MODULE 3:

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
AND
RESEARCH TYPES

1
 Lesson 3.1 Research Questions
Lesson preparation
This video is to outline the key steps in formulating a research question. Watch the video and put
the following steps in the suggested sequence.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71-GucBaM8U
a, narrow down the topic to a specific niche
b, construct your research question
c, start with a broad topic
d, do preliminary research to learn about topical issues
e, identify a research problem

Lesson objectives
By the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:
- define the concept of research questions and explain in your own words the importance of
research questions;
- follow the given model of PICOT or PEO to construct a research question;
- use the FINER model to evaluate the quality of the above research question.

Keywords
Research questions, Research topic, Research problem, PICOT, PEO, FINER

Reading materials

1. Creswell, J.W. (2014). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and

Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education.
2. Farrugia, P., Petrisor, B. A., Farrokhyar, F., & Bhandari, M. (2010). Research questions,
hypotheses, and objectives. Canadian Journal of Surgery, 53 (4),
278. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2912019/
3. Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-
built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions. Acp j club, 123 (3), A12-
3. https://doi.org/10.7326/ACPJC-1995-123-3-A12

2
1. What is a research question?
A research question is a question that a study or research project aims to answer. This question
often addresses an issue or a problem, which, through analysis and interpretation of data, is
answered in the study’s conclusion. In most studies, the research question is written so that it
outlines various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the
problem the study addresses.
As their name implies, research questions are often grounded on research. As a result, these
questions are dynamic; this means researchers can change or refine the research question as they
review related literature and develop a framework for the study. While many research projects will
focus on a single research question, larger studies often use more than one research question.

The primary importance of framing the research question is that it narrows down a broad topic of
interest into a specific area of study (Creswell, 2014). Research questions, along with hypotheses,
also serve as a guiding framework for research. These questions also specifically reveal the
boundaries of the study, setting its limits, and ensuring cohesion.
Moreover, the research question has a domino effect on the rest of the study. These questions
influence factors, such as the research methodology, sample size, data collection, and data analysis
(Lipowski, 2008).

3
2. How to develop a good research question?
Broadly, a good research question should be relevant, decided, and meaningful (Stone, 2002).
Creating a research question can be a tricky process, but there is a specific method you can follow
to ease the process. The steps to this method are outlined below:

2.1 Start with a broad topic

A broad topic provides writers with plenty of avenues to explore in their search for a viable
research question. Techniques to help you develop a topic into subtopics and potential research
questions include brainstorming and concept mapping. These techniques can organize your
thoughts so you can identify connections and relevant themes within a broad topic.
When searching for a topic, it’s wise to choose an area of study that you are genuinely interested
in, since your interest in a topic will affect your motivation levels throughout your research. It’s
also wise to consider the interests being addressed recently by the research community, as this may
affect your paper’s chances of getting published.

2.2 Do preliminary research to learn about topical issues

Once you have picked a topic, you can start doing preliminary research. This initial stage of
research accomplishes two goals. First, a preliminary review of related literature allows you to
discover issues that are currently being discussed by scholars and fellow researchers. This way,
you get up-to-date, relevant knowledge on your topic.

4
Second, a preliminary review of related literature allows you to spot existing gaps or limitations
in existing knowledge of your topic. With a certain amount of fine-tuning, you can later use these
gaps as the focus of your research question.
Moreover, according to Farrugia et al. (2010), certain institutions that provide grants encourage
applicants to conduct a systematic review of available studies and evidence to see if a similar,
recent study doesn’t already exist, before applying for a grant.

2.3 Narrow down your topic and determine potential research questions
Once you have gathered enough knowledge on the topic you want to pursue, you can start focusing
on a more specific area of study. One option is to focus on gaps in existing knowledge or recent
literature. Referred to by Sandberg and Alvesson (2011) as “gap-spotting,” this method involves
constructing research questions out of identified limitations in literature and overlooked areas of
study. Similarly, researchers can choose research questions that extend or complement the findings
of existing literature.
Another way of identifying and constructing research questions: problematization (Sandberg &
Alvesson, 2011). As a methodology for constructing research questions, problematization aims to
challenge and scrutinize assumptions that support others’ and the researcher’s theoretical position.
This means constructing research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of
study.
Lipowski (2008), on the other hand, emphasizes the importance of taking into consideration the
researcher’s personal experiences in the process of developing a research question. Researchers
who are also practitioners, for instance, can reflect on problematic areas of their practice. Patterns
and trends in practice may also provide new insights and potential ideas for research questions.

2.4 Evaluate the soundness of your research question

Your initial research and review of related literature will have produced some interesting questions
that seem like they’re worth pursuing. However, not all interesting questions make for sound
research questions. Keep in mind that a research question draws its answer or conclusion through
an analysis of evidence.
Hulley et al. (2007) suggest using a set of criteria - known as the “FINER” criteria - to find out if
you have a good research question. The FINER criteria are outlined below:

5
F – Feasible
A good research question is feasible,
which means that the question is well
within the researcher’s ability to
investigate. Researchers should be
realistic about the scale of their
research as well as their ability to
collect data and complete the research
with their skills and the resources
available to them. It’s also wise to
have a contingency plan in place in
case problems arise.
I – Interesting
The ideal research question is
interesting not only to the researcher
but also to their peers and community.
This interest boosts the researcher’s
motivation to see the question
answered.
N – Novel
Your research question should be developed to bring new insights to the field of study you are
investigating. The question may confirm or extend previous findings on the topic you are
researching, for instance.
E – Ethical
This is one of the more important considerations of making a research question. Your research
question and your subsequent study must be something that review boards and the appropriate
authorities will approve.
R – Relevant
Aside from being interesting and novel, the research question should be relevant to the scientific
community and people involved in your area of study. If possible, your research question should
also be relevant to the public’s interest.

6
2.5 Construct your research question properly
Research questions should be structured properly to ensure clarity. There are a number of
frameworks that you can use for properly constructing a research question. The two most
commonly used frameworks are explained below.
PICOT framework
The PICOT framework was first introduced by Richardson et al. (1995). Using the PICOT
framework; research questions can be constructed to address important elements of the study,
including the population to be studied, the expected outcomes, and the time it takes to achieve the
outcome. With these elements, the framework is more commonly used in clinical research and
other evidence-based studies.
P – population, patients, or problem O – outcome of interest
I – intervention or indicator being studied T – timeframe of the study
C – comparison group

7
Like the PICOT framework, the PEO framework is commonly used in clinical studies as well.
However, this framework is more useful for qualitative research. This framework includes these
elements:
P – population being studied
E – exposure to preexisting conditions
O – outcome of interest
The following examples of good and bad research questions can further guide researchers on
properly constructing a research question.
Example 1:
Bad: How does social media affect people’s behavior?
Good: What effect does the daily use of YouTube have on the attention span of children aged
under 16?
The first research question is considered bad because of the vagueness of “social media” as a
concept and the question’s lack of specificity. A good research question should be specific and
focused, and its answer should be discovered through data collection and analysis.
Example 2:
Bad: Has there been an increase in childhood obesity in the US in the past 10 years?
Good: How have school intervention programs and parental education levels affected the rate of
childhood obesity among 1st to 6th-grade students?
In the second example, the first research question is not ideal because it’s too simple, and it’s easily
answerable by a “yes” or “no.” The second research question is more complicated; to answer it,
the researcher must collect data, perform in-depth data analysis, and form an argument that leads
to further discussion.

Stop and check

In groups, study the following research questions and select at least three research questions that
you would like to work on. Analyze the selected questions using the PICOT or the PEO framework.
Based on the analysis results, can you make these questions FINER?
What effect does the daily playing of video games have on the academic engagement levels of
those under 16 years old?

8
 1. What are the long-term effects on the environment of using bamboo toothbrushes in place
of regular plastic toothbrushes?

2. How does divorce cause students to perform on standardized tests?

3. What educational strategies help encourage safe driving in young adults?

4. How does listening to music while you work affect your overall performance?

5. In what ways do visiting grandchildren improve the quality of life for older individuals?

6. What factors affect people's beliefs in religion?

7. What makes a grocery store easy for shoppers to navigate?

8. How does restricting electronic usage help encourage socialization in teenagers?

9. What techniques can teachers use to engage students in a virtual classroom setting?

3.

In this lesson, we have:

• defined the concept of research questions and explained their importance in research
process;
• looked at the key steps in developing a good question;
• used the PICOT and PEO model as a scaffolding framework for constructing research
questions and the FINER criteria to evaluate their soundness.

9
 Lesson 3.2 Research types

Lesson preparation
This video is to help you distinguish between a quantitative and a qualitative study. Watch the
video and note down at least three differences between these two research types in the table below.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RZcfmA1l6cE
Empirical research
Quantitative research Qualitative research

Lesson objectives
By the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:
- define the concept of empirical research;
- differentiate between a qualitative and a quantitative study;
- describe key steps in conducting an empirical study.

Keywords
Empirical research, Quantitative research, Qualitative research, Observational method, Interview,
Case study, Textual analysis, Focus group, Experiment, Survey, Causal-comparative research,
Cross-sectional research, Longitudinal research, Correlational research

Required readings

1. Bhattacharya, H. (2008). Empirical Research. In L. M. Given (ed.), The SAGE

Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 254-
255. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909.n133
2. Fairclough, N. (2003). Analyzing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research.
Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. Google Books
3. Levitt, H. M., Bamberg, M., Creswell, J. W., Frost, D. M., Josselson, R., & Suárez-
Orozco, C. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative
meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and
Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist, 73 (1), 26-
46. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000151

10
1. What is empirical research?
Empirical research is defined as any study whose conclusions are exclusively derived from
concrete, verifiable evidence. The term empirical basically means that it is guided by scientific
experimentation and/or evidence. Likewise, a study is empirical when it uses real-world evidence
in investigating its assertions.
This research type is founded on the view that direct observation of phenomena is a proper way to
measure reality and generate truth about the world (Bhattacharya, 2008). And by its name, it is a
research approach that observes the rules of empiricism and uses quantitative and qualitative
methods for gathering evidence.
For instance, a study is being conducted to determine if working from home helps in reducing
stress from highly-demanding jobs. An experiment is conducted using two groups of employees,
one working at their homes, the other working at the office. Each group was observed. The
outcomes derived from this research will provide empirical evidence if working from home does
help reduce stress or not.

2. Types and methods of empirical research

Empirical research is done using either qualitative or quantitative methods.
2.1 Qualitative research – Qualitative research methods are utilized for gathering non-numerical
data. It is used to determine the underlying reasons, views, or meanings from study participants or
subjects. Under the qualitative research design, empirical studies had evolved to test the
conventional concepts of evidence and truth while still observing the fundamental principles
of recognizing the subjects beings studied as empirical (Powner, 2015).
This method can be semi-structured or unstructured. Results from this research type are more
descriptive than predictive. It allows the researcher to draw a conclusion to support the hypothesis
or theory being examined.
Due to realities like time and resources, the sample size of qualitative research is typically small.
It is designed to offer in-depth information or more insight regarding the problem. Some of the
most popular forms of methods are interviews, experiments, and focus groups.

2.2 Quantitative research – Quantitative research methods are used for gathering information via
numerical data. This type is used to measure behavior, personal views, preferences, and other

11
variables. Quantitative studies are in a more structured format, while the variables used
are predetermined.
Data gathered from quantitative studies is analyzed to address the empirical questions. Some of
the commonly used quantitative methods are polls, surveys, and longitudinal or cohort studies.
There are situations when using a single research method is not enough to adequately answer the
questions being studied. In such cases, a combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods
is necessary. Also, papers can also make use of both primary and secondary research methods.

Stop and check

Study the following abstracts and decide whether they are a quantitative or a qualitative or a mixed-
methods study.
A In this study, three suggested interventions - (a) watching a video twice, (b) watching this
video twice, but with a monologic summary activity inserted in between, and (c) watching
either the first or second half of this video, sharing the content with a classmate who did
not watch the same half yet in an interactional summary activity, and then moving on to
watch the whole video again – were integrated into three different treatment conditions.
The effects on text comprehension of these three listening/viewing procedures were
compared to that of (d) watching the same video, but only once (i.e., the comparison
condition) using a classroom-based experiment with a between-group research design.
Henceforth, these conditions will be referred to as the Repeated Listening/Viewing, the
Repeated Listening/Viewing plus Monologic Summary, the Repeated Listening/Viewing
plus Interactional Summary, and the One-time Listening/Viewing condition, respectively.
From the review above, I hypothesized that the Repeated Listening/Viewing plus
Monologic Summary and the Repeated Listening/Viewing plus Interactional Summary
condition brought about better text comprehension than the Repeated Listening/Viewing
condition, which, in turn, yielded better content gain than the One-time Listening/Viewing
condition. Thus, the aim of this study was to test this hypothesis.
B This study proposed a three-step writing conference in which L2 students, under the
guidance of their writing instructor, first fastened their attentional focus on a form-related
error, analyzed a collection of standard L2 samples to deduce the underlying knowledge,
and then planned for their error correction as well as future learning of this knowledge.

12
 The ultimate goal of this formative assessment practice was to scaffold student
engagement with written corrective feedback (henceforth WCF). Using a between-group
experiment design, the present study compared the effects on the success rate of error
correction and L2 uptake of the above writing conference (n = 14) against those brought
about by a typical Teacher-Student (n = 12) and a typical Student-Student one (n = 12).
Research participants were 38 intermediate EFL learners recruited from three intact
classes at a language-learning centre in Vietnam. The suggested writing conference was
indeed found to yield better error correction and L2 uptake than the other counterparts. A
closer look at the students’ mental engagement with WCF revealed that such engagement
was moderately correlated with their L2 uptake. These findings altogether suggest that
student engagement with WCF should not be taken for granted or, in other words, this
engagement should be contingently supported by the writing instructor in order to foster
learning from WCF.

3. Qualitative research methods

Some research questions need to be gathered and analyzed qualitatively or quantitatively,
depending on the nature of the study. Here are the general types of qualitative research methods.
3.1 Observational Method
This involves observing and gathering data from study subjects. As a qualitative approach,
observation is quite personal and time-intensive. It is often used in ethnographic studies to obtain
empirical evidence.
The observational method is a part of the ethnographic research design, e.g., archival research,
survey, etc. However, while it is commonly used for qualitative purposes, observation is also
utilized for quantitative research, such as when observing measurable variables like weight, age,
scale, etc.
One remarkable observational research was conducted by Abbott et al. (2016), a team of physicists
from the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory who examined the very
first direct observation of gravitational waves. According to Google Scholar’s (2019) Metrics
ranking, this study is among the most highly cited articles from the world’s most influential
journals (Crew, 2019).
3.2 Interview

13
This method is exclusively qualitative and is one of the most widely used (Jamshed, 2014). Its
popularity is mainly due to its ability to allow researchers to obtain precise, relevant information
if the correct questions are asked.
This method is a form of a conversational approach, where in-depth data can be obtained.
Interviews are commonly used in the social sciences and humanities, such as for interviewing
resource persons.
3.3 Case Study
This method is used to identify extensive information through an in-depth analysis of existing
cases. It is typically used to obtain empirical evidence for investigating problems or business
studies.
When conducting case studies, the researcher must carefully perform the analysis, ensuring the
variables and parameters in the current case are similar to the case being examined. From the
findings of a case study, conclusions can be deduced about the topic being investigated.
Case studies are commonly used in studying the experience of organizations, groups of persons,
geographic locations, etc.
3.4 Textual Analysis
This primarily involves the process of describing, interpreting, and understanding textual
content. It typically seeks to connect the text to a broader artistic, cultural, political, or
social context (Fairclough, 2003).
A relatively new research method, textual analysis is often used nowadays to elaborate on the
trends and patterns of media content, especially social media. Data obtained from this approach
are primarily used to determine customer buying habits and preferences for product development,
and designing marketing campaigns.
3.5 Focus Groups
A focus group is a thoroughly planned discussion guided by a moderator and conducted to derive
opinions on a designated topic. Essentially a group interview or collective conversation, this
method offers a notably meaningful approach to think through particular issues or concerns
(Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2011).
This research method is used when a researcher wants to know the answers to “how,” “what,” and
“why” questions. Nowadays, focus groups are among the most widely used methods by consumer
product producers for designing and/or improving products that people prefer.

14
4. Quantitative research methods
Quantitative methods primarily help researchers to better analyze the gathered evidence. Here are
the most common types of quantitative research techniques:
4.1 Experiment
A research hypothesis is commonly tested using an experiment, which involves the creation of a
controlled environment where the variables are maneuvered. Aside from determining the cause
and effect, this method helps in knowing testing outcomes, such as when altering or removing
variables.
Traditionally, experimental, laboratory-based research is used to advance knowledge in the
physical and life sciences, including psychology. In recent decades, more and more social
scientists are also adopting lab experiments (Falk & Heckman, 2009).
4.2 Survey
Survey research is designed to generate statistical data about a target audience (Fowler, 2014).
Surveys can involve large, medium, or small populations and can either be a one-time event or a
continuing process
Governments across the world are among the heavy users of continuing surveys, such as for census
of populations or labor force surveys. This is a quantitative method that uses predetermined sets
of closed questions that are easy to answer, thus enabling the gathering and analysis of large data
sets.
In the past, surveys used to be expensive and time-consuming. But with the advancement in
technology, new survey tools like social media and emails have made this research method easier
and cheaper.
4.3 Causal-Comparative research
This method leverages the strength of comparison. It is primarily utilized to determine the cause
and effect relationship among variables (Schenker & Rumrill, 2004).
4.4 Cross-sectional research
While the observation method considers study subjects at a given point in time, cross-sectional
research focuses on the similarity in all variables except the one being studied.
This type does not allow for the determination of cause-effect relationships since subjects are now
observed continuously. A cross-sectional study is often followed by longitudinal research to
determine the precise causes. It is used mainly by pharmaceutical firms and retailers.

15
4.5 Longitudinal study
A longitudinal method of research is used for understanding the traits or behavior of a subject
under observation after repeatedly testing the subject over a certain period of time. Data collected
using this method can be qualitative or quantitative in nature.
4.6 Correlational research
This method is used to determine the relationships and prevalence among variables (Curtis et al.,
2016). It commonly employs regression as the statistical treatment for predicting the study’s
outcomes, which can only be a negative, neutral, or positive correlation.
Stop and check
In groups, study the following examples and decide what type of research they are.
A. This study aimed to measure the productivity of employees in an organization that allowed
remote work setup and compare that to the staff of another organization that did not offer work
from home arrangements.
B. This study was to examine whether high education helped in obtaining better-paying jobs. If
outcomes indicated that higher education did allow individuals to have high-salaried jobs, then it
followed that people with less education tended to have lower-paying jobs.
C. In 1951, a cohort study called the British Doctors Study (Doll et al., 2004) was initiated, which
compared smokers and non-smokers in the UK. The study continued through 2001. As early as
1956, the study gave undeniable proof of the direct link between smoking and the incidence of
lung cancer.

16
5. Steps for conducting empirical research
Since empirical research is based on observation and capturing experiences, it is important to plan
the steps to conduct the experiment and how to analyze it. This will enable the researcher to resolve
problems or obstacles, which can occur during the experiment.
Step #1: Establishing the research objective
In this initial step, the researcher must be clear about what he or she precisely wants to do in the
study. He or she should likewise frame the problem statement, plans of action, and determine any
potential issues with the available resources, schedule, etc. for the research.
Most importantly, the researcher must be able to ascertain whether the study will be more
beneficial than the cost it will incur.
Step #2: Reviewing relevant literature and supporting theories
The researcher must determine relevant theories or models to his or her research problem. If there
are any such theories or models, they must understand how it can help in supporting the study
outcomes.
Relevant literature must also be consulted. The researcher must be able to identify previous studies
that examined similar problems or subjects, as well as determine the issues encountered.
Step #3: Framing the hypothesis and measurement
The researcher must frame an initial hypothesis or educated guess that could be the likely outcome.
Variables must be established, along with the research context.
Units of measurements should also be defined, including the allowable margin of errors. The
researcher must determine if the selected measures will be accepted by other scholars.
Step #4: Defining the research design, methodology, and data collection techniques
Before proceeding with the study, the researcher must establish an appropriate approach for the
research. He or she must organize experiments to gather data that will allow him or her to frame
the hypothesis.
The researcher should also decide whether he or she will use a nonexperimental or experimental
technique to perform the study. Likewise, the type of research design will depend on the type of
study being conducted.
Finally, the researcher must determine the parameters that will influence the validity of the
research design. Data gathering must be performed by selecting suitable samples based on the
research question. After gathering the empirical data, the analysis follows.

17
Step #5: Conducting data analysis and framing the results
Data analysis is done either quantitatively or qualitatively. Depending on the nature of the study,
the researcher must determine which method of data analysis is the appropriate one, or whether a
combination of the two is suitable.
The outcomes of this step determine if the hypothesis is supported or rejected. This is why data
analysis is considered as one of the most crucial steps in any research undertaking.
Step #6: Making conclusions
A report must be prepared in that it presents the findings and the entire research proceeding. If the
researcher intends to disseminate his or her findings to a wider audience, the report will be
converted into an article for publication.
Aside from including the typical parts from the introduction and literature view, up to the methods,
analysis, and conclusions, the researcher should also make recommendations for further research
on his or her topic.

6.

In this lesson, we have:

• defined the concept of empirical research and classified it into two subtle groups, including
qualitative and quantitative research;
• compared and contrasted the nature of a qualitative and a quantitative study;
• looked at the key steps in conducting empirical research.

18