satisfactory for process
control purposes. Converters with more than 12 bits are used only when
The conversion speed is very high and typical A/'D converters used for
can be achieved by high-performance converters and are useful only for very
special problems. ,
To avoid the need for a large number of A/D converters handling the con-
can serve sequentially several lines carrying analog signals (Figure 26.4).
D. D i g i t a l (DBC)
The control commands produced by the control program are in digital form,
but most of the final control elements, pneumatic valves in particular, are
or D/A converter).
D/A converters function in the reverse manner than A/D converters. Thus,
12
for a 12-bit converter we can have 2 = 4096 integer numbers defining 4095
.
intervals of the prespecified voltage range, say 0-10 volts. Then, the integer
E. Digital I/O
l the status of relays turning pumps, valves, lights and other devices
onoroff,
devices.
0 stepping motors.
0 several computers
Therefore, the I/O interface is not designed to receive analog digital input
special converters are needed in the I/O interface. The transmission (input
in or out is one word (i.e. 16 bits for a 16-bit machine). The transmission
rates vary from very low to very high, and are expressed in terms of band rates,
used to denote the sign. Thus, consider the range k5V. For a
(12-1)
12-bit converter we have 2 = 2048 positive integer numbers
I/O interface required for data acquisition and control. In this section we
will examine the various types of control loops, which result when a digital
components.
A. Single-Loop Control
computer.
(b) The hardwired analog logic of an analog controller is replaced by the
(c) The control commands produced by the control program are digital and
Figure 26.5 summarizes the above changes and indicates all hardware components
and discrete-time signals are present in the loop. They are denoted by c:
as well as the values of the adjustable control parameters (e.g. gains, reset
- or rate time constants, etc.), are now introduced by the operator through a
typewriter terminal.
B. Multiple-Loop Control
and not only one as discussed above. We will still need an interface between
the computer and the process, but now is somewhat different. Thus:
- Instead of using one A/D converter for every measured variable, we employ a
through a multiplexer.
- A multiplexer can also be used to obtain several outputs from a single D/A
converter.
- The control program is now composed of several subprograms, each one used
Figure 26.6 shows the use of a single computer (CPU) to control two outputs.
When a digital computer has assumed all control actions of a conventional
controller, then we talk about direct digital control (DDC). Both systems in
C. Supervisory Control
Unlike the situation of direct digital control, we may use the computer
to change only the set points or the values of the adjustable control
inform the supervising computer about the state of the local control loops and
for the computer to provide the set point or other changes to the local con-
trollers. When the local controllers are digital computers, then the I/O
interface carries only digital signals, allowing the communication between the
Thus, one computer supervises and coordinates the operating of several control
loops, deciding what are the best set-point values for the various loops.
Remarks: (1) In some cases, the voltage signal produced by the measuring
amplifier.
In the first case we have analog signals transmitted over some distance
between the process and the interface. This approach yields satisfactory
results if the analog signals are transmitted over short distances, i.e. no
longer than 200-300 ft. For longer distances there is significant deterio-
ration in the transmitted signal due to voltage losses and cable capacitance.
signal.
there are strong sources of external noise. In such case the proximity
Digital signals are less susceptible to external noise and can be transmitted
form. Therefore, the continuous process models which we have used for
(b) How fast should we sample a measured variable to produce its discrete-
time equivalent? Does the sampling rate affect the quality of control?
(e> Does the design of a control loop change when we use digital computer
loop?
(f) How can we use the tremendous computational power of a computer to
In the following chapters we will address all the above and other questions
Before closing this section, let us make a few remarks on the software
required to implement the control laws, and which constitutes a neiJ control
There are two classes of software programs needed for computer process
- Operating Systems, which deal with the real-time operation of the computer
control system. They supervise the execution of the control programs and
users.
(2) Application Programs. These are written by the user and perform the
FORTRAN or low level such as machine language. High level languages are
easily understood by the programmer and allow an easy statement for the
solution procedure. They require though increased memory and slow down the
execution because the FORTRAN statements for example must be translated into
the machine language before they can be executed. Normally, one writes the
reality and offer exciting possibilities for the future. The high compu-
tational speed coupled with large capacities to store information make the
though that the advanced and continuously advancing technology of the micro-
processors has not been fully exploited by the process control designer, and
that a tremendous potential exists. This is the challenge for the new
chemical engineers.
cessing unit with the associated peripherals (memory, mass storage devices,
communication devices) and (b) the I/O interface between the computer and the
process it controls. From all specific hardware features we should single out
discrete-time form, which is incompatible with the largely analog and con-
erased by the computer process I/O interface with its samplers, hold elements,
Two are the main modes of computer control; the direct digital (DDC) and
which can handle from 5 to 10 loops each, thus replacing as many analog con-
trollers. The economics of DDC are favorable and their use expands continuously.
The second does not implement all control actions but it is limited to the
supervision of local controllers and the change of their set points and
and process models, process analysis and controller design techniques for
discrete-time systems, how to use the computational power for advanced control
techniques, etc. These questions define also the scope of the chapters to
follow.
their differences and discuss how one can be converted to the other.
2. Define the units of bit, tyte, word. Why are all needed to encode
4. What are the basic and what are the optional features of a central
computer?
5. What is the real-time clock needed for? How does it function? Why is
real-time clock? Do you have any suggestions on how you can count
I/O interface.
a discrete in time signal and vice versa. Why are these two operations
ditital and vice versa. Why are these conversions needed in the I/O
interface?
9. What is easier and less costly to do; (a) multiplex N analog signals
first and then use a common A/D converter or (b) convert the N analog
signals to digital first and then multiplex them to enter the computer
10. Repeat question 9., but now use N digital signals, a multiplexer and
D/A converters.
volts?
12. Find the voltages which are represented by the integer numbers -712 and
error in volts?
13. Find the number of bits needed for a D/A converter to yield an error
14. Define the direct digital and supervisory control. Which one is used
15. What size computers would you use for DDC and supervisory control?
Why?, How do the local DDC's communicate with the supervising computer?
handle the four loops of a flash drum (see Example 23.2, Figure 23.lb).
17. Describe supervisory control system for the plant of Example 23.4
trolling one loop each, and (b) microcomputers which are capable of
handling four loops each. How would you select the loops to be con-
18. What is high level and what a low level language for computer control
19. Discuss the new design problems raised by the use of a digital computer
CEN TRA L
PROCESSING
CCtiA~VlcCAT!O~ UN\l-
PEizl PH ERALS I (CPU)
OPTIONS
D FLOATlf.J6-f’OlNT hZOCES3
e REAL- TJ Me CLOCK
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LOCAL CONTROiL=S
[ANALOG O R PIGI-T~L)
CHAPTER 26
continuous in time. Then, the dynamic behavior of each component in the loop
Laplace domain).
basis only, i.e. at particular time instants. As we can see from Figure 26.5,
analyze the dynamic behavior of loops with computer control and discrete-
and models to discrete-time equivalents and vice versa. This is the subject
of Chapter 27.
27.1 SAMPLING CONTINUOUS SIGNALS
switch, called sampler, which closes every T seconds and remains closed
s
for an infinitesimally short period of time (theoretically a time point).
The x's of Figure 27.lb show the value y, of the signal at the other end
of the line, when T S = 1 second. We notice that the resulting signal has
values only when the time is multiple of T5, i.e. at time points
t = nT n=0,1,2,***
S
and it is zero for any other times. The signal of Figure 27.lb is called
27.la, with a sampling period of 1 second. Figure 27.1~ shows another sampled
of sampled values.
- On the other hand, as the sampling period increases, fewer sampled values
or impossible.
"How does one select the best sampling period so that the
sampled representation of a continuous signal is satis-
factory, without requiring excessively large number of
sampled values?"
quite complex and goes beyond the scope of this text. We will try to give a
practical answer based on the typical dynamic responses encountered in
chemical processes.
Figure 10.4 shows the response of the system with time. In Section 10.4 we
found that the response reaches the 63.2% of its final value when the time
the sampling period must be smaller than one time constant. How much smaller?
Practical experience suggests that a sampling period between 0.1 and 0.2 of
Suppose that the first-order system possesses dead time. Then its
response to a step input is given by Figure 12.3a. If the dead time, td, is
of the same order of magnitude as the time constant, T then select the
P'
sampling period equal to 0.1 ~~ or 0.1 T
whichever is smaller. If td
P'
is much smaller than then neglect the dead time and take Ts = 0.1 T .
rP P
The above rational can be extended.
The rule developed in Example 27.1 for the sampling rate of a first-
input step change. The S-shaped response of Figure 16.12a can be approximated
systems (see Chapter 11) and by the steady state response of linear systems
the rule:
To domonstrate the above rule consider the sinusoidal signal of Figure 27.2a
sampled once per cycle. The sampled values are shown in Figure 27.2b and
Figure 27.2~ shows clearly that we cannot reconstruct uniquely the original
sinusoid because there exist several waves passing through the sampled
oscillation (i.e. 413 samples per period or better expressed 4 samples per 3
cycles of oscillation). The sampled values are shown in Figure 27.3b. When
take the signal of Figure 27.3~ which is clearly different than the original.
Let us now develop a quantitative description for the sampling operation
The sampler is a physical switch which stays closed for a very small but
finite period of time, At, around the sampling instant. During this time the
sampler output takes the value of the continuous signal and has the form
instantly, i.e. At-@. To retain the same area under the pulse as At+0 the
height of the pulse goes to infinity and at the limit we take an impulse of
infinite magnitude, zero duration and an area ("strength") under the impulse
where &(t - nTs) is the. unit impulse or Dirac function at t = nT, (see
Section 7.2 and Figure 7.3). A sampler with the idealized output given by
We can extend eqn. (27.1) to apply for any time. Thus, the sequence of
and finally,
considered, i.e.
- at the sampling instants the "strength" of the impulses is equal to the
- between the sampling instants the "strength" is zero, that is, no output
value.
(i.e. s-domain),
-TS
T”(s) = nzo y(nTs) e (27.2a)
puter is used to control a process the control commands are given periodically
tinuously in operation. Thus, a valve opens when a control impulse from the
computer reaches the valve, but then it closes until the next control impulse
arrives at the valve. Such control action is undesirable and the question is;
in Figure 27.5a,
and n=0,1,2,***
In particular;
not represent the only way to construct a continuous signal from its discrete-
time values.
We assume that for the next period nT 5 t -< (n+l)T the continuous signal can
and n=2,3,4,***
Equation (27.4) yields the so-called first-order hold and the continuous
signal it produces is shown in Figure 27.5~. Notice that the first-order hold
element needs at least two values to start the construction of the continuous
They need 3, 4, or more initial discrete-time values before they can start the
computational load increases and becomes more complex, with marginal improvements
in the quality of reconstructed signal. Therefore, for most of the process
with low computational load and it is normally used. To improve the quality of
discrete-time values, rather than increase the order of the hold element.
Example 27.4 - Comparing the Results of Zero- and First-Order Hold Elements
varying with time (Figure 27.6a) and (b) rapidly changing with time (Figure
27.7a):
- For the slowly varying signal the superviority of the first-order hold
is obvious (see Figures 27.6b and 27.6~). This is due to the almost
constant slope of the changing signal over large periods of time which
- For the rapidly changing signal both reconstructions are rather poor (see
Figures 27.7b and 27.7~). This is mainly due to the long period of
shortening this period, i.e. have more discrete-time values of the signal
per unit of time. Nevertheless, Figures 27.7b and 27.7~ indicate some very
useful features:
signal.
l The first-order hold produces significant excursions beyond the range
process.
m(nT) is given by
2
m(t) = m(nT) + ($)t=nT(t-nT)++ (d)
dt2 t=nT(t-nT)2+***
discrete-time values.
put is given by
1 - emST
iids> = m(nT) S
-ST
Ho(s) = 1 - e (27.5)
S
1 + ST (1 - ewST 2
HIW = T > (27.6)
S
We will start by recalling the typical computer loop for direct digital
the loop to that shown in Figure 27.8 by retaining its basic four components;
process, A/D converter with the associated sampler, digital controller, and
D/A converter with teh associated hold element. We notice that both con-
- The process has continuous input and output signals and consequently it
- The digital controller has both input and output signals discrete in time.
So far we have not studied any techniques to model such systems which from
back PID device, the output of the controller would be given by eqn. (13.6) in
Section 13.2,
KC
c(t) = K$t) +T c(t)dt + Kc rD g + cs (13.6)
I i
A continuous model for the control action such as that of eqn. (13.6) is
c(T), c(2T),***,c(nT),***
Start with the continuous analog of a PID control action, given by eqn.
separately:
- Every sampling period a sampled value of the process output enters the
computer. Let y(nTs) be the sampled value at the n-th sampling instant.
.
y(nTs) is compared to the set-point value at the same instant and yields
is,
Kc E(nTs)
- The control action produced by the integral mode is based on the inte-
gration of errors over a time period. Since the values of the errors are
see that
i’
0
c(t>dt 2 T s k;. 4kTs)
Kc Ts n
- $0 ENS)
3
ds rD
K
c rD dt = Kc < {E(nTs) - c[(n-l)Tsl)
difference equation.
model from its equivalent continuous one. The procedure can be generalized
integration.
(d) The values of any simple terms are equated to the corresponding
exposition of such methods goes beyond the scope of the present text and
the interested reader can consult the various references on numberical analysis
Let us close this section with more examples on the time discretization
of continuous models.
Example 27.6 - Discrete-Time Model of a First-Order Process
AY = f(y,d (27.7)
dt
LiY yn+l - yn
dt = T
and shows what the output of the process will be at the next time instant,
ay
rP = + y = KPm
and using the above we can easily derive the difference equation which is the
discrete-time model,
[Note: In all the above expressions we have used the following simplifying
notation, y(nT) 5 Y, and m(nT) z mn. T is the time period between two
p & + 251 ay
dt + y = Kpm (11.2)
dt2
Replace the derivatives in eqn. (11.2) by their approximations and take the
or
2 2
Y n-i-2 = 2(1 - 5 +)Y~+~ - (T - 25 $ + l)y, + Kp G m (27.10)
n
T2 T
Notice that in order to compute the next value (Y~+~) of y, we need its
previous two values (~,+~,y,). For 3rd, 4th, and higher-order systems we will
Consider the following process with two inputs and two outputs:
dyl
dt + allyl + a12Y2 = bllml + b12m2
dy2
-
dt + a2gl +. a22Y2 = b2pl + b22m2
With the first-order difference approximation fot the derivatives we take the
multivariable process,
y1,*+1 - y1,n
T + allyl,n + a12y2,n = b11m1,n + b12m2,n -
y2,n+l - y2,n .
T + a21Yl,n + a22Y2,n = b21ml,n + b22m2,n
OK
(27.12)
y2,n+l = -T a21yl,n + (1 - Ta22)y2,n + T(b21ml,n + b22m2,n)
filters.
order process with dead time, td, between the input, m(t),
dv + y = Kp m(t - td>
rp z
found to be
decreases. Why?
the other hand it is easy to construct and describe hold elements of various
orders, with the zero-order being the most popular. Laplace transforms for
both components (sampler, hold element) are possible and yield an analytical
continuous).
discrete models for the process, controllers, etc. can be easily derived by
discrete-time ones and vice versa. Give a physical example for this
4. Define the ideal impulse sampler. How does it differ from a real
impulse smapler; one in the time domain and the other in the Laplace
domain.
6. How would you select the sampling rate for, (a) the response of a general
closed-loop system?
hold elements. Develop the time domain expressions for zero- and
first-order hold elements. Describe their functions in physical terms.
10. Describe the different ways which can be used to improve the quality
discrete-time one.
part?
0.01 $f + y = m and
Why. Also, show how you can improve the quality of the other (worst)
discrete-time model.
15. How many sampled output values do you need to construct the discrete-
(ai
x
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,
,
(b)
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