Materials and Design 46 (2013) 609–616

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Materials and Design

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Technical Report

Behaviour of self compacting concrete using Portland pozzolana cement with

different levels of fly ash
P. Dinakar ⇑, M. Kartik Reddy, Mudit Sharma
School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar 751 013, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The influence of including fly ash (FA) on the properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC) is investigated.
Received 22 August 2012 Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) was partially replaced with 10–70% fly ash. The water to binder ratio
Accepted 9 November 2012 was maintained constant at 0.30 for all mixes. Properties included were self-compactibility properties
Available online 23 November 2012
(slump flow, V-funnel time and L-box blocking ratio) mechanical properties (compressive strength, split-
ting tensile strength and elastic modulus), and durability properties (water absorption, water penetration
depth and chloride permeability). The results indicate that fly ash along with PPC can be used in SCC to
produce high strength high performance concretes. Replacing 30% of PPC with FA resulted in strength of
nearly 100 MPa at 56 days. Splitting tensile strength and elastic modulus values have also followed the
same trend. High absorption values were obtained with increasing amount of FA, however, all the SCCs
exhibited initial absorption values of less than 3%. The water penetration depths in SCCs were lower at
10% and 30% replacements of fly ash but remained higher at 50% and 70% replacements. There is a sys-
tematic reduction in the chloride permeability of SCCs at 30% replacement of fly ash.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Self Compacting Concretes (SCCs) require high flowability
through a superplasticiser, and to remain cohesive during handling
operations special attention is needed in terms of the sand and
paste content apart from a viscosity-modifying admixture to en-
hance stability [1]. It is well established earlier that the use of min-
eral admixtures such as fly ash and blast furnace slag could
increase the slump of the concrete mixture without increasing its
cost, while reducing the dosage of superplasticiser needed to ob-
tain similar slump flow compared to concrete made with Portland
cement only [2]. Also, the use of fly ash improves rheological prop-
erties and reduces the cracking potential of concrete as it lowers
the heat of hydration of the cement [3]. It was proved from earlier
studies that up to replacement of 30% fly ash results in a significant
improvement of the rheological properties of flowing concretes
[4,5]. The use of fly ash reduces the demand for cement, fine fillers
and sand [6], which are required in high quantities in SCC. More-
over, the incorporation of fly ash also reduces the need for viscos-
ity-enhancing chemical admixtures [7].
High-volume fly ash (HVFA) concretes at about 60% cement
replacement have been reported to achieve excellent mechanical
and durability properties [8]. There are no studies reported on
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 674 2306353.
E-mail addresses: pdinakar@iitbbs.ac.in, pdinakar@rediffmail.com (P. Dinakar),
kartik@iitbbs.ac.in (M. Kartik Reddy), mudit@iitbbs.ac.in (M. Sharma).
the production of SCC when PPC was used with additional replace-
ment of fly ash. Bouzoubaa and Lachemi [9] reported on the pro-
duction of HVFA–SCC that was flowable, cohesive, and developed
a 28-day compressive strength of about 35 MPa. Researchers also
attempted to produce high-volume fly ash SCCs by replacing up
to 70% of Portland cement with class F fly ash [10–12]. Coal bottom
ash has also been successfully used as sand replacement in the
development of self compacting concrete [13]. Fly ash in high vol-
umes in SCCs also improved the durability and corrosion properties
studied [10,11,14]. In order to extend the general concept of HVFA
concrete and its applications to a wider range of infrastructure con-
struction, this paper outlines the results of a research project
aimed at producing and evaluating the behavoiur of SCCs incorpo-
rating high volumes of class F fly ash when Portland pozzolana
cement (PPC) was used.
2. Research significance
The approach of manufacturing of SCC was recently modified
and developed to produce SCC with high performance and high-
strength characteristics [15–17]. However, all previous efforts
and attempts in the field of SCC were concerned with Ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) and mineral blends such as fly ash, slag
and limestone powder, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the
utilisation of Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) with mineral blends
in the development of SCC. Generally, there is a great interest and
tendency between researchers and concrete technologists to

0261-3069/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.11.015
610 P. Dinakar et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 609–616

develop concretes by multi-unique characteristics, which would Table 2

not be attained in traditional NWC. With the growth of building Details of the mix proportions in kg/m3.

activities in India there is severe cement crisis to meet the de- Constituent SCC10 SCC30 SCC50 SCC70
mands of the construction industry. To meet the demands now a Cement 495 385 275 165
days almost all the major cement manufacturers are producing Water 165 165 165 165
blended cements consisting of Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) Fine aggregate 836 818 800 783
and Portland slag cement (PSC) where PPC has a significant pres- 20 mm 382 374 366 357
12.5 mm 525 514 503 491
ence in the Indian market as far as the production and usage is con- Fly ash 55 165 275 385
cerned. Now there is an urgent need to design concretes using HRWR 6.6 7.15 7.15 8.80
these blended cements to address the demands of the construction VMA 0.55 1.10 1.10 2.75
industry. Therefore, an attempt was carried out herein to investi-
gate the effect of fly ash replacements on the properties of SCC
when PPC was used. respectively. The essential component of SCC is a high range water
reducer (HRWRA) which is also known as superplasticizer. SCC
3. Experimental studies mixtures always include a high-range water-reducing admixture
(HRWRA) to ensure concrete is able to flow under its own mass
3.1. Materials [19]. Several trial mixes were conducted to determine the optimum
dosage of superplasticiser for each of the mixtures in order to
The following materials were employed: achieve the required self compacting properties as per EFNARC
standards. The dosage of superplasticiser for each mix was carefully
 The cement used in all mixture was Portland pozzolana cement selected as over dosage may induce bleeding and strength retarda-
(PPC) conforming to IS 1489 Part 1 [18]. The percentage blend- tion. As far as the aggregate grading is concerned, in the present
ing of fly ash in PPC is 28%. In addition fly ash was also used as a investigation a combined aggregate grading as recommended by
mineral additive. Their chemical composition is specified in the DIN 1045 [20] standards was utilised. The aggregates 20, 12.5
Table 1. and 4.75 mm were combined in such a way, so that it meets nearly
 Good quality aggregates have been procured for this investiga- the combined grading specification of DIN ‘B’ curve. The percentage
tion. Crushed granite with nominal grain size of 20 mm and fractions of aggregates used for 20 mm – 21%, 12.5 mm – 30% and
well-graded river sand of maximum size 4.75 mm were used 4.75 mm – 49% of the total aggregate content respectively. Blending
as coarse and fine aggregates, respectively. The specific gravities aggregates in this fashion will result in high strength cohesive self
of aggregates were determined experimentally. The coarse compacting concretes [12]. Effect of coarse aggregate blending with
aggregates with 20, 12.5 mm fractions had specific gravities of 20 mm and 10 mm on the short-term mechanical properties of SCC
2.91 and 2.80, whereas the fine aggregate had specific gravity has also been carried out earlier [21].
of 2.73, respectively.
 Commercially available poly carboxylate ether (PCE) – based 3.3. Mixing and casting details
super-plasticizer (SP) was used in all the concrete mixtures. It
is an F-type high-range water reducer, in conformity with All the materials were mixed using a pan mixer with a maxi-
ASTM: C 494. mum capacity of 80litres. The materials were fed into the mixer
in the order of coarse aggregate, PPC, fly ash and sand. The materi-
als were mixed dry for 1.5 min. Subsequently three-quarters of the
3.2. Mixture proportions
water was added, followed by the superplasticiser and the remain-
ing water while mixing continued for a further 6 min in order to
Four SCC mixtures were designed in order to obtain different
obtain a homogenous mixture. Upon discharging from the mixer,
fresh-state properties. The details of the mixes for the study are pre-
the self compactibility tests were conducted on the fresh proper-
sented in Table 2. Four different mixes (SCC10, SCC30, SCC50 and
ties for each mixture. The fresh concrete was placed into the steel
SCC70) were employed to examine the influence of fly ash in SCCs
cube moulds and compacted without any vibration. Finally, surface
on the fresh, mechanical and durability properties when PPC ce-
finishing was done carefully to obtain a uniform smooth surface.
ment was used. The water–binder ratio for all the mixes was kept
constant at 0.30. In mixes SCC10, SCC30, SCC50 and SCC70 cement
3.4. Fresh concrete tests
content was replaced with 10%, 30%, 50% and 70% fly ash (by mass)

For determining the self-compactibility properties (slump flow,

Table 1 T50 time, V-funnel flow time, L-box blocking ratio) tests were per-
Chemical composition and physical properties of the Portland pozzolana cement formed on all the mixtures. The order of testing was:
(PPC) and fly ash.

Chemical composition PPC Fly ash (a) Slump flow test and measurement of T50 time.
CaO 45.7 1.7 (b) V-funnel flow test.
SiO2 39.1 62.5 (c) L-box blocking test, respectively. The tests were performed
Al2O3 10.3 26.2 in accordance with EFNARC [22] standards.
Fe2O3 5.82 4.2
MgO 1.79 0.8
SO3 2.28 0.2
3.5. Specimens and curing
Na2O 0.14 0.12
K2O 0.71 1.14 The following specimens were cast from each mixture:
Loss in ignition 1.72 1.0
Physical properties  Three 100  100  100 mm cubes for the compressive strength.
Specific gravity 3.0 2.2  Three 100  200 mm cylinders for the splitting tensile test.
Blaines fineness (m2/kg) 406 350
 Three 150  300 mm cylinders for the modulus of elasticity
Blending of fly ash in PPC 28 –
test.
 P. Dinakar et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 609–616 611

 Two 100  100  100 mm cubes for water absorption study.

 Three 150  150  150 mm cubes for the water penetration
depth test.
 Two 100  200 mm cylinders for the rapid chloride penetrabil-
ity test. Samples of 100  50 mm were prepared from these
cylinders

After casting, all the specimens were covered with plastic sheets
and water saturated burlap, and left at room temperature for 24 h.
The specimens were demoulded after 24 h of casting and were
then cured in water at approximately 27 °C until the testing day.

3.6. Test procedures

The unconfined compressive strength was obtained, at a loading

rate of 2.5 kN/s at the age of 3, 7, 28 and 90 days on 3000 kN ma-
chine. The average compressive strength of three specimens was Fig. 2. Permeability test set up for determining the water penetration depth.
considered for each age. The split tensile strength was also tested
on the same machine at the age of 28 and 56 days.
The elastic modulus was determined at the age of 28 and
56 days. The specimens were fixed with a longitudinal compress-
ometer, placed vertically between the platens of the compression
testing machine and tested as shown in Fig. 1. This test conforms
to ASTM: C 469 for static modulus of elasticity of concrete in com-
pression. All the specimens were tested on saturated surface dry
condition.
The water penetration depths under pressure were performed
on 150 mm cubes as per EN 12390-8 [23] at 28 and 56 days. The test
method involves the study of water penetration on 15 cm cubes
over a 5 bar pressure for a period of 72 h. The experimental setup
used for this study was shown in Fig. 2. After the test the specimens
were split exactly into two halves and the water penetration front
was marked on the specimen as shown in Fig. 3. The maximum
depth of penetration under the test area was determined using ver-
nier caliper and recorded it to the nearest millimetre.
The absorption test was carried out on two 100 mm cubes as Fig. 3. Water penetration dept front marked after the test.
per ASTM: C 642 at 28 days of water curing. Saturated surface
dry cubes were kept in a hot air oven at 100–110 °C till a constant 56 days. This test measures the ease with which concrete allows
weight was attained. These are then immersed in water and the
the charge to pass through and gives an indication of the concrete
weight gain was measured at regular intervals until a constant resistance to chloride-ion penetration. Two specimens of 100 mm
weight is reached. The absorption at 30 min (initial surface absorp-
in diameter and 50 mm in thickness conditioned according to the
tion) and final absorption (at a point when the difference between standard were subjected to 60 V potential for 6 h. The total charge
two consecutive weights at 12 h interval was almost negligible) is
that passed through the concrete specimens was determined and
reported to assess the concrete quality. The final absorption in all used to evaluate the chloride penetrability of each concrete mix-
cases is observed to be at 72 h.
ture. The reported results evaluated by the Coulomb charge are
The rapid chloride penetrability test was conducted in accor- the average of two tests.
dance with ASTM: C 1202. These were also determined at 28 and

4. Test results and discussion

4.1. Fresh properties

4.1.1. HRWR and VMA demand

Fig. 1. Test set up for determining the elastic modulus.
Table 3 presents the demand of HRWR and VMA admixtures
used in all SCC mixtures. It can be seen that the addition of fly
ash in Portland pozzolana cement has a significant influence on
the flow characteristics of SCC. It can be observed that as the fly
ash content increases the demand for HRWR and VMA also in-
creases. For 70% replacement SCC demanded 1.6% and 0.5% of
HRWR and VMA. The reason could be that at 70% replacement
there was an abnormal increase in the paste volume of the SCC,
this high paste volume is due to the low specific gravities of PPC
and fly ash. Also the PPC used in this investigation has got a very
high fineness of 406 m2/kg. For 70% replacement several trails
were conducted to optimise the HRWR and VMA dosages. Initially
at low VMA dosage of around 0.2% the concretes seems to be cohe-
612 P. Dinakar et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 609–616

Table 3 30
Fresh properties of the concrete investigated.

Concrete Plastic T50 (s) Slump V-funnel L-box

27

V-funnel flow time (sec)

name density (kg/m3) flow (mm) flow time (s) blocking ratio
SCC10 2432 6 620 28.19 0.77
SCC30 2399 5 685 16.0 0.80 24
Vft = 0.89xT 1.70
SCC50 2390 5 705 20.39 0.93 50
SCC70 2332 7 670 28.16 0.83 R 2 = 0.74
21

sive exhibiting a very good slump flow around 700 mm, but after
few minutes significant amount of bleeding is noticed and the
aggregates settlement was seen in the cube moulds. This prompted
to use more amount of VMA to avoid segregation and bleeding.
VMA dosage of 0.5% for the 70% replacement is quite high com-
pared to earlier studies published in the literature. In spite of using
high amount of VMA still a very small amount of bleeding is ob-
served in the mix. The results are quite contrary to the earlier re-
sults published, where good flowability and cohesive SCCs have
being developed at 70% replacement of fly ash with OPC cement
[10,11,14,24]. From the results it can be concluded that when
PPC was used in the development of SCC, fly ash replacements of
the order 30–50% will be ideal.
4.1.2. Fresh concrete test results
Fig. 4 presents the slump flow with respect to fly ash dosage.
From the results it can be seen that as the fly ash dosage increases
the slump flow also increases up to 50% and after that there was
drop in the flow at 70% replacement. The four mixtures exhibited
slump flow values between 620 and 705 mm showing the capabil-
ity of concrete to deform under its own weight. Slump flow of
650 ± 50 mm is required for SCC [22], and all the concretes devel-
oped here have satisfied the requirements. The 10% replacement
exhibited a thixotropic behaviour showing a slump flow value of
620 mm, whereas the 30% and 50% replacements exhibited values
between 680 and 700 mm.
Also, the T50s for all mixtures did not show significant variation.
On the other hand, SCC mixtures with fly ash percentages of 30%
and 50% showed equal values of 6 s, whereas the 10% and 70%
replacements showed values of 7 and 8 s. The V-funnel flow times
also exhibited a similar behaviour. V-funnel measurements of
some mixtures exceeded the upper limit; however, all concrete
mixtures filled the moulds by its own weight without the need
for vibration. Many researchers have used both the T50 and
V-funnel times as indicators of viscosity of highly flowable con-
crete mixes. The relationship between these results is presented
in Fig. 5. This figure shows that there is an acceptable relationship
(R2 = 0.74) between T50 and V-funnel times for these SCC mixtures.
18
15
5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
T50 (sec)
Fig. 5. Relationship between V-funnel flow time and T50.
Experimental measurements related with L-box ratio indicate
the filling and passing ability of each mixture. L-box test is more
sensitive to blocking. The determined L-box ratios of four mixtures
with respect to the fly ash dosages are presented in Fig. 6. It can be
seen that as the fly ash percentage increases from 30% to 70% SCC
mixtures exhibited values greater than 0.8, whereas the 10%
replacement SCC because of its thixotropic behaviour exhibited va-
lue less than 0.8, but still maintaining the self compactability. In
the same figure the variation of V-funnel flow times with respect
to fly ash dosages is also presented. It can be observed that fly
ash replacements of around 30–50% will be ideal for developing
SCCs when Portland pozzolana cement is used.
4.2. Hardened concrete tests
After outlining the performance of SCCs during its fresh state, it
is necessary to understand the performance of these concretes dur-
ing its hardened state. In this study, the mechanical properties of
all the SCCs were investigated through compressive strengths,
splitting tensile strengths and modulus of elasticity. Compressive
strength tests were carried out at 3, 7, 28 and 56 days and the re-
sults are presented in Table 4. Fig. 7 shows the variation of com-
pressive strengths at 28 and 56 days with respect to the fly ash
replacement. As noted from the results shown in Fig. 7, the com-
pressive strength, of SCC increased drastically from 10% to 30%
replacement of fly ash but started to decline at 50% and 70%
replacement. High compressive strength of nearly 100 MPa has
been obtained at 30% replacement at 56 days than the other fly
ash mixes including the 10% replacement, where a high strength

720 1.0 30

700 25
V-Funnel flow time (sec)
Slump flow (mm)

680 0.9 20
Blocking ratio

660 15

640 0.8 10

620 Blocking ratio Vs Fly ash dosage 5

V funnel flow time Vs Fly ash dosage

600 0.7 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Fly ash (%) Fly ash (%)

Fig. 4. Variation of slump flow with respect to fly ash replacement. Fig. 6. Effect of fly ash replacement on blocking ratio and V-funnel flow time.
 P. Dinakar et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 609–616 613

Table 4
Mechanical properties of the concretes investigated.

Concrete name Compressive strength (MPa) Splitting tensile strength (MPa) Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
3 day 7 day 28 day 56 day 28 day 56 day 28 day 56 day
SCC10 44.42 58.37 78.97 87.85 5.62 5.55 43.24 42.14
SCC30 48.33 51.20 88.06 99.43 5.93 6.06 45.42 46.24
SCC50 27.1 35.91 60.83 66.20 4.12 4.20 36.63 36.01
SCC70 18.14 21.77 44.21 50.21 2.61 2.84 31.56 32.78

110 In the present investigation the elastic modulus (E) values ob-
28 day tained with respect to various fly ash contents are presented in Ta-
100 ble 4. The relationship between compressive strength (fck) and
Compressive strength (MPa)

56 day
90
modulus of elasticity of SCC mixtures is presented in Fig. 8; addi-
tionally the relationships of ACI and BIS models have also been
80 shown in the same figure. As can be seen from the figure SCC mix-
tures had exhibited
pffiffiffiffiffi lower elastic moduli when compared with BIS
70
model ðEp¼ffiffiffiffiffi5 fck Þ and comparable values with ACI model
60 ðE ¼ 4:73 fck Þ. This general tendency of SCC mixtures can be
attributed to the lower amount of coarse aggregate and increased
50
paste content. The relationship between the compressive strength
40 (fck) and modulus of elasticity (E) for the tested mixtures has been
determined by the following equation:
30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 pffiffiffiffiffi
Fly ash (%) E ¼ 4:78 fck ; R2 ¼ 0:98 ð1Þ

Fig. 7. Variation of compressive strength with respect to fly ash replacement.

of approximately 88 MPa at 56 days is obtained. Generally and at
the same water to binder ratio, there is a strength reduction for
concretes containing fly ash compared with that of the control.
However, and even at high fly ash content (70%), a long-term high
strength of about 50 MPa is achieved at the same water to binder
ratio. Higher strength would be expected in the fly ash mixes if
the w/b ratio was lowered to achieve similar workability to that
of the control. The trend is similar to results obtained elsewhere
on SCC containing fly ash [25].
Modulus of elasticity of concrete is mainly related with its com-
pressive strength. It is well known fact that normal weight aggre-
gate has a higher modulus of elasticity than hydrated cement
paste, a higher content of a given aggregate results in a higher
modulus of elasticity of concrete of a given compressive strength.
There are many expressions for traditional concrete, in order to
predict the modulus of elasticity which is mainly related to com-
pressive strength and density of concrete [26,27]. Since SCC being
a different material, it may exhibit different stress–strain behav-
iour relationship since SCC mixtures have a lower amount of coarse
aggregate, more powder content and the use of mineral admix-
tures such as fly ash or slag. Various studies on modulus of elastic-
ity of SCC resulted with conflicting conclusions. It was well
established that the elastic modulus of SCC performed almost sim-
The variability of these values with different SCC’s can be attrib-
uted to two reasons. First the strength grade of tested SCC’s is not
the same. Second the powder ingredients of SCC are different for
different fly ash replacements. The reactivity or inert nature of fil-
ler may change the strength characteristics and stress–strain rela-
tions of mixtures. If individual modulus values of the mixtures are
considered, it can be seen that similar to compressive strength the
elastic modulus of SCC30 at 30% replacement had exhibited the
highest modulus both at 28 and 56 days.
The results of split tensile strength tests at 28 and 56 days are
presented in Table 4. Each value in Table 4 represents the average
split tensile strength results of three specimens. The split tensile
strength ranges from 2.61 to 5.93 MPa and 2.84 to 6.06 MPa at
28 and 56 days, respectively. The split tensile strength of all SCC
mixtures increased with age. The results showed that, an increase
in the FA content decreased the split tensile strength of the SCC
especially at 28 days. SCC mixtures containing 10–30% FA replace-
ment showed higher split tensile strength than SCC mixtures con-
taining 50–70% FA replacement. This indicates that up to a 30% of
FA replacement may have positive effects on the interfacial bond
between the paste and aggregates. The mixtures containing 50–
70% FA showed lower tensile strength probably due to the weaker
50
28 day Elastic modulus (GPa)

ilarly with that of the traditional concrete when the strength was 45

held constant [28–30]. On the other hand, it was also proved by

an experimental study made earlier that the elastic modulus of 40
SCC is lower than the traditional concrete [31]. It was also observed
that for a given strength the modulus of elasticity of SCC is lower
than that of a common concrete [32]. This is due to the smaller 35

maximum grain size of SCC and the higher amount of cement paste ACI model
of SCC. From these investigations it may be concluded that it is not 30 BIS model
easy to compare the modulus of elasticity with traditional con- Experimental
crete. These contradictory results may possibly be explained by
25
the fact that the constituents and rheological behaviour of SCCs 40 50 60 70 80 90
are quite different from the traditional concrete. Neither aggregate 28 day compressive strength (MPa)
content and maximum size nor cement paste properties are the
same. Fig. 8. Relationship between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.
614
7 at 56 days is relatively less than that at 28 days. This is similar to
28 day splitting tensile strength (MPa)
fsp = 0.0264f 1.21919
6 ck
R2 = 0.98
5 tem. Except SCC70, the final absorption values of all the other SCCs
4
3 contents are bound to have higher absorption values than con-
2 water absorption thus observed for lower fly ash replacements is
40 50 60 70
28 day compressive strength (MPa)
Fig. 9. Relationship between compressive strength and splitting tensile strength.
bond between the matrix and the aggregates. The relationship be-
tween the splitting tensile strength (fsp) and compressive strength
(fck) for the SCC mixtures is presented in Fig. 9. For the tested mix-
tures the tensile strength can be calculated by using the following
equation:
F sp ¼ 0:0264fck1:21919
Sonebi and Bartos [33] found that splitting tensile strength of
SCC at 28 days is higher than that of traditional concrete. But the
strength grades of SCC and traditional concrete at 28 days are dif-
ferent. The results derived from Fig. 8 showed that the splitting
tensile strength of SCC mixtures is usually higher due to better
homogeneity coming from vibration free production.
4.3. Water absorption
The results of water absorption in 30 min (initial surface
absorption) as well as the absorption after 72 h (final absorption)
for all the concretes are presented in Table 5. From these results
it can be seen that as the fly ash replacement increases the absorp-
tion also increases. Fig. 10 presents the values of 30 min (initial)
absorption and final absorption of all the concretes obtained at
28 days. The initial absorption and the final absorption values of
all the self compacting fly ash concretes increased with an increase
in percentage of fly ash replacement. Fig. 10 also presents the rec-
ommendations given by Concrete Society (CEB, 1989) for absorp-
tion 30 min [34]. This shows that all the self compacting fly ash
concretes had lower absorption than the limit specified for ‘‘good’’
concretes. The absorption values decreases from 28 to 56 days as
shown in Table 5. The absorption of the mix with 70% fly ash is
higher at 28 days due to the low amounts of hydration products
produced. Curing has a significant influence on the pore structure
of the concrete, the longer the curing time, more finer the pore
structure and the capillary pores are less interconnected and more-
over, the porous paste/aggregate interface zone formed at early
ages is densified by continuous curing in water [35]. As more
hydration products are produced at 56 days, the absorption of SCCs
Table 5
Durability properties of the concretes investigated.
Concrete name Absorption (28 day) (%)
Initial (30 min) Final (72 h)
SCC10 0.89 3.54
SCC30 1.00 4.53
SCC50 1.29 5.55
SCC70 1.49 12.12
P. Dinakar et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 609–616
some results on NVC [36].
The final absorption at the end of 72 h also followed a similar
trend. SCC70 showed the highest absorption than any other SCC.
This may be due to the very high amount of fly ash (70%) in the sys-
were similar, the final absorption values of SCCs lie in the range
3.54–5.55%. Water absorption is mainly influenced by the paste
phase; primarily, it is dependent on the extent of interconnected
capillary porosity in the paste. Concrete mixes with higher paste
cretes with lower paste content (at consistent w/b ratio). The lower
80 90 attributed to the relatively lower paste volume, i.e., smaller capil-
lary pore volume. It is noted that self compacting concretes with
high fly ash replacements have exhibited higher water absorption
[10]. The increase in paste volume due to the lower specific gravity
of fly ash and PPC contributes to an increased capillary pore vol-
ume and increased water absorption. This is clearly reflected in
SCC70.
4.4. Water penetration depth
One of the main factors of concrete durability is permeability.
ð2Þ Concrete with lower permeability shows better resistance against
chemical attacks. When water penetrates into the concrete, some
soluble salts including chloride ions penetrate into concrete and
cause corrosion. Generally, it seems that lower permeability causes
higher durability in concretes [37]. Water penetration test was
used to evaluate the permeability of concretes and validity of these
tests has been approved [23]. Fig. 11 shows the results of the water
penetration depths of all the SCC mixtures. Similar to absorption
the penetration depths increases as the fly ash increases not very
significantly up to 50% replacement whereas significant increase
in the penetration depth was noticed in 70% replacement. The
trend is the same both at 28 and 56 days.
4.5. Chloride permeability
The results of the rapid chloride test measured at 28 and
56 days are presented in Fig. 12. The assessment criteria given by
ASTM 1202 is also given in the same figure. From the results it
can be seen that the Coulomb charge for the SCC70 is higher than
those of the other SCCs. For SCC70, the Coulomb charge is 3520
indicating a rather poor chloride penetration characteristic. It is
well established that the incorporation of fly ash results in drastic
reductions in the Coulomb charges. The effect of FA on the chloride
ion penetration of concretes was also studied by other researchers.
For example, Shi states that the use of supplementary cementing
materials such as FA may have a significant effect on the chloride
migration of concrete as measured by the RCPT test [38]. This is
true in the case of other replacements other than 70%.
Curing has a significant influence on the permeation properties
of the concretes. At 28 days SCC10, SCC30, SCC50 and SCC70
showed 1812, 923, 1312, 3520 coulombs, whereas at 56 days these
were reduced to 1188, 692, 823 and 1876 coulombs. At high
Absorption (56 day) (%) Water penetration (mm) Chloride permeability (Coulombs)
Initial (30 min) Final (72 h) 28 day 56 day 28 day 56 day
0.84 3.14 5 4 1812 1188
0.95 3.74 5 3 923 692
1.18 4.95 11 9 1312 823
1.32 10.52 35 24 3520 1876
 P. Dinakar et al. / Materials and Design 46 (2013) 609–616 615

14 concrete can be reduced by lowering the alkalinity of concrete pore

Initial absorption (30 min)
13 solution. When FA (especially with low-lime and low alkali con-
12 Final absorption tents) is used to partially replace PC, the concentration of alkali
11
ions and associated hydroxyl ions in the pore solution decreases
Water absorption (%)

10
9
significantly, and the extent of this reduction depends also on FA
8 replacement level [41]. Because of the expected differences in elec-
7 trical resistance between the SCC mixtures, however, the electrical
6 conductivity values may also be different. As a result, the RCPT val-
5 ues may reflect this difference and therefore should be interpreted
4 with care. The reason for high chloride penetration in the case of
3
70% replacement is due to the porous nature of the concrete. 70%
2
replacement SCC demanded more amount of superplasticizer and
1
0 VMA dosage compared to any other SCC developed. This resulted
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 in more air entrainment of the mix developed finally making the
Fly ash (%)
SCC porous in nature. This is clearly reflected on the other durabil-
Fig. 10. Relationship between water absorption and fly ash replacement.
ity parameters also discussed above.

5. Conclusions
40
28 day
36 This study discusses an experimental program carried out to
Water penetration depth (mm)

56 day
32 investigate the effects of incorporating high volume fly ash
replacement on the flow characteristics of SCC when PPC was used
28
in the fresh state, and mechanical and durability properties in the
24 hardened state. The following conclusions can be drawn according
20 to the results of this study:
16
1. It can be observed that fly ash replacements of around 30–50%
12
will be ideal for developing SCCs when Portland pozzolana
8
cement was used.
4 2. High percentage of fly ash (more than 50%) cannot be used to
0 produce SCC when PPC was used, and 30% replacement of fly
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
ash exhibited the highest compressive strength, splitting tensile
Fly ash (%)
strength and elastic modulus. At 30% fly ash as PPC replacement
Fig. 11. Relationship between water penetration depth and fly ash replacement. can produce SCC with a very high compressive strength of
100 MPa.
3. Although the absorption increases with increasing fly ash con-
tent, the initial absorption values of all SCCs were below 3%.
3500
ASTM C 1202 28 day SCC with 70% replacement of fly ash exhibited the highest water
> 4000 ------ High
3000 2000 - 4000 ------ Moderate 56 day absorption. Water penetration depth also exhibited similar
1000 - 2000 ------ Low behaviour.
Total charge (coulombs)

100 - 1000 ------ Very low

2500 4. Increasing amounts of fly ash in SCC reduces the chloride per-
meation and 30% replacement exhibited the highest chloride
2000 penetration resistance.
Low
5. Thus, the optimum fly ash percentage was 30% which resulted
1500
in highest compressive strength and less chloride permeation.
1000
Very low

500
0
SCC10
Fig. 12. Chloride permeability values of the concretes.
replacements fly ash has a significant influence on the chloride
penetration characteristics, 30% and 50% replacements have exhib-
ited similar behaviour. This may be due to the pore refinement of
the fly ash at high replacements in addition to the fly ash pore
refinement in PPC. The reason for the lower chloride ion penetra-
tion of concrete with FA may be attributed to the presence of fly
ash. The use of fly ash probably resulted in a denser matrix, by
reducing the pore size and thickness of transition zone between
aggregate and surrounding cementitious matrix [39,40]. It should
also be noted that the RCPT results depends on the electrical con-
ductivity of pore solution, which is determined by the composition
of the pore solution. The electrical conductivity or RCPT value of a
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