International Relations Mid Term

International Relations
Introduction:
have become vital for the whole humanity and
International relations ae
interdependence. A nation-state
characterised by a high degree of interaction and of primitive past, who could
a role of an individual no
not exist all alone and it plays
the modem tüme. he world
live without the help of the
other individuais.
In has
shrunk as a result of scientitic

advancement and
technological development and an
on rest of the world. Thus the modem
event of one part of world
leaves deep impact
state is the interdependent of
its counterparts. It maintains regular relations with other
states.
International relations adopt different shapes in the different period of world
history. In the old time. the states played very reduced roles, on some occasions, they
interacted into defense treaties or to some extent developed trade relations under the
need of their subjects. But the World War I changed the pattern of state's relations.
We may witness. major changes in the relations, which resulted in systemic study of
international relations. The World War l1 also added fiurther changes init. The period
has searched for new international system to replace the old one. The scholars worked
for new patterm ofrelationships in a world dominated by capitalists and communists
divided by rich and poor nations. developed and under-developed and technological
advanced and backward. Thus he study of internaional relations becomes ver
complex and not an easy job.
The study of international relation is in transition and has passed throu
many phases. In the rapidly changing world. it becomes complex because it has
eal with more than 193 nation-states. international organizations and groups.
International relationship at various levels. It plays its role as the main actor
anding as
international community. The contents and
approaches to the
subject
Scholars apply the insights and techniques of many disciplines. and atoois o maderm
technology to the
problems of international present, many approa
affairs. Atpproach
said to be used in intermational relations. Traditional is supplementex bythe
Scientific and Behavioural ita
declared
approaches." while the approach has

full-ledged discipline of
System have madk
social sciences. These new approaches
ecreased the s
Signilicant impact on the
study of international relations. 1 and to PP"
between theory and practice to provide better tools for
analysi
techniques of behavioural sciences to international
relations
Cvolution of International Relations:

Evo
International relations as a
distinct
Anglo-American settings. International field of study has developed primariy in a
of iideas. The debate is
sets of relations is debate between the
a
both ancient and
modern. having been underway compeng
least the seventeenth century, when since at
emerged, and
the basic features of international politics
having been established as academic discipline in western
aniversities.Since, it has been
taught as a
an
part of
and universities of the world. political science in various colleges
There was a debate among the scholars

of international relations about its
status; whether it is a
part of political science or it has an
scholars view that it is independent status.
Some
interdisciplinary political science, economics, histor
of
psychology, businesS
management and public administration. Some
other theorists
view it as an
independent and
separate orientation.
Before World War I faculties of
history, law and recorded the
responsibility for teaching of international relations. Flistoriansphilosophy
shared the
facts of
diplomacy, foreign policy and foreign strategy, the jurists interpreted treaties, pacts
and national and international
practices, and philosophers speculated on human
nature. war, peace and justice.
World War I brought the miseries for human beings. During the four years,
over twenty millions lives were lost. World's opinion
in favour of abolishing war
was
and establishing a global system of collective security; which could restrain the
ggressors. The outcome of this felings was installation of League of Nations. The
League of Nations seriously attempted to put into practice the ideas of public voting
by diplomats in international organizations; the rule of law; the promise of
disarmament; and foreign policies based on reconciliation.
The emergence of United States as super power stimulated the teaching of

intcrmational relations as a separate discipline at American universities. The
beralism and hopefulness was infused in study ofas international relations. This
it constituted the first effort
beralism of theory and practice was quite amazing,
by intellectuals and statesmen to apply t to intenational politics, ignoring the
which
demise resulted in its
norality,ethnicity, ideology and economic processes;
Carr's
Twenty Years Crisis" in 1939 left
aier on. The publication of E.H.
etficient critique of liberalism but to idealism in
Vastating impacts not just to its
nernational relations. With the outbreak
of
world War II, realism was whollv
or Turther distortion in the
study of
SSerted, and there began a twenty-year perioane of.United Nations
nternatior
tional relations. As the
war ended, emergence re
ruie and Durred the distinction so shar

ihed the concept of great power
and collective security. The.
between balance ot power new
drawn under the League and prevented the idealism
scholars arose so powertully
generation of pragmatic totalitarian powers in 1930
tactics of Asian and Europcan
nuetralizing the probing and rejected the previoe
of thought termed itself as realist.
This new school In 1950s. the realiste
and moralistic guidelines for diplomacy.
dominant legalistic
relations; But it began to he
became the prevalent school
of thought in international
as order', "stability'
the United States. The notions
twisted and misused by for intervention. Man
became self-serving justification
balance'. and 'vital interest
this tendency and they had
realist thinkers began to write
normatively to corect
of the idealistic traditions
to o v e r c o m e the remnants
comparatively lesser difficulty
associated with Wilsonian diplomacy.
Traditionalism dominated the first half century of academic international
the period, little progress
relations throughout both liberal and realist phases. During
was made beyond ideas,
which had been developed in previous era. The discipline
was professed by the people
of other fields law, history and journalism and the
-
universities the topics of imperialism.

research remained unchanged. In most western
dialectics. pacifism justice,natural law and revolution were considered outside the
jurisdiction of international system.
number of international relations scholars found that

Gradually an increasing
the powerT politics could not solve the problems faced by the international
community and proved an ineffectivefor other analysis or action. They
guide
searched for a new approach-scientific, which suited to the needs of a post industriai
power with global, commitments and capabilities.
In late 1950s some shortcomings of the scientific approach were apparent and
the scholars of international relations abandoned the approach. Another approach
emerged in the form of a third school of thought. which rejected both realist and
idealist traditions, which focused on methodology rather upon ideas. It replaced
the classical and traditional orientations by scientilic method
botn
keeping in View u
behavioural atitude of nation-states or political actors. A group of young scholars.
who saw reform as the product of new
approach. sought to introduce sy stema
procedures for data collection and analysis and to link their work with the work don
by other behavioural sciences like economics.
psychology and sociology.
quick to declare the traditionalist view of woiid-politics, whether we
idealist or realis. They
be of interest only as a foundation upon which to build a genuine scienee
international relations. The dehate between behaviouralists. scientists
Iraditionalists continued up till of aid c" 1970s: which centered around the mer o
two
approaches. The behaviouralists prevailed and traditionalists and ntists
disappeared. sCie
Internetional Relatior
During 19/0s, the 5
and there developed a international relations became fragmented into
lectic orientation. The post-behavioural
Oural approach employing >p
more tolerant and
employing
dy of international post-behaviouralists have sought to modity mor e-orient the
relations, away from ana ilr
and wars berween
national governments.
traditional concerns,
and some ere radical, Iike conflict Some of the specialism was old, ld orthodox
orthodox
other were igia like strategic theory. Some wer, flexible like
analysis. eco-politics, anu
behavioural era. After making experience forEclectis.n is another feature of
hai century with post
and behaviouralism it became
continued to control mainstream of clear, that firstly liberalism wasliberalism, Teaii
not dead and it
serious competition. The state continued behaviouralists and secondly the
realists nad
up till the arrival of the
the
phase by beginning of 1980s. It was felt justified in post-behavioural
in international relations christening the "third debate
comparable to the earlier liberal realist and
raditionalist exchange. The 'third debate' behaviouralist-
consisted of confrontation between
opposing perspectives known as frame-work and
values as well as paradigms. These terms convey the
empirical findings. By 1980s the values were given many preciese
names, such as multi-centric, state-centric and
the more widely understood terms. global-centric by Rosenau (1983). But
"Pluralist' 'realist' ad structuralist,
some authors used persisted and
colloquial alternatives such as 'coweb', 'billiard ball' and 'layer-
cake'. Pluralism aimed at the behaviour of all
politically significant groups in world
sOciety whereas the realism confined itself to be behaviour of states especially
powerful states. Structuralism was designed to explain global class
terms of economic, wealth and
formation, in the
political power.
There was confusion among the mainstream scholars of post-behavioural
phase. The realist paradigm might be crumbling, but most academics shrank away
rom structuralism, as an alternative. Arguments over anomalies created more
Confusion among the scholars.
As conclusion it can be said that evolution of intermational relations passed
trough many phases of its study. The first phase was the historical, during which
e students endeavoured to explain how tne present had been formed from the past.
his was related with legalistic approach whicn saw nation-states increasingly
mplicated in a complex set of rules. The World War I demonstrated the political and
Splinary limitations of historical ana legalistic methods to understand
the
nlemational relations.
The second phase was the organizational in wnich intermational relations.as a
scipline had its foundation the ordering of the world
own through internationa
tion for example League ot Naton's wiucn cnerged as a result of the.
system the expensive dictatorshin
ment at Versailles. Under the League
E
Way for the next phas-
The third phase based on the analysis of great power interplay. During the
period the military strategy came to fascinate many students ot international relatio
alions.
This is a disastrous stage for internationai system. which ended by the birth of United
ted
Nation out of ashes of the Second World War.
The fourth phase was oveshadowed by the cold war between United State
tates
and Soviet Union and controversies over ideologies in the study of World Politics
appeared. As the bipolar nature of this post-war era, appeared to dominate world
politics. the fascination of idealism and realism of the nation-state's power and
interest. appeared and dominated the public policy and scholarly discourse
The fifth phase marked the realm of sanitized realism. Its basic assumptions
were the autonomy of state actors, and their maximum role in the name of national
interest. The validity of the concept was not only unehallengeable, but it was
prevalent in social sciences at that time. The same phase was characterised by
traditionalism; which dominated the first half eniury of academic international
relations.
The sixth phase was dominaizi by scientific thinkings; which replaced both
the classical and traditional orientations by scientific methods and a science-based
power oriented international rufations was observed. During the period realist/science
paradigm was not disçerered and the realist position on power and interest and
scientific value of detachment were called into question by the war in Vietnam. The
behaviouralists played their role during the phase.
The final phase was a mis-named 'post-behavioural. phase that would restore
concern for peace and world-order to its central
position. Peace
research in United
States tended to be much influenced by social
psychology and its interest in
frustration, aggression, misperception and
cognitive distortion. The most notable
development of this phase was the institutionalization of a new field of international
relations, called international political economy; which combined attention to
cconomic matters,
acknowledgement of non-state actors,
interdependence
and issue
areas.
Definition:
The term 'International' was first used
of eighteenth century, with by Jeremy Bentham in the later parn
regards the laws of nations.
international relations were used to define the Consequently, the tem
official relations between the nation
states.
There are two viewS regarding the meaning of

narrow and broader. According to narrow view, international relations
official relations conducted by the authorised international relations are
leaders of
restrict the scope
of international relation and confine it tothethestates." Accordingly,
official
relations
international Relations
exclude the relations other than the official from the purview of
relations. Prof. Dunn takes a internationa
narrow view of international relations and
the actual relations that take place across national boundaries or as the body or defines it as
knowledge which we have given those relations at any given time."
According to the broader view, many scholars have contributed

and believed
that official and unofficial relations by official
and unofficial organizations fall within
the domains of international relations. The following definitions are offered of
international relations in this regard:
of the opinion that "international relations may refer to all
d. Holsti is
forms of interactions between the members of separate societies, whether government
sponsored or not. The study of intemational relations includes the analysis of foreign
policies or political processes between nations, however with its interest all facets of
relations between distinct societies it would include as well studies of international
trade unions. the International Red Cross, tourism, international trade transportation,
communication and development of international values and ethics."
According to Quincy Wright, "It is not only the nations which international
relations seek to regulate. Varied types of groups nations, states. governments,
people, regions, alliances, confederations. international organizations. cultural
organizations, religious organizations.must be dealt with in the study of international
relations. if the treatment is made realistic."
According definition of Trevor Taylor, "International relat ns is the

to
discipline, which tries to explain political activities across state boundaries and, to
date, it has been chiefly concerned with the political relations between governments
the official representatives of states. These political relations are seen as having a
unique nature, and thus, their study form a separate branch of Political Science,
Known as International Relations."
Stanley Hoffmann also suggests,

the discipline of international relations is
Concerned with "the factors and activities, which affect the external policies and the
power of basic units into which the world is divided. Accordingly the international
wide variety of transnational relalions, political and non-political,

Telations includes a
0TIcial and unofficial, formal and informal.
"it relations traversing state
all
Kinds of
Trygue Mathiesen says. embraces
Doundaries, no matter whether they are oI an economic, legal, political or any other
official, and all human behaviour originating on
character. whether they be private
and
or
alfecting numan benaviour on the other side of

ne side of a state boundary
boundary."
to Theordore
A. Couloumbis d James H. Wolfe. "It is not only a
stinct According
field of study, but it also includes internaional theory, comparative foreion
international organizations comparative polit cs and
international law,
policy analysis, studies,
international development,
international
regional studies strategic including ams control
conflict resolutions and
studies and
communications, peace
disarmament."
relations is a new discini
In the view of Joseph
Frankel,
"International
ipline,
affairs countrie
of various
which is more than a combination of studies of foreign ies
international society as a
of
it includes also the study
and of international history
institutions and processes. It is increasely
concerned not only th
whole and of its international politics."
and their interactions but
also with the web of
states
the interactions of those actors
international relations "as
Steve Chau regards for other outside the
have important consequences
whose actions or conditions
effective jurisdiction of their political unit."
Frederick Hartmann, the term
international relations embraces
According and ideas across
movcments of people, goods
all intercourse among states and all
focus is on the processes by which
national frontiers. However as field of study its
their national interest to those of other states."
states adjust
the sovereign states may be the
In other words the interactions conducted by
international relations as well as, restricted sense is
most important subject-matter of
of other important groups and
concermed, while the interactions and interdependence
influence on
which are included in international relations, exercise great
institutions,
the actions of sovereign states.
Scope of International Relations:

In past, international relations was concerned with the study of diplomatic
history. It concentrated on the study of contemporary international affairs, to draw
certain conclusions. After the World War I, emphasis began to be laid on the study or
international law. The emergence of League of Nations further widened the scopeo
international relations. The study of inter ational organizations and institutions was
included in international relations. The pre-World War II arena demanded t
abolition of war as an instrument of state-craft and the establishment of a glooa
ns
system of collective security. Thus the demand of establishing international relatio
was realised. A large variety of subjects was also included within its
purview.
The World War II, which was called an end to zlobal
wáar, brought many n
changes in the world, U.S.A and U.S.S.R emerged as two superpowers anu
other countries also appeared on the map of the world. Thus the scope of
internau
relations further widened due to these significant global
ament
of United Nations Organization (UNO) also enhanced

changes. The estabilsd
the of scope internau
olations.
re
The member
states of UN
relations. They
hey establish their play its role in the context of intenational
relations with each other or with UN for the
norovement political, social economics conditions of their masses.
imp
of
At present, the
scope of international relations ch
1s gu tional interest,
include the _stuay ot_diplomatic theory, international principles,
international
affairs, national interest
foreign policy, international policies, international institutions,
international law, international economy, international theories and approacncs
international administration, states behaviour, historical and psychological
motives of member states in their mutual relations, international
study or
relations researCt,
the study ot international scholar and theory building in international relations.
The study of international relations include the five ingredients in its basic
course in the subject. These are: (1) The nature and operation of state system, (4)
factors whicn attect the power of a sate; (3) the international position and foreign
policies of the great powers; (4) the history of recent international relations, and P)
thebuilding of more stable world order. Vincent Baker is of the view that there are
a
seven ingredients which now appeared to most courses of international relations. (1)
the nature and principal forces of international politics; (2) the political, social and
economic organization of sociaB life, (3) the elements of national power, (4) the
instruments available for promotion of the national interest; (5) the limitation and
control of national power; (6) the forcign policy of one or more major powers and
occasionally of small state and (7) the historical ingredient as a background for other
factors and as a history of recent intemational events. Other trends noted by Baker,
were the growing concern with theory, the increased emphasis on the policy-niaking
process, and more frequent use of case study of various types.
International politics includes the styles of politics: for examples politiss of

Violence, politics of persuasion, hierarchical politics and pluralistic politics, and
approaches to politics i.e. realist politics, idealist politics, Marxist politics and
The following topics are also included in the scope of international
SCientific politics.
relations.
Diplomacy includes in itself its structure and instruments, changing scope of
of realism and idealism.
uplomacy, kinds of diplomacy and synthesis
its variables, the study
Foreign policy comprises theories ot toreign policy,policies.
of
and comparison of foreign
O Toreign policy decision-making
National interest includes its detinition,
its
ideologies, its kinds, its
gmentation and national interest
v/s global interest.
and
Under international institutions all global institutions
League of Nations. United Nations Organization and oner all
organizations
regional organizations
like
relations.
ncluded in the purview of international
10 historical
development, sources of
of its
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law
comprises and jurisdiction of stateo
es
recognition
intenational law,
of
international law, subjects
of w a r and peace.
law of treaties and laws
and g o v e r n m e n t s , intermational trade, regulation of
deals with
International economy
international
economic institutions and
balance of payment
international transactions,
countries.
financial conditions of developing scientific and
of traditional,
International theories and approaches comprises
relations. There are many other
of the study of international
behavioural approaches relations has to deal.
student of international
theories with which the
international relations
have to study the historical and
The scholars of themselves abreast of current
of global relations. To keep
psychological perspective all professional
the scholars have to consult
trends in international relations research,
"World Politics' the Journal of Conflict Resolution,
journals in the field, such as
International Affairs, and
International Studies Quarterly, International
Journal,
International Studies.
have some of knowledge
The students of international relations should also
the most important writings of distinctive writers like E.H. Carr, Hans J. Morgenthau,
William T.R. Fox, Karl
Quincy Wright, Robert Storausz-Hupe, Kenneth Thompson,
Deutsch, Morton Kaplan, J. David Singer, Thomes Schelling, Charles A. McClelland,
Richard C. Snyder, Walter Lippmann, George F. Kennan, Raymond Aron, Palmer
and Perkins and Theodore A. Couloumbis and James H. Wolfe.
Contemporary Theories of international relations according to Hoffmann are
as, "a systematic study of observable phenomena that tries to discover the principal
variable to explain behaviour and to reveal the characteristic types of relations among
national units." He argues that within the scope of international relations theory, we
should include the works of normative thinkers and of
policy scientists. The former
thinkers are philosophy-oriented and are concerned with evaluation
of political reality
leading towards better political life. The later try to go beyond
involved formulation of policy. David Singer defines
in explanation art and
internally consistent empirical generalizations of theory as, "a body o

explanatory power." descriptive, predictive and
Despite the vast scope of
international relations, some
subject of study and a sub-division of writers hold it as
the greater fields
history. It lacks clear cut of political science
connectional framework and an
theory organized discipline. According to Prof. systematic body of applicao
like
academic point of view, international relations Alfred Zimmem, "From
is u
clearly not a
subject in the ordin
International Relation
11
s e n s e of word. t
does not provide coherent body of teaching material. it is a
ingle subject, but a bundle of n0t
subjects, like law, economics, political science,
e0graphy and so on, but not the whole range of these
The modem writers do not
subjects."
treat the international relations as an
discipline. due
to its lack of
unity of subject matter and good degree of independent
Scholars are still confused on the scope of international objectiviy,
relations as it does
not
pOssess distinguished Jurisdiction from political science, because both are concerned
with the study of sovereign states and their behaviour. It also has to dependent upon
the historical facts derived from history. Thus the subject is far from being an
independent discipline-According to Organski, "As science international relations
today is in its intancy, it is still less a science than mixture of philosophy, history and
art. Its theories are few and shockingly untestable. Writings on the subjects are
largely descriptive. However, the deseriptive historical approach has resulted in the
collection of an immenee amount .of data and the daily papers provide us with more.
New theorists are beginning to provide the kind of thoretical fiame work that is
necessary for ordering and interpreting the facts. We are on the verge of great
discoveries within next few decades the basic foundations of a new discipline will be
laid."
The Nation-State System

Introduction:
quite different yet often used
they are
The terms 'nation' and "state are
and cultural
The nation is a concept denoting a common ethnic
interchangeably. unit defined in terms of
Identity shared by a single people, while the state is a political
emilory, population, organized government, exercising effective control over its
nation promotes emotional relationship among its
Territory and inhabitants. The
while state provides political
and
legal foundation for the identity of its
members; the same cultural and territorial
and states do not always share
Citizens. Nations been used by social scientists to
Therefore the term nation-state has
DOundaries. boundaries after a long control of
fusion of cultural and political
enote the gradual a nation-state is a nation tt at
political authority by a central government. 1nus

It is socially
conesive as well as politically organized
POssesses political sovereignty.
and independent.
international relations. The
in peonle
nation-state plays a dominant

role which live in soverei
The a number ol groups, ign
divided into with each under the pressure of
Over the world are r e l a t i ó n s WIth
maintain relatións
eacn Otner
n1aintain
nation-state
state. These
states
are
organized
o t organized
not
in to states
in state nations, no international
or
lars reduce the role of state in the

cessity. If people
eer neces
Some scholars
Ons would have
been possible.
rolE Ol
iauol1-stale can not be reduced inthe
ihe
However
Clcar and space age.
12 physi
"though the territorial state as
ysical
W. Deutsch says that nothing has thus for
present age. As Karl modern nuclear physiCs,
the force of
shell has been shattered by and long as this is true the
to their nation; so
shattered the loyalty of the people relations will continue to
of international
motives, conduct, policy and pattern of nation
states." Explaining the mportance
function of the behaviour of sovereign
Frankel says. "Their discontinuance might destroy the
states in international relations the possibility of a
as a whole
and accentuate
stability of the international system
war
Meaning & Definition
to Palmer and Perkins, "It is a
The term state is an imprecise one. According
a definite territory
and politically organized under one
body of people occupying
international law defines a state as "legal and
government." The positivist school of
territory and autonomous
political entity with the attributes of population,
over the population and territory and is
government that exercises effective control
willing and able to meet fundamental international responsibilities. Additionally a
to the state before it can
large number of governments must extend dejure recognition
claim a demonstrable legal existence."
Distinction between Nation State and Government:
To understand the nation-state we must know the differences between nation
and state, state and government and between the states, established on the basis of
internal politics or external politics. The first term nation is essentially ethnic, based
upon a common heritage, language, culture and sense of identity among the people
who make up a nation; whereas state is legal and territorial expression involving a
population politically organized under one government with sovereign rights. From a
number of perspectives, a state may encompass more or less than one nation, just asa
nation may or may not possess statehood, but taken together nations and states form
the units of power, whose interrelationship dominate the international
system.
A second distinction is between the state and
and go very frequently, while states come and govermment, governments come
go very infrequently. Normally tne
scholars of international relations can depend
upon continued existence of a state a5
viable political entity with infinitely more
assurance than they depend upon tne
continued existence of a given government or
king is dead, long live the king" expresses theadministration of that state. The phray
idea of continuity of the state,
the change of its leaders. Infact most of the
monarchs are gone; while the states desp
controlled, still exist.
Third, it is
important to differentiate between be
organized for tthe
purpose of internal states, which are
Many state politics external relations or foreigr
or
ign policies.
are organized for internal politics for
example the federal state or uunitary
3
states, dynastic states and
totalitarian
and to states and states republican mocratic state and authoritarian ones,
ones, demo
bility to organize itself with limited functions. of a
state, its abil for purposes of nducting it the
Yet,of external focus
is outward affairs, to
and
formulare pursue external goals and to enter into engagements with otner staic
that concern with the understanding the world politics.
Thus, the nation-state is a political human
organization, characterisea wu
some generally recognized attributes such as territory, government, populauon,
sovereignty and nationalism. The nationalism and sovereignty play very important
role in estabiishing nation-states; which equate themselves as actors in intermational
system However the non-state actors are also operating in international system.
The nation-state can be divided between ethnically homogeneous and

heterogeneous states. The ethnically homogeneous nation-states contain an
overwhelmingly large ethnic group accounting for over 90 percent of those states
population. A multiplicity of ethnic groups are indeed living together within a large
number of nation states. In some cases hundred of diverse ethnic groups are living
five or
together, while in 53 states out of whole world, the population comprised
more distinct and significant groups.
a number of ethnic groups
that
The heterogeneous nation states encompass
actualized or an incipient sense
of nation hood; for examples Brazil,
possess either an
Great Britain, India, Indonesia, Lebanon, Nigeria, Peru, former Soviet
Canada,
States.
Union, Switzerland and United
Approaches to the Study of Nation-State System:
regarding the best way to study of nation-states. It is,
There is a controversy social and ethnic composition of
in some depth, the
therefore, necessary to analyze resolve the probiem. The first is objective
nation-state. There are
three approaches to third is eclectic (synthetic).
subjective (attitudinal) and the
is
(attributive) the second are as under
The brief description
of these approaches
(a) Objective Approach: identify nationalism and nation-

also called as
attributive; which seeks to attributes, among
It is quantifiable
terms of observable and readily
state in the homogeneity.
religious
racial and
which are linguistic,
Subjective Approach:
(b) attitudinal;
which views nationalism and nation-state as a
known as feelings binding on the individuals

It is also and patriotic
setof emotional, ideological ethnic structure, whether of homogeneous
regardless
of their
and community
o r h e t e r o g e n e o u s nature.
14
(c) Eclectic Approach:

somewhat closer to
the subjective than
It is also called as synthetic, which is and the patriotism and
It equates the terms nationalism
objective approach. the pra.l+ces of interethnic marriage
mixes them with each
other through
social gatherings, educational
and common
mixed neighbourhood, interethnic
over time of single collective identity
which lead to the adoption
systems.
of eclectic approach, because there are
United Stales is the representative
nationalism and patriotism.
chances of very cmbodiment of
are misleading,
if they are used
objective and subjective approaches
The
frontier may possess a
separately. For instance, the pop:ilation of both side of political
common ethnic or national identity at objective level, yet they are divided legally and
the same ethnic or national
politically between two or more states. Kashmiris having
identity are divided between independent and occupied Kashmir (Occupied by India).
Koreans are divided between North Korea and South Korea, while they belong to
same race having the identical identity. They are ethnicaly homogeneous, but divided
between different nation-states.
On the other hand the ethnically heterogeneous population having
considerable diversity at the subjective level, are living together. They have the strong
patriotic feelings towards the state which provides them security and protection. They
are ethnically heterogeneous. but are living homogeneously within the same political
and legal frontiers: Belgium. Denmark and Switzerland are the
examples of this
model.
V. Basic features of nation-state-system:
There are three basic characteristics of state
nationalism and national power. The system, i.e. sovereignty,
sovereignty is a legal that gives the state
unique and unlimited authority in all domestic affairs andconcept
in its relations with other
states. Nationalism is a
spiritual quality, which unites the people of a state and
them the will to champion
what they regard as their national
gives
is might of a state, which provides the interests. National power
state will to be done. It is capabilities
for getting done the
things that the
complex of many elements both
Details of the characteristics of
tangible and intangible.
nation-state given below:
are
(a) Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the principle of international law
sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to that each nation state has
on the
principle on non-interference in another exclusion of all external
state is equal in country's power
domestic
signed in 1648. ininternational
law. The affairs, that eac"
which all European doctrine is known as Peace of
integrity The concept of sovereign slalesStates agreed to respect on anotherWestphalla
oecame central to terito
international.
International Relationss
15
The
peace of
Westphalia is important in modern intenational heory
and often defined as the relau
discipline deals. beginning of the national system with which the
internati
International
of Westphalia; which
relation theorists have identified
several key principles of peace
are
) The principle of
sovereignty of states and principle of self-determination.
The principle of
legal equality between states.
The principle of non-intervention of state in
internal affairs of other state.
These principles are shared by
the "realist" international relations paradigm
today which explains why the system of states is referred 1o as Ti* Westphalian
System".
Since the late 20th century the idea of
Westphalian suvereignty has been
brought into question by the series of military interventions in former Yugoslavia,
Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Sudan, Vietnam and Crimea. The sovereignty was
challenged by humanitarian intervention such as in Cambodia by Vietnam, in
Pakistan by India in the name of preventing genocide and large-scale of loss of life or
ethnic cleansing. In Iraq by the United States and few other allies in 2003, in Georgia
by Russia in 2008 in Libya by NATO in 2011 also reflected the principle of
humanitarian or whether the real justification was simply the promotion of political
and economic interest and clean violation of internalional law and the concept of
Westphalian sovereignty.
The new nation of contingent sovereignty seem to be emerging but it has not
et reached the point of international legitimacy. However. proponents of this theory
ave accused of being concerned about demoCracy, human rights and humanitarian
CFisis, where is American dominance is challenged such as Iraq, Iran, Russia, China,
Norh Korea, Sudan and Venezuela; while US 1gnored lhe same issues in occupied
nmir, Palestine and many other countries of world.
(6) Nationalism
Nationalism in international relations analyzes how the politics of natural
dentit and incompletely realized nation states influence conflict between states
within the international system: It

is shared group feeling in the
significance of
and sometime demographic region eking independence for its culture
geographi
nicity
cal group togetner.
that hold that
Nationalism is the result of complex lactors, which vary from time to
late to state. are elevation of the nation above
all other values
Its chief characteristics
16 state. lt 1s a
main feature
sovereign
demand for political expression in a The total behaviour oe
and a is indispensable.
nation-state system; and
its understanding national fears,
national ambitione
statesystem is explained
in terms of national hopes, importance in the lives of
National interest has the paramount
and national conflicts. to every other earthly
to the state as superior
nation-states, which is a loyalty over moral
and religious beliefs
nationalism takes precedence
obligations. Some time in Pakistan and Israel.
such beliefs, as the case
or become fused
it may with
Definition: represents a natural

groups of people
is political belief that
some
Nationalism of others.
under political system, be independent
community which should live
one
in the world order with others.
and often has the right to demand on equal standing
"Nationalism emotional
consists of modern
According to Carlton J.H. Hayes
old phenomena nationality and patriotism."
fusion and exaggeraion of two very
state of mind and an
While Hans Kohn puts it
as, "Nationalism is first and foremost
act of consciousness which manifests an independent nation-state."
or enhance
John Plamenatz defines nationalism, "as the desire to preserve
peoples national or cultural identity, when that identity is threatened or the desire to
transform or even to create it when it is felt to be inadequate or lacking."
Horace B. Davis, who is nearest to the Marxist Theory of nationalism, is of
the opinion, "Nationalism in relation to territory and national consciousness and he
sees the formation of nations as essentially a political act which arises as a reaction to
exploitation and oppression."
Thus nationalism is a modern phenomenon of consciousness, feeling, or
corporate sentiment among a group of people that is conducive to a process o
identifyingItthea fortune and destiny of individual with that of nation-state, desired onor
achieved. is perceived identity with teritorially organized political collectivity
the basis of common language, traditions,
arts and literature, geography, histor
religion and national security.
Roots of Nationalism:
There are some basic factors or roots, which promoted nationalism. In u
following section, we shall consider the basic elements which sustain nationalism a
cause to grow it.
i. Human nature:
human nature to have attachment to a territorial
It is one's
country and to be patriot. These manifestations group or to love

are
nationalism: and are natural and can not be constituted necessary to sustain or
among individual by aru
There are
hods. The 17
certáin human
ducive
are condue to characteristics w
progress of nationalism which, under the proper conditions,
or at least do
not]prevent its development.
i. Geography:
Geographical features promote the
Darticular group and 1Solate it from the otherdevelopmentAs
of
nationalism
Muir
as
ne u
Undoubtedly the most clearly groups. Ramsay righty says,
and have owed their
marked nations have enjoyed geographical unny,
a
nationhood in part to this fact." Natural
important for the defense
and cohesion of states. If
boundaries are very
they are homogeneous, it tends to
promote a similarity of interests" and outlooks among its inhabitants, which may
provide the foundations for a separate nation and strong feelings of nationalism.
ii. Race:
Anthropologists agree almost unanimously that (1) no
group national
constitute a race for through time and immigration, there has been internmingling and
intermixture of many races in all nation; (2) there are no important, if any,
psychological characteristics of man explainable on racial grounds alone.
The certain physical features of a group of people may differentiate them from
other groups, and may constitute a special social group; which may promote the
feelings of nationalism among its members. The racial myths may fortify the claim of
nationhood, as Carlton J.H. Hays says "Nationality actually cuts through the across
race, though it must be confessed in deference to racial propaganda that an imaginary
belief in blood relationship, that is, in race, has been an effective force in building and
cementing nationalities."
iv. Religion:
role in sustaining and progressing nationalism
Religion plays very important 1s strengthened or weakened by the
its followers. The unity of a nation
among
similarities or differences among people.
Telngious
If
the people believe in the same if they follow
Teligion, the feelings of the nationalism
will enhance and progress, and
C different religions, the feelings will be spilled.
Language language
of to nationalism.
Writers are in agreement
on the importance
that will so readily give unity to
"There is indeed notning
msy Muir says that n veiy many cases unity of language and
as a common tongue, and force in a
Vergent races
it brings nave proveu ne main binding
which
e community of idea uniiyng tactor because it facilitates the
language is an important
on." As c o m m o n development of a national
the feelings and promotes the
disser
SSemination of ideas and means of unifying Deople
It eriectuve
more
becomeslanguages in Austro-Hungarian Empin
literatur traditions and customs.
ure, The separate
nd nationalism.
pron
romoting
Internatonal kelations
to
maintain
their identity. A common
their identity
Soviet Union
determination
and on.
18 and a like
Belgium
sense
of pride n a t i o n - s t a t e s
out ä other
grew
built up many
language imnor.
Historical Traditions:
traditions of prime rtance
vi.
historical
Every
Stuart Mill rates
common
them
second to language. nation
John
while Hayes
considers
of past unifying force

and
the symbols
building
nationalism;
become the national soul
heroes,
who and promoting
in sustaining
has its
conmnon
always helps
The glorious past
present.
Democracy: nourishment of nationalism

vii. role in the
significance transformed
plays concept has been
a
Democracy also the state but this
monarchy, the king was of popular sovereignty made
During the of the d o c t r i n e
the state." The growth which served to promote oe
into the people are the state,
identification
the
of people with
popular
nationalism.
vii. Individual Insecurity:

the basic element of nationalism.
this factor as
Hans J. Morgenthau regards individual
centuries saw the emancipation of
He says. "The nineteenth and twentieth
of the increased
from the ties of tradition, especially in the form of religion,
rationalization of life and work and of cyclical
economic crises. The security of
emotional outlet in fixed and emotionally
groups affected by these factors found an
accentuated nationalistic identification."
ix. Common government:

Finally a common government is a vital and important factor in creating an
sustaining nationalism, because of the role of conflict in the development of group
solidarity and unification. Djverse people are joined in a single state by
their conflicts and suppressiu
sharing the common experience against a common foreign Io n
the pre-independence-war era, American was ruled jointly by the colonial
which helped to create the
American nationalism among the po united
and defeated the colonial people,
power in war of 1812. Hence created a
who gO n the
world. big nation
(c) National Power
Like
sovereignty
nation state system. Powerand nationalism, national
of some kind is the means by which states impiceferent
f the
power is a vital
policies internally as well as featursheir
amounts, size externally. All states possess
and volumes. When
individual's power but we wc
speak about power wi the
political power, thepower

mean the do not nean
we
psychological relations between
those who power of a nation-
exercised it and those over it
W
19
d. Power is a measurable
exercised.
phenomenon
size, population and military strength
of a ination-state by economic output,
or it is a set of
o changing human relationships
restingon a d
combination of strength,
reputation and pulative skills.
Meaning and definition:
Power means the
ability to do or act or it is governments' influence
or
authority over others or it is capacity to control others and get them to do and what
one wants to do they do not do what one does not want to do.
Therefore power is the ability to control the behaviour of other states in

accordance with one's own will. Hans Morgenthau defines power as "A relationshipP
between two political actors, in which actor A has the ability to control the mind and
actions of actor B. Thus power may comprise anything that establishes and maintains
control of man to the mostand covers all social relationship which
over man that end from serve
physical violence subtle psychological ties by which mind controls one

another."
According to George Schwarzenberger, "The power is the capacity to

improve one's will on other by reliance on effective sanctions in the case of non-
compliance." While Charles P. Schleicher is of the opinion, "The power is the
ability to exercise such control to make others do what they otherwise would not do
by rewarding or promising to reward them, or by depriving orthreatening to deprive
them of something they value." In the words of Organski, "Power is the ability to
influence the behaviour of others in accordance with one's own ends. Unless a nation
can do this, she may be large, she may be wealthy she may even be great but she is
not powerful." Prof. William Ebenstein says, "The national power is more than the
Sum total of population, raw materials and quantitative tactors. The alliance potential
of a nation, its civic devotion, the flexibility of its institutions, its technical knows
how, its capacity toendure privation; these are buta few quantitative elements that
nation."
aetermine to the total strength of a
concept denotes
which anything that establishes and
Thus, national power is
a
over other
it
states or 1s
the way to
keep the peace for
maintains the control of a state than other.
every
cvery state at the same time to be stronger
ngredients of national Power:

lngredients 1.e. force, influence and
The concept of national power nas nreebelow:
of each is given
nority: The brief description
the use of military.
(1) Force can be defined as the explicit tnreat Or economic.
instruments Or
cocrelO oy a state against other state
nuclear and other
one's objectives.
pursuit of the
20 persuasion by a state in
instrument or
an
Influence is used as
In a rashion suitable
le
(ii) alter the
behaviour of other states, 0 the
maintain or
its preferences.
state,
with regard with directives and
the voluntary compliance
Authority is defined affection, af
as
(iil) as respect, solidarity,
of a state, by the other states,
knowledge or expertise.
National Power:
End of
national power "as an end" and Some other give it the
Some scholars take
another group of theorists see power as "both a
shape of "power as a means"; while
means and an end of political
actions."
"Power as an end": The national power is an end of the nation-state, andi

(a)
must achieve the power at all cost, as its existence is in danger without having
such power. Thus the power is an end and the state exists for power.
(b) Power as a means: Most scholars consider power as a means; which is ability
to control the behaviour of others in order to accomplish certain ends. If long
range objectives involve such as peace, security, national progress, economic
development, and spreading of democracy or communism, then power is
considered necessary achieve these
means to
objectives. Thus power is for
state, a means to an end.
(C) Power as both means and end: There is another

group of scholárs who
prefer to see it as means and end of
political action. Real
permanent peace and endless progress politicians consider
therefore irelevant to the inapplicable in the short run an
as
short run.
very process of potitics, which is orientedrio n
According this thinking power purchases security and causes
survival of state thus become
an end in itself. The
for the state, and these long run objectives are
c
are achievable through the
means to the state. power, thus beco
Kinds of National
Power:
Power can not be viewed
but it is viewed as a
static,
time one
as
dynamic, on- going and feedback and one-directional relatioionship,
According to Hans J. relationship.
power over man, over the Morgenthau,
minds and actionspower in political context means "The
potential and can be
sub-divided
of other
men." The ower IS
diplomacy. Brief description of into

each is
military, economic, power politica Pand
over opl n
given below:
Military Power; 21
i)
The military power has the
in any nation-state, as it
is
end-argument, the last wordparamount impo the
state and the final court of very act of
in
power aspect is directed appeal.
to war, not as
weapon, which it
may
desirable wed
mintary power, which is
require in the last resort to use." Thus nanoia we r is
power to wage war and the states own many
complex
of political power toThe
elements. enemy's
resist to eneuy m
be viewed.
i) Economic Power:
it is
inseparable from military, as it is one of the basic ingredients of national
power. Economic power must be considered under the condition of modermn
warfare, as the modern warfare equipments can be built by econonmic
condition of the nation-state. Control of markets, raw materials, credits ana
communication are the parts of economic power, which credit more in favour
of national power.
ii) Power over opinion:

encompass the national
The propaganda and the building of public opinion The effective leadership
warfare abroad.
morale at home and psychological
It is inseparable
can launch the campaign
of propaganda and public opinion.
domestic
because, it is always used to stimulate the
from the national power
sacrifice. It is also used abroad to
and willingness for
morale, fighting spirit and to weaken the enemy.
Thus it seeks
other nation-states
win the favour of becomes
influence opinion
both at home
abroad.
and this f a nation-state
to
the objectives with regard, or she has a super hand
successful in fulfilling it S a powerful state. It is,
or influencing public opinion, essential for
in propaganda "Power over opinion
is not less
Carr says.
therefore, E.H. and economic power."
than military
purposes
political
iv) Diplomacy: It can make effective

as a form ofnational
nat power.
also regarded of a nation-state. It can
Diplomacy is
resources
propaganda i
andeconomic
neutralize the ffectiveness
of military, state o r at leas
east can
use
the power ofa The weak nation-state can enhance
enemy states
effective
make or
other states affairs,
world aff
diploma
through the successful
of power of ín the
position itself through the ill-managed diplomatic
its influence or spuan degrade itself
or
fluence degrade can
giv a state an influence
may give
of a leader may
tate
or a
powerful
wit and
wisdom of wisdom
diplomacy is certainly either

The When this happens
affairs. factors.
other
u n w a r r a n t e d by national
power.
form of
source or
a
2
National Power:
Scope of
of action or sphere of intluence. In the scope of
Scope the
means sphere
of activities done by a government, for instance to
national power include all the type
affairs and to do technological and other growth.
internal as well as external
regulate order and fought wars.
collected taxes maintained law and
In past. the governments
have expanded and their function have
But over time the role of government
areas. such as internal and external trade,
increased especially in regulatory
education. medical services, labour management,
communication. transportation.
scientific research. industrial management and
environmental protection.
of power is divided in to internal and external categories.

Internal
Scope
use their budgets for the development
scope means that the national governments
functions. Internal power deals
activities. and public security and perform diversity of
warfare or territorial
territory and population and their internal uprising: guerrilla
of reward or
disputes. The national power also related with the techniques
to secure
punishment. The tyrant governments prefer to rely on threat and punishment
rewards.
public order. while elected government prefers to rely on initiatives and
These all activities fall in the category of internal scope of national power.
The external scope of power has also increased over time. Pure control
relationships. in which powerful nations demonstrate their control over weak nations
by collecting tributes and exacting symbolic signs of submission, without firing a
shot. Some countries are dependent on others for vital technology: energy material
such as oil; uranium and natural gas: investment capital; managerial personnel:
skilled labour, military equipment and
information-process system.
Some terms like colonialism, neocolonialism.
intervention
imperialism. dependency ana
international politics: which denote
are use in
concepts very close to the
concept of external scope. Penetration is another term.
which falls in this category
Penetration is a process in which member of one
political processes of another: which amounts
polity
serve as
participants
in tne
nation. in the territorial area of the

as
military of presence of a mignty
others states.
Evolution of International
Introduction: Society X
Theories & Approaches
28
1. Classical / Traditional approach:

and law that
The traditional approach is derived
from philosophy, history
more than tentative and
holds the general proposition and cannot be accorded
traditionalists, international relations are
inconclusive status. According to most of the
the "study of patterns of action and reaction among
sovereign states. It covers a range
to conflict and from peace to war."
of relationships spanning from cooperation
the of interests
clashing
According to realist traditionalists, the task is to understand
traditionalists the task is to eliminate
that"inevitably*" leads to war. For the idealist
war by developing institutions, which would settle the disputes peacefully.
The traditionalists say that variables affect the behaviour of diplomats

and
from the
administrators, who implement the state policy. These variables range
and population density to its historical and
climatic conditions, geographic location
cultural traditions, economic conditions and interests, religious and ideological
maxims and historical myths. t is very difficult task to trace the reasons behind the
actions of given government to a hierarchical order among these variables, which
results in highly tenuous hypotheses. The traditionalists, therefore, consider the most
important the observed behaviour of governments, which they explain in terms of
concepts as the balance of power, the pursuit of national interest, the quest for world
order and diplomacy of prudence.
The leading exponents ofthe traditional approach are Raymond Aron, Stanley
Hoff Mann, Hans Morgenthau, Reinhold Niebuhr and Arnold Wolfers. Hans
Morgenthau advanced the theory of political realism. The political realists can safely
predict the state of behaviour, which will reflect the national actions of diplomats and
administrators, who strive to maximize benefits for their countries, Morgenthau
elevated the concept of power to central importance in the has
analysis of
politics. But the central concept of political power often defines an internationa
operationa
definition for its a psychological
factors
relationship of dominance that may be based on
varying from the tangible of moral persuasion the
nuclear-strike capability.
to
political reality of a
National interest, balance of power and world order are the basic concepts or
traditional approach. The concept of balance of power
justifying either the maintenance of internal may serve as a slogan
status quo for satisfied states or t n
ntornational Relations
ision
revisi of status quo for 29
intere
seeking to pursue irredentist claims. Both sides
erest of given balance of the
ws and preferences, whose
views
power. National interest is
the struggle among
agu us
ased on participatory and political outcome is national interest. woria tne va
eAcefully from the anarchic legitimate global institutions, coming into o
peacef
international exIsie
The advocates of this system.
theory draw a sketch of general
international politics, which to explain and propositions or
elites in crisis situations: The historical predict the responses of foreign policy-
empiricism that is the hall mark or tne
traditionalist approach has also made an important contribution in the field.
The traditionalist
theorists regard the international relations to be a
division of political science and history but a sub-division with
sub
endow it with a separate identity. Unlike unique features that
political science, traditionalists
international relations as the study of the nearly anarchic relations existent treat the
among
sovereign political entities. These sovereign entities do not
international authority, to whom their disputes recognize a supremne
threat of force or out-right war in order to
might be.referred but they resort to
protect or advance their vital national
interests. Thus the traditional thinkers view
in the distribution of
political science as the analysis of "order"
political goods in advanced political systems, and consider
international relations as the study of
"disorder" in nearly primitive and in egalitarian
international system.
The traditionalists consider the intemational relation as traditional
predominantly descriptive, analysis of intermational politics and institutions: various
States, foreign policies, certain international problems and intermational institutions.
They analyze the historical and constitutional development of an organization or
describe the results of any international conference dealing with various international
problems. Their purposes are essentially to report and analyze current international
of various policy altermatives
rohlems and to speculate the sources and outcome
on
Or specise states or for international organizations.
The tradiional approach has various variants, viz; historical, philosoph ,
egal and institutional. The historical variant 1ocused on the past or on a selected
came into being and
period of history, to find out facts about institutions, how they
now were they operating? It illuminates the present by focusing on the wisdom of the
ast. The philosophical aspect regards

the
stare as an agent of moral and ethical
mprovement of international relations, and stands Ior perpetual peace. The legal
Spect lays emphasis on the need having a sysTem of

ot or world law to regulate the
insists on the code international law to
Chaviour of the nation-states and
ensure
egal maclinery for resolving

World-peace and security. It insists on evoing
emational conflicts through on mediation, arolrdnon foror judiv.al settlement. The
the tomal structure the naintenance of neace
Stitutional variant emphasises law througnout h e world. Thus it stresses
on the
enforcement of international
30
Theories& Approaches
study of organizations and structures of international organizations, such as League of
Nations. United Nations, Organization of Islamic Conference, International Labour
Organization etc.
There are two other variants of the traditional approach, such as Realist
Theory and Idealist The brief description of each is given below:

Theory.
(a) Realist Theory:
George Kennon, Henry Kissinger and Hans J. Morgenthau are the main
exponents of this theory but the best exposition of Realist Theory has been made by
Morgenthau. He says, "International politics like all politics is a struggle for power.
Whatever the ultimate aims of international politics, power is always immediate aim
Statesmen and people may ultimately seck freedom, security, prosperity or power
itself. They may define their goals in terms of religious, philosophic, economic or
social ideals They may hope that this ideal will materialise through its own inner
force. through divine intervention or through the natural
development of human
affairs. They may also try to further its realization through non-political means,
such
as technical
cooperation with other nations or international organizations. But
whenever they _trive to realise their goal by means of international
so by
politics, they do
striving for power."
Morgenthau has explained six principles of the theory, which are as under:
. Politics is governed by objective laws, which are based on human nature and
psychology. The facts can be ascertained through reasons, thus political theory
is based on'human
psychology and reason.
11. The concept of national interest can be defined in the terms of
can be understood on rational basis rather
power. Politics
than moral or religious ones.
111. National interest is not fixed and is moulded
by the environments, thus the
environment determines the political action.
iv. Universal moral principles can not be
applied to states actions and these must
be moulded to the circumstances of time
and place. State can not observe the
same standard of
morality, as are observed by
individual. Individual
can
scarify his liberty for moral principle, but state can not.
V. There is no identity between moral aspiration of nation and moral
which govern the universe and asserts that all political actors pursue la
a
meu
national interests.
V1. Political sphere is an autonomous as the
or the moralist. The
spheres of economists or the law)
political actors think in the term of national interest, as
economist think in term of
utility and lawyer in the term of conformity
action with moral
principles.
International Relatic
Simila
Kennon asserts 31
icies and each state that the nationalal interest is the reliable
protects
ach in the formulation
approa
its national interest
rest. He insists
guide to
au
Morgenthau of
ignores the moral policy, while adopting moralon
hoth regard power politics as theaspects safeguarding

and
the national interest. While
emphasises
basis of world onn national interest. However
i
Criticism: political relations.
First. the theory is
ambiguous and inconsistent with reality and
acceptable definition of power no universaiy
is offered.
Second, it is
wrongly assumed
national interest in the term of power. If itthat all individuals and states seek
is so, then there will be constant their
going between various nation-states and there would be no
on struggle
international relations. systematic conduct or
Third, the theory wrongly assumes that power is the most
which the nations pursue. important goal,
Fourth. it is defective as it treats the world as a static unit in which power is a
permanent guiding force.
Fifth, it is wrong to assume that national interest carries its own morality, as
drfferent nations are ready to eliminate the morality. Sixth, it is defective as it assume
that there is hardly any relationship or activity, which does not involve power.
Finally, it is also defective as it regards the political sphere as autonomous as
cconomist or lawyer moralist, but it is not quite clear about nature of autonomy.
On the other hand the theory has three distinctive advantages. It is persuasive
and supported by historical experience. It compells the scholars to re-evaluate their
OWn assumptions. It is relied by most of the scholars due to its validity.
(b) The Idealist Theory:

& the passing phase of history and presents the
It regards the power politics
based
on the notion of reformed international
PCTure of a future international society
and
violence.
politics, immoralityinternational bringing about a
It aims at
Sem free from power
and organization.
c r world with the help of educalion
theory are Rousseau, Kant, Woodrow Wilson

The main exponents of this essential basis for idealism
Condorcet. Condorcet wrote which provided
a book,
order iree from war, inequality and
nternational relations. He visualised a
World
in human Ifare brought about by the use
yranny andimarked by
of reason, educati
constant progress
science.
us not search for what has been
says "Let us
Rousseau
cation and
done, but rather for what should
be done
and
iet us dismiss evil and mercenary
, evil and miserable." Similarly Kant
men s i a v e s ,
authorit
Ity, who end up by making
32
Theories & Approache
made a strong plea for' the prevention of war among states and creation of conditions
for perpetual peace. Wilson made a strong plea for world peace and international
organization.
Criticism:
First, the difficulty with this theory is that such a system could emerge only
by following moral principle in mutual rolations in place of power, which is not
possible in practice.
Second, to bring such a world order there is need to crush the totalitarian
forces through the use of democratic methods; which is not so easý job.
Third, the theory runs short of factual position. The nations do not behave as
they are expected. As a result the idealism in international relations can not exist, and
its adherence is likely to lead to frustration.
Looking at the glaring defects of realist and idealist, theories middle course has
been adopted by another school of thought, commonly known as eclectics, who do
not regard either the realist theory or idealist theory. They offered the synthesis of the
realist and idealist theories.
On the whole the traditional approach is too vague and inclusive to furnish
of
useful explanations intemational political behaviour or is too flexible to withstand
the scientific test of verification.
The traditionalists take international relations as the sub-division of political
and history, thus they describe the international facts in
science historical manner and
in politico-methodology. They do not analyze the international issues, but just explain
them as simple historians. However the international relations has reached a
traditional and new set methodological tools, must now be employed, if the heights of
theory to be ascended.
The scientific scholars challenged the traditionalists, as they consider
international relations to be too broad and complex a field to fit within the conines of
political science or any other single discipline.
2. Scientific Approach:
The main exponents of the approach include Harold Guetzkow, Morton A
and J.D.
Kaplan, Herbert C. Kelman, Jame N. Rosenau, Melvin Small, Steve Chan, They
Singer. They criticisedthe traditionalists and developed scientific theory.
of political behaviour
advanced tentativ ypothesis that provide sweeping analogues
in an international environment.
to theory of international
The scientific, approach whose advocates aspire a
or
based either upon logical or mathematical proof,
relations, whose propositions are
nternational Relations 33
upon strict empirical scholars study
international politics in an ahet O verifications. The scientific
framework and partial modela e and time less fashion, have constructed conceptual
s ofthe international system. Then with the assistance o
students or
colleagues, theyhave collected data and other material relevant to ithese
models in Oraer 10 verify or discord their original hypothesis. Presumabiy this
nrocedure imparts additional credibility to the general but imprecise framewo
raditionalist schoo
John David Singer and Melvin Small have established middle
investigation designed to develop the clusters of the theory, range
that can later De
combined into a set of
descriptive explanatory and
predictivecorrelation
international political behaviqur. They focused on the statistical propositions o
of such
variables as the incidence of war and alliance
policy in Europe from 1815 to 1945.
The scientific scholars have
"more
produced "more promise than performance and
process analysIs than substantive
the experimentation." Their main contribution
was
leadership of the
methodological revolution that the international relations
began to experience in the early 1950s. The application of scientific theory to
international relations has brought to the field not only
from other sOcial sciences, but also a
concepts and research tools
body of pre-theory that lends itself to testing and
verification procedures. Although the scientific
theorists have offered the political
scientists, few fully substantiated theoretical propositions, the promise of their
endeavors is worth waiting for its
able to predict
fulfillment, which will mean that theorists will be
accurately and to control the behaviour of the international actors.
Steve Chan has also expounded his approach and said that science is to
describe, explain and predict reality accurately. It means to have knowledge that is
objective and verifiable, therefore, it concerns with facts that can be directly or
indirectly observed and confirmed by impartial means. Science is thus ralated with
organized facts.
Scientific facts can be acquired through four ways: ) Collection of data
uld be collected through impartial means; (ii) classification of data, individual
cets, events or conditions should be classified according to broad categories, such
unemployment is always a traumatic experience; (11) arrangement of data, facts
uld be arranged according to the causal relationship, for example poverty breeds
lical instability or arms race produces wars; (ív) appraisal, which means to set up
Talizations. If causal general1zations rerer tO past, are explanations, if they refer
Tuture are predictionsif they influence policies, are called prescriptions."
T h e empirical theorists always try to aescribe. explain and predict the

larities in objects, events or conditions. whicn are commonly known as patterns.
SCientists believe that scientific knowledge is characterised by meaningful patterns
with which., there would be chaos and lomness, rather than order and
34
we can speak of their
organization. If things are in orderly and organized fashion,
some natural laws
and generalizations, which
behaviour, as if they are governed by
called scientific laws.
are by empirical observations, are
confirmed
that capture
means a system of reasoning
According to scientists, theory tested on many
and efficiently; which has been successfully
reality accurately scientific theory: () to define basic
involved in
Occasions. Three important things are
relate some theoretical
to one another, and (iii) to
concept, (ii) to relate concepts
expectations to observable reality.
relations face serious
The scientifically oriented scholars of international
overcome because they are part
of the human
problems; some of them can never
conditions. Personal involvement, characteristic of data and process of acquiring
knowledge are the main problems:

Personal Involvement:
The theorists in international relations do not enjoy an abstract and impersonal
the subject from
relationship as a neutral scientist. The theorists approach
perspectives provided by culture, citizen loyalty, political affiliation, educational
experience, family and friends. All these factors influence the investigation.
A set of individual limitations can lead to withdrawal from certain
ideas or
inclusion of certain theory. These limitations can affect the theory-building process
or
theorist behaviour.
Ambition is another aspect of personal involvement that influences the theory.
which may impure the
Sometime theorist builds theory for personal ambition or gain,
theory.
(i) Cha cteristic of data:
Unavailability of pertinent data is another important limitation, for example,
is available to scholars after many years or as much as the
data about a war or pact
war lords like.
Sometime scholars are often inundated by too much information. Newspapers,
a rate that even the
periodicals, books, films and other media are multiplying at such
most conscientious scholars are overwhelmed with information
and they become
confused and could not draw a result.
In the data category, the major limitation on theory building in international
reached on units of analysis and
relations is the difficulty with which agreement is
two different countries readily
definition of key terms. Although the chemists of
of certain formulas, and the theorists of international relations
agree on the validity
have to evolve the definitions of democracy, justice, imperialism, political
development and power through diverse political and cultural background.
Internauona/ Relations 35
i) The Process of
An
Acquiring Knowledge:
important limitation in the process of concerns the
acquiring knowledge
in-adequacy samples n
of the
to construct hypotheses. The natural scientisis
uSe
work with phenomena
work thoe
phenomena that they can
international reiations enjoy no such duplicate laboratory, wnilE
in u
may or nay not respond in the advantage. The leadership oPpOS power
of
same fashion to comparable crisis situatons over
period of time.
A Second
limitation in the formulation of
upon historical analogies as evidence of the
knowledge is the temptation to reiy
presumed reliability of policy gudelines.
A third limitation
is the intrusion of researcher in to the
environment unaer
study. In other words, the presence of observer
tends to alter the behaviour of those
being observed. Elites being interviewed
usually seek to project an imageor
rationality and restraint; while in actual
from the above.
political conflict, their behaviour do differ
Criticism:
In 1960s the
approach began to loose its ground. and to be replaced by
behavioural approach. Many theorists began to criticize it on several
points. Some of the criticism is as under. grounds and
According to Paige Glenn; "Human affairs be studied in the process,

can not
or in the
scientific manner but because man is a creative being who can
envision
worlds. yet unknown and can strive
purposively for their
attainment: not because they
insisted broadening the study of politics beyond laws and formal institutions or
on
because they insisted upon qualifications and new
methodologies, but because their
search for more satisfying ways of explaining patterns of
political behaviour brought
them face to face with man. In man. capable of bolh
innovative and patterned
Dehaviour, the two schools met."
William Lipscomb is of the opinion that scientists do not work by adding one
fact to another. Scientific method comes into play only after you make your intuitive
Jump. You use it to test your idea but not in generation of ideas.
In the view of Almond and Genco. political science has tended

to treat
political events and phenomena in natural events
leading themselves to the same
Cxplanatory logic .... it became dear that political regularities do not follow
Slatistical (scientific) regularities:
that nistorncai cnange aliers apparent regularities at
equent intervals and that social lecarning also alters behaviour."
Theories &Approaches
36
Behavioural Approach
"Politics can not bestudied
been realized that
In late 1960s and 1970s, it has and value freedom is not
"Political science without
quantification
SCientifically" or
scientific analysis is ostensibly
useful." The behaviouralists believe that
very always fre
concerned with facts and not values, but the international
relations are not
approach and propounded
attacked severely the scientific
a
from values. Thus, they
new approach known as behavioural approach.
or ideas, hence
The behaviourists focused methodology rather on facts
on
to replace both traditional and
known as behavioural revolution. It was an attempt
the international relations,
scientific orientations by behavioural methods. They study
and behaviour of individual
politics and foreign policy by concentrating on actions
based on the
statesmen or states. This is a usual approach of diplomatic historians
we really mean
sound points of states behaviours. When we say that states behave,
and
that policymakers defining purposes, choosing among courses of action,
are
This level of
utilizing national capabilities to achieve objectives in the name of state.
analysis focuses upon the ideologies, motivations, ideals, perceptions, values
or
idiosyncrasies of those, who are empowered to make decisions for the state.
The new approach is due to the contributions of behavioural sciences notably
sociology. psychology and anthropology. These contributions, as Karl W. Deutsch
has said. "Are no longer a mere matter of programmes for the future. A large volume
of such contribution has been made in such topics as international communications,
public opinion and propaganda, the effect of contacts among persons of different
backgrounds of culture. language, race or nationality, the behaviour of small groups
of negotiators or committee members, the social and political effects of the growth of
towns and industry, the development of inter group prejudices, conflicts, the realistic
and stereotyped perception of foreign countries and peoples, the formation o
the making of decisions and many others."
policies,
The behavioural approach is now common in all those disciplines, from
whom: the traditional approach to international relations has borrowed many
characteristics. Almost all problems and processes in international relations have to
Fe analyzed within an interdisciplinary framework. Hence, it is called the behavioura'
approach end
Criticism:
The new interest in theory, both normative and empirical, general and
analytical, may be sign that a discipline of international relations is at last beginning
InternationalRelations 37
1oemerge. There is time", wrote Deutsch, "in which the science goes through a
ohilosophic stage in its development; the emphasis is on theory. on general concepts
and on the questioning of the fundamental assumptr and methods by hich
knowledge nas deen accumulated." The study of international relations 1s go ng
through sucn pnilosophic stage", which may therefore be a sign that it is becom
more truly a "discipline". All efforts to develop a
general theory has fallen far short o
the announced objectives. but they have nevertheless
helped to meet one ot the nost
obvious defiCiencies in the practice as well as in the study of international relao,
namely the lack of a theoretical base.
It is very difficult for the theorists to determine the behaviour of the
which is an aggregate of behavioural attitude of a large number of individuals. t
state,is
difficult to determine the behaviour of our individual and it becomes more difficult to
determine the aggregate of individual's behaviour. Thus one can not rely on
behavioural approach.
System Approach:
System is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts. Each state lives in a
system of states, and all find themselves in a system of certain political
balance with respect to each other.
System approach is the attempt to understand international relations as a set of
observable, understandable patterns between the actors that are elements of
the international system.
Definition:
System is a collection of elements related to each other by some pattern of
behaviour or actions and system approach 1s explanation of observed pattern in
intemational events by attributing those patterns to the characteristics of the
International system.
System refers to a structure or 1s own, having different parts, which are
interrelated and inter-dependent, which undergoes various processes to maintain

existence. Systen therefore implies not only the inter-dependence of parts but also
acceptance of influence from environment and vice versa. Inter-dependence means
at when the property of a component is a system change, all other components and
slem as a whole are affected.

There are certain patterns of system that can be observed in international
ents. Actors in international relations Comprise a system. The patterns we
can
observ
Serve in international relations are aue n pary o the characteristics of the
ntermational system.
International Political Econom
112
International Political Economy
Introduction: social science,

rapidly developing
Economy (IPE) is
a
International Political
international and global problem using an
to understand
field of study thatattempt theoretical perspectives. IPE is a
tools and
electric interdisciplinary array
of analytical "creative
that Joseph Schumpeter called
field that thrives on
the process as a field
prominence of
destruction". The growing boundaries
breakdown of disciplinary
a result of the continuing sciences in general.
of studyis in part and among the social
between economic and politics in particular are those that
be best
can
pressing and interesting problems
trans-disciplinary point of
most
Increasingly the or
multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary
understood from a
objective is to pull
an "International
Political Economy Project", its the
view. If there is social sciences so that
restrict intellectual inquiry in the
down the fences that reference to disciplinary
and problems can be examined without
important questions
borders.
Definition:
global political economy
International Political Economy (IPE) also known as
and
economic
that analyses
is an academic discipline within political science economy,
international relations. It is an interdisciplinary study including poliucai
science, economic, history and cultural studies.
political
International Political Economy is the study of a problematic or set of related
of international trade,
problems. It includes analysis of the poBlitical economy
international finance, North-South relations, multinational corporations an
hegemony.
The academic boundaries of International Political Economy are flexible and
they are subject of robust debate. The debate is essentially framed by the discipline's
status as a new and interdisciplinary field of study. Despite such agreements, most
scholars say that international political economy is concerned with the ways in which
political forces such as state, institutions and political actors shape the system througn
which economic interactions are expressed and conversely effect the economic
interactions have upon political structure and outcomes.
International Political
Economy is concerned with the interface between
international economics and intermational politics. When researching intermationa
IntemationalRelations
113
affairs. economists usually focus on the international
economy; while internationa
relations scholars tend to concentrate on political matters. But the international and
political economy give focus on both disciplines-the ways in which
politics and
economics are interrelated and interlinked. Indeed, the study of international
economy 1s predicted on the assumption that in order to understand the poliica
interaction and change of global level, we need pattern or
to look at both international politics
and economics in an
integrated manner.
In the study of international political economy, emphasis is made on
politics of international economic relations. It deals with the economic issues, tne
finance, production.environment and development but also engages wn trade,
International Relations Concepts, ideas and literatures on economic relations
states and between states and non-state actors such as firms. societal groups anda among
international organizations. The focus will be on the political problems that arise as a
consequence of the increasing density of international economic relations.
Thus the aims of international political economy is the knowledge of

interaction between politics and economic in international relations; the sources of
change in international, and the challenges faced by states in an era of global
economic integration and
fragmentation.
International Economics & International Polities:
The interaction of International Politics and International Economic is today
widely appreciated and is the subject of much theoretical research and applied policy
analysis. Nation-states clearly affect international trade and monetary flow, which in
turn affect the environment in which nation-states make political choices and business
make economic decisions.
Yet scholars and policy makers often think about International Economies
without much attention to International Politics and vice versa. Economists often
assume away state interests. while political scientists sometime fail to look beyond
the nation-state. Two noteworthy Cold War era expectations to this rule stand out:
Charlis Kindleberger's work on hegemony and political scientist Kenneth Waltz's
attempt to integrate economics into politics in his book "Man, the State and War"
Dramatic events in the 1970s made plain how tightly international economics
and politics were interviewed. The oil embargoes of 1970s and breakdown of the
Bretton Woods monetary system were key events in intemational political economy's
field of study. Moreover, subsequent events such as the Third
development as
World debt crisis. the Iall or cinmunst regimes, the rise of Newly Industrialized
Countries (NICS). the expun ion or European Union and the financial crises in
Mexico. Russia and East ASl made showed that simple divisions between state and
mestic and internitional and polities and economics were no
longer
International Political omy
114 to analysisis,
a complex approacn
would required
tenable. An increasing complex
provided.
which international political economy
Political Economy:
Theories of I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Political Economy.
are the theories of International
Following
. Mercantilism:
used during the 16th to 18th
Mercantilism is the main economic system wealth
to increase a
nation's by imposing
centuries. The main goal was
commercial interest. It
all of the nation's
government regulation concerning
strength could be maximized by limiting import via
was believed the national
tariffs and maximizing exports.
classical approaches to the study of
Mercantilism is one of the enduring mercantilist ideas
international political Originating in 16th century,
economy.
are still informing foreign
economic policy around the world. By placing the
nation state at the centre of analysis, mercantilism provides an explicitly
a much needed
political analysis of international economic relations and thus
But the
corrective to purely economic theories of global economy.
mercantilist traditions contains many different sets of ideas
and doctrines and
and later
it is often difficult to follow the wide range of mercantilist,
nationalist, approaches to global economic issues under one rubric.
The term mercantilism only came into wider circulation often Adam Smith
had used it to describe his intellectual opponents. For in the late eighteenth
century Smith coined the term mercantile system, to characterize the common
perspectivesof a system of political economy that he sought to attack in his
liberal theory of political economy. In discussing mercantilism and economic
nationalism, therefore we need to identify the core beliefs of this tradition as
well as reilect on many permutations.

This approach assumes the wealth of a nation depends primarily on
passion of precious metals such as gold and silver. This type of system can no
be maintained forever, because the global economy would become stagnant
every country wanted to exporl and no one wanted to import. After a perioa
time, many people began to revolt against the idea of mercantilism and
stressed the need for free trade.
Mercantilism was the dominant school of economic thought in Europ

throughout the late Renaissance and early modern period. Many nations
Europe have applied the theory. France has applied the theory during tnt
period of King Louis XIV. It was determined that the state should rule
economie realm as it did in diplomatic relations. The goal of mercantil
International Relatio 115
incessant
of
economic policy was to build up the
the state
state especially
an age
especially in an aE.
a up adversaries.
wartare, to strenoth and to weaken the foreign
Ceconomy mercantilism during
the
England also used the
integrative
approach to
.The
Elizarethan era. merchant fleet
The period featured to develop a naval and mere ror
of
raae ade and Navigation Act was passed by parliament for promoo
English Shipping.
ially iin
The Mercantilism began to fade in late 18th century in Europe especa
Britain, when Adam Smith gave his classical theory. In 20th century, NEo
mercantilism had been to emerge. t has different goals and focused on more
rapid economic growth based on advanced technology. It promoted tne
policies as substitution of state taxation, subsidies, expenditures and genera
regulatory powers for tariffs and quotas and protection through the formation
of supranational trading blocs.
Principles of Mercantilism:
Following are the principles of Mercantilism:
1. That every little bit ofa country's soil be utilized for agriculture, mining or
manufacturing.
That all new material found in a country be used in domestic manufacture,
since finished goods have higher value than raw material.
. That a large working population be encouraged.
4 That all export of gold and silver must be prohibited and domestic money be
kept in circulation.
5. That all imports of foreign goods be discouraged as much as possible.
6. That where certain imports are indispensable they be obtained at first hand, in
exchange for domestic goods instead of gold and silver.
That as much as possible, imports must be confined to raw materials that can
be finished in the home country.
3. That opportunities be constantly sought for selling a country's surplus
manufactures to foreigners, so far as necessary, for gold and silver.
That no importation be allowed if such goods are sufficiently and suitably
supplied at home.
Criticism:
Some writers and scholars have rejected the idea of mercantilism completelv.
arguing that it gives "a false unity to dsparare events. Adam Smith saiú that
mercantile system was a conspiracy Dy manulacurers and merchants against
Consumers.
International Political Econon
116
called mercantilism as
rent- "a
Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison
theory of economics
OCiety. The mercantilist doctrine itself made a general
impossible.
VIercantilists viewed the economic system as a zero-sum game, in which any
a n by one party required a loss by other party. In other words the benefits of one
group would be harm to other group.
Mercantilism causes corruption and inefficiency, because the inevitable

ceiling were the black markets. Mercantilism also result in
results of quotas and price
economic oppression of working population; labourers and farmers were to live at the
margins of subsistence". The goal was to maximize production without concerning
the consumption. Extra money, free time and education for lower classes were seen to
nevitably lead to vice and laziness and would result in harm to the economy.
2. Economic Liberalism
Economic liberalism is the ideological belief in organizing the economy on
individualist and voluntarist lines, meaning that the greatest possible numbers
of economic decisions are made
by individuals and by collective institutions
or organizations. It includes a
spectrum of movement, but it is always based
on strong support for a market economy and private property in the means of
production.
Although economic liberalism can also be supportive
governmentof
regulation to certain degree, it tends to oppose govermment's intervention in
free market when it inhibits free trade and
open competition. However,
economic liberalism may accept
government intervention in order to remove
private monopoly, as this is considered to limit the decision of some
individuals. While economic liberalism favours the markets power
unfettered by the
government, it maintains that the state has a legitimate role in
public goods. providing
Economic liberalism is most often associated
with support for free markets
and private ownership of
capital assets and is
ideologies such as social liberalism and socialusually contrasted with similar
democracy, which generally
favour alternative forms of
capitalism such as welfare
capitalism or mixed economics. Economic liberalism alsocapitalism, state
protectism because of its support for free trade and open markets.contrasts with
Historically economic liberalism arose in response to
feudalism. Today economic liberalism mercantilism and
is also
opposed to
non-capitalist economic order, generally considered to be
such as socialism and
economies. planned
Economic liberalism is and feudalism and is

believed
to be first fully fo against
anst the mercantilism
mercantilism i
ulated by Adam Smith, who advocated minimal
interierence of government in market economy, though it does no
oppose the states' provision of
basic public gøods. Smith claimed a ery
one 1s
lert to their own
economic device instead of being controlea oyu
state, then result would be
a harmonious and more equal sOciety
increasing prosperity. This undermined the move towards a
capitalism
economicC system in the late 18th century and the
mercantilist system. subsequent demise Ol uic
Economic
Contract.
liberalism's basis is formed of
private property and individual
The early theory based on the assumption that the
was
actions of individuals are economie
them to act without any
largely based on self-interest, and that allowin8
restrictions, will produce the best results of everyone,
provided that at least minimum standard of
public information and justice, e.g
no one should be allowed to coerce, steal or commit fraud and there 1s
freedom of speech and press.
Initially, the economic liberals had to contend with the supporters of feudal
privileges for the wealthy, aristocratic traditions, and the rights of kings to run
the national economies in their own personal interests. By the end of the 19th
century and beginning of 20th, these were largely defeated.
Today economic liberalism is associated with classical liberalism, "nco-

liberalism" "proletarian", "libertarianism", and some schools of conservatism.
Principles:
Following are principles of Economic liberalism.
. State Intervention:
Economic liberalism opposes government intervention on the grounds that
state often serves dominant business interests, distorting the market to their
favour and thus leading to insufficient outcomes. Various schools of social
liberalism based on classical liberalism include a broader role of state but do
not seek to replace private enterprise and economic planning. For example a
social market economy is largely iree-market economy based on free price
ot
government activity to
system and private property, Dut 1s suPporuve
promote competitive market ana socia
Welrare programmes to
address social
inequalities that result from free-market outcomes. Economic liberalism also
includes the support for equany or opporunty, aue to the belief that a lack of
wil
ead to an increase in private monon
equality of opportunity of individuals.
therefore infringed the liberty
International Political onomy
118
Public Enterprise: for the provision

enteprise
of public
Economic liberalism can be supportive
instance, Adam
Smith argued
that
the state has a role in
O public goods. canals. schools and bridges for the pubiic use; while the
For
providing roads. efficiently. However. h

these facilities
not provide
Pvate entities can should be paid proportionally
to
their consumption.
preferred that these goods tariffs to bring about
the free trade and
In addition he advocated retaliatory Cox's further
innovation. Robert
to encourage
copyTights and patents of innovation and
its deeper implications
the importance
research highlighted
on the free market.
ii. Individual Liberty:
of individuality and
John Stuart Mill was in favour of the free development
liberalism. The pursuit of individual
individual liberty; which are at' heart of
and the engne of economic
self-interest is the both an expression of liberty
progress and free market.
Iv. Progress in History:

The liberal economists share a belief in the progressive nature of history.
Adherence to liberal principles will allow societies to develop their economic
and political potential and realise property and peace over time.
With regard the international economic relation, the classical economic
liberals reject mercantilism's portrayal of international economy as zero-sum
game, in which one's nation's gain is another nation's loss. But in economic
liberalism all nations can be benefit from expanding global market through
promotingfree trade and the international division of labour. Adam Smith
criticised Britain's trade restricting practice of his time and argued that the
mercantilist obsession with relative gains had held back the
nations.
prosperity O
Economic liberalism supported free trade in
principles and in the world0
anarchy, no nation could ignore fund-security concern. For that
reason Sm
moderated his advocacy for free trade with
good dose of political realis
arguing that defence is of much more
departed from his in 19th
importance. On this Smith's followe
century. pn
3. Neo-Marxism
Neo Marxism is loose term
for various 20th century approaçhes
Gxtend Marricm aud that amenu
ternational Relations 121
apply thoSe theories in

psychotherapy the
means of
change. Teresa Medowell and Rhea Almeda used thesepoln
as
method called "Liberation based healing" which liketheor a many

1or.
of
Marxism Uses sample bias in many interelated liberties, in order to maE
the critical consciousness' of the
participants toward unrest of the status y
Theories of Imperialism:
Imperialism isderived from the Latin word emporium", which means to
over
rul
large territories.Thus imperialism is a policy of extending a country's power and
influence hrougn colonization, use of military force or other means or it is a type Ol
advocacy for empire.
ImperialiSm is used to describe a situation in which one country controls
another.The stronger nations are usually industrialized, cconomically developed and

militarilyvery advanced. Imperialism has greatly shaped the contemporary world.
It
has also allowed for the rapid spread of technologies and ideas and has been largely
responsible for the creation of a globalize world.
The term imperialism has been applied to western countries like United States
and Canada which have political and economic dominance especially in Asia and
Africa in 19th and 20th centuries. Many writers have explained it such as Edward
said, who used the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and
subordination organized with an imperial center and a periphery.
Imperialism is defined as "an unequal human and teritorial relationship,
uSually in forin of an empire, based on ideas of superiority and practice of dominance,
and involving the extension of authority and control of one state or people over
another. Imperialism is a process and ideology that does not only focus on political
dominance, but rather conquest over expansion, Imperialism is particularly focused
on the control that oae group, often a state power, has on another group of people.
This is often through various form of "othering" based on social, religious or cultural
stereotypes. There are formal and informal imperialism. The formal imperialism is
physical control or full fledged colonial rule. Intormal control is less direct; yet it is
still a powerful form of dominance. Informal rule is generally less costly than taking
over territories formally. This is because wtn intormal rule, the control is spread
more subtly through technological superiority.enforcing land official into large debts
that can not be repaid, ownership of private industries thus expanding the controlled
area, or having countries agreed to uneven trade agreements forcefully.
It is mostly accepted that

modern day colonialism is an
n of
exist without later.
The extent to which
perialism and can not describes remains a omal
perialism with no formal colonies properly
is
opic among historians. The word impetiaiisEeane common in Great Britain

122 International Political Economy
ln Britain the word had
1870s and was used with the negative connotation.
auring lll in obtaining favourable
until then mustly been used to refer to politics of Napoleon
interventions.
public opinion in France through foreign military
Theories of Imperialism:
Following are the theories of imperialism:
1. Political Theories:
Cohen. According to this
This theoryis advocated by Morganthau and
of balance of power and is the
theory imperialism is simply a manifestation
process by which nations try to achieve a
favourable change in status quo. The
and political vulnerability of á
purpose of imperialism to decrease the strategic
nation.
"We are engaged in claim for the füture.

pegging out
We have consider what countries must be developed
either by ourselves or some other nation and we have to
remember that it is part of our responsibility and
heritage to take care that the world, as far as it can be
moulded by receive the Anglo-Saxon and not

us, shall
another character. Remember that the task of Statesman
is not merely with the present, but with the future. We
have to look forward beyond the chatter of platforms,
and the passions of party, to the future of the race of
which we are at present the trustee and we should, in
may opinion, grossly fail in the task that has been laid
upon is, did we shrink from responsibilities, and
decline to take our share in a partition of the world,
which we
have not forced on, but which has been
forced upon us'".
This was stated by Earl of Rosebery at the Royal Colonial Institute, on March
1, 1893.
2. Conservative Theories:
Disraeli, Rhodes and Kipling have advocated these theories. According to
them imperialism is necessary to preserve the
existing social order in the more
developed countries. It is necessary to secure trade,
markets, to maintaln
employment and capital exports and the channel, the energies and social
conflicts of the metropolitan populations in foreign countries.
strong ideological and racial assumption of Western superiority within very
the
There is a
body of thought.
In the words of U.S. President William the
Philippines Reader in Mckingly; which was reportea in
u
1987.
went down on my knees and prayed to
for light and
this way. We guidance and
night one
Almighty
late it came to
me
God
could not
themselves they were unfitleave (the: Philippines) to
for
they would soon have
anarchy
self-government
and
and
worse than misrule over there,
do but take
Spain was. There was
nothing left for us to
them all and
and Christianize themn". educate the Filipinos and uplift
3. Liberal Theories:
Liberal theories have been
them imperialism is advocated by Hobson and Angell.
neither a
policy of
According to
of capitalism. choice nor an inevitable consequence
leads to under
Increasingly concentration of wealth within the richer countries
consumption
way to reduce costs
for the mass of
people. Overseas expansion is aa
new
(thereby increase or maintain
profits level) and to secure
consumption. Overseas expansion is not inevitable,
solve the problem of however. A state can
the majority of the under consumption by increasing the income levels of
levels (minimum wage
population either through
legislation concerning wage
laws, legislation of unions and child labour
through income transfers (unemployment laws) or
John A.
compensation, welfare).
Hobson observed about the liberal theories
of imperialism:
"Aggressive imperialism, which costs the
tax-payer so
dear, which is of so little value to the
manufacturer and
trader, which is fraught with such grave
incalculable
peril to the citizen, is a source of great
gain to investor,
who can find at home to profitable use he seeks for
not
his capital and insists that his government should
help
him to profitable and secure investment abroad.
If, contemplating the enormous expenditure on
the diplomatic audacity of Knavery by armaments, the previous wars,
which modern govermments seek
extend their territorial power, we put ne plain, practicable to
questions. The
most obvious answer is the investor.
Investors who have put their money in toreign land, upon the term, which take
fall account of risks connected with the political conditions of the countr
desire to use resources of their government to minimize these risks and so to
enhance the capital value and the interest of their private investment
investing and speculative classes in general also desire that Great Britain
The
124
in order to secure new areas for
should take other foreign areas under its flag
profitable investment and speculation
4. Marxist Theories:
Imperialism arises because
Lenin was the main exponent of this theory.
under-consumption. However since
increased concentration of wealth leads to
reduce under
the state represents the capital interest,
it is not possible to
liberalBoth strategies involve
strategies.
consumption effectively through
from the bourgeoisie and Marx and Lenin did not view
taking away money the world would be
to Lenin,
this strategy as possible. Ultimately, according
countries would than fight over the re-
completely divided up and the rich
division of the world. This analysis served as
his explanation for World War I.
Lenin argues:
"It goes without saying that if capitalism could develop
agriculture, which to day is everywhere lagging terribly
behind industry, if it could raise the living standard of
the masses, who in spite of the amazing technical
progress are everywhere still half-starved and poverty-
stricken, there could be no question of a surplus capital.
This "argument" is very often advanced by the petty-
bourgeois critics of capitalism. But if capitalism did
these things, it would not be capitalism; for both uneven
development and a semi-starvation level of existence of
the masses are fundamental and inevitable condition
and constitute premises of this mode of
production. As
long as capitalism remain what it is, surplus capital will
be utilized not for the purpose of
raising standard of
living of the masses in a given country, for this would
mean a decline in
profits for the capitalism but for the
purpose of increasing profit by exporting
to the backward countries. In these capital abroad
backward
profit are usually high, for capital is scarce, thecountries
land is
relatively low, price of
wages low, raw material are
are
cheap.The export of capital is made
number of backward countries possible by a
drawn world capitalism
to having
already been
have intercourse,
either been or arç heing huilt in
main railways

International Relations Mid Term

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International Relations Mid Term

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International Relations

shrunk as a result of scientitic

approaches." while the approach has

Cvolution of International Relations:

There was a debate among the scholars

The emergence of United States as super power stimulated the teaching of

ruie and Durred the distinction so shar

universities the topics of imperialism.

number of international relations scholars found that

There are two viewS regarding the meaning of

According to the broader view, many scholars have contributed

According definition of Trevor Taylor, "International relat ns is the

Stanley Hoffmann also suggests,

wide variety of transnational relalions, political and non-political,

alfecting numan benaviour on the other side of

Scope of International Relations:

of United Nations Organization (UNO) also enhanced

International politics includes the styles of politics: for examples politiss of

internally consistent empirical generalizations of theory as, "a body o

The Nation-State System

political authority by a central government. 1nus

nation-state plays a dominant

lars reduce the role of state in the

The nation-state can be divided between ethnically homogeneous and

(a) Objective Approach: identify nationalism and nation-

known as feelings binding on the individuals

(c) Eclectic Approach:

within the international system: It

Definition: represents a natural

country and to be patriot. These manifestations group or to love

of past unifying force

Democracy: nourishment of nationalism

vii. Individual Insecurity:

ix. Common government:

political power, thepower

Therefore power is the ability to control the behaviour of other states in

physical violence subtle psychological ties by which mind controls one

According to George Schwarzenberger, "The power is the capacity to

ngredients of national Power:

"Power as an end": The national power is an end of the nation-state, andi

(C) Power as both means and end: There is another

diplomacy. Brief description of into

ii) Power over opinion:

iv) Diplomacy: It can make effective

diplomacy is certainly either

of power is divided in to internal and external categories.

nation. in the territorial area of the

Theories & Approaches

1. Classical / Traditional approach:

The traditionalists say that variables affect the behaviour of diplomats

ast. The philosophical aspect regards

Spect lays emphasis on the need having a sysTem of

egal maclinery for resolving

Theory and Idealist The brief description of each is given below:

hoth regard power politics as theaspects safeguarding

(b) The Idealist Theory:

theory are Rousseau, Kant, Woodrow Wilson

T h e empirical theorists always try to aescribe. explain and predict the

knowledge are the main problems:

According to Paige Glenn; "Human affairs be studied in the process,

In the view of Almond and Genco. political science has tended

interrelated and inter-dependent, which undergoes various processes to maintain

slem as a whole are affected.