Paper:: plant systematics

Exam::mid term
Subject::plant systematics
Name::m.jebraeel
Semester::2nd
Portal id::16071
Programme::m.sc botany

Question#01
(A) Plant systematics...
Systematics: History, Basics of Study and Types

1. Meaning of Systematics 2. History of Systematics 3. Basics of Study

4. New Systematics or Modern Taxonomy.
Meaning of Systematics:
Systematics is a branch of Biology that deals with cataloguing plants, animals and other
organisms into categories that can be named, remembered, compared and studied. Study
of only one organism of a group provides sufficient information about the remaining
members of that group. Scientists connected with the study of systematics are called
systematises or taxonomists.

The terms systematics, taxonomy and classification are often held as synonyms but
technically they carry different meanings. Simpson, (1961) has defined systematics as the
branch of biology that deals with the diversity of organism at every level of
classification.:

Taxonomy, systematics or classification of organisms is based on the study of their

comparative morphology (form, external and internal structure), cytology, embryology,
fossil relatives, biochemical analysis and ecological relationships.
The knowledge is required by all biologists working in different fields, e.g., agriculture,
forestry, industry, ecology, medicines, genetics, physiology, etc. It also helps in
developing evolutionary relationships, with or without the help of taxonomic studies of
fossils.

History of Systematics:
Early classifications were concerned entirely for easy identification of useful and harmful
plants and animals. Hippocrates (460-377 BC, father of medicine) and Aristotle (384-
322 BC, father of zoology) arranged animals on the basis of habitat into aquatic,
terrestrial, aerial animals.

On the basis of single character, Greek scholars divided animals into four major groups—
insects, birds, fishes and whales. Theophrastus (father of botany, У10-285 BC) divided
plants on the basis of form, texture and habit into four groups— trees, shrubs, under-
shrubs and herbs. He described 480 plants in his book ‘Historia Plantarum’.:

Pliny the Elder (28-79 A.D.) introduced the first system of artificial classification. His
book, Historia Naturalis (c75 AD), mentions over 1,000 economic plants with about
2,000 items. More and more organisms were discovered and named. John Ray (1627-
1705), English naturalist, described about 18600 plants in three volumes ‘Historia
Generalis Plantarum’ between 1686-1704.

The naturalist introduced the word “species” in its present sense for the first time. John
Ray defined species as an assemblage of individuals with similar parentage and having
ability to pass the parental traits to the offspring. Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus
developed the scientific system of naming species.

It is known as binomial system of nomenclature. Linnaeus described 5900 species of

plants in his book Species Plantarum (1753) and 4326 species of animals in Systema
Naturae (1758). The word systematics is derived from Latin word ‘systema’ which means
systematic arrangement of organisms. Linnaeus used syszterma Nature as the title of his
book.

Right from Aristotle to Linnaeus, every systematic employed limited number of traits for
classification of organisms. Therefore, the systems proposed by them remained artificial.
Later on with increased in-depth study of various biological domains, more and more
characters were taken into consideration by taxomonists.

It brought out natural affinities amongst organisms. This represented the phase of
classical taxonomy which produced natural systems of classification. A modification of
this system is numerical taxonomy or phonetics which came into existence during 1950s.
Simultaneously biologists began to find out evolutionary and genetic relationships.

This resulted in development of phylogenetic classification or cladistics (Gk. klaclos-

branch, L. dados- branch). In cladistics organisms are arranged in historical order in
which they evolved as branches of the parent stock. This phase is known as new
systematics or biosystematics. Father of new systematics is Sir Julian Huxley (1940).

Basics of Systematic Study:

1. Characterization:
The organism to be studied is described for all its morphological and other
characteristics.

2. Identification::
Based on the studied characteristics, the identification of the organism is carried out to
know whether it is similar to any of the known group or taxa.

3. Classification:
The organism is now classified on the basis of its resemblance to different taxa. It is
possible that the organism may not resemble any known taxa or groups. A new group or
taxon is raised to accommodate it.

4. Nomenclature::
After placing the organism in various taxa, its correct name is determined. If the
organism is new to systematics, it is given a new name based on rules and conventions of
nomenclature.

Classical Taxonomy:
It is taxonomy based on observable morphological characters with normal individuals
considered to be expression of the same while their variations are believed to be
imperfect expressions. Classical taxonomy originated with Plato followed by Aristotle
(father of Zoology), Theophrastus (Father of Botany) up to Linnaeus (father of
Taxonomy) and his contemporaries,

1. Species are delimited on the basis of morphological characters.:

2. Only a few characters are employed for classification.

3. A few individuals or their preserved specimens are used for study. It is called
typological concept.
4. Species are believed to be static or immutable.

5. Species is centre stage of study. Its subunits are not important.

New Systematics or Modern Taxonomy::

The term new systematics was coined by Julian Huxley (1940). New systematics is
systematic study which takes into consideration all types of characters including those
from classification morphology, anatomy, cytology, physiology, biochemistry, ecology,
genetics, development (embryology), behaviour, etc. of the whole population instead of a
few typological specimens.

In contrast classical systematics is based on the study of mainly morphological traits of

one or a few specimens with supporting evidences from other fields. New systematics is
also called population systematics and biosystematics. It strives to bring out evolutionary
relationships amongst organisms.

1. New systematics is based on the study of all types of variations in the species.

2. Along with morphological characters, other investigations are also carried out to know
the variety of traits.

3. Delimitation of species is carried out on the basis of all types of biological traits. It is
also called biological delimitation.

4. Traits indicating primitiveness and advancement are found out.:

5. Inter-relationships are brought out.

6. Species are considered dynamic.

System of Plant Classification: 3 Types

The following points highlight the top three types of system of plant
classification. The types are: 1. Artificial Classification 2. Natural
Classification 3. Phylogenetic Classification.
Plant Classification: Type # 1.
Artificial Classification:
The earliest systems of classification which remained dominant from 300 B.C. up to
about 1830 were artificial systems, which were based on one or a few easily observable
characters of plants, such as habit (trees, shrubs, herbs, etc.) or floral characters
(particularly the number of stamens and carpels).:
Such types of classification using some arbitrary or at least easily observable characters,
often irrespective of their affinity, is called artificial.:

The sexual system of Linnaeus is a good example of artificial classification, which uses
only one attribute i.e. the number of stamens for grouping plants into 24 Classes as a
result of which, various unrelated taxa, which are not at all related but, similar in one
respect only, have been placed under the same Class.

Plant Classification: Type # 2.

Natural Classification:
These systems of classifications are based upon overall resemblances, mostly in gross
morphology, thus, utilizing as many taxonomic characters as possible, to group taxa.:

Charles Darwin’s proposed theory of evolution (1859) postulates that, the present day
plants have descended from those existing in the ancient past, through a series of
modifications in response to changing environmental conditions, which means that all
present day plants are related to each other in one way or another.

Thus, the closely related plants should naturally be grouped together. This is called
natural classification. Thus, larger the number of characters shared by different taxa, the
more closely related they are to each other. This is the basis of modern classification.

Plant Classification: Type # 3.

Phylogenetic Classification:
The classification systems proposed after Darwin’s theory are mostly phylogenetic i.e.
they use as many taxonomic characters as possible in addition to the phylogenetic
(evolutionary) interpretations. These are expressed in the form of phylogenetic trees or
shrubs showing presumed evolution of the groups.

The natural systems are two-dimensional i.e. based on the data available at any time and
is known as Horizontal Classification, whereas the addition of the third dimension i.e.
past history or ancestral history results in phylogenetic classification also known as
Vertical Classification or Evolutionary Classification.

According to Radford (1986) however there are four systems of

classifications:
They are:
(a) Artificial Classifications — These systems use the habit and importance to man as
taxonomic characters e.g. systems of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, etc.:
(b) Mechanical Classifications — These systems use one or a few selected taxonomic
characters to group taxa e.g. systems of Caesalpino, Bauhin, Ray, Tounefort and
Linnaeus.

(c) Natural Classifications.

(d) Phylogenetic Classifications.

Part (b)
Micro species...
A species differing only in minor characteristics from others of its group, typically
one of limited geographical range forming part of an aggregate species.

Macrospecies
A polymorphic species consisting of many races and forms.

Question#02
Part(a)continious and discontinious
variations....
Continuous Variations:
Continuous variations are typical of quantitative characteristics. They
show differences from the average which are connected with it through
small intermediate forms. If plotted as a graph, the mean or normal
characteristic will be found to be possessed by maximum number of
individuals.

Discontinuous Variations:
They are sudden unpredictable inheritable departures from the normal
without any intermediate stage. The organism in which a mutation occurs
is called a mutant. Discontinuous variations form the basis of mutation
theory of evolution proposed by de Vries (1902
Differences between Continuous and Discontinuous
Variations | Plants
Continuous Variations:
1. The variations fluctuate around an average or mean of species.

2. Direction of continuous variations is predictable.:

3. They are already present in the population.

4. Continuous variations are formed due to chance segregation of genes during gamete
formation, crossing over and chance combination during fertilization.:

5. They can increase adaptability of the race but cannot form new species.

6. Continuous variations are connected with the mean or average of the species by
intermediate stage.:

7. The continuous variations are also called fluctuations.

8. When represented graphically, continuous variation gives a smooth bell shaped curve.

9. They are very common.

Discontinuous Variations:
1. A mean or average is absent in discontinuous variations.

2. The direction of discontinuous variations is unpredictable.

3. Discontinuous variations are new variations though similar variations might have
occurred previously.

4. Discontinuous variations are produced by change in genome or genes.

5. Discontinuous variations are the fountain head of continuous variations as well as

evolution.:

6. These variations are not connected with the parental type by intermediate stages.

7. Discontinuous variations are also known as mutations or sports.

8. A curve is not produced when discontinuous variations are represented graphically.

9. These variations appear occasionally.

Queation 2 part (b)

Biodiversity...
Biodiversity: Concept, Types and Other Details (With
Diagram)

Biodiversity, besides its ecological significance provides a socio-economic and monetary

asset to the nation.

Human society depends on biological resources, their diversity and the ecosystems that
sustain them to provide essential goods and services.

Concept of Biodiversity:
It has been estimated that more than 50 million species of plants, animals and micro-
organisms are existing in the world. Out of these, about 1.4 million species have been
identified so far. Each species is adapted to live in specific environment, from mountain
peaks to the depth of seas, from polar ice caps to tropical rain forests and deserts. All this
diversity of life is confined to only about one kilometer thick layer of lithosphere
hydrosphere and atmosphere which form biosphere.:

Though the study of environment and ecology is quite old, the term biodiversity has been
introduced by Walter Rosen in 1986. Biological diversity or Biodiversity is defined as the
variety and variability among the living organisms and the ecological complexes in which
they occur.

It refers to the variability’s among species of plants, animals and microorganisms;

ecosystems; ecosystem including terrestrial, aerial, marine and other aquatic system and
ecological complexes of which they are part. In simpler terms, biodiversity is the
assemblage of different life forms (Fig. 19.1).
If reflects the number of different organisms and their relative frequencies in an
ecological system. It includes the organisation of organisms at many levels ranging from
complete ecosystems to the chemical components that form the molecular basis of
heredity. Thus, biodiversity is sum of all the genes, varieties, species, populations in
different ecosystems and their relative abundance.:

Scientists are aware of the immense potentials of various life-forms existing on the earth.
Our planet’s requirements and services depend mainly on the biological resources.
Biological resources not only provide us nourishment, clothing, housing, fuel and
medicine but also meet our several other requirements. Therefore the knowledge of
biodiversity is of immense utility in planning sustainable livelihood and conserving the
natural resources.

Significance of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity, besides its ecological significance provides a socio-economic and monetary
asset to the nation. Human society depends on biological resources, their diversity and
the ecosystems that sustain them to provide essential goods and services.

Values related to biodiversity can be grouped into three categories as below:

Productive use:
This is assigned to the products that are commercially harvested for exchange in formal
markets and is, therefore, the only value of biological resources that is concerned in
national income. Biodiversity provides us many products, such as fuel, timber, fish,
fodder, skin, fruits, cereals and medicines. In 1994-95 the income from agriculture,
forestry and fisheries in India was nearly 30 per cent or 736.88 billion rupees.

Consumptive use:
Consumption value is related to natural products that are consumed directly, i.e., the
goods which do not come under normal circulation of trade. For example, a significant
number of such non-timber forest products as soft broom grass and cane come under
this category.

Indirect use::
Indirect use of biodiversity is of much significance because this value is related primarily
with functions of ecosystem and is concerned with national accounting systems. They
may provide us indirect benefits as non-consumptive values. Maintenance of ecological
balance, conservation of natural resources and prevention of soil erosion may be
considered as the examples of indirect use of biodiversity.

Types of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is of three types:
1. Species diversity:

2. Genetic diversity

3. Ecological diversity

1. Species Diversity:
According to Biological Species Concepts (BSC), species is a basic unit of classification
and is defined as a group of similar organisms that interbreed with one another and
produce offspring’s and share a common lineage. Species diversity refers to biodiversity
at the most basic level and is the ‘variety and abundance of different types of individuals
of a species in a given area’. It includes all the species on Earth, ranging from plants such
as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms
and all the species of animals including unicellular protozoans to mammals.:

Certain regions support a more diverse populations than others. Regions that are rich in
nutrients and have well balanced climatic factors, such as moderate temperature, proper
light and adequate rainfall, show high degree of diversity in their life forms. The tropical
areas support more diverse plant and animal communities than the desert and polar
areas, as for examples, tropical forest has a higher species diversity as compared to a
timber plantation. The regions that are rich in species diversity are called hotspots of
biodiversity.

2. Genetic Diversity:
‘Genetic diversity pertains to the range of diversity in the genetic resources of the
organisms’. Every individual member of a plant or animal species differs from other
individuals in its genetic constitution. Each individual has specific characters, which is
due to the genetic makeup or code. The genes present in the organisms can form infinite
number of combinations that causes genetic variability.:

Thus, we find that each human, who is representative of the same species, i.e. Homo
sapiens, is distinct from another. Similarly, there are many varieties within the same
species such as rice, wheat, apples, mangoes, etc. that differ from one another in shape,
size, colour of flowers and taste of fruits and seeds due to the variations at the genetic
level.

The term ‘gene pool’ has been used to indicate the genetic diversity in the different
species (Fig. 19.2). This also includes the diversity in the wild species, which through
intermixing in nature over millions of years have given rise to newer varieties. The
domesticated varieties of agricultural crops and animals have also evolved from the wild

gene p
The genetic variability is essential for healthy breeding population, the reduction in
genetic variability among breeding individuals leads to inbreeding which in turns can
lead to extinction of species. In the recent decades, a new science named ‘biotechnology’
has emerged. It manipulates the genetic materials of different species through various
genetic re-combinations to evolve better varieties of crops and domestic animals.

3. Ecological/Ecosystem Diversity:
Each ecosystem consists of organisms from many different species, living together in a
region connected by the flow of energy and nutrients. The Sun is the ultimate source of
energy for all the ecosystems. The Sun’s radiant energy is converted to chemical energy
by plants. This energy flows through the different systems when animals eat the plants
and then are eaten, in turn, by other animals. Fungi and bacteria derive energy from the
decomposing dead organisms, releasing nutrients back into the soil as they do so.:

An ecosystem, therefore, is a collection of living components, like microbes, plants,

animals, fungi, etc. and non-living components, like climate, matter and energy that are
connected by energy flow. Ecological diversity refers to the ‘variability among the species
of plants and animals living together and connected by flow of energy and cycling of
nutrients in different ecosystems or ecological complexes’. It also includes variability
within the same species and variability among the different species of plants, animals
and microorganisms of an ecosystem. Thus, it pertains to the richness of flora, fauna and
microorganisms with in an ecosystem or biotic community.

The richness of the biosphere in terms of varied life forms is due to the variations in the
ecosystems. The earth has a number of ecosystems like grasslands, forests, semi arid
deserts, marine, freshwater, wetland, swamp, marshlands (Fig. 19.3) etc. each one
having its distinct floral, faunal and microbial assemblages. Ecological diversity
represents an intricate network of different species present in local ecosystems and the
dynamic interaction among them. The ecological diversity is of great significance that
has developed and evolved over millions of years through interactions among the various
species within an ecosystem.
Measuring Biodiversity:
There are various mathematical ways of measuring biodiversity, which calculate the
number of species diversity in different regions. The measure of diversity of species is
also known as species richness.

These are as follows:

Alpha diversity::
This is the diversity in species, i.e. the number of species within a community. This
depends on the interaction between the biotic and abiotic factors and also takes into
account immigration from other locations.

Beta diversity:
This is the change in the composition of the species with reference to the changes in the
environment.

Gamma diversity:
This refers to the overall diversity and is applied to larger areas in which both alpha and
beta diversity are measured.

Value of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is the most precious gift of nature the mankind is blessed with. The
uniqueness of our planet Earth is due to the presence of life manifested through the
diversity in flora and fauna. As all the organisms in an ecosystem are interlinked and
interdependent, the value of biodiversity in the life of all the organisms including
humans is enormous. Besides its ecological and environmental value, biodiversity has
significant socio-economic values as well.

The value of biodiversity can be grouped under the following heads:

Environmental Value:
The diverse group of organisms found in a particular environment together with the
physical and biological factors that affect them, constitute an ecosystem. Healthy
ecosystems are vital to life. The natural environment is responsible for the production of
oxygen, maintenance of water-cycle and other biogeochemical cycles.

The more a region is rich in terms of biodiversity, the better are the different cycles
regulated. For example, forests regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the air by
releasing oxygen as a by-product during photosynthesis, and control rainfall and soil
erosion. As you are well aware, deforestation would further increase carbon dioxide in
the earth’s atmosphere leading to greenhouse effect and global warming.

This will cause irreparable damage to all organisms including mankind. Ecosystems
depend on the health and vitality of the individual organisms that compose them. As all
the organisms in an ecosystem are interdependent, removing just one species can
prevent the ecosystem from operating normally.

Consumptive Value:
This is related to natural products that are used directly for food, fodder, timber, fuel
wood, etc. Humans use at least 40,000 species of plants and animals on a daily basis.
Many people around the world still depend on wild species for most of their needs like
food, shelter and clothing (Fig. 19.4 and Table 19.1). The tribal people are completely
dependent on the forests for their daily needs. Similarly, fishermen in the coastal areas
are dependent on the marine resources. The wood derived from the forests has been
used from the birth of civilization as fuel.
Productive Use Value:
This is assigned to products that are commercially harvested and marketed. Almost all
the present day agricultural crops have originated from wild varieties. The
biotechnologists continuously use the wild species of plants for developing new, better
yielding and disease resistant varieties. Biodiversity represents the original stock from
which new varieties are being developed. Similarly, all our domesticated animals came
from wild-living ancestral species.

Through scientific breeding techniques animals giving better yield of milk, meat, etc. are
being developed. The commonly used animal products used by the modem society come
from the advances made in the fields of poultry farming, pisciculture, silviculture, dairy
farming, etc. Even the fossil fuels like coal and petroleum are the products of biodiversity
from the geological past. Most of the drugs and medicines used in the present times are
extracted from different plant parts. The commonly used drugs derived from plants are
given in Table 19.2 and Fig. 19.5.

Social Value:
The lifestyle of the ancient people was closely interwoven with their surroundings. The
life of the indigenous people in many parts of the world still revolves around the forests
and environment, even in the modem times. Many of them still live in the forests and
meet their daily requirements from their surroundings. Due to modernisation, their
habitats are being encroached upon and their very survival is at stake. It is ironic that the
societies, whose whole life is intricately associated with the forests, are now not able to
use the natural resources for their sustenance.
The biodiversity in different parts of the world has been largely preserved by the
traditional societies. Since the indigenous people always protect the forests for their own
benefit, the Government should formulate plans to involve such people for
environmental protection.

In ancient times, especially in India, the environment in totality i.e. flora, fauna, etc.
were held in high esteem. Trees like Peepal, Banyan and Tulsi are still worshipped.
Ladies offering water to Tulsi daily is considered good and there are festivals when ladies
tie sacred threads around Peepal and Banyan trees and pray for the welfare of their
families. Similarly, certain animals and birds were represented as vehicles of Gods and
were duly respected. Thus, the different facets of biodiversity were closely linked to the
social values in many regions.

Ethical and Moral Values:

It is based on the principle of ‘live and let others live’. Morality and ethics teach us to
preserve all forms of life and not to harm any organism unnecessarily. Some people take
pleasure in the hunting of animals. People also sometimes degrade and pollute the
environment by their unethical actions.

Through proper education and awareness, the people’s conscience against such practices
must be raised. We may not be deriving direct benefits from many plants and animals,
but should they be harmed because of this? Each species has its own utility in the world
of biodiversity and has every right to live.

Aesthetic Value:
The beauty of our planet is because of biodiversity, which otherwise would have
resembled other barren planets dotted around the universe. Biological diversity adds to
the quality of life and provides some of the most beautiful aspects of our existence.
Biodiversity is responsible for the beauty of a landscape. Humans are also attracted
towards the biologically rich regions and nobody likes to live or visit a barren place.
People go to far off places to enjoy the natural surroundings and wildlife.

This type of tourism is referred to as eco-tourism, which has now become a major source
of income in many countries (Fig. 19.6). Eco-tourism includes visiting wildlife
sanctuaries, national parks, coral reefs, exotic islands, safaris and trekking in the
mountainous and forested areas. In some countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Kenya, Rwanda,
eco-tourism has now become the major source of foreign currency income.
In many societies, the diversity of flora and fauna has become a part of the traditions and
culture of the region and has added to the aesthetic values of the place. For example, in
India, the richness of flora and fauna are depicted in many paintings; animals are
represented as vehicles of Gods; the dances and festivals are intricately associated with
nature.

Optional Value:
This refers to the value of biodiversity that is yet unknown, but needs to be explored for
future possibilities and use. Scientists have discovered and named about 1.75 million
species, which is of utmost importance. We should preserve all the world’s biodiversity
that can be used by the future generations.

Question#03
Typological species concept
Typological Species Concept:
According to this concept, there are a number of diversities on the surface of the earth
that exist as a limited number of universals or types. These types do not bear any
relationship to each other. The universals or types are called species. Variation is con-
sidered as trifling and irrelevant phenomenon.

This concept, was in the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle and was the species concept
of Linnaeus and his followers. Cain (1954, 1956) regarded the above concept as the
morpho-species concept. Another group of scientists refer to this as essentialist species
concept because the members of a taxon or the species can be recognised by their
essential characters.:

This is why essentialist ideology is also referred to as typology. Again morpho-species or

morphological species concept states that one species can be segregated from another
species by physical features and can be recognised by their morphological features. This
is also called morphological species concept.

Criticisms:
Simpson (1961), Mayr (1969) and recent scientists have not accepted the
above concept totally though it has some positive points:
(i) Due to several phenomena such as sexual dimorphism, polymorphism, and age
differences, the same species develop strikingly morphological differences.

(ii) This concept is not applicable in case of sibling species because sibling species are
alike but belong to different species.

Question #04
Fossil records of angiosperms
This article provides a summary on Views Regarding the Time of Origin of
Earliest Angiosperm.
We have to depend almost entirely upon fossil evidence for the determination of the first
traces of angiosperms. Unfortunately, due to lack of proper fossil records,
palaeobotanical studies have not been able to solve the mystery about the earliest
angiosperms.

There are several views regarding the time of origin of the earliest
angiosperms::
i. Some botanists suggested that the angiosperms originated in the early Mesozoic or
even the late Paleozoic i.e. about 250 million or more years ago, and that they underwent
extensive diversification by the Aptian-Albian stages of the lower Cretaceous period.
However, there is no dependable fossil record from the pre-Cretaceous period.

ii. The best available evidence from the fossil record indicates that the angiosperms
originated during the early cretaceous period about 130 to, 135 million years ago.

In the older Cretaceous sediments, the angiosperm fossil records show that, the
vegetation during this period was dominated by the gymnosperms and ferns and it is not
until the late part of the Cretaceous that the angiosperms became dominant.

This view is supported by Taylor on the basis of his studies of fossil pollen, which
indicate the origin of the angiosperms during the very early Cretaceous or the latter
stages of the Jurassic period.:

(a) Pre-Cretaceous Angiosperms:

The appearance of monocot and dicot angiosperms in the fossil record without
“transitional” forms has led workers to search for pre-Cretaceous angiosperms. Several
authors have also hypothesized the possible mechanisms of the evolutionary change.
Many of the purported pre-angiosperm ancestors have “angiosperm” leaf characters
(net-like venation pattern), which had arisen independently in several clades.
i. Sanmiguelia is a herbaceous plant of the Late Triassic, whose leaves although
appearing “palm-like” lack the midvein and petiole features of true palms. This
enigmatic plant has been allied by some workers with the cycads, whereas others have
allied it with pteridosperms.
ii. Furcula is also a Late Triassic genus, which shows angiosperm-leaf characteristics
along with that of other groups, which include a forked midrib (primary vein) from
which secondary veins arise. Intercostal veins between these anastomose to form a
reticulate pattern that delimits poorly defined areoles. Stomata’s are syndetocheilic,
which is also an angiosperm character.

iii. Pannaulika, a Late Triassic leaf, is the only known specimen having brochidodromous
secondary veins with tertiary veins forming loops outside the secondary loops, which is
also an angiospermic character.:

iv. Marcouia is another Late Triassic pinnate leaf, which is palmately compound with
four-five pinnae, that are basally united. Secondary veins originating from a well-defined
midrib dichotomize and anastomose. This genus probably does not have any relation to
angiosperms.
v. Monocolpate pollen grains having an outer exine, which is differentiated into a well-
defined tectum supported by columellae, characteristic of angiosperms, have been
described from the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic.

The leaf impressions from Triassic and Jurassic deposits, which have been attributed to
angiosperms, are disputable. Similarly, the pollen from the pre-Cretaceous deposits, are
also very problematic and in most cases have proved to be pollen grains of
gymnosperms.:

Even some deposits of this period, which were considered to be pollen grains of
angiosperms at one time, have been suggested to be the unicellular green algae
Tetraedron.

Pollen sequences have clearly shown a pattern of increasing diversity in the cretaceous
from primitive types in older strata to more derived types in younger sediments. The first
monosulcate angiosperm pollen grains, characteristic of the primitive dicotyledons and
the monocotyledons, appear in the Barremian stage of the lower cretaceous.

Tricolpate pollen grains, characteristic of the more advanced dicotyledons were first
reported from slightly younger Aptian rocks. The increasing diversity of pollen through
the cretaceous indicates that angiosperms underwent much diversification during this
period.

Further, recent investigations have shown that double fertilization, anastomosing leaf
venation, reduction of the male gametophyte, tetrasporic mega gametophyte with free
nuclei serving as eggs, and a feeder in the embryo, the primary characters of
angiosperms, occurs sporadically in Ephedra, and a welwitschian-type reproductive
structure (Archaestrobilus) found in the Late Triassic of Texas, which has been
interpreted to have been a precursor to angiosperms.:

Thus, there is little doubt that angiospermic features originated from a gymnosperm
ancestor. Recently, however, a fossil of Archaefructus liaoningensis, the world’s oldest
flower, from a lake deposit in China, in which limestone’s and volcanic ashes
accumulated, exhibiting the presence of closed carpels was found, revealing that
angiosperms were present in the Late Jurassic.

Pollen and pollen- bearing organs were not found in the specimen. Whether
Archaefructus flowers were unisexual or bisexual, also remains unknown.

(b) Upper-Cretaceous Angiosperms:

The upper Cretaceous period is marked by the abundance of genera and families of
angiosperms. The floras of the Vancouver Island, Amboy clays of New Jersey, the basin
of the Rocky Mountain system, Dakota sandstone near Kansas, Nebraska and
Minnesota, etc.:

Were particularly rich in angiospermous genera, which altogether account for about 700
to 750 forms, of which most are preferable to extant genera. Several fossil forms
including abundant fruits and seeds have been described subsequently from the Tertiary
floras of Europe and Western United States, the valaughnian deposits of Southern
France and Northern California.

Angiosperms steadily and progressively occupied all vegetated areas of the world from
Albian to Senomanian times, none of which could however be classified in recent
families. Angiosperms appear to be comparatively rare up to Albian times, apparently
forming only small populations with smaller number of individuals.

Occurrence of angiospermous woods, leaves, pollen, etc. became considerably more

numerous from Aptian-Albian times onwards, and became widely distributed
throughout the world at the close of the Albian period or towards the middle of the
Cretaceous period during which, they appeared in great diversity of form and quickly
became dominant.

Most of these Cretaceous angiosperms belong to the extant genera, and there are
representatives of both more or less primitive forms, as well as the highly evolved.

The fossil remains of true angiosperms are found only in the later geological periods and
as a group they are more modern than other vascular plants. The fossil history of
Angiosperms is too short to enable us to approach a definite conclusion. The
palaeobotanical record of this group is very fragmentary and poorly understood.

The flowering plants are probably still in the initial stages of their expansion and the
developmental trends are not clearly expressed in the fossil series. Their initial formative
stages and their early history is still hidden in the bowels of the earth. Their geological
record is incomplete.:

According to Krishtofovich (1950) the new fossil forms are detected only when they
begin to play a significant role and not when they are either just arising or occupying a
very modest position. The fossil record consists mainly of wood and impressions of levels
and leaf fragments with only sprinkling of seeds and fruits to aid in their determination.
One of the most remarkable phenomena in biological evolutionary history is the rapidity
with which the angiosperms arose to a position of dominance in the plant world during
the latter part of the Mesozoic era i.e., the Cretaceous period (about 200 million years
ago).

According to Takhtajan (1958) the first angiosperms appeared in the early Jurassic flora
or perhaps even at the close of the Triassic, and played only an insignificant role among
the then dominant ferns, Ginkgoales, Cycadales, Bennettitales and Coniferales.

According to Core the angiosperms are relatively youthful as compared to other groups
of plants, as their fossils have not been found earlier than the Cretaceous and their
period of rapid expansion came after the period of dominance of gymnosperms and
other lower plants.:

According to Arnold (1947) it is hypothetically assumed that the angiosperm line took
shape at some unknown time during the Mesozoic era and all the naked-seeded groups
(the pteriodosperms the Cordaiales, the Coniferales, the Cycadophytes, the Gnetales)
and even the ferns had at times been proposed as the possible precursors of the
flowering plants.

Although the flowering plants are so prominently displayed in the rocks of the late
Cretaceous and Tertiary, Botanist are quite ignorant about their origin and evolution.
The main reason given is that we do not know any series of fossil forms connecting the
flowering plants with lower groups.

Arber and Parkin (1907) tried to supply the missing link with the hypothetical
“Hemiangiospermae” where the fructifications were very much like the cycadeoid
“flower”.

This fructification was supposed to possess a primitive perianth of spirally arranged

leaves, an androecium of indefinite stamens also spirally arranged and carpels which
were open leaf-like structures with marginal megasporangia seated upon a dome-like
receptacle. Since there is no proof of the existence of such a fructification, the workable
phylogenies cannot be built upon hypothetical forms.
 Fig. 20.1. Record of Angiosperms on earth.
The exact position in the geologic sequence at which the angiosperms can first be
supposed to have originated or recognised is not certain. No angiosperm plant ever
existed in the Paleozoic era and if there is any reference of its existence in any literature
it can be rejected outright. Either the formations were wrongly determined or there was
wrong identification of the plants.

The oldest known plant of definite resemblance to an angiosperm is Fercula granulifera

discovered by Harris in the Rhaetic (late Triassic) rocks of Eastern Greenland. According
to Arnold (1947) the leaves of this plant were 7-15 cm. long and 6-8 cm. broad and are
usually forked at about the middle. The petiole was short and the apex acute.

The leaf had a well-developed midrib and secondary veins which usually forked before
the margin is reached. Numerous stomata of dicot type were irregularly scattered slightly
sunken in the lower surface. This leaf was different from any other known in the older
Mesozoic and according to him if it were found in the Cretaceous or Tertiary it would
have been placed among the dicots with certainty.:

The probable Jurassic angiosperm is a piece of secondary wood, Homoxylon

rajmahalense, a fossil from the Rajmahal Hills in Bengal to the northwest of Calcutta
(India) and described by the Indian botanist Birbal Sahni (1932). Although its exact
source is not known, evidences show that it belonged to lower Jurassic period.
The wood resembles to that of a gymnosperm in having no vessels, but the tracheid walls
bear a mixture of scalariform and circular pits as found in the family Winteraceae as well
as the homoxylous Magnoliaceae such as Trochodendron and Tetracentron.

Subsequently Yarmolenko (1939) described two new species of Homoxylon – one from
the Lower Jurassic deposits of Western Tian-Shan and the other from the Lower
Cretaceous deposits of the eastern slope of the Urals. Sahni and Yarmolenko referred the
species of the genus Homoxylon to the primitive vesselless angiosperms of the type
Tetracentron, Trochodendron and Winteraceae.

The two other Indian botanists Hsu and Bose (1952) carried on further investigations
and said that since in the structure of its wood, Homoxylon resembles with
Bennettitales.:

The most positive evidence of the existence of pre-Cretaceous angiosperms is pollen

found in coal of Jurassic age in Scotland (Arnold 1947). The pollengrains bear three
longitudinal grooves similar to those of the genus Nelumbo (family Nymphaeaceae).

Accompanying them are also pollengrains resembling those of Castalia of the same
family Nymphaeaceae. According to Taklitajian (1958) also the remains of angiosperms
begin to the found in Jurassic deposits being represented only by pollengrains. They
have been recorded from the Jurassic coals of Brora, Scotland.

They were of two types, monocolpate, resembling the pollengrains of water lilies and
tricolpate, resembling the pollengrains of the Lotus (family Nymphaeaceae). Analogous
types of such pollengrains were also recorded in the lower Jurassic deposits in north-
western Scania (Southern Sweden).

One of the two types of pollengrains recorded there is the magnolioid type, but it is also
possible to refer it to the microspores of gymnosperms, among which typical
monocolpate forms also occur (Erdtman). The other type of the pollengrains recorded
there belong to the tricolpate form, which is found only in the dicots and are not met
with in the gymnosperms and ferns.:

Takhtajian is of opinion that the discovery of tricolpate type of pollengrains in the

Jurassic deposit, is a positive evidence of the existence of angiosperms in the Jurassic
period. According to him, since the tricolpate type is derived from the monocolpate type,
the latter must have arisen much earlier, probably at the close of the Triassic period. The
Triassic origin of the angiosperms is therefore entirely possible.
The examples given above indicate that there were plants present during the Jurassic
period which at least resembled angiosperms and exhibited angiospermic characteristics.
In fact angiosperms are first recognised with certainty in the Jurassic, but they do not
become important elements of the flora until the Cretaceous.

The decipherable history of the flowering plants (angiosperms) begin with the Lower
Cretaceous, for it is not until this period that we find them extending in unbroken
sequence to the present (Arnold).

Some of the oldest angiosperms have been reported from the Lower Cretaceous Kome
beds of Western Greenland where they are interpreted by leaf impressions. Out of them
Populus primaera is probably the oldest leaf to be referred to a modern angiosperm
genus.:

Slightly younger or of almost equal age are Potomac beds of Maryland containing the
most extensive Lower Cretaceous angiospermic plants, e.g., Ficophyllum,
Quercophyllum, Juglandiphyllum, Nelumbites, Menisdermites, Sapindopsis etc. One of
the early Cretaceous flowering plants in England is represented by a petrified wood in
the Lower Greenland.

There are about five genera of dicot woods described from this period which possess
vessels and rays typical of living angiosperms. The early Cretaceous angiosperms
indicate the antiquity of some families of the flowering plants such as Nymphaeaceae,
Menispermaceae, Salicaceae, etc.

The occurrence of monocots in the early Cretaceous in direct association with dicots
proves that as far as the fossil evidence is concerned the two groups monocots and dicots
are of almost equal antiquity.

Until the end of the Lower Cretaceous the angiosperms were scanty and everywhere in
minority, not exceeding 25% of all species. This scanty occurrence of angiosperms until
the end of the Lower Cretaceous is explained by Takhtajian due to the conditions of their
habitat.

The Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic angiosperms lived mostly on the mountains where
the conditions of their fossilization were unfavourable. The remains of leaves of the
plants on mountains are pulverized during the dislocation strata and do not usually
reach the area of accumulation.
In the mid-Cretaceous, the constitution of the vegetation of the earth suddenly changed
and the angiosperms appeared, as though suddenly, in very large numbers and varieties
and spread all over the world with astonishing speed.:

Apart from their quick and sudden spread, all the Cretaceous angiosperms known to us
belong to the present day families and even genera and are represented by more or less
primitive forms such as Magnoliaceae, Nymphaeaceae and other related families as well
as by forms which have progressed such as representatives of Fagaceae, Moraceae,
Euphorbiaceae etc., (Takhtajian).

It is, therefore, clear that until the middle of the Cretaceous, angiosperms played only a
subordinate role and were present only in comparatively small number of genera and
species.

During the mid-Cretaceous period they had the opportunity to spread with rapid speed
and within a short time they occupied vast areas of land. Simultaneously the old
representatives of the Mesozoic era which dominated on the earth ceded their place to
the new comers. The mid-Cretaceous is therefore regarded as the beginning of a new era
in the history of world.

Towards the end of the Cretaceous period there was a widespread volcanic activity in
Peninsular India. Preserved in the sedimentary deposits intercalated between the
successive lava flows in found the earliest Tertiary flora of India known as the Deccan
Intertrappean flora.

Its study was initiated by Sahni and continued by Rao, Mahabale, Surange. So far about
167 megafossil texa of the specific rank and a number of microfossils have been reported
from various localities dotted over a vast area on the Deccan plateau (Surange). The flora
consists of algae, fungi, bryophytes, ferns, conifers and angiosperms. Among
angiosperms, the palms (monocots) are dominant.:

Eocene sediment containing fossil plants is the Fuller’s Earth deposit in Barmer District,
Rajasthan. The occurrence therein of such plants as Mesua and Garcinia reported by
Lakhanpal and Bose and Cocos described by Kaul indicates that during early Tertiary
times, the climate of this region was moist enough to support thick forests.

Extensive deposits of Miocene strata in Assam and South India have yielded rich
collections of petrified woods strongly suggesting that during the Miocene epoch the
vegetation of Eastern and Southern India was very rich consisting of such plants as
members of the family Dipterocarpaceae growing in wet tropical climate. Similar plants
also grew in the Siwalik regions along the foot-hills of the Himalayas.

Fossil Monocotyledons:
Our knowledge of the monocotyledones is based mainly on leaves that are often
fragmentary and hardly identifiable, on petrified stems and on several large specimens of
palm leaves. If the parallel venation of leaves is taken as the distinctive character of the
Monocotyledones their presence is claimed in the Carboniferous period.

But since it is now known that such leaves are also characteristic of the great Paleozoic
group Cordaites and other Gymnospermic plants as well as certain heterosporous
Pteridophytes, this claim of the presence of monocots in Carboniferous period is no more
considered as true.

The existence of monocots in the Paleozoic period has not been proved. As to the
antiquity of monocots and Dicots, the historical evidence indicates that no definite
Monocotyledones has been recorded from strata older than those in which typical
Dicotyledones first appeared or vice versa.

There is also no historical evidence that the Monocots have ever been a dominant race,
as Gymnosperms had been and as the dicots now are, although they do not appear to be
so abundant now as they were during the tertiary.

According to Chamberlin, the only suggestion of paleobotany as to the origin of

Monocots is that they are certainly a younger type than the Gymnosperms. When the
claim for the Carboniferous Monocots is rejected, the question of their existence in the
Jurassic period comes. This also rests upon the occurrence of certain grass-like forms
resembling and suggesting of Monocots, but such an evidence cannot be taken as
conclusive.

The possibility of the presence of Monocots during the Jurassic period rests not upon
their positive discovery, but upon the fact that during the Cretaceous they were present
in large numbers everywhere and this suggests of their long presence.

There is definitely no clear proof of the existence of Monocots in any strata earlier than
the Cretaceous. Remains of Monocots are always subordinate to those of Dicots.

This however does not indicate that Monocots did not exist during the late Cretaceous
and the Cenozoic, but the paucity is explained on the basis of habitat. Several Monocots
such as various grasses inhabit the drier places where there are remote chances of their
being fossilised.

The record of monocots can be considered in the three headings

(Chamberlin):
I. Families represented during the Cretaceous.

II. Families whose earliest representatives are in the Tertiary.

III. Families only known since the Tertiary.