AE 301 – Aerodynamics I – Spring 2015

Answers to Problem Set 2

1. (5 pts) Write a short MATLAB code (or use another language if you prefer) to cal-
culate and plot the pressure, density, temperature and viscosity (in both SI and En-
glish/American units) in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) up to the limit
of the troposphere (an altitude of 36,000 ft or 11,000 m). Use a separate set of plots
for each set of units. Make sure that the axes, labels, and legends on your plots are
used carefully. Note: 1. Use Sutherland’s Law to calculate the coefficient of dynamic
viscosity. 2. Use MATLAB or export the data to EXCEL to plot your results.

Below is a short piece of pseudo-code used to calculate the properties of the atmosphere
in SI units. Notice that the viscosity is calculated using Sutherland’s Law.

gravity=9.81 !acceleration under gravity

lapse=-0.0065 !temp lapse rate in ISA
gasconst=287.05 !gas constant for air
gbyar=gravity/(lapse*gasconst)
tsl=288.15 !ISA MSL standard temperature in Kelvin
prsl=1.013E+5 !standard pressure at sea level in Pa
rhosl=1.2256 !standard density at sea level or find from gas eqn
isaplus=0.0 !no isaplus
! for each altitude at stnd or isaplus above/below stnd do the following
talt=tsl+isaplus+lapse*altitude !ISA+ temp at req. altitude
pralt=prsl*(tsl/talt)**gbyar !pressure
rhoalt=pralt/(gasconst*talt) !density
visc=1.458E-6*sqrt(talt)/(1.0+0+110.40/talt) !Sutherland’s law
kinv=visc/rhoalt !kinematic if needed
sonic=sqrt(1.40*pralt/rhoalt) !speed of sound
! print out the results for the ISA as needed

The pressure in the atmosphere is a function of altitude from the surface (relative
to mean sea level or MSL), h, and the air density is a function of both altitude and
temperature. The pressure in the standard atmosphere, p, is defined relative to the
standard (MSL) conditions, p0 , as
!g/RB !5.265
p Bh Bh
=δ = 1− = 1−
p0 T0 T0
and the corresponding density relative to MSL (using the equation of state) is defined
by !4.265
ρ Bh
=σ = 1− h
ρ0 T0
For example, in the English/American units then using the appropriate values for T0 ,
R and B (see your notes) then
p  5.265
= δ = 1 − 6.876 × 10−6 h (1)
p0
and the corresponding density is defined by
ρ  4.265
= σ = 1 − 6.876 × 10−6 h (2)
ρ0
where in each case h is measured in units of feet. We can, of course, write down the
corresponding formulas in the SI system. An example set of results of the required
properties in the SI system is shown below.
The coefficient of dynamic viscosity is found from Sutherland’s Law, which can be
written as a function of absolute temperature, T , as
C1 T 3/2
µ=
T +S
 where
µref
C1 = (Tref + S)
Tref
where the reference values are in appropriate units. In the above code, then it will be
seen that the formula for µ in the SI system was written as
√
1.458 × 10−6 T
µ=
110.4
1+
T
with S = 110.4◦ K for air.

2. (5 pts) Consider two boundary layer profiles at a wall, one laminar and one turbulent.
The laminar profile is given by u/U = 2(y/δ) − (y/δ)2 and the turbulent profile by
u/U = (y/δ)1/7 where U is the edge velocity (external velocity) and δ is the boundary
layer thickness. (a) Plot each of the boundary layer velocity profiles and comment on
your results. (b) Calculate the shear stress on the wall in each case where δ for the
turbulent boundary layer is twice that of the laminar boundary layer and explain why
they differ. Note: For this assumed turbulent boundary layer profile it is sufficient to
calculate the wall stress from the value of stress a short distance from the wall, y/δ =
0.001.

(a) The laminar boundary layer profile is given by

u/U = 2(y/δ) − (y/δ)2

and the turbulent profile by

u/U = (y/δ)1/7
which are plotted below for the same values of U and δ, i.e., in non-dimensional form.
Notice that the turbulent profile is “fuller” in that the velocity near the wall is much
closer to the velocity of the external flow because of the mixing between the layers of
fluid, i.e., the velocity gradient will be larger.
The shear stress, τw , on the wall in each case is given by
! !
du U d(u/U )
 
τw = µ =µ as (y/δ) → 0
dy δ d((y/δ)

So, for the laminar boundary layer

d(u/U )
= 2 (1 − (y/δ)) = 2 as (y/δ) → 0
d((y/δ)
 and for the turbulent boundary layer approximation

d(u/U )
= (1/7)(y/δ)−6/7 = 53.25 as (y/δ) → 0.001
d((y/δ)

where in the latter case we have evaluated the gradient at a short distance away from
the wall because the gradient would otherwise become infinite as (y/δ) → 0 for this
approximation to the turbulent boundary layer profile. If δ for the turbulent boundary
layer is twice that of the laminar boundary layer then the latter value will be reduced
by about 1.81 to 29.39. It is clear then that the turbulent boundary layer produces
a much higher skin friction coefficient on the wall, for given values of U and µ, and
hence it will also produce a much higher drag on any body on which such a boundary
layer may exist.

3. (10 pts) Assume the wings for an airplane design that you are analyzing can be ap-
proximated as rectangular flat plates. The wing has a chord length, c, of 3 m and a
span of 15 m (wing tip to wing tip). The cruising altitude of the airplane is 10,000 ft
and the cruise Mach number is 0.2.

(a) Assume the flow on the wings is completely laminar. The local skin friction coef-
ficient for the laminar, incompressible flow over a flat plate is cf (x) = 0.664/Re1/2
x
where Rex is the Reynolds number based on distance from the leading edge, x.
Notice the skin friction will vary over the surface of the plate. Calculate the drag
on the wing by assuming zero angle of attack. Remember that the wing has an
upper surface and a lower surface.
(b) It is more realistic that the flow will be laminar over the front portion of the
wing and turbulent over the rear portion. The local skin friction coefficient for
a turbulent boundary layer is given by cf (x) = 0.0592/Re1/5 x . Assume that the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at 25% of chord (x/c = 0.25), so
that the flow is laminar before this point and turbulent after this point. Plot the
local skin friction coefficient for this case and compute the drag on the wing.

Assume that the length of the equivalent flat plate is the wing chord, c, which is 3 m or
9.843 ft. To define the flow conditions we are given a cruising altitude of 10,000 ft and
a Mach number of 0.2. Use of the ISA tables in the English/American units system
gives a∞ = 1077.4 ft s−1 , ρ∞ = 0.0017558 slugs ft−3 and µ∞ = 3.5343×10−7 slugs
ft−1 s−1 . This gives V∞ = M∞ a∞ = (0.2) 1077.4 = 215.48 ft s−1 . It would be fine to
work this particular problem in SI units if you prefer, but use only one or the other
and do not convert back and forth between sets of units.

(a) For a laminar boundary layer flow we have for the local skin friction coefficient
0.664
cf (x) = 1/2
Rex
where the local Reynolds number based on distance from the leading edge of the
plate is
ρ∞ V ∞ x
Rex =
µ∞
This latter result for cf is known as the Blasius solution for the skin friction on
a flat plate in zero pressure gradient. In fact, the validity of this result has been
verified by means of experiments. Notice that cf ∝ Rex−1/2 so that cf decreases in
value inversely with the square root of the distance from the leading edge of the
plate, which is because the boundary layer grows in thickness and the velocity
gradient at the wall becomes shallower.
The skin friction drag on the upper surface of the plate the integrated distribution
of cf from the leading edge to the trailing edge, i.e.,

1Z c
Cf = cf dx
c 0
which gives s s
0.664 µ∞ Z c −1/2 1.328 µ∞ c
Cf = x dx =
c ρ∞ V∞ 0 c ρ∞ V∞
or
1.328
Cf = √
Rec
 where the Reynolds number based on the chord of the plate is
ρ∞ V∞ c
Rec =
µ∞

In this case, with ρ∞ = 0.0017558 slugs ft−3 , V∞ = 215.48 ft s−1 , µ∞ = 3.5343×10−7

slugs ft−1 s−1 and c = 9.843 ft gives

ρ∞ V ∞ c (0.0017558)(215.48)(9.843)
Rec = = −7
= 10.54 × 106
µ∞ 3.5343 × 10
Because there will be a boundary layer on both the upper and lower surfaces of
the plates then the sectional drag coefficient, Cd , with a pure laminar boundary
layer is

(2)1.328 2.656 2.656

Cd = 2Cf = √ =√ =√ = 0.00082
Rec Rec 10.54 × 106
which is relatively low (because of the laminar flow assumption at this relatively
high Reynolds number). The corresponding drag, Dwing , on the wing in this case
(note that the wing area, S, is 45 m2 or 484.38 ft2 ) will be
1 1
Dwing = ρ∞ V∞2 Cd S = (0.0017558) (215.482 ) (0.00082) (484.38) = 16.19 lb
2 2

(b) In the second case, the flow laminar over the front portion of the wing up to
x/c = 0.25 and turbulent over the rear portion. This means we have to split
the integral for the skin friction into two parts with the assumption that the
turbulent boundary layer picks up where the laminar boundary layer stops, i.e.,
we can assume that
Z 0.25c Z c
1

Cf = cf dx + cf dx
c 0 0.25c

which gives
 s !−1/5 Z 
1 µ∞ Z 0.25c −1/2 µ∞ c
Cf = 0.664 x dx + 0.0592 x−1/5 dx = P1 +P2
c ρ∞ V∞ 0 ρ∞ V∞ 0.25

For the first part, then

s √
0.664 µ∞ Z 0.25c −1/2 1.328 0.25 0.664
P1 = x dx = √ =√
c ρ∞ V∞ 0 Rec Rec

so that
0.664 0.664
P1 = √ =√ = 0.0002045
Rec 10.54 × 106
 For the second part, then
!−1/5 Z !−1/5 
0.0592 µ∞ c 0.0592 µ∞ 5

−1/5
P2 = x dx = (0.75)c4/5
c ρ∞ V∞ 0.25c c ρ∞ V∞ 4
and with a bit of rearrangement then
!−1/5 
µ∞ 5 0.0555 0.0555

P2 = 0.0592 (0.75) = 1/5
= = 0.002186
ρ∞ V ∞ c 4 Rec (10.54 × 106 )1/5
So, adding the two parts together gives

Cd = 2Cf = 2(P1 + P2 ) = 2(0.0002054 + 0.002186) = 0.0047828

So, now the drag on the wing is

1 1
Dwing = ρ∞ V∞2 Cd S = (0.0017558) (215.482 ) (0.0047828) (484.38) = 94.44 lb
2 2
Now we see the much higher skin friction drag on the wing because of the develop-
ment of a turbulent boundary layer over a significant part of the wing (more than
doubled). A plot of the skin friction (local cf ) across the chord for the laminar
and turbulent boundary layer approximations is shown below.

4. (10 pts) A skydiver bails out of an airplane at 2,000 m above mean sea level but
cannot make his parachute work at first. The skydiver weighs 80 kg and is 1.7 m
tall. Determine the approximate velocity at which the skydiver will fall toward the
earth. Base your calculations on the assumption that the skydiver lies flat with his
arms by his side creating a circular cross-section of 0.26 m diameter. To answer this
question you should examine carefully the plot of drag coefficient for a 2-d cylinder,
and recognize that an iterative approach to solving this problem will be required. Make
any reasonable additional assumptions you need but state these assumptions clearly.
Base all of your calculations on properties of air at 2,000 m in the ISA.

This is a free-fall problem in which the skydiver (who weighs 80 kg or 784.8 N) will
attain an equilibrium terminal velocity depending on his weight and aerodynamic drag.
The aerodynamic drag will depend on the shape of the skydiver with respect to the
flow, which we are told in cross-section approximates a 2-d circular cylinder. Because
we know that the drag coefficient of a cylinder depends on the Reynolds number (and
hence relative flow speed) we should expect that some form of iterative solution will
be required to find the terminal velocity, which is indeed the case.
In the the steady-state free-fall condition, then then vertical drag on the skydiver will
equal the weight of the skydiver, i.e.,
1 1
D = W = ρ∞ V∞2 CD = ρ2000 Vterm
2
ACd
2 2
where S is the projected cross-sectional area and Cd is the 2-d drag coefficient (in this
case of a cylinder at the appropriate Reynolds number). The relevant area is A = 1.7d
= 1.7(0.26) = 0.442 m2 . ρ2000 is the density of the air at 2,000 m which using the ISA
model is 1.0066 kg m3 , and the coefficient of dynamic viscosity µ2000 is 1.7726×10−5 .
We need to solve for the terminal velocity, Vterm .
Now, consider the drag coefficient of a cylinder as a function of Reynolds number as
shown below. We do not yet know the drag coefficient but first let us guess the speed
at which the skydiver will fall. An estimate based on practical experience suggests that
Vterm = 120 mph or 176 ft/s or 53.65 m/s, so in this case the Reynolds number based
on diameter is
ρ2000 Vterm d (1.0066)(53.65)(0.26)
Red = = −5
= 792, 000 ≈ 106
µ2000 1.7726 × 10
and so we are just at or slightly above the critical Reynolds number for a cylinder and
the 2-d Cd value is about 0.25 (read off plot). In this case, for this speed and Reynolds
number we have
1 2
D = ρ2000 Vterm ACd = (0.5)(1.0066)(53.65)2 (0.442)0.25 = 160.1N
2
which is much less than the weight of the skydiver and so we know for out first estimate
that this estimate of the terminal velocity is too low. Proceeding iteratively gives the
results shown in the table where a calculation tolerance of ±10 N is considered good
 Iteration Vterm (m/s) Red Cd D − W (N)
1 60.0 886,000 0.35 -504.5
2 70.0 1,033,000 0.40 - 348.8
3 80.0 1,181,000 0.50 -72.9
4 85.0 1,255,000 0.55 99.2
5 83.0 1,225,000 0.52 12.1
6 82.5 1,218,000 0.515 - 5.0

enough. So, the terminal velocity of this skydiver in the free-fall is about 82.5 ms−1
or about 185 mph, which is fairly high but reasonable based on the assumptions made
and the approximations used in the determination of Cd .